ALASKA

a territory of the united states in the northwest of north america. area 586,400 square miles. the most important events in the history of alaska subsequent to 1910 were: (1) the extension of surveys and investigations of re- sources over more than half of the total area; (2) the change in the public land policy, which no longer prohibited the utilisation of alaska’s coal, petroleum and water powers; (3) the granting of a measure of home rule to the people of alaska; (4) the im- provement of transport by the construction of a government railway from an open port on the pacific to the navigable waters of the tanana river, by the construction of many wagon roads, and by the installation of many lights and other aids to naviga- tion; and (5) the great advance of the copper and salmon fishing industries and of gold mining previous to 1916. alaska’s normal development, interrupted by the world war, suffered from a period of post-war stagnation. in 1925 the country was just emerging from this depression. public land policy—the political history of alaska has largely centred in a struggle for more liberal land laws. in early days it had been considered best to transfer the lands to private ownership as quickly as possible, without too close a scrutiny of the means employed. this policy was completely reversed as a result of the conservation movement inaugurated under president roosevelt. the original aim of the movement was to prevent waste of natura) resources, but as this proved unpopular it gradually veered to a protest against corporate control of lands and resources. an important result of the conservation move- ment was the increase of reservations in alaska, some 40,000 sq. m. being set aside for various purposes, exclusive of mineral or forest withdrawals. for many years, however, the conserva- tion issue remained unsettled and industries languished. with an abundant supply of fuel close at hand, alaska was forced to import coal and petroleum at great cost; her pulp wood was rot- ting in the forest, her water powers were undeveloped. only gold and copper mining and salmon fishing increased. finally, during the wilson administration, a leasing policy for coal and oil lands and water powers was established by law. at about the same time the shortage of paper had a liberalising influence on the regulations relating to the sale of timber from the national forest. . covernment.—the struggle of alaska to attain representation in washington, lasting nearly 40 years, resulted in 1906 in the authorisation of an elected delegate to congress. at each biennial election which followed, home rule was the only impor- tant issue, until in 1912 an act was passed granting a territorial government; the post of governor remained a presidential alaska appointment, and provision was made for a two-chambered legislature. the upper chamber, or senate, consisted of two senators from each of the four judicial districts, serving four years. sixteen representatives formed the lower chamber, or house of representatives, four elected for two years from each judicial district. this equal representation gave the less- populated areas of the interior an unjust preponderance in the legislature, and in many instances worked against the best interests of the territory as a whole. under the constitutional act, congress expressly retained the right of repealing all laws enacted by the alaska legislature. furthermore, the territory was denied the right to enact laws relating to the excise, to game, fish, fur-bearing animals or to the existing federal licence tax. it was provided that the capital should be at juneau. the first session of the territorial legislature was convened on march 3 1913, and the first law passed gave the franchise to women. since that date the most important legislation has re- lated to mining, hours of labour, workmen’s compensation, bank- ing and education. heavy taxes were also imposed on the salmon fishing industry, and from these the territory derived a large part of its income. in 1916 the legislature authorised a plebiscite on the prohibition of the sale, transport and manufac- ture of all alcoholic beverages. the vote was in the affirmative by 7,958 to 4,431; as the legislature had no power to change the excise law, a petition was submitted to congress, which passed a dry law for alaska in 1917. education.—the white schools are under territorial manage- ment. the agricultural college and school of mines at fairbanks was openedin1922. in1924 there were 77 schools for whites. the education of alaskan indians and eskimos was in the hands of federal agencies, and in 1924 there were 76 indian schools, too few, however, to accommodate the children of the natives. in addition to the government schools, there were about 36 sec- tarian missions for the natives. population.—in 1920 the population was 55,036, a decrease of 14°53% from 64,356 in r910. the whites numbered 29,000, the indians and eskimos 25,000; the balance represented mongoltan and other races. juneau, the capital and an important mining centre, was the largest town, with a population of 3,058 in 1920. the white population of alaska steadily increased until 1915, when it exceeded 40,000. subsequent losses were due to: (1) enrolment in military service of about 3,500 men, few of whom returned; (2) high wages in the united states; and (3) the de- crease in the gold mining industry. the upward curve in pop- ulation was not restored until 1924. in that year the number of people arriving in the territory exceeded the number departing by 577. in addition to the permanent residents of alaska, be- tween 25,000 and 30,000 men annually visit the territory to find employment in fishing and mining. mountaincering—the mountain ranges include a number of the highest peaks on the continent. mt. st. elias (18,024 it.) was ascended by the duke of the abruzzi in 1897. several attempts were made to climb mt. mckinley, the highest peak in north america, before william taylor and peter anderson, prospectors, reached the summit of the north peak (20,000 ft.) in 1910, and hudson stuck and harry p. karstens the summit of the south peak (20,300 ft.) in r9rz. katmai volcano on the alaskan peninsula, on the margin of the valley of ten thousand smokes, though dormant for more than a century previous, in 1912 gave forth one of the greatest eruptions in historic times. railways.—at the close of rg1o0 there were 371 m. of railway in alaska. this mileage included 20 m. of the white pass rail- road (narrow gauge) which ran inland from skagway across the international boundary to white horse in the canadian yukon (110 miles). while primarily serving canadian territory, this line gave access during the open season of navigation to the settle- ments on the lower yukon. the copper river & northwestern railroad (standard gauge), extending from cordova on the coast to the chitina copper belt (196 m.), was completed in 1910. in 1912 congress authorised a special commission to report upon the alaska railway situation. the commission recommended the 85 construction of two lines: one from cordova to fairbanks, the other from seward to the navigable waters of the kuskokwim. the estimated cost, $35,000,000, was appropriated by congress in 1914, but in the following vear the administration announced the selection of a railway route from seward to fairbanks, a far more expensive undertaking. construction on the alaska rail- road was begun in 1916 and finished in june 1923, at a total cost of $56,000,000. commerce.—in 1924 minerals, furs, fish, etc., were exported to the value of $61,015,062, and the value of imports was $32,- 580,057. during that year. 2,802 vessels entered alaskan ports and 2,675 vesscls were cleared. coastal alaska was served by three regular passenger and freight steamship lines which during 1924 operated 12 steamers. a boat service was furnished on the tanana and yukon rivers by the alaska railroad. mtning.—from its small beginning at juneau in 1880 up to the close of 1924, alaska mining yielded a total value of $53 5,000,000. of this 98° represented gold and copper, but the mines also produced silver, platinum, palladium, tin, lead, antimony, tungsten, chromite, coal, petroleum, marble, gypsum, graphite, barite and sulphur; development work was done on deposits containing nickel, iron and molybdenite. gold production up ~ 1o the end of 1924 was worth $347,800,000, of which $234,000,000 worth was yielded by placers. after 1916 gold mining steadily declined until 1923 as a result of economic conditions attendant upon the world war. following the completion of the alaskan railroad and the introduction of improved mining methods, the year 1924 showed a slight increase in production. the united states geological survey estimated the value of the placer gold reserves to be at least $360,000,000, in addition to the vein de- posits whose value could not be estimated. auriferous lodes have been found in many localities, but the only large lode mines are in southeastern alaska. copper’mining began in 1901, and up to the close of 1924 had produced 456,000 tons of metallic copper valued at $167,500,000; this was largely the output of the kennecott rhines in the chitina district. copper ores are widely distributed, but most of the deposits are as yet inacces- sible. coal, both bituminous and anthracite, occurs in the bering river and matanuska fields, the latter within reach of the government railway; the territory contains an abundant supply of sub-bituminous and lignitic coals, which are very widcly distributed. all alaskan coal lands were withdrawn from entry in 1906; no development of the industry was possible, therefore, until a coal leasing law was enacted in 1913. the production up to 1925 was about 670,000 tons. important oil scepages have been found at five places on the pacific seaboard, and at two places in the naval petroleum reserve no. 4 on the north arctic coast. the withdrawal of all oil jands from entry in rg11 stopped development until 19109, when an oil leasing law was passed and operations began in several localitics; up to 1925 the production of petroleum had been confined to the katalla field. about 12,700,000 oz. of silver and 7,000 tons of lead have been produced. almost all the tin output of north america comes from alaska, chiefly from the york district in the seward peninsula; over 1,000 tons had been mined between 1900, when operations began, and 1925. the mining of platinum and related minerals began in 1916, and about 1,600 oz. had been produced by 1925. quicksilver mining has been carried on in a small way for many years. in south- eastern alaska extensive deposits of high-grade marble have been quarried on a large scale. fisheries—yhe product of this industry is greater than the sum-total of all other alaskan products. the total value of fish marketed between 1867 and 1924 was nearly $600,000,000. in 1924 the fisheries brought in over $39,000,000, of which about $35,000,000 was for salmon. during the world war the salmon catch assumed such proportions that there was grave danger to the industry, but in 1924 congress authorised the secretary of commerce to impose suitable restrictions. the halibut fisheries were also being rapidly depleted, but in 1924 congress ratified a treaty with canada and great britain for the preservation of the halibut fishery of the northern pacific: the value of the alaskan 86 catch in 1924 was $1,619,443. the number of cod on the alaska cod banks is enormous, but as yet they have been but little ex- ploited. herring are found in great abundance as far north as bering strait. whale fishing, once a very imporiant industry, has decayed. forest products —the commercial timber of alaska is con- tained in the two great national forests, the tongass in south- eastern alaska and the chugach on prince william sound. these have a total area of 21,000,000 ac., and are estimated to contain 79,000,000,000 ft. (3.m.) of timber. extensive use is now made in local industry of this supply. sitka spruce, which is very tough, has been exported for use in acroplane construc- tion. in 1925 a pulp-wood industry was being developed under the encouragement of the forest service. a griculture.—in 1924 the best developed farming area was in the neighbourhood of fairbanks, where hardy varieties of wheat were matured and a small flour-mill operated. ‘there is an abundance of good grazing land in the interior, but the period of winter feeding is about eight months. the matanuska valley has proved particularly adapted for breeding dairy cattle. the domesticated reindeer herds in 1924 numbered 350,000, valued at $8,750,000. this was the natural increase from the original i,200 imported by the government between 1892 and trgo2. about 70% of the herd was owned by the eskimos, for whose support the animals were first imported. after the opening of the alaskan railroad the export of reindeer meat became of importance. fur industry —between 1867 and 1924 alaska produced furs to the value of $104,000,000, of which $57,000,000 represented seal skins taken on the pribilof islands. up to tg10 the govern- ment leased the seal-catching privileges on these islands to private corporations, which killed 2,320,028 seals and paid the government $9,474,000 in royalties. the land killing of seal was restricted, but pelagic sealing, which was becoming very destruc- tive, could not be controlled by the american government; a treaty was therefore signed in 1911 between the united states, great britain, russia and japan, abolishing it and providing that the united states was to pay to both great britain and japan 15% of the value of the catch made on the islands. since 1910 killing has been prohibited on the pribilof islinds, except by federal agents. thanks to these provisions the seal herd in- creased from 215,000 in r912 to 697,158 in 1924. ‘the annual production of fur, other than seal, was valued at approximately $2,000,000 in 1924. most of this was due to the rapid increase of fox-larming, more than 200 fur farms being in operation. two companies were engaged in sheep-grazing in the aleutian islands. bibliography.—mlaj.-gen. a. w. greely, zlandbook of alaska (1925); annual reports of governor of alaska (1910-24); reports of 13th and 14th censuses; report of the international boundary com- mission between the us. and canada, arctic ocean to mt. st. elias, with atlas (state dept., washington, d. c., 1918); railway routes in alaska; report of alaska ratlroad commission (1913); report of the alaska engineering commisston (1916). alfred ii. brooks, “‘ the development of alaska by government railroads,” quarterly journal of economics, vol. 28 (1914); information about alaska (interior dept., 1923). j. l. mcpherson, alaska, our frontier won- derland (seattle chamber of commerce, 1921). alfred’ h. brooks, the mi. mckinley region (u.s. geological survey, 1911); afoun- tain exploration in alaska (american alpine club, 1914). hudson stuck, the a scent of denali (mt. mckinley, 1914); 1 winter circuit of our arctic coast (1920), ernest de k. leflingwell, the canning river region, northern alaska (u.s. geological survey, 1919). alfred h. brooks, ‘‘ the value of alaska,” geographical review, vol. 15 (1925). see also reports of u.s. geological survey, of u.s. dept. of agricul- ture, of commissioners of fisheries, annual report of commissioner of education and of commissioner of education for territory of alaska (juneau, alaska). (a, he be; mb, bs) albania or shorperi (see 1.481), an independent republic on the adriatic coast of the balkan peninsula, and a member of the league of nations. its area is 10,757 sq.m. and its population was 816,900 in 1923. i. political history the albanians, distributed in the region between the vardar and the adriatic sea and between thessaly and montenegro, with the former turkish vilayets of scutari and yannina as albania their ethnographic centre, formed part of the ottoman em- pire from the rsth century onwards. that domination, how- ever, was never anything but nominal, the albanians having had their own administration and never having paid taxes. in rgt1t the maltsori, or tribes of part of northern albania, re- volted against turkey, and obtained recognition of their admin- istrative autonomy. but, in the course of the balkan wars, the serbs having invaded northern albania and the greeks south- ern albania, the albanians claimed their independence! at valona on nov. 28 1912, and the conference of ambassadors, meeting in london, recognised on dec. 20 1912 the independ- ence of albania, the crown being offered to the prince of wied in feb. trorg. on sept. 3 1914 the prince, besieged in his cap- ital, durazzo, by the insurgents, had to leave albania. | albania during the world war—aat the very beginning of the world war, the greeks occupied southern albania and the albania eng lian miles (3) kilometres kush ent, bg che be. orosho bs 35 grovanni= a | di media — oan oh vaya wt i] elbasans/ - ex . "ao ss pe 2. ay “a, —————} khimara-e 40 ns sear a (as ay ee he cfo to aioe ———4. — santi. quaranta i =e < saat ae ee : t "ia ome: z aes x. arg yrokadstcon se ee qo a cs seana £1 (a) long.eas of greenwich b italians the port of valona. in 1915 the retreating serbian army passed through albania towards the adriatic coast, and in the spring of 1916 the austrian army penetrated northern albania as far as berat, while the italian troops, after italy’s entry into the war, pushed back the greeks and took possession of southern albania, effecting their junction with the french army coming from salonika, albania had become a battlefield. the country after the war.—after the armistice, albania was practically occupied by the italian army, but in jan. 1920 a na- tional albanian congress assembled at lushna in central al- bania and nominated a provisional government, which aroused the country against the italian occupation. under the treaty of tirana, aug. 3 1920, italy recognised the albanian govt. and evacuated albania, with the exception of the watcrless island of saseno (originally a part of the ionian is. ceded to greece in 1864, and by venisclos to albania) commanding the roadstead of valona, albania was admitted a member of the league of nations on dec. 17 1920. albania the frontiers of the new state were still in doubt. the treaty of london (may 17 1913) between turkey and the balkan states had icft delimitation to the great powers, but the north- ern epirotes refused to become southern albanians and. pro- claimed an “ autonomous” government in 1914. the corfu conference (see corru) decided that question, but only the albano-greek frontier had been determined when the world war broke out. there was incessant trouble in 1920 on the yugo- slav frontier, and yugoslav troops remained in occupation of part of the territory claimed by albania. both greeks and yugoslavs contended that the decisions of 1913 were irrelevant to post-war conditions. the proclamation of an independent ‘‘ mirdite ”’ republic in northern albania in 1921 was declared by the alba- nians to be the fruit of intrigues conducted from belgrade. al- bania brought up the frontier question to the assembly of the league of nations, which decided (oct. 2 1921) on sending a mission of inquiry. incursions by yugoslav troops led to a sit- uation so dangerous that the british govt. took prompt action (nov. 7 1921) asking for an immediate mecting of the council of the league. before the meeting took place (nov. 16) the yugoslav troops were, however, withdrawn, and in the short interval the council of ambassadors had adopted a decision fixing the main outlines of the albanian boundaries, and leaving the detail to a delimi- tation commission working on the spot. in its special session (nov. 18) the council of the league confirmed this proposal, with the acquiescence of yugoslavia. the work of the commis- sion was difficult and prolonged, and led indirect!y to a serious international incident when the italian gen. tellini, engaged in delimiting the greco-albanian frontier, was murdered on greek territory (aug. 27 1923). but friendly relations were established with belgrade and eventually with athens and angora. in 1923, however, the council of the league of nations had again to in- tervene between greece and albania over a dispute arising on the protection of albanians during the turco-greek exchange of populations. no less than 20,000 albanian moslems were said to be affected. internal politics—the first albanian parliament met on march 8 1921. the internal situation of albania was excessively disturbed throughout 1921 and 1922. governments succeeded each other in rapid succession, and on march 8 1922 elez yusuf, at the head of a band of rebels, established himself in tirana, and civil war was only prevented by the friendly mediation of sir harry eyres, the british minisier. a period of comparative tranquillity followed, in which ahmed zogu maintained power almost uninterruptedly. but he was shot at and wounded in the corridors of the parliament house on feb. 23 1924 and a new govt. was formed. in june, southern albania revolted, and ahmed zogu and his friends fled to belgrade and corfu. the leader of the democratic and liberal party, bishop fan noli, said to be a greek from near adrianople, declared that the revolution was directed against the corruptness of the late ad- ministration and the retention of feudal privileges. the chamber was dissolved, but no new elections were held. but before the year was out an insurrection, instigated by ahmed zogu, broke out in northeastern albania. ahmed zogu once more entered albania, reaching tirana on dec. 24. fan noli and his sup- porters fled to italy. he declared that the yugoslav govt. had supported ahmed zogu, an accusation emphatically denied from belgrade. ahmed zogu declared for a republic (albania had been nominally under a council of regency) and sought the ‘“ moral assistance ” of the italian govt. in establishing a polit- ical stability. the constituent assembly elected him president of the new republic for a period of seven years in feb. ro2s5. the new govt. was not at first acknowledged by italy, but nevertheless a group of italian financiers provided the capital for the new national bank of albania. on oct. 14 the albanian congress ratified the delimitation of the boundary with yugo- slavia. ii. social and economic conditions according to whether they live north or south of the river shkumbi, the albanians are called gegs and tosks, the latter 37 having attained a more advanced state of civilisation. the social organisation of albania, with its clans and tribes, recalls that of feudal europe. the cohesion of the albanian family 1s very remarkable. albania is divided into nine prefectures, called after the principal centres of population:—argyrokastron, berat, dibra, durazzo, e:ibasan, koritsa (ixorca), kosovo, scutart (shkodra), valona. in 1923, 562,010 of the population were moslems; 169,000 orthodox greek; and 85,600 catholic. the moslems, who represent 69 % of the population, are in the majority in all prefectures, except in that of argyrokastron, where the majority is orthodox, and in that of scutari, where catholicism is predominant. orthodox christians are numerous in the regions of koritsa, berat and valona, while the prefectures of dibra, durazzo, elbasan and kosovo are almost entirely mosicm. the principal towns, in order of importance, are: noritsa, 25,598 inhabitants; scutari, 21,580; argyrokastron, 12,400; tirana, the capital, 10,845; elbasan, 10,400; berat, 8,000; kavaja, 6,307; valona, 5,942; and durazzo, 4,785. religion.—the albanians are extremely tolerant in religious mat- ters. in 1923, the moslem congress at tirana broke with the caliphate, and proclaimed the religious autonomy of albanian mos- lems. after the congress of berat in 1922, the albanian orthodox church constituted itself an independent church, with the consent of the patriarch of constantinople. this church has four metro- politans, at durazzo, berat, argyrokastron and koritsa. at scutari the catholics have an apostolic delegate and an archbishop. the country is divider into five catholic bishoprics. education.—under the turkish domination, which prohibited teaching in the albanian language, the albanians remained in ignorance. the new state has succeeded in creating public instruc- tion of all degrees. there are now in albania 440 primary schools; i4 continuation schools; a teachers’ training college at felbasan; a school of agriculture at tushna; a technical school at tirana; an albanian college at scutari; and a french college at koritsa. finance.—albania is economically a backward country, and the state revenues, about 20,000,000 gold francs a year, are hardly sufficient to meet the cost of administration and the still rudimentary organisation of public services. its economic de- velopment will only be possible with the aid of foreign capital. albania has practically no external debt. production.—albania is a primitive country. almost the whole population is engaged in agriculture and cattle-raising. each houschold attempts to produce all the necessaries of life for its own purposes, including flax, wool and leather, for clothing. albania is a mountainous country, a great part of its area being over 3,000 ft. above sea-level, the north and south offering vast districts unlit for cultivation. but the central region, the littoral, the shores of the great lakes, together with many wide valleys and high plateaus in the mountain districts, can be cultivated. the coast region is indeed very fertile, but it is for the greater part uncultivated, and indeed uninhabited, on account of the marsh-fever arising from the undrained marshes. in northern and central albania, only about one-tenth of the arable land is under crops. in the northern mountains, land is held in common by families, the pastures being the collective property of the tribes. in the centre are found the large estates of the albanian bevs. the state morcover possesses a vast stretch of land in this region. south albania is the best cultivated region. albania possesses vast forests of oak, walnut, chestnut, elm and plane trees, and in the high regions forests of beech, pine and fir. these forests are almost exclusively owned by the com- munes and by the state. the germans began a timber industry in the forest of mamuras, north of durazzo. afines.—the mineral wealth of albania, thought to be consider- able, is not yet exactly known, no geological survey having yet been made. the results of the investigations made by the austrians during the war have not been published. almost the whole strip of coastline, about 40 m. wide, shows indications of the presence of hydro-carbons. asphalt and bitumen are worked at selenitsa, near valona, by a french company. during the war, the italians used a petroleum well in the same region. petroleum concessions were granted to the anglo-persian oil ca. and to the [talian railway lines connected with the standard oil company. coal seams exist in the regions of tepeleni, koritsa and tirana; and there is iron in the basin of the fani, near scutari, and in the tepeleni district. communications.—the ports of san giovanni di medua, durazzo and valona are good natural harbours, but they have not been developed. with the exception of the bojana, which is the outlet of the lake of scutari to the adriatic, there are no navigable rivers. since therecovery of her independence albania has begun toconstruct 88 much needed roads. jn 1925 there were about 720 m. available for motor traffic. there are no railways of normal gauge, though during the war the austrians constructed ** decauville ” lines from scutari to durazzo, lushna and berat, with branches to tirana, elbasan and fieri. these lines still exist for the most part, but need repair. the line from durazzo to tirana is used for the carriage of materials needed for the repair of that route. early in 1925 a gser- man-owned acroplane service was started between scutari, tirana, koritsa and valona. trade.—in 1924, albania imported textiles, cereals, sugar and coffee to the value of 20,489,000 gold francs, three-fourths of which came from italy. exports amounted to the value of 12,379,000 gold francs, consisting 'principally of olives, olive oil, skins, cheese, eggs and bitumen. the greater part of this export trade went to italy (4,900,000 gold francs). the maritime communications consist of two italian steamship lines. currency.—albania has neither metallic nor paper money of her own. the unit is the gold franc, but payments are made in napoleons (20-franc gold pieces and 8-florin austrian gold pieces) and in crowns (silver austrian money). in sept. 1925 there was formed the national bank of albania, with a capital of 12,500,000 gold francs, of which §1 % was subscribed by an italian group. this bank has the right to issue bank notes. (see league of nations.) bibliography.—f. manek, g. pekmesi and a. stotz, albane- sische bibliographie (vienna, 1909); c. a. chekrezi, albania past and present (1919); a. calmes, the economic and financial sitiua- tion of albania, report to the financial committee of the league of nations (geneva, 1922); j. godart, l’albanie en 1927 (1922); w. miller, the ottoman empire and its successors, 2nd ed. (1923); rose wilder lane, peaks of shala (1924). (ag @.) albany, n.y., u.s.a. (see 1.489), had a population of 113,344 in 1920, of whom 17,695 were foreign-born. of the native-born an exceptionally high proportion (91-8° ) were natives of the state. the population in 1925 was 117,520, ac- cording to the state census. the varied output of albany’s factories rose in value from $22,826,000 in 1909 to $45,455,000 in 1919, and, after a slight recession in 1921, to $53,026,337 in 1923. the deepening of the itudson river authorised in 1925 will give a 27 ft. channel from albany to new york city and albany will become virtually a seaport. the railway yards under con- struction (1923) by the new york central railroad in the ‘capital district ” at an expenditure of about $20,000,000 will be the largest in the world. the quentin roosevelt memorial aviation field, maintained by the chamber of commerce on westerlo l., is accessible to hydroplanes as well as to aeroplanes. a tract west of the state capitol was added to the parks of the city in rg21 and was opened in 1924. a zoning ordinance was adopted in 1924. in june 1924 albany celebrated its tercenten- ary in a three-day festival. | albert i., king of the belgians (1875- ), was born at brussels, april 8 1875, the younger son of philip, count of i’lan- ders (1837-1905), who was a brother of leopold ii., and princess marie of hohenzollern, the other children of this marriage were baldwin (b. 1869), henriette, afterwards duchess of ven- deme (b. 1870), a daughter who died in infancy, and josephine, afterwards princess charles of hohenzollern (b. 1872). the premature death of prince leopold, only son of leopold ii., on june 22 1869, made prince baldwin heir presumptive to the belgian crown, but on his death on jan. 23 1891, prince albert became next in the line of succession. he was carefully educated, and showed a marked taste for engineering and me- chanics, studying both naval and aerial construction. ie re- ceived his training in military matters at the ecole militaire under gen. jungblut, and also became a thorough sportsman, taking much interest in mountainecring and later in aviation. he served as an officer in the grenadier regiment. on oct. 2 1900 he was married at munich to elisabeth (b. july 25 1876), second daughter of duke charles theodore of bavaria. three children were born of this marriage, leopold, duke of brabant (b. nov. 3 1901), charles, count of flanders (b. oct. 10 1903) and marie jose (b. aug. 4 1906). prince albert also travelled widely, paying a visit to america in 1898, and in 1908 visiting england in order to study naval construction. in april to909 he went to the belgian congo. this visit was of great educational value. starting from the cape, he visited the cape province and the transvaal, going from there to elisabethville. thence he traversed the katanga min- albany—albert i. eral region and followed the course of the congo to its mouth. he returned to belgium in aug. and three months later king leopold died. albert as king.—on dec. 1 1909 prince albert took the oath of fidelity to the belgian constitution and became king under the name of albert i. before his accession he had evinced a genuine interest in the welfare of his people and on his own initiative had founded a training institute for fishermen and pilots. by this means he sought to develop that class of seamen indispen- sable to the merchant fleet which he desired his country to pos- sess. in his speech from the throne the king emphasised his care for the people’s welfare in the words: ‘‘ our prosperity depends upon the prosperity of the masses.’’ he occupied him- self more especially with the organisation of the army and in may 10913 gave his assent to the law which was designed to secure for belgium an army of 350,000 men. he also interested himself in various social and legal reforms, while his scientific tastes did not prevent him from becoming a friend of art and literature. the economist waxweilcr, the poct verhaeren and ihe painter laermans, were on friendly terms with the royal family, the latter receiving personal attention from the queen when he was threatened with the loss of his sight. albert was anxious to preserve friendly relations with neigh- bouring states and after ror1o paid official visits both to berlin and paris. on nov. 5 and 6 1913 the king, who had been ap- pointed honorary colonel of the regiment of hanover dragoons, visited germany for the second time. at a reception in potsdam, the emperor william ii. and gen. von moltke informed him that they considered war with france imminent. the king gave warning of this to the french ambassador in berlin through his own ministcr plenipotentiary, baron beyens. on july 31 ro14, when the european crisis came to a head, the king wrote a personal letter to the german emperor, reminding him of the respect due to belgian neutrality. germany replied by the ulti- matum of aug. 2, which in turn was answered by a jin de non yecevoir and hostilities began. the king in the field —the king took command of the troops and established his headquarters first at louvain and afterwards at antwerp. he directed in person the first advance from ant- werp towards louvain which was intended to relieve the f’rench and british armies engaged with the forces of kluck and bulow. after the fall of antwerp, the king and queen sent their children to england, while they themselves accompanied the retreating army; when it came toa halt on the yser they took up their residence at furnes. from oct. 17 to 24 the belgian army, under the king’s command, withstood the german invasion without any allied assistance. during the whole of the war he remained with the troops, having his headquarters at la panne, where he was exposed to the risk of enemy bombardments. he made continual visits to the front-line trenches, and even surveyed the enemy's lines from an aeroplane. the queen remained with him, acting as a nurse in the i]epital de l'ocean at la panne. she also inter- ested herself deeply in the welfare of the soldiers in the trenches, and superintended the establishment of canteens and aid posts. prince leopold, king albert’s elder son, lived, by his father’s wish, the life of a simple soldier in the 12th regiment. the sov- ereigns never left belgian territory except to visit the french troops entrenched in champagne and the british troops before ypres. it was only after the war had ended that the king, accompanied by the queen, crossed the channel in an aeroplane to visit the king and queen of england. when the general offensive of oct. 1918 was undertaken, albert was appointed commander of the northern army groups, consisting of both belgians and french, which captured the for- est of houthulst, “‘ the flandernstellung,’’ thourout, ostend and bruges, and forced the passage of the lys. on nov. 11 1918 the king and queen made their entry into ghent, and on nov. 22 into brussels, being received with enormous enthusiasm. even before the signing of the armistice the king had summoned at lophem a number of politicians, and arranged a new govern- ment containing representatives of the three more important belgian political parties. after a triumphant reception by alberta—alcohol parliament, the king made a speech from the throne, in which he appealed that all parties should work together for national recon- struction, while, addressing himself to the allies, he asked for the abolition of belgian neutrality and of the treaties of 1839 which had left belgium open to invasion. after the armistice king albert declined the augmentation of his civil list. he occupied himself actively with the improvement of conditions in his country, visiting the devastated areas, and contributing considerable sums to “‘ king albert’s fund,” which was devoted to providing temporary shelter for sufferers from the war. he also undertook journeys to brazil, spain, france, the united states and england, with the object of studying trade conditions and finding new outlets for belgian commerce. jhe popularity of the king and queen, great even before the war, steadily increased, even the socialist party taking many opportunities of expressing feelings of respect towards the royal family. in 1923 the queen visited morocco and in the following year egvpt. in 1925 the sovereigns took a long voyage to india. during this trip occurred the celebration of their silver wedding and on their return to brussels large crowds assembled to give them a most enthusiastic reception. in the matter of his children’s education, the king sought to preserve the links of friendship between belgium and her former allies. princess marie jose was sent to florence for the comple- tion of her education, prince charles became a midshipman in the british navy, while a french tutor was appointed to prince leopold, the heir to the throne. particular care was bestowed upon prince leopold’s education. he studied french and flem- ish literature, history, law, economics and philosophy under professors chosen by the king, while cardinal mercier directed his studies in metaphysics and moral science. like his father, the prince entered the military academy and after two years of study was promoted sub-licutenant of grenadiers. he then took a year’s course at the faculty of philosophy in the univer- sity of ghent, where his studies in history came under the super- vision of prof. pirenne. at the same time he made a regular study of foreign policy with m. jaspar, minister for foreign affairs. in 1925 the king arranged for him to make an educa- tional tour to the congo. the king did not cease to interest himself in belgian expan- sion and colonisation. iie expressed a desire 1o preside in person at the colonial congresses of 1920 and 1926 and made important speeches on those occasions. ie was actively interested in the development of the belgian mercantile marine. as before the war, he continued to support the intellectual development of his country. after the war he made official visits to the state universities of ghent and liege. in jan. 1926 king albert, who had been given honorary degrees by many universities, was elected a member of the zrstitut de france. his solicitude for the welfare of his people was unfailing and, during the floods which ravaged belgiu:n in dec. 1925, he and his queen lost no time in succouring the distressed inhabitants of the inundated districts. (see belgium.) bibliography.—p. nothomb, le rot albert (1915); e. laurent, le ret albert (1912); baron h. beyens, les hommes de la guerre —le rot albert (1919); g. mathys, le prince albert; mousseau, le prince albert aun congo, la mort de leopold ii. and pavenement du roi albert, recueil de documents i909; x. roux, «libert i., roi des belges (1918); j. de c. macdonnell, the life of it. al, king albert (1915), and belgium: her kings, kingdom and people roll: p) alberta (sce 1.499).—the population of the canadian prov- ince of alberta in 1921 was 588,454, an increase of 57-22% over rgtr. the rural population amounted to 365,550 and the urban to 222,904. the principal groups were english, 180,478; scotch, 96,062; irish, 68,246; scandinavian, 44,038; german, 353333; french, 30,913; ukrainian, 15,251; russian, 21,212; austrian, 19,430; indians, 14,557. the legislative assembly consists of 60 members, with an executive council chosen from the legislature. the province is represented at ottawa by 16 members of the house of commons and six senators. agriculture agriculture is the predominant industry in the province. southern alberta is of true prairie character. north- 8q ern alberta is to a large extent wooded and enjoys a greater rain- fall. land in the foothill country continues to be devoted to ranching. the wheat yield in alberta for 1923 was 144,834,000 bu.; oats, 114,977,000; barley, 14,774,000 and rye, 7,640,000 bu. figures for farm live stock for the same year were horses, $29,143; cattle, 1,520,924; sheep, 239,174; swine, 706,681; poul- try, 6,630,163. the production of creamery butter amounted to 17,868,853 lb. the farmers of alberta are strongly organised and have developed powerful co-operative organisations and pools to market their products. mining.—the coalfields of alberta are the most extensive and valuable in canada. anthracite and semi-anthracite appear in relatively small deposits, but every other grade, from the best bituminous to ordinary brown coal or lignite, is found. in 1923, 6,854, 397 tons were mined. natural gas is found at many points and is extensively used for power, fuel and light. a widespread search has been conducted for otl and the outlook is considered excellent.. the tar sands of northern alberta are a striking fea- ture in the geological resources of the province. there are also large deposits of salt in the north. the principal manufacturing industries are flour-milling and those associated with slaughtering and meat production and lumbering. fur trading is still an important industry in the northern part of the province. the province is well served with railways. in recent years large shipments of grain have been made to europe via pacific ports and the panama canal. al- berta was the first province in canada to own and operate a telephone sysiem of iis own. (see canada.) (d. a. mcg.) albertini, luigi (1871- ), italian journalist and politi- cian, was born at ancona, oct. 19 1871, and after graduating in law took to journalism. in 1896 he joined the staff of the milan newspaper, zi corrtere della scra, and, in 1909, became editor and chief proprietor. under his guidance z/ corriere became the foremost journal in italy. in r1ot4 albertini was nominated senator and showed himself a convinced interventionist. after the war z/ corriere was steadily anti-socialist, and albertini at first sympathised with fascismo but when the movement began to aspire to scize power by violence he opposed it. when the black shirt sqguadre occupied milan they forced i? corriere to suspend publication, but mussolini afterwards revoked the sus- pension. in parliament albertini made several important speeches against the govt. and, after the matteotti affair, against mussolini in particular. his paper was frequently con- fiscated under a decree restricting the liberty of the press. in nov. 1920, owing to the difficult position of 77 corriere, the com- pany was dissolved, albertini bought out and a new director appointed. alcohol (sce 1.525)——the manufacture of alcohol for in- dustrial purposes and as a source of power has developed greatly on both sides of the atlantic since igro. i. industrial alcohol large quantities of duty-free alcohol are used in great britain in trade under conditions laid down by statute and administered by the commissioners of customs and excise. the policy of that department enables alcohol to be used in industry with the minimum of restriction, while the revenue is safeguarded against loss from the use of alcohol for drinking or making perfumes by the addition of denaturants such as crude wood naphtha, whose main constituent, methyl alcohol, is difficult to remove from ethyl alcohol.even by distillation, and can be detected by sev- eral very delicate tests. in more recent times other nauseating ingredients, such as pyridine, have been added for the same purpose. apart from its consumption as a beverage, the largest usage in great britain is for domestic and industrial purposes, for which, as the circumstances warrant, the alcohol is denatured. according to certain gencral and special formulae, or 1t may be pure. at present 6,000,000 bulk gallons are used for these pur- poses. these natures of alcohol are free from duty, but must not be employed in the preparation of an article capable of use as a beverage or internally as a medicine. in many countries it is the go custom to publish a large number of formulae for denaturing alcohol to be used for various purposes. in great britain, how- ever, the published formulae are few in number, but to meet the requirements of specific industries the board of customs and excise can prescribe denaturants other than the usual ones, many of these being ingredients or intermediate products con- nected with the process in question. grades used.—the following are the specified grades of alco- hol used for industrial purposes:— mincralised methylated spirits (1) (2) (4) (9) (11) consist of a mix- ture of 90 parts by volume of ethyl alcohol, 9} parts of wood naphtha, and one half part of crude pyridine, together with %ths of 1 gallon of mineral naphtha or petroleum oil and !/a:th of an ounce of methy! violet dye in each 100 gallons of the mixture. power methylated spirits (8) (9) (10) prepared in accordance with the following formula: 92 parts of alcohol, 5 parts of benzol, one half part of crude pyridine, and 2} parts of wood naphtha, together with ifsoth of an ounce of spirit red hii. dye, in each 100 gallons of the mixture, are sold free of duty and restriction when mixed with 25° of petrol, benzol, denatured ether or some other substance approved by the commissioners of customs and excise. industrial methylated spirits (1) (2) (4) (9) (11) consisting of 95 parts by volume of alcohol and § parts of wood naphtha, can be obtained for the arts and manufactures under the authority of the board of customs and excise, under bond and certain not very oncrous restrictions. industrial methylated spirits (pyridinised) (11) have the same composition as industrial methylated spirits, together with one half of one part of crude pyridine. to none of these varietics of spirits may essential oils or flavour- ing matters be added without the express sanction of the commis- sioners. industrial uses of alcohol mineralised methylaied spirits —mincralised methylated spir- its, which are largely used for burning in lamps and for cleaning purposes, are sold under licence but otherwise unrestricted and duty-free. the quantity used in a year is about 1,500,000 bulk gallons. power m ethylated s pirits—this is intended for use in admix- ture with petrol benzol or denatured ether and is issued for use by the public only when so mixed. up to the present time a comparatively small quantity of this grade of alcohol has been used for motor traction. industrial methylated spirits —the uses to which industrial methylated spirits are put are very varied; over 60, many of them under general headings, being quoted in the report of the commissioners (14). out of a total of nearly 4,000,000 bulk gallons in 1925 (an increase of 25% over that of 1913), 2,500,000 went for varnishes, “‘ finish, ”’ stains and paints. by regulations which came into force on feb. 1 1926, “ finish,” having between three and sixteen ounces of gum resin in actual solution in each gallon, when offered for sale, must be made with industrial methylated spirits (pyridinised). alcohol of industrial methylated spirits 250,c00 bulk gallons were used in the linoleum industry, nearly 200,000 gallons for the manu- facture of ether, over 130,000 for the manufacture of celluloid and collodion, 140,000 in the manufacture of soap and 120,000 for liniments and hair washes. smaller quantities are employed in the following manufactures: fine chemicals (81,000); dyes (68,000); medicinal extracts (53,000); photographic plates and papers (41,000); inks and printing (32,000); disinfectants and insecticides (17,000); surgical dressings (15,000); rubber (12,000); and for the following purposes: for use in hos- pitals (82,000); in dyeing and cleaning and in dye-works (35,000); in chemical laboratories (13,000); in arsenals and dockyards (9,000); in colleges and schools (7,000); and for preserving museum speci- mens (5,000). by the regulation of feb. r 1926 (11) a pharmaceutical chem- ist may be authorised to obtain industrial methylated spirits for sale as such or as a constituent of a lotion for external use, not capable of being used as a beverage, for medical and surgical uses other than internal, and for veterinary purposes, under certain defined conditions, involving prescriptions from qualified per- sons, labelling bottles for external use and limitation as to quantity. application to use industrial methylated spirits must be made through the local surveyor to the commissioners of customs and excise, who consider each case on its merits. pure, that is, undenatured alcohol, may also be permitted duty- free by the commissioners under the finance act of 1902 (3) for use in the arts and manufactures, when methylated spirits are unsuitable or detrimental. pure alcohol is allowed to colleges and public institutions for teaching and research purposes without any onerous conditions beyond the keeping of a stock account. methyl alcohol —methy] alcohol when pure is liable to duty, but is permitted by the board of customs and excise to be used duty-free in arts and manufactures under regulations similar to those for industrial methylated spirits, and is largely used in the manufacture of formaldehyde, of methyl derivatives among dyestuffs and fine chemicals,‘and for the purpose of crystal- lisation. specially denatured alcohol, also free from duty, is allowed to manufacturers under restrictions compatible with the safety of the revenue, a very wide choice of denaturants being permitted. when, as frequently happens, a suitable denaturant is found in some intermediate product, or acid used or produced during the manufacturing operations, or when the alcohol is a constituent of some mixed solvent, permission is the more readily granted for its use. thus, the board of customs and excise allow the use of pure ethyl alcohol, denatured with 2% of pure methyl alcohol, in the production of insulin, without onerous excise restrictions. under the finance act of 1921 (8) an allowance of 5d. per proof gallon, equivalent to about 8d. per bulk gallon, is made on spirits used for preparing industrial methylated spirits and power spirits for non-potable uses (bulk gallons) united kingdom 1,754;514 mineralised methylated spirits 3,253,001 industrial methylated spirits f ‘ e ; power methylated spirits. : : - « other non-dutiable:— for arts and manufactures : ; : 434,045 for arts and manufactures (methy! alcohol) 37,8 for scientific purposes. , ; , ; 4,538 for scientific purposes (methyl alcohol) : 190 total 1921-2 1922-3} 1923-41! 1924-5} 1,167,344 1,273,572 1,345,144 1,402,582 2,620,779 3,120,634 3,426,344 3,865,994 14,506 87,244 171,219 108,738 236,703 352,628 401,992 411,643 39,214 146,353 209,111 268,738 6,407 7420 ,260 71424 194 436 400 381 6,065,500 4,085,147 1great britain and northern ireland only. france alcohol submitted to denaturation _. . | 1919-20 delivered for industrial and other purposes . 1922 12,067,946 18,105,450 1924 17,150,012 1922-3 16,910,564 | 1920-1 | po2h=2 14,837,548 | 28,042,454 alcohol methylated spirits, or on spirits received for use in the arts and manufactures. a rebate under the finance act of 1920 (5) (6) (7) (12) (13) amounting to 80% of the present duty is made in the case of duty-paid spirits used for medical purposes, such as the prepara- tion of tinctures, etc., and for scientific purposes in chemical laboratories. | references.—laws, spirits act 1880, 43 & 44 vict. ch. 24, s.s. 116 to 132; customs & inland revenue act 1890, 53 & 54 vict. ch. 8, s. 32-34; finance act 1902, 2 edw., vii., ch. 7, s. 8; revenue act 1906, 6 edw. vii., ch. 20, s. 1 & 2; finance act 1915, 5 & 6 geo. v., ch. 62, s,. 2; finance act 1918, 8 & 9 geo. v., ch. 15, s. 4; finance act 1920, 10 & 11 geo, v., ch. 18, s. 4; finance act 1921, 11 & 12 geo. v., ch. 32, s. 15-16; finance act 1924, 14. & 15 geo. v., ch. 21, s. 13; regulations—the power methylated spirits regulations, 1921; spirits (medical purposes) regulations, 1924; spirits (sci- entific purposes) regulations, 1924; the methylated spirits (other than power methylated spirits) regulations, 1925; annual reports of commissioners of customs & excise. cr. ar:*) industrial alconiol in the united states an alcohol, from a chemical standpoint, belongs to a class of substances containing, in their molecular structure, one or more replaceable hydroxyl (oh) groups; thus, methanol (wood alcohol), butanol (butyl alcohol), glycerine, phenol (carbolic acid), etc., are all alcohols. commercially, the term ‘‘ alcohol ”’ refers to the well-known ethy] (grain) alcohol, produced by the fermentation of the sugar or starch content of vegetable sub- stances such as molasses, grain, cane, potatoes, fruit juices, etc. ethyl alcohol, next to water, is the most important and generally used solvent in industry, and is a basic material! for the manufacture of a wide variety of products essential to daily life, such as artificial silk and leather, ilavouring extracts, varnishes, photographic films and over 300 other products in 4,759 factories in america. legisiation.—the principle of taxing and regulating alcoholic beverages is fundamental in all civilised countries, and this prin- ciple is applied to alcohol itself until industrial needs achieve special legislation, granting tax-free alcohol for industrial purposes. the laws and regulations of the u.s. govt. providing for tax- free alcohol for industrial purposes were first effective in 1907. the policy of protecting these industrics was further confirmed with the advent of national prohibition in the law of 1919, entitled ‘ an act to prohibit intoxicating beverages, and to regulate the manu- facture, production, use and sale of high-proof spirits (alcohol) for other than beverage purposes, and to ensure an ample supply of alcohol and promote its use in scientific research and in the develop- ment of fuel, dye and other lawful industrics.” special hxempiions.—the united states lawsexempt from tax pure alcohol used by the federal, state and municipal governments, by educational institutions, hospitals and in scientific research. alcohol for public distribution and for industrial uses is also tax-free when legally denatured, 7.e., when mixed, under government supervision, with specified materials which shall render the alcohol, or any com- pound in which it is authorised to be used, unfit for use as an intoxicating beverage. denaturation.—completely denatured alcohol, intended for un- restricted sale and distribution, is effected by the addition of a small quantity of such a material as wood alcohol or kerosene. six different formulae for completely denatured alcohol are now in public use. specially denatured alcohol, on the other hand, is designed for dis- tribution to approved manufacturers, under regulations, protected by a bond to guarantee the faithful performance of the conditions stipulated by the government. in such alcohol only those denatur- ants are used which will not materially interfere with the special manufacturing use to which the alcohol is to be put. seventy-four formulae for specially denatured alcohol have been authorised by the government for over 300 different uses. the devclopment of the great group of chemical industries based upon an abundant and cheap supply of industrial alcohot may be directly measured by the growth of the production of industrial fiscal denaturing completely specially years plants denatured denatured wine gallons wine gallons i9gio_ . 12 3,076,924-55 3,002,102-55 i9i§. : 23 5,386,646-96 8,599,821 -81 1920. 2 13,528,402-99 15,307,947 °18 i92r . . 67 12,392,595 °02 9,996,229-90 1922. : a7 16,193,523-60 17,152,224°3 1923. . 76 27,128,229-54 30,436,913 -14 1924. 83 34:602,003 -72 33,085,292 -o4 1925. 46,983,969 -88 34,824,303 +28 oi alcohol. since tax-free denatured alcohol for industrial uses was first made available in the united states in 1907, the steady growth of this industry, and by comparison those industries using industrial alcohol, may be illustrated by the table in first column from official sources, the saccharine and starch materials used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol in the united states, and the relative proportions of each for the year ended june 30 1925, are as follows: rice, 682,690 lb.; starch, sugar and syrup, 8,107,258 lb.; miscellancous materials, 145,071 bu.; molasses, 203,270,135 gal.; corn (maize), 7,200,818 bu.; rye, 96,793 bu.; raisins, 96,170,629 lb. the ercater portion of the molasses used in america as the raw material for industrial alcohol is imported in tank steamers from the west indies. (m. c. w.*) ii. fuel alcohol whilst alcohol is applied in motor-engines in a similar manner to petrol, its vapour mixed with a proper proportion of air being drawn into the cylinder where it is compressed and ignited, it cannot be used with maximum efficiency by itself in engines such as are fitted to modern motors because it requires a higher degree of compression than petrol engines are usually designed to stand, and also because, unless special arrangements are made, a motor-engine will not start readily from the cold with alcohol alone. for these reasons alcohol has not been used to any extent in petrol motors. mixing with benzol or petrol, or with ether in varying proportions, enables it, however, to be employed successfully in them, until such time as engines specially de- signed for ifs use are available. in the event of its production being a commercial possibility it should, therefore, form a valu- able addition to the liquid-fuel resources of the world. afiscibility—alcohol of the strength usually employed as a liquid fuel, viz.: 95° by volume, will mix with ether in all proportions and motor fuels consisting of alcohol and ether are in use, e.g., natalite. alcohol will not, however, form a stable mixture with benzol or petrol under all conditions of tempera- ture. increased miscibility at low temperature can be obtained by the addition of a third substance, and higher alcohols, of which butyl and amyl alcohol are the best, and many other liquids, have been patented for the purpose and of these ex- tended trials have been made. absolute alcohol —lf{, however, anhydrous or absolute alcohol is employed, then miscibility with petrol is obtained under all practical conditions of use. the production of absolute alcohol has been considerably developed since 1921, and several proc- esses, for the most part using either solid or liquid dehydrating substances, have been invented and some of them have been applied on a technical scale. as a solvent it is more valuable than the ordinary industrial alcohol of 95% strength, and it is especially suitable for the manufacture of nitro-cellulose var- nishes. in the years that followed the world war this was com- ing into use on a considerable scale. production processes.—alcohol is produced by fermentation from vegetable substances containing starch or sugar, from fermentable sugars produced by the hydrolysis of cellulosic bodies, and’ syntheti- cally from calcium carbide and from the ethylene contained in coal and coke-oven gases. the vegetable substances may be divided into foodstuffs and non-foodstuffs. if foodstuffs are to be employed it must be possible to grow them in excess of food requirements, and at a cost low enough to ensure that the price of the alcohol shall be about the same as that of other liquid fuels. | alcohol is produced from molasses in british guiana, canada, india, natal, queensland, guatemala, the hlawaiian is., from pota- toes in germany and czechoslovakia, from the mahua flower (bassia latifolia) in india, from maize in natal, and in new zealand from waste potatoes, grain, fruit and various shrubs and roots. in queens- land cassava, sweet potatoes, arrowroot and other starch-bearing plants are uscd. research work.—in a memorandum issued in 1925 by the fuel research board of the dept. of scientific and industrial research, a british official body, the possibilities of using potatoes, mangolds and jerusalem artichokes as raw materials for the production of alcohol for power purposes in great britain were discussed. of the three materials, the jerusalem artichoke was considered to be the most likely, since by treatment of the stalks, a pure, resistant cellulose could be obtained suitable for certain purposes. research work is in progress to discover a process that can be worked on a commercial basis in those regions where non-foodstuffs, or cellulosic materials, such as grasses, reeds, straws, peat, waste wood, sawdust, etc., exist in sufficient abundance, g2 recent experiments on the hydrolysis of the cellulosic materials have indicated that a soaking of the material in dilute acid can be substituted for an acid hydrolysis under pressure, thus obviating the necessity of using acid-resisting autoclaves and therefore removing some of the difficulties attending the commercial application of the process. the fermentable sugars (pentosans) produced in this way, when fermented, give an alcohol-acetone liquid in the proportion of about 90% alcohol to 10% acetone, a more efficient motor fuel than alcohol alone. the yield of this liquid varies from 15 gal. to 20 gal. per ton, according to the raw matcrial. the production of power alcohol from waste materials, which can be collected and treated at low cost, offers probably the best chance of the solution of . the problem of the supply of an alternative liquid fuel for internal combustion engines. its manufacture from carbide is only possible where very cheap power is available, and its conversion from the quantities of ethylene removable from coal and coke-oven gas, even should a cheap proc- ess be worked out, is not likely to add very materially to the world’s liquid-fuel supplies. foreign countries.—argentina has a carburante nactonal com- posed of 50 % of 98-4 % alcohol, and 50° petrol by volumes. czecho- slovakia produces a composite fuel known as dynalcol, a mixture of approximately 3 parts of alcohol to 4 parts of benzol, the latter ob- tained from the coke and gas industries. in 1923 the production of alcohol in denmark was 4,980,000 litres; in 1924 it was 6,420,000 litres. in feb. 1923 a law was passed in france prescribing a ‘* car- burant national.’ it requires all importers of petrol, benzol, benzene, toluene and coal distillation products, either alone or mixed, in order to obtain importation licences, to purchase from the state a quantity of absolute alcohol corresponding to a minimum of 10% on the quantity of petrol, etc., imported during the preceding month. the alcohol is to be used exclusively in motor fuels. by a decree of may 31 1923, the composition of alcohol-petrol mixtures for sale must consist of not less than 95 and not more than 105 parts by vol- ume of absolute alcohol to ioo parts by volume of hydrocarbons. the law has, however, become inopcrative because users of the carburant national are not satisfied with it, and it entails a con- siderable loss to the state. recovery in the alcohol industry in germany awaits a restoration of the potato production to something like pre-war standards, when about 75 °% of the alcohol made was distilled from potatoes, of which 2,500,000 tons, unsuitable for other purposes, were utilised, produc- ing an average of 77,000,000 gal. annually. ‘the price which alcohol manufacturers may offer for potatoes is limited by the government in the interest of conserving the potato crop for human and animal consumption, meanwhile, the available potatoes are being supple- mented by the importation of indian corn. the national liquid fuel in germany keichskraftstoff is composed of 25% alcohol, 50% motor benzol and 25% tetralin (tetrahydronaphthalene). in greece in- dustrial alcohol is made in large quantities from currants. it is used for domestic illuminating, heating and cooking, for street lighting, etc. in the hawaiian [slands the surplus of molasses is used to some extent for the production of alcohol for domestic purposes and for use in internal-combustion engines. in japan there are one or two motor fuels of which alcohol is an ingredient to about 50%. there are three plants in the philippines for the manufacture of alcohol, and two liquid fuels are produced from it. one isa mixture of alcohol and ether, the other a mixture of alcohol and petrol. the introduction of absolute alcohol will facilitate its use with petrol as in the case of the “‘ carburant national ” in france. in sweden a mixture of 25 parts of alcohol, obtained from sulphite lyes, and 70 parts of benzol is being sold under the name of '' bentyl ” for use in motors. (f. l. n.) aldanov, mark alexandrovich (1880- __), russian novelist and publicist, also known as landau-aldanov, was born in kiev oct 26 1889. he joined the socialists and, after the bolsheviks, in 1917, overthrew the kerensky govt., left russia for paris, where by his writings. both in french and russian, he soon won a reputation. his most considerable work is a trilogy, the thinker, of which in 1926 less than half had appeared, and in which the french revolution is treated with jearning, under- standing and philosophy. he also discusses in armageddon (191s) the world war, but here shows himself more elegant than precise. studies of tolstoi and lenin are more thoroughly executed. although aldanov lacks the grand epical imagination of a tolstoi and the wide sympathy of a dostoievsky, he is not unworthy to be ranked as their successor. he avoids the sheer morbidity of the later russians; he has something to say and says it well. moreover, he brings to his treatment of the french revolution the personal experience of a disappointed “‘ girondin. ” aldrich, nelson wilmarth (1841-1015), american politician (see 1.536), died in new york april 16 tors. aleppo (see 1.541) has an estimated population of 140,000. there is a european colony there, and the native industries, aldanov—alexander i. except that of carpet-making, have given place to european manufactures. the silk trade is important and the exports are mainly raw products. railways were opened shortly before the world war to aleppo, which is now connected with nisibin toward mosul and with adana and mersina in the west, besides the older line connecting with the one between beirut and damas- cus. aleppo is in syria (g.v.) under the french mandate (q.2.). alexander (1893-1920), king of the hellenes, second son of king constantine and queen sophia, was born aug. 1 18093 and ascended the throne of greece on the dethronement of his father, june 14 1917. the govt. itself was for the time in the hands of venizelos, who had the confidence of the allies. but the defeat of germany, and venizelos’s diplomatic triumphs at the peace conference, seemed to breathe a new spirit into the young king. [from the day of his triumphal entry into adrian- ople, he took an active personal interest in the prospect of being the ruler of greater greece until his sudden death on oct. 25 1920, by blood poisoning from the bite of a pet monkey, put a sudden end to all such expectations. in nov. 1919 king alexander made a morganatic marriage with an athenian lady, aspasia manos; and after his death a daughter was born to her in paris on march 25 1921. on oct. 12 1922 the marriage was declared valid by royal decree, so that alexander’s daughter became her father’s legal heir, though she did not thereby acquire any rights in respect of the throne. alexander i., king of the serbs, croats and slovenes (1888- ), was born at cetinje on dec. 4 1888, the second son of prince peter karagjorgjevi¢, later king of serbia, and of zorka, third daughter of prince nicholas of montenegro. his mother died in 1890, and during his early years he shared the exile of his father at geneva. in 1899 he was sent to leningrad (st. petersburg), to be educated, and in 1tg04 entered the corps des pages at the tsar’s court. it was not till 1909, nearly six years after his father’s election to the serbian throne, that the young prince came to reside permanently in serbia. soon after his return his elder brother, prince george, was obliged to re- nounce the succession (march 1909), owing to his unbalanced temperament, and various incidents that occurred during the bosnian crisis; and alexander was thereupon formally recog- nised as crown prince. on the outbreak of the balkan war (1912) he assumed nominal command of the i. army and won his spurs at the battle of kumanovo, subsequently serving with distinction in the campaigns against turkey and bulgaria. on june 24 i914 king peter, whose health had completely broken down, appointed him prince regent, and he thus held the position of commander-in-chief when the world war broke out. he remained permanently at army headquarters, and shared with his soldiers all the privations of the retreat through albania. on reaching the coast he fell ill and underwent a serious operation, but when already convalescent resolutely declined the proffered assistance of an italian destroyer which had been sent to convey him across the adriatic; he remained till all the refugees had becn transported into safety, and eventually found his way on foot to durazzo. after the exiled serbian govt. had established itself at corfu, prince alexander and m. pasie paid visits to paris and london, where the prince was received with warm ovations. on april 5 1916, on receiving an important deputation of british sympathisers (led by the archbishop of canterbury, the lord mayor, lord milner and sir edward carson), he publicly identified the dynasty with the cause of unity, expressing his conviction that in the final victory “ our yugoslav people, united in a single state, will have their part.” during the rest of the war he remained at serbian head- quarters and shared his army’s victorious advance in oct. 1918. on dec. 1 delegates of the yugoslav national council in zagreb jormaily recognised him as regent in all the yugoslav provinces of the former dual monarchy, and he assumed the title of “ prince-regent of the serbs, croats and slovenes.’”? the attempt made upon his life on june 29 1921, after he had taken the oath the previous day to the new yugoslav constitution, was the outcome, not of any personal unpopularity, but of the sub- versive aims of the communists and other revolutionary groups, alexander, sir g.—alfonso ait. who hoped to create confusion in the new state, owing to the lack of a direct heir to the throne. on aug. 16 1921 prince alexander succeeded his father as king of yugoslavia. on june 8 1922 he marricd marie, second daughter of king ferdinand of rumania, and on sept. 6 1923 an heir was born, who received the name of peter. king alexander inherited from his father a respect for con- stitutional and parliamentary traditions, which was conspic- uously lacking in his predecessors of the obrenovie dynasty; and his influence has been repeatedly exercised behind the scencs to smoothe down the acerbities of party strife. it was very largely due to his insistence that a reconciliation was achieved between the serbian radicals under m. pasi¢ and the croat peasant party under m. radie in the summer of 1023—an event which contributed greatly towards the political consolida- tion of yugoslavia. (r. w. s.-w.) alexander, sir george (1858-10918), british actor (see 1.564), died at chorley wood, herts, march 16 1918. he was knighted in rort. alexander, john white (1856-10915), american painter (sce 1.564), died in new york june 1 1915. he had been president of the national academy of design since 19009. alexander, william (1824-1911), irish prelate (see 1.565), died at torquay, eng., sept. 12 1911. alexandra (1844-1925), queen consort of edward vil., king of great britain and ireland, eldest daughter of prince christian of gliicksburg, afterward king christian 1x. of den- mark, and louise, daughter of the landgrave william of hesse, was born at copenhagen dec. 1 1844, her full name being alexandra caroline maria charlotte louisa julia. one of her sisters married the czar of russia and became the mother of the czar nicholas ii. asa child alexandra was brought up with simplicity and early evinced a love of music and of fairy tales, being encouraged in both by her parents’ friendship with hans andersen. she was married to albert edward, prince of wales, afterward edward vii., march 10 1863, and was crowned with him in westminster abbey, aug. 9 1902. her singular beauty and charm, first celebrated in tennyson’s a welcome to alexandra (1863) when she came to england as a bride, and preserved even into old age, won her immense pop- ularity, and her progress through the streets of london on alexandra day, or rose day, a yearly event inaugurated by her in 1912 for raising funds for the london hospitals by the selling of roses in the streets, attracted annual crowds. she had earlier shown her great interest in the care of the sick by giving her name to the queen alexandra’s imperial nursing service, or- ganised in 1902 to supply nurses for naval and military hospitals, as well as by the gift to the london hospital in 1890 of the first finsen lamp for light treatment of skin diseases. her love of country life, and especially of horses and dogs, endeared her toa nation, like herself, lovers of animals. though she took her full share in all public ceremonials, she was happiest in her country home at sandringham. there in dec. 1924 she kept her 8octh birthday, surrounded by her children and grandchildren, and there she died nov. 20 1925. she is buried with king edward in st. george’s chapel, windsor. brbliography.~—sir h. c. burdett, prince, princess, and people (1889); sarah a. tooley, life of queen alexandra (1902); w. r. h. trowbridge, queen alexandra, a study of royalty (1921); vis- count cecil and others, queen alexandra: a piciorial biography (1925). | jb: alexandria, egypt (see 1.568).—the population at the 1917 census was 444,617; in 1925 it was estimated at about 480,000, including some 100,000 foreigners, of whom greeks, italians, syrians and jews were the most numerous. between t910 and 1925 the amenities of the city were considerably increased, largely through the activity of the municipality. a town-planning scheme was put into operation and in 1925 lake hadra was drained preparatory to the creation of a garden sub- urb. the public gardens at nuzha, on the mahmudieh canal were enlarged. harbour accommodation was increased and a breakwater to protect the quays of the eastern harbour com- 95 pleted in 1916. schemes for the further increase of harbour facilities were under consideration in 1925. some 90% of the total external trade of egypt passes through alexandria, in- cluding the whole of the cotton exports. a considerable share of the former passenger traflic of the port has been taken by port said. the main roads have been greatly improved and a service of public motor-omnibuses established in the district. alexeyev, mikhail (1857-1918). russian soldier, was born nov. 3 1857. entering the army in 1876, he became a gen- cralin r9o4. at the outbreak of the world war he was appointed chief of the staff on the southwestern front, and in that capacity was largely responsible for the russian victory in galicia in ror4. in march 1915 he took over command of the armies on the north- — western front and by his energy and ability saved them from complete destruction. appointed chief of the gencral staff in aug. tors, he had to give up this office in nov. 1916 on account of ill-health. from march to may 1917 he commanded the army; recalled in september by kerenski, he attempted to mediate between kerenski and kornilov. [ailing in this, he went to south russia and there organised the ‘“‘ volunteer ” army. on the death of kornilov in march 1918, the military command of the army was taken over by denikin and alexeyev became leader of the government. on sept. 25 1918 he died of heart disease at ekaterinodar. alfonso xii. (1886- ), king of spain (see 1.736), was born in madrid may 17 1886, the posthumous son of alfonso xii. belonging to the ilouse of bourbon-habsburg, he was baptised as leon fernando maria isidro pascual antonio. born a king he was proclaimed at birth sovereign under the regency of his mother. great care was taken to remedy the delicacy of his physique, with the result that in his sixteenth year he was hale and vigorous. his education was not neglected. he mas- tered thoroughly english, french, and german and acquired a fair knowledge of history and the elements of agriculture. on coming of age in 1902 alfonso xiii. endeavoured to get into touch with his subjects in various provinces of his realm, entered into personal relations with the representatives of science, art, and labour and sought everywhere to awaken enter- prise and encourage effort. in 1905 he visited austria, germany, england and france. one day while driving in paris, with the president of the french republic, he narrowly escaped death from the bomb of an unknown criminal. on may 31 1906 alfonso married ena victoria, daughter of princess ilenry of battenberg. on the same day a bomb was thrown at their carriage by mateo morral, but happily neither of the sovereigns was tnjured. after the birth of his eldest son alfonso (may 10 1907), who was proclaimed prince of the astu- rias, the king renewed his travels in spain, france and england, and at the close of the undecided african campaign of 1909 visited melilla, where he familiarised himself with the scenes of the fighting. at the funeral of his murdered premier, canalejas, alfonso niit. fearlessly followed the coffin on foot amid a great concourse of people. in april 1913, when returning from the ceremony of the oath to the national flag in madrid, the king was fired at three times and again he escaped unhurt. his cool- ness and dignified behaviour on this occasion won for him en- thusiastic ovations, and the generosity that prompted him to commute the death sentence on his would-be assassin intensified his popularity without diminishing the dangers that encom- passed him. in the early days alfonso had been singled out as the innocent symbol of an odious regime, but later he was charged with being the fomentor of a shameful system of favouritism. the melilla campaign brought home the evils of bad government alike to the listless masses, who furnished the blood and money to carry it on, and to the officers’ corps, who complained that rewards and promotion were lavished on drones while those who bore the brunt of the struggle were systematically ignored; and the monarch’s popularity began to decline. by way of lessening the causes of dissatisfaction the king, after a visit to president poincare, announced spain’s adherence to the franco-anglo- russian entente respecting morocco (1913) and in the same 94 year he strove to settle the catalonian difficulty by adopting decentralisation and bestowing a large measure of autonomy on various provinces for administrative purposes. but the morocco problem is perennial and the concession of home rule failed to satisfy the extremists in catalonia, who forthwith clamoured for a degree of political independence incompatible with spanish unity and destructive of their own economic prosperity. then it was that antonio maura (q.v.), having outgrown par- ties and factions, emerged as one of the few genuine statesmen produced by spain in modern times. his measures of reform were root-reaching; but he was thwarted by the machinations of his adversaries, the perfidy of his partisans, and his own lack of peremptory energy and was therefore unable to enforce the restraints prescribed by the constitution. with the failure of maura’s experiment the last flicker of hope for spain seemed extinguished. the position of the king became increasingly difficult, despite his efforts to better it. at the outbreak of the portuguese revolution his official attitude, despite his dream of an iberian union and the temptation to realise it, was irreproach- able, and during the world war, when spain’s position was superlatively difficult, the king scrupulously discharged his manifold duties as a neutral and rendered immense services to the cause of humanity. at home he was less fortunate. the war, by depriving the rif tribes of arms and ammunitions, had placed them at the mercy of spain, but the parliamentarians allowed the opportunity to slip and the moors to bleed the nation white (see morocco, campaign in). ie was held partly responsible for this disaster and also for the serious abuses prevalent throughout the army and the government. education was almost non-existent, the army was ineflicient, the navy a fiction, justice itself was a sham and a snare, and the nation was but a shuttlecock in the hands of two parties tossed between hopeless ineptitude and insatiable greed. dis- cerning no hope of redress, the officers’ corps, which was the only organ of remedial action in the peninsula, drafted a reform programme and through the intermediary of the infantry union summoned the govt. in june ror7 to accept it without restric- tion or delay. the arrest of the spokesmen only served to reveal the solidarity of the army and the impotence of the cabinet, and the triumph of the officers dealt a blow to par- liamentary government from which it only began to recover in 1925. but before its final collapse the rulers allowed a tidal wave of syndicalist terrorism to invade catalonia and render normal existence impossible there. at this conjuncture gen. primo de rivera (q.v.), aided by a group of resolute comrades and trusting in the king’s official acquiescence in an accomplished fact, seized the reins of power, dismissed the cabinet, proclaimed the directorate, suspended the constitution, introduced censorship, and suppressed for the time syndicalism, separatism, and wholesale assassination. after two years’ tenure of office he lost the support of some of his partisans and aroused the active hostility of many passive adversaries, while conspiracies were hatched in paris, barcelona, and madrid, some for the purpose of assassinating the king, in june 1923, others with the object of overturning the direc- torate in nov. 1925. the king’s family consists of four sons and two daughters. (e. j. d1)