AESTHETICS

the chief advances in aesthetics since prof. sully’s survey—which remains the best statement in the english language—was published in the fucyclopadia britannica (1911) have been applications of psychological dis- coveries. though there is still “nothing answering to the german conception of a system of aesthetics in literature,’ sully’s central postulate (derived through kant from hume, who declared that *‘ beauty is no quality in things themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them ”’) now finds few dissentients. but the primary task of aesthetics is to describe and analyse the states of mind which give rise to ascriptions of aesthetic qual- ities, rather than to correlate these states with characters of the physical objects said to be beautiful, ugly, pretty, pleasant and so forth. the latter inquiry can rarely be carried to a useful con- clusion, owing to the too great complexity of the factors involved. none the less, great efforts continue to be made to arrive at for- mulae and measurements which would explain the effect that different kinds of art have on us. but, as edmund gurney in the power of sound showed so conclusively for music, there is no likelihood that we shall ever discover a sufficiently wide formula for what is effective which does not also cover the ineffective. such researches as those which claim that there are certain fun- damental proportions in greek architecture (j. hambidge) may, like the printer’s standard proportions for book margins, provide rules of thumb for the avoidance of certain crudely displeasing effects. but the goal of aesthetics, regarded by sully as the study of certain assignable characteristics by means of which an object ‘‘ is fitted to affect us in a certain way,’ must now be recognised to lie rather in the evaluation of the different ways in which we are found to be affected. very little can be done towards cor- relating aesthetic experiences with simple characters of their objects, in spite of the mass of material as to the improvised pref- erences of laboratory-subjects which have been accumulating since 1900, but a good deal can be said about the experiences themselves, and also about their value; 2.e., our considered pref- erences for one rather than another. opposing theories.—another fundamental assumption made by sully is, however, being challenged, namely the existence of a distinctive aesthetic state, mood, or attitude, whether regarded as a unique effect of beauty, or as a necessary condition for its perception. beautiful objects, it was held, either caused this state, or were only perceived to be beautiful when approached with an attitude opposed to that of the practical man, the scien- tist, or the moralist. this view has been attacked from two sides. in the first place, the so-called aesthetic state is really not one state but a number of superficially similar states, actually very different in origin and nature. compare, for example, the “detachment ” due to the fact that it is a picture we are looking at, and not'a tree, with the *‘ detachment ” of the contemplation which is part of the final goal of tragedy. and, on the other hand, states similar to these often occur under conditions with which aesthetics would not seem to be concerned; for example, in the nitrous-oxide trance and in incipient stages of dissociation. this re-orientation is largely due to a heightened sense of the verbal ambiguities involved. it has been customary to assume a common property in things called by the same name, and this aesthetics analysis has made it clear that different states are in question on dificrent occasions. further experimental work bearing on this question makes such a result on the whole more probable, though the positive outcome is as yet slight. some tempting minor theories have been disproved, such as the view that the pleasurableness of certain visual forms is derived from the relative ease of the eye movements by which we perceive them. it has been shown by stratton and by judd that the eye does not ‘ follow lines ”’; it jumps about and its movements do not correspond to the course of the line. perhaps the most interesting general result has been the demonstration of the great range of difference between indi- viduals, both as to their preferences, for example among colours, and as to the motives which govern such choices. . the experiments of bullough with colours! and of myers and valentine with tones? would seem to show that individuals fall into four distinct types with regard to their dominant attitude towards such objects: (1) the objective, by whom the colour is liked, e.g., because itis “‘ pure ’’; (2) the intra-subjective, by whom it is liked, e.g., because it is “ warming’”’; (3) the associative, by whom it is liked, e.g., because it is the colour of wine; (4) the character type, who judge the colour to be “‘ bold,” “ timid,” ete. further experiments are needed, however, before these types can be accepted as established, and they lend themselves, in any case, to a variety of interpretations. value of experiences.—another re-orientation concerns the value of the experiences studied by aesthetics. the most obvious point about them is their value, and any theory which leaves this unexplained must be defective. a theory of value in general is therefore necessary for aesthetics, and a thorough attempt to formulate and apply such a theory has been made by richards,® with special reference to literature; an endeavour which repre- sents a return to socrates no less than to tolstoi (sce 1.285). aesthetics considers experiences with a view to their valua- tion; but aestheticians have tended to single out as the distinc- tive “aesthetic mood” that particular kind of experience in which they were most interested, and, since kant, attention has been focused chiefly on the mood of detached and impersonal contemplation. this state of contemplation has, however, often been mis- described, probably through the influence of the now abandoned “faculty ” psychology, as well as through the confusions no- ticed above. every experience, no matter how detached or serene, arises only through the play of desires and activities. it is the peculiar direction of desire and will, not their absence, which marks off the contemplative state. they are directed, in fact, towards the maintenance and development of the state tise/f, in all its aspects, not towards the development of one special aspect (as in thinking), nor towards a change in the situation (as in practical activity). but there is nothing dreamlike or indifferent about this state. sully looked forward to a deeper inspection of the contem- plative mood, and its further analysis has since yielded interest- ing results. thus w. m. urban (valuatio, p. 219), based in part on the theories of mcinong and baldwin, sums up much useful analysis, by french aestheticians such as paulhan and art his- torians such as ilirn, in ‘‘ the concept of the widened ground of diffused stimulation, the bulazce of impulses.” ee. d, puffer in 1907 (psychology of beauty, p. 50), developing one aspect of schiller’s view, had already described the calm or repose of con- templation as a tension, equilibrium or balance of forces; and according to urban, who remarks that in primitive dances the object of desire, whether martial, erotic or religious, is ‘ dis- tanced,” it is this equilibrium of impulses which “ prevents the fundamental tendency from breaking forth into overt action.” one of the most interesting results of such an analysis has been 1 british journal of psychology, 2 (1906-8), 3 (1908-10). 2 thid., 7 (1917). a principles of literary criticism (1925), especially chap. 5, pp. 35-38. seealsoc. ik. ogdenand i. a. richards, the meaning of mean- tng (1923), in which the verbal ambiguities involved in all discussions of art and beauty are dealt with in relation to the general psychology tendency has been misleading here, for stricter psychological i of language and symbolism. aesthetics to dispose of the theory of pure or aesthetic value which so easily springs from the assumption of the “ aesthetic state.” another erroneous corollary has made the contemplative state a rare occurrence, unknown to savages, children and the uned- ucated. this has given rise to “ aestheticism ”’ with the implica- tion that art is a monopoly of the leisured dilettante. a return to tolstoi, who defined art as the communication of valuable experiences from one mind to another, has therefore been inevitable. it must be recognised, moreover, that very much which seems to be purely aesthetic criticism is in reality com- ment upon a lack of social opportunity (particularly the absence of an expensive education) and upon acquired mannerisms; the parallel case in which a man is judged by his dress is obvious. an important influence leading in the same direction has been that of psycho-analysis (see psycho-analysis) with its fresh light on the growth and development of preferences. though at present easily misapplied in criticism, its consequences, especially for the study of creative imagination, are likely to be fundamen- tal! the work of the gestalt school with its stress upon the unity of psychic processes, especially in the study of the percep- tion of form, is also? promising, since this unity is certainly an essential consideration both in creation and in appreciation. a more specific problem which awaits development is that raised by the systematic analogical analysis of the emotional effects of sounds and colours.’ | philosophy of aesthetics —in addition to the endeavors of science to elucidate aesthetic experiences mention must be made of recent developments on the philosophical side. english writers, among whom bosanquet, wildon carr, carritt, and collingwood may be cited, have been chiefly influenced by the work of the italian idealist benedetto croce (q.v.). in discuss- ing croce’s views it must always be remembered that his aesthetic doctrine forms an inseparable part of his general sys- tem of subjective idealism, which includes the denial of the reality of the physical world. it can only be accepted by those who are satisfied with that position, and the attempt to use his formulae by those who do not subscribe to the whole of which they form parts has led to much confusion. in brief, croce identifies art with intuition, or imagination, the formulative activity of the mind which is prior to thinking in its narrower sense. at the same time he sharply distinguishes it from the prac- tical activity of the mind. intuition he again identifies with expression, thereby bringing out the necessity for the formation activity to give form to what it is handling. the work of art, he holds, exists complete in the mind of the artist, the technical work of writing the poem or painting the picture being but a secondary practical activity of “‘ extrinsication.”” ugliness is thus regarded as incomplete, or partial beauty, the result of a failure to intuit or imagine with the necessary thoroughness. a psychologist who dissents from this philosophy will remark that the psychology of perception and imagination which croce’s formulae suggest to him seems to be mistaken. but to this the school of croce have a ready answer, by which the objection is “surpassed.” they reply that the methods and results of psy- chology are either illegitimate or have no bearing upon their position. so the matter must be left until the rival claims to authority of philosophy (in this sense) and of science (in the generally accepted sense) are adjudicated upon. a new tendency of the past two decades has been the atten- tion received by non-professional theorists. recent violent revolutions in the arts left professtonal aestheticians temporarily at a loss, and, especially in england, the younger generation 1see a. adler’s essay on dostoevsky in chap. 23 of his indivzdual psychology (1924); c. g. jung’s many contributions are often sug- gestive, though s. freud's studies in this field (cf. der wahn und die trdume; eng. trans., deiuston and dream, 1917) have perhaps not the outstanding merits of his other work. 1 the columns of psychologische forschung (see for example, the contributions of von allesch in vol. vi., 1924-5) contain the best work of the gestalt theorists. c. koffka’s remarks on melody in his growth of the mind (1924) also merit attention. cf. c. fox, educa- tional psychology (1925), chap. 10. 2 cf. psyche, vol. it., jan 1922, for an outline of the tudor-hart theory of the analogy. naturally turned to the critics and the artists themselves for guidance. clive bell's art (1914) endeavoured to combine the theory of a specific aesthetic emotion with the then prevalent cambridge realism, but on closer examination the doctrine of “ significant form ” was seen to be baseless. the not dissimilar views of roger fry also enjoyed a wide vogue, and the more stimulating reilections of kandinsky, corbusier and wyndham lewis are still deservedly attracting attention. in the literary field, too, the critic has occasionally led the way, and such a work as ‘[. s. eliot's the sacred wood (1920) is a worthy suc- cessor to a. c. bradley’s oxford lectures on poctry (1909). in different fields, also, the futurist manifestoes of marinetti, vernon lee’s studies in empathy, the contemplative hedonism of santayana and the reported aphorisms of cezanne have in- fluenced contemporary aesthetic enquiry. conclusions.—we have first two views of objective beauty: (1) that there is a simple quality of beauty; (2) that beauty isa complex quality, namely the possession of aesthetic form. the improbability of the second of these has been commented on above; the progress of psychology has rendered the first obsolete. (3) that beauty consists in the imitation of nature. (4) that it is due to the successful technical exploitation of the artist’s materials; this view has its relevance in connection with the applied arts. (s) that beauty is the product of ‘‘ genius’’; often an alternative formulation of other views. (6)that beauty is the revelation of (2) truth (in some sense), (b) the ideal, (c) the universal, (d) the typical. (7) that beauty consists in the creation of illusion; this has relevance in connection with hypnosis and suggestion theories of art, and in relation to the use of art as a drug (novel reading). (8) that beauty is to be judged in terms of desirable social effects. (9) that the beautiful is the expressive. the rise of the expressionist school, particularly in germany, has brought this theory back into prominence. the last seven views may be contrasted as a group with the remaining seven, which are all psychological in a narrower sense. (10) the beautiful is the pleas- ant. a subsidiary science, which might be termed hedonics, is required to deal with the special problems raised by “ pleasure.”’ (11) beauty is what excites emotion; (12) promotes a specific emotion (e.g., “ aesthetic ”’ emotion); (13) involves the processes of empathy; (14) heightens vitality; (15) brings us into touch with exceptional personalities; (16) conduces to an equilibrium of impulses. | bibltograpity.—there is still no comprehensive treatment of aesthetics in english. i. a. richards’ principles of literary criticism (1925) provides the best orientation. e, meumann in his a sthetik der gegenwart (1919) and his system der asthetik (1919) has compiled a useful introduction, and r. miiller-freienfels’ psychologie der kunst (1912) covers a good deal of ground from the psychological angle. a condensed survey, with illustrations, of the 16 main types of theory will be found in c. k. ogden, i. a. richards and j. wood, the foundations of aesthetics (1922). a the writings of v. basch, “le maitre-probleme de l’esthetique,” revue philosophigue (july-aug. 1921), of c. lalo, l’art et fa vie sociale (1921), l'art et la morale (1922), la beaute et p instinct sexuel (1922), esthetique (1925); and of fr. paulhan, l'fsthetique dit paysage (1913), will give a good idea of french points of view. b. croce’s esthetic (eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1922), and his essence of aesthetic (breviario di estetica, 1924) are now available in eng- lish: the former contains an extensive historical survey. eng- lish followers of croce are b. bosanquet, three lectures on aesthetics (1915), e. f. carritt, the theory of beauty (1923), and r. g. collingwood, speculum mentis (1924), cutlines ofa philosophy of art (1928). criticism of croce’s system will be found in albert cock, proc. arist. sec. (1914), and h. r. marshall, the beautiful (1924), chap. ry, the latter being an informative treatment from the hedonistic standpoint, which is also well represented, with a dif- ference, by g. santayana’s the sense of beauty: (1918). since vol. iii. of j. volkelt’s system der asthetik (1924), theodor ziehen’s vorlesungen tiber asthetik (1925) is the most formidable continental attempt to construct a system. jn addition to the experimental work already cited, c. w. valentine, dx lutroduction to the experimental psychology of beauty (1913) may be mentioned. max eastman, the enjoyment of poetry (1913) and the sense of humor (1921), j. c. gregory, the nature of laughter (1924) and f. a. beaumont, the izero: a theory of tragedy (1925), deal with the literary aspects of aesthetics. lucien bourgues, la musique et la vie interieure (1921), g. revesz, erwin nytregehdst (eng. trans., the psychology of a musical prodigy, 1925) and i. j. watt, fhe | foundations of afusic (1920), serve to indicate the material accumu- 46 lating in one province alone, since the earlier work of helmholtz, moos and hanslik on music; while m. dessoir’s zettschrift fiir asthettk und allgemeine k unstwissenschaft (vol. v., 1910, ef seg.) covers the whole field of reference. c.k20)) afforestation: sce forestry. afghanistan (sce 1.306), an independent state in central asia. the portion of the frontier between afghanistan and india to the west of the khyber was demarcated in ro1g and yo21. the full sovereign rights of afghanistan were recognised by great britain in the treaty of peace between the two coun- tries signed on nov, 22 1921. estimated area, 245,000 square miles. population about 10,000,000. the war period.—until the outbreak of the world war, amir habibulla had to face only one serious crisis—the khost rebel- lion of 1912, which was caused by the rapacity and exactions of the local governor. after considerable trouble the rebellion was put down on terms unexpectedly favourable to the rebellious ghilzais and mangals. amir habibulla’s clemency was prompted both by a desire to conciliate the ghilzais, the hereditary enemies of the durrani dynasty, and by the knowledge that his accept- ance of western ideas and encouragement of modern technical improvements had undermined his own popularity. among the many mixed blessings of modern civilisation which he had in- troduced in a conservative and unappreciative country were motor-cars, telephones, newspapers, a hydro-electric scheme and a superior high school, the habibia college in kabul, staffed chiefly by teachers from india. with the protraction of the world war, amir habibulla’s position grew increasingly difficult. at its outset he had de- clared his intention to abide by his engagement with the british govt. and keep his country out of the turmoil. but the entry of turkey, the protagonist of islam and the holder of the cali- phate, into the war on the side of the central powers gave strength to the anti-british party in afghanistan and paved the way for the dispatch of a turco-german mission to kabul in 1915-6. an interesting account of the mission is given— unfortunately for the historian, with admirable discretion—by w. o. von hentig, its german head, in a book published during the war. the mission had a paper success which cid not deceive even von hentig, who was chietly responsible for it; and amir habibulla had the satisfaction of seeing the war close with his promise to great britain fulfilled. there was much speculation, not confined to india or afghanistan, over the nature of the war reward he was likely to receive, and belief was general that it would take a political as well as a financial form. third afghan war.—all expectations, however, were upset, first, by his assassination on feb. 20 1919, and then by the third afghan war,! which was thrust upon india in the following may by his second son, amanulla, who had ousted his uncle nasrullah from the throne after a six-day amirate. the con- centration of the british forces was hardly completed when peace overtures, precipitated by the appearance of the first aeroplane over kabul, were received from the young amir. the negotiations that followed ended 1n a treaty of peace, signed at rawal pindi on aug. 8 1919, which proclaimed the resumption of peaceful relations, the annulment of the annual subsidy which the amir had been granted from 1879 onwards, and (more or less as a corollary and for this reason perhaps in a separate letter) afghanistan’s release from great britain’s control of her foreign relations. this was followed by a conference at mussoorie in 1920 at which outstanding differences between the indian and afghan governments were freely discussed and the ground cleared for a treaty of neighbourly relations signed at kabul on novy. 22 1921 (british white paper cmd. 1,786 of 1922). independent afghanistan.—afghanistan lost no time in mak- ing good her foothold within the circle of fully independent nations. treaties or agreements were made with several of the leading powers; ministers were sent to moscow, berlin, paris, rome, teberan, angora, and later to london; and as many foreign jegations were set up in kabul. the establishment of a 1for this campaign see papers regarding hostilities with afghan- istan, 1919 (cmd. 324 of 1919) and a despatch from gen. sir c. c. monro printed in the london gazette, march 12 1920. afforestation—afghanistan british legation in kabul put the final seal on afghanistan’s emergence from her old hermit condition. in view of the fate of the british residency in 1879 it was not entered upon lightly. it was perhaps the most notable feature in the anglo-afghan treaty of nov. 22 1921, which was only concluded after to months of patient negotiation between sir henry dobbs, then foreign secretary to the govt. of india, on the part of great britain, and sardar-i-ala mahmud tarzi, the amir’s father-in- law and foreign minister, on the part of afghanistan. chief among the difficulties responsible for drawing out the negoti- ations was a clause in the russo-afghan treaty of feb. 28 1921,? under which russia had acquired the right to establish con- sulates at ghazni and kandahar—localities admittedly remote from all prospect of russian trade, and useful to russia only as jumping-off grounds for intrigue on the indian frontier. indeed, great britain from the outset declined to negotiate a treaty unless afghanistan found a way out of a commitment so mani- festly hostile in design. afghanistan’s success in doing so was noted in the european press at the time as a sign that she was not entering the comity of civilised nations altogether un- equipped with the weapons of modern diplomacy. and in the next three years there were at least two international crises that attracted attention in the world’s press, from which, after what were apparently false steps at the beginning, she extricated her- self with a diplomatic skill and a robust common sense that commanded general respect. the first arose in 1923~4 out of the murder of two british officers by two afghan subjects within a mile or so of the afghan border, which was closely followed by the flight into. aighanistan of some rufhans who had murdered an english officer’s wife and abducted her young daughter. the second and in some ways even more sensational crisis (for it all but ended in a rupture with italy) arose out of the shooting of an afghan policeman by an italian named piparno in afghan government employ. the procedure adopted in the trial was according to western ideas highly prejudicial to the accused, and even ran counter to one school, at any rate, of moslem juris- prudence, in that it ignored the prior settlement of the case with the cognisance of the state by blood-money paid to the relatives. after a protracted incarceration piparno was sum- marily executed, and feeling in italy at once grew tense. in both crises the young amir took charge of affairs himself when the crisis was at its height, and proved that the amirate had lost little if anything in strength with afghanistan’s political development, and that when his country’s honour was at stake amir abdur rahman’s grandson had an ample share of that political sagacity which had been among his grandfather’s most marked characteristics. modern development—tin other spheres amir amanulla has broken away from his great ancestor’s policy, notably in his determination to open up his country to western civilisation. here and there indeed he seems to have been dangerously in advance of his time, as in his schemes for the emancipation of women through female education—schemes which were ap- parently the cause or chief among the causes (under the agita~ tion of the mullas) of the dangerous rebellion that broke out tn khost in the spring of 1924 and was only suppressed in the fol- lowing spring after the afghan govt. had organised considerable forces to cope with it. but even clerical conservatism seems unlikely to be able to ob- struct the more material of amir amanulla’s schemes for the de- velopment of his country, such as much-needed improvements in communications. in addition to a wireless station at kabul which is in regular communication with peshawar and tashkent, kabul and the more important localities in its neighbourhood are linked up with the indian telegraph system, and a project has been on foot ever since the russo-afghan treaty of 1921 for linking up kabul with the russian system through kandahar and herat. road communications have improved very greatly during the period ro10-25, for the introduction of motor-cars has necessitated the reconstruction of the principal roads, especially in the neighbourhood of the capital itself. the pros- * translation of the text in l’europe nouvelle, may 28 1921. africa pect of a really well-aligned motor-road from kabul to the khy- ber, and from kabul to kandahar and thence to chaman, is not, perhaps, far distant, and when realised must have a profound effect on the economic and political development of the country. trade between india and afghanistan, especially by the quetta route, has increased considerably of late years, and cannot fail to be greatly enhanced by the construction of roads fit for motor transport. the barrier of the hindu kush range, with its steep ascents and numerous passes, effectively blocks communication by mechanical transport between kabul and the north for the present. against the amir’s extensive employment of europeans on technical, educational and other work, there are some mur- murings. and whether clerical conservatism or politicians of the abdur rahman school will continue to acquiesce in the russification of some of the essential services and in particular of the tiny air force that afghanistan is trying to build up, seems very doubtful. trade with india.—the foreign trade of afghanistan is mainly with india. the construction of motor-roads and the completion in 1925 of the khyber railway from janrud to the head of the pass are of great importance to the trans-frontier trade between afghanistan and india. the only figures available for the trade of afghanistan are those issued by the govt. of india and by the governments of the provinces bordering the afghan frontier. the following table gives the value in rupees of the trans-frontier trade for the average pre- war year and for 1921-2 and 1922-3:— exports to | imports from inclia india pre-war average . 1.07,00.000 | 1.53.00.000 1921-2. , 81.00.000 || 1.35.00.000 1922-3. 1.61.00.000 | 1.58.00.000 the chief exports to india are raw wool, manufactured woollen piece goods, shawls, fruit, nuts, vegetables, ghi, asafoetida and hides. the principal imports from india are cotton piece goods, twist ancl yarn, indigo, manufactured leather, wheat, sugar, tea and liquors. a trade convention signed at kabul on june § 1923 provided for three transit routes across british india for the forwarding of goods to and from indian posts. bibliography.—imperial gazetteer of india—afghanistan and nepal (1908); b. de lacoste, around afghanistan (1909); sultan mahomed khan (mir munshi) ed. constitutzon and laws of afghan- istan (1910); g. p. tate, the kingdom of afghanistan (1911); t. l. pennell, among the wild tribes of the afghan frontier (1911); w. o. von hentig, afeine diplomatenfahri ins verschlossene land (1918); l. a. starr, frontier folk of the afghan border, an album of illustrations (1921).