AGRICULTURE

canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. of the total population (estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are directly engaged in practical agriculture. in addition large numbers are engaged in industries arising out of agriculture; among these are manufacturers of agricultural implements, millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and packers of meat, makers of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in the transportation and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats, butter, cheese, milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. the country is splendidly formed for the production of food. across the continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or wider than france, with (over a large part of this area) a climate adapted to the production of foods of superior quality. since the opening of the 20th century, great progress has been made in the settlement and agricultural development of the western territories between the provinces of manitoba and british columbia. the three "north-west provinces" (manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta) have a total area of 369,869,898 acres, of which 12,853,120 acres are water. in 1906 their population was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. the land in this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are very rich in the constituents of plant food. chemical analyses made by mr f.t. shutt have proved that soils from the north-west provinces contain an average of 18,000 lb of nitrogen, 15,580 lb of potash and 6,700 lb of phosphoric acid per acre, these important elements of plant food being therefore present in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary cultivated european soils of good quality. the prairie lands of manitoba and saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. horse and cattle ranching is practised in alberta, where the milder winters allow of the outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater degree than is possible in the colder parts of canada. the freezing of the soil in winter, which at first sight seems a drawback, retains the soluble nitrates which might otherwise be drained out. the copious snowfall protects vegetation, supplies moisture, and contributes nitrogen to the soil. the geographical position of canada, its railway systems and steamship service for freight across the atlantic and pacific oceans, are favourable to the extension of the export trade in farm products to european and oriental countries. great progress has been made in the development of the railway systems of canada, and the new transcontinental line from the atlantic to the pacific, passing through saskatchewan via saskatoon, and alberta via edmonton, renders possible of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing soil. the canal system of canada, linking together the great natural waterways, is also of much present and prospective importance in cheapening the transportation of agricultural produce. crops of _wheat_ many varieties are grown. the methods of cultivation do not involve the application of so much hand labour per acre as in europe. the average yield of wheat for the whole of canada is nearly 20 bushels per acre. in 1901 the total production of wheat in canada was 55-1/2 million bushels. in 1906 the estimated total production was 136 million bushels. the total wheat acreage, which at the census of 1901 was 4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of nearly two million acres in five years. up to the close of the 19th century, ontario was the largest wheat-growing province in canada. in 1900 the wheat acreage in ontario was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an average yield of 19.10 bushels per acre. over three-quarters of this production was of fall or winter wheat, the average yield of which in ontario over a series of years since 1883 had been about 20 bushels per acre. but the predominance in wheat-growing has now shifted to the new prairie regions of the west. a census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of wheat in the north-west provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824 bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels per acre. of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in manitoba, 2,117,484 acres in saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres in alberta, with average yields per acre at the rates of 20.02 bushels in manitoba, 23.70 in saskatchewan and 26.49 in alberta. in these provinces spring wheat is almost universally sown, except in alberta where fall or winter wheat is also sown to a considerable extent. summer fallowing for wheat is a practice that has gained ground in the north-west provinces. land ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the summer, is sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring. wheat on summer fallow land yielded, according to the north-west census of 1906, from 2 to 8 bushels per acre more than that sown on other land. summer fallowing is, however, subject to one drawback: the strong growth which it induces is apt to retard the ripening of the grain. canada is clearly destined to rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries of the world. the northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have not been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat were grown in 1907 at fort vermilion on the peace river, nearly 600 m. north of winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at fort simpson on the mackenzie river in lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of winnipeg and about 1000 m. north of the united states boundary. as a rule the weather during the harvesting period permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage from sprouting. occasionally in certain localities in the north-west the grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as the proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate becomes modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less. the loss from this cause is also less than formerly, because any grain unfit for export is now readily purchased for the feeding of animals in ontario and other parts of eastern canada. suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in general use, so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat is ground. this gives canadian wheat excellent milling properties, and enables the millers to turn out flour uniform in quality and of high grade as to keeping properties. canadian flour has a high reputation in european markets. it is known as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread, and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids being greater in canadian flour than in the best brands of european. owing to its possession of this characteristic of what millers term "strength," i.e. the relative capacity of flour to make large loaves of good quality, canadian flour is largely in demand for blending with the flour of the softer english wheats. for this reason some of the strong canadian wheats have commanded in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter more than english-grown wheat. at the general census of 1901 the number of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five persons and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes being 4251 and the value of products $31,835,873. a special census of manufactures in 1906 shows that these figures had grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619 employes and $56,703,269 value of the products. there is room for a great extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and exportation of flour. in the twelve months of 1907 canada exported 37,503,057 bushels of wheat of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485 barrels of flour of the value of $7,626,408. the corresponding figures in 1900 were--wheat, 16,844,650 bushels, value, $11,995,488, and flour, 768,162 bushels, value, $2,791,885. oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from prince edward island on the atlantic coast to vancouver island on the pacific coast. over large areas the canadian soil and climate are admirably adapted for producing oats of heavy weight per bushel. in all the provinces of eastern canada the acreage under oats greatly exceeds that under wheat. the annual average oat crop in all canada is estimated at about 248 million bushels. as the total annual export of oats is now less than three million bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an advantage in maintaining the fertility of the soil. in 1907 the area under oats in ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301 bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage under hay and larger than the combined total of the other principal cereals grown in the province. canadian oatmeal is equal in quality to the best. it is prepared in different forms, and in various degrees of fineness. barley was formerly grown for export to the united states for malting purposes. after the raising of the duty on barley under the mckinley and dingley tariffs that trade was practically destroyed and canadian farmers were obliged to find other uses for this crop. owing to the development of the trade with the mother-country in dairying and meat products, barley as a home feeding material has become more indispensable than ever. before the adoption of the mckinley tariff about nine million bushels of barley were exported annually, involving the loss of immense stores of plant food. in 1907, with an annual production of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage was exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. the preparation of pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry. rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human food. flour from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from indian corn are preferred. buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some districts for the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple syrup. these two make an excellent breakfast dish, characteristic of canada and some of the new england states. there are also numerous forms of preparations from cereals, sold as breakfast foods, which, owing to the high quality of the grains grown in canada and the care exercised in their manufacture, compare favourably with similar products in other countries. peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with insect pests. split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and sweet peas for canning are obtained of good quality. vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of the diet of the people. there is a comparatively small export, except in the case of turnips and potatoes and of vegetables which have been canned or dried. besides potatoes, which thrive well and yield large quantities of excellent quality, there are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. the cultivation of sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been established in ontario and in southern alberta, where in 1906 an acreage under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of 8.13 tons per acre. among the common vegetables used in the green state are peas, beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus, indian corn, onions, leeks, tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery, parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash and rhubarb. hay, of good quality of timothy (_phleum pratense_), and also of timothy and clover, is grown over extensive areas. for export it is put up in bales of about 150 lb each. since 1899 a new form of pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to stow in about 70 cub. ft. per ton. this has been a means of reducing the ocean freight per ton. the compact condition permits the hay to be kept with less deterioration of quality than under the old system of more loose baling. austrian brome grass (_bromus inermis_) and western rye grass (_agropyrum tenerum_) are both extensively grown for hay in the north-west provinces. live stock. the almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns has not led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to the extent that was at one time anticipated. heavy draught horses are reared in ontario, and to a less but increasing extent in the north-west provinces, the breeds being mainly the clydesdale and the shire. percherons are also bred in different parts of canada, and a few belgian draught horses have been introduced. good horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs, omnibuses, and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local markets and for export. thoroughbred and pure bred hackney stallions are maintained in private studs and by agricultural associations throughout the dominion, and animals for cavalry and mounted infantry remounts are produced in all the provinces including those of the north-west. useful carriage horses and saddle horses are bred in many localities. horse ranching is practised largely in alberta. there are no government stud farms. the total number of horses in the dominion was estimated on the basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the year 1907, an increase of 609,309 since 1901. cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance. the bracing weather of canadian winters is followed by the warmth and humidity of genial summers, under which crops grow in almost tropical luxuriance, while the cool evenings and nights give the plants a robustness of quality which is not to be found in tropical regions, and also make life for the various domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. in the north-west provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks are shipped annually. throughout other parts bullocks are fed on pasture land, and also in stables on nourishing and succulent feed such as hay, indian corn fodder, indian corn silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats, barley, peas, indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. the breeding of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of dairy cows for the production of milk, butter and cheese, has received much attention. there is government control of the spaces on the steamships in which the cattle are carried, and veterinary inspection prevents the exportation of diseased animals. a considerable trade has been established in the exportation of dressed beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation of meat and other foods in hermetically sealed receptacles. by the meat and canned foods act of 1907 of the dominion parliament and regulations thereunder, the trade is carried on under the strictest government supervision, and no canned articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely wholesome and officially marked as such by government inspectors. there is a considerable trade in "lunch tongues." the cattle breeds are principally those of british origin. for beef, shorthorns, herefords, galloways and aberdeen-angus cattle are bred largely, whilst for dairying purposes, shorthorns, ayrshires, jerseys, guernseys and holstein-friesians prevail. the french-canadian cattle are highly esteemed in eastern canada, especially by the farmers of the french provinces. they are a distinct breed of jersey and brittany type, and are stated to be descended from animals imported from france by the early settlers. the estimated number of cattle in canada in 1907 was 7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures of the census of 1901. all parts of the dominion are well adapted for sheep; but various causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity of other branches of agriculture, including wheat-growing and dairying, have in several of the provinces contributed to prevent that attention to this branch which its importance deserves, though there are large areas of rolling, rugged yet nutritious pastures well suited to sheep-farming. in the maritime provinces and in prince edward island sheep and lambs are reared in large numbers. in ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree of perfection, and other parts of the american continent draw their supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province. all the leading british varieties are reared, the shropshire, oxford down, leicester and cotswold breeds being most numerous. there are also excellent flocks of lincolns and southdowns. the number of sheep and lambs in canada was estimated for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565 in 1901. pigs, mostly of the yorkshire, berkshire and tamworth breeds, are reared and fattened in large numbers, and there is a valuable export trade in bacon. canadian hogs are fed, as a rule, on feeds suited for the production of what are known as "fleshy sides." bacon with an excess of fat is not wanted, except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers of canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having plenty of lean and firm flesh. the great extension of the dairy business has fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of swine. experimental work has shown that swine fattened with a ration partly of skim-milk were lustier and of a more healthy appearance than swine fattened wholly on grains. slaughtering and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing houses. the use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a small percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered in european markets. regular supplies are exported during every week of the year. large quantities of lard, brawn and pigs' feet are exported. in 1907 the number of pigs in canada was estimated at 3,530,060, an increase of 1,237,385 over the census record of 1901. turkeys thrive well, grow to a fine size and have flesh of tender quality. chickens are raised in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly since the opening of the 20th century. canadian eggs are usually packed in cases containing thirty dozens each. cardboard fillers are used which provide a separate compartment for each egg. there are cold storage warehouses at various points in canada, at which the eggs are collected, sorted and packed before shipment. these permit the eggs to be landed in europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with the shells quite full. dairy products. canada has been called the land of milk and honey. milk is plentiful, and enters largely into the diet of the people. with a climate which produces healthy, vigorous animals, notably free from epizootic diseases, with a fertile soil for the growth of fodder crops and pasture, with abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful supply of ice, the conditions in canada are ideal for the dairying industry. large quantities of condensed milk, put up in hermetically sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and on board steamships. the cheese is chiefly of the variety known as "canadian cheddar." it is essentially a food cheese rather than a mere condiment, and 1 lb of it will furnish as much nourishing material as 2-1/4 lb of the best beefsteak. the industry is largely carried on by co-operative associations of farmers. the dairy factory system was introduced into canada in 1864, and from that time the production and exportation of cheese grew rapidly. legislation was passed to protect canadian dairy produce from dishonest manipulation, and soon canadian cheese obtained a deservedly high reputation in the british markets. in 1891 cheese factories and creameries numbered 1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. in 1908 there were 4355 of these factories, of which 1284 were in ontario, 2806 in quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of canada. those in ontario are the largest in size. amongst the british imports of cheese the canadian product ranks first in quality, whilst in quantity it represents about 72% of the total value of the cheese imports, and 84% of the total value of the imports of that kind of cheese which is classed as cheddar. in 1906 the total exports of cheese to all countries from canada reached 215,834,543 lb of the value of $24,433,169. butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk, cream and butter are handled by skilled makers. the creameries are provided with special cold storage rooms, into which the butter is placed on the same day in which it is made. from them it is carried in refrigerator railway cars and in cold storage chambers on steamships to its ultimate destination. for the export trade it is packed in square boxes made of spruce or some other odourless wood. these are lined with parchment paper, and contain each 56 lb net of butter. the total export of butter from canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 lb., of the value of $7,075,539. according to a census of manufactures taken in 1906, the total value of factory cheese and butter made in canada during that year was $32,402,265. fruits. there are large districts lying eastward of the great lakes and westward of the rocky mountains, where apples of fine quality can be grown; and there are other smaller areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are grown in quantities in the open air. the climate is favourable to the growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, etc. there are many localities in which cranberries are successfully grown, and in which blueberries also grow wild in great profusion. apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. the high flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities of the canadian apples are their chief merits. apples are exported in barrels and also in boxes containing about one bushel each. large quantities are also evaporated and exported. establishments for evaporating fruit are now found in most of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning factories and jam factories have been established in many parts of canada, and are conducted with advantage and profit. the chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern and western ontario and in nova scotia; but recently much attention has been devoted to fruit-growing in british columbia, where large areas of suitable land are available for the cultivation of apples, pears and other fruits. in some parts of the semi-arid districts in the interior of the province irrigation is being successfully practised for the purpose of bringing land under profitable cultivation for fruit. collections of fruit grown in british columbia have received premier honours at the competitive exhibitions of the royal horticultural society in london, where their high quality and fine colour have been greatly appreciated. wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal vine-growing districts, and in several localities large vineyards have been planted for this purpose. an abundance of cider is also made in all the large apple-growing districts. honey is one of the minor food-products of canada, and in many localities bees have abundance of pasturage. canadian honey for colour, flavour and substance is unsurpassed. maple sugar and syrup are made in those areas of the country where the sugar-maple tree flourishes. the syrup is used chiefly as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and the sugar is used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes and for the making of confectionery. the processes of manufacture have been improved by the introduction of specially constructed evaporators, and quantities of maple sugar and syrup are annually exported. tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in canada since 1904. its cultivation promises to be successful in parts of ontario, quebec and british columbia. state aid. the department of agriculture of the dominion government renders aid to agriculture in many ways, maintaining the experimental farms and various effective organizations for assisting the live-stock, dairying and fruit-growing industries, for testing the germination and purity of agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in agricultural and dairy produce. the health of animals branch, through which are administered the laws relating to the contagious diseases of animals, and the control of quarantine and inspection stations for imported animals, undertakes also valuable experiments on the diseases of farm livestock, including glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. the policy of slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been successfully initiated by canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts of the country indicating a considerable decrease from the previous year in the number of horses destroyed and the amount of compensation paid. a disease of cattle in nova scotia, known as the pictou cattle disease, long treated as contagious, has now been demonstrated by the veterinary officers of the department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the ragwort, _senecio jacobea_. hog cholera or swine fever has been almost eradicated. a laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive vaccines. canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease. the work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the improvement of the stock-raising industry, and is carried on through the agencies of expert teachers and stock judges, the systematic distribution of pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly testing of pure-bred dairy herds, the supervision of the accuracy of the registration of pure-bred animals and the nationalization of live-stock records. the last two objects are secured by act of the dominion parliament passed in 1905. under this act a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud, herd and flock book associations of canada, perform the duties of accepting the entries of pure-bred animals for the respective pedigree registers, and are provided with an office and with stationery and franking privileges by the government. pedigree certificates are certified as correct by an officer of the department of agriculture, so that in canada there exist national registration and government authority for the accuracy of pedigree livestock certificates. the government promotes the extension of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the united kingdom who make reports from time to time on the condition in which canadian goods are delivered from the steamships, and also on what they can learn from importing and distributing merchants regarding the preferences of the market for different qualities of farm goods and different sorts of packages. through this branch of the public service a complete chain of cold-storage accommodation between various points in canada and markets in europe, particularly in great britain, has been arranged. the government offered a bonus to those owners of creameries who would provide cold-storage accommodation at them and keep the room in use for a period of three years. it also arranged with the various railway companies to run refrigerator cars weekly on the main lines leading to montreal and other export points. the food-products from any shippers are received into these cars at the various railway stations at the usual rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service. the government offered subventions to those who would provide cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were necessary, and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships to provide cold-storage chambers on them by means of mechanical refrigerators. the policy of encouraging the provision of ample cold-storage accommodation has been developed still further by the cold storage act of the dominion parliament passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part payment of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses in canada for the preservation of perishable food-products. besides furnishing technical and general information as to the carrying on of dairying operations, the government has established and maintained illustration cheese factories and creameries in different places for the purpose of introducing the best methods of co-operative dairying in both the manufacturing and shipping of butter and cheese. inspectors are employed to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to see to the enforcement of the fruit marks acts, which prohibit the marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any fraudulent manner. the seed branch of the department of agriculture was established in 1900 for the purpose of encouraging the production and use of seeds of superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of field and garden crops grown in canada. seeds are tested in the laboratory for purity and germination on behalf of farmers and seed merchants, and scientific investigations relating to seeds are conducted and reported upon. in the year 1906-1907 6676 samples of seeds were tested. encouragement to seed-growing is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against smut and on other subjects. collections of weed seeds are issued to merchants and others to enable them readily to identify noxious weed seeds. the seed control act of 1905 brings under strict regulations the trade in agricultural seeds, prohibiting the sale for seeding of cereals, grasses, clovers or forage plants unless free from weeds specified, and imposing severe penalties for infringements. the census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census of population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the natural products of the dominion every ten years, a census of the population and agriculture of the three north-west provinces every five years, and various supplemental statistical inquiries at shorter intervals. experimental farms. experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts of the dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help to the farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the same time to cover the varied climatic and other conditions which influence agriculture in canada. the central experimental farm is situated at ottawa, near the boundary line between quebec and ontario, where it serves as an aid to agriculture in these two important provinces. one of the four branch farms then established is at nappan, nova scotia, near the boundary between that province and new brunswick, where it serves the farmers of the three maritime provinces. a second branch experimental farm is at brandon in manitoba, a third is at indian head in saskatchewan and the fourth is at agassiz in the coast climate of british columbia. in 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established. one is situated at lethbridge, southern alberta, where problems will be investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and dry farming under conditions of a scanty rainfall. the other is at lacombe, northern alberta, about 70 m. south of edmonton, in the centre of a good agricultural district on the canadian pacific railway. additional branch farms in different parts of the dominion are in process of establishment. at all these farms experiments are conducted to gain information as to the best methods of preparing the land for crop and of maintaining its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow, and how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest advantage. to this end experiments are conducted in the feeding of cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows for the production of milk, and of poultry both for flesh and eggs. experiments are also conducted to test the merits of new or untried varieties of cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage plants, fruits, vegetables, plants and trees; and samples, particularly of the most promising cereals, are distributed freely among farmers for trial, so that those which promise to be most profitable may be rapidly brought into general cultivation. annual reports and occasional bulletins are published and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. farmers are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large correspondence is conducted with those interested in agriculture in all parts of the dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and information from the officers of the farms. agricultural organizations and education. the governments of the several provinces each have a department of agriculture. among other provincial agencies for imparting information there are farmers' institutes, travelling dairies, live-stock associations, farmers', dairymen's, seed-growers', and fruit-growers' associations, and agricultural and horticultural societies. these are all maintained or assisted by the several provinces. parts of the proceedings and many of the addresses and papers presented at the more important meetings of these associations are published by the provincial governments, and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them. there are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural and horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c., are shown in competition. the dominion government makes in turn to one of the chief local agricultural exhibition societies a grant of $50,000 for the purposes of the national representation of agriculture and live-stock. the exhibition receiving the grant loses its local character, and thus becomes the dominion exhibition or fair for that year. there are several important agricultural colleges for the practical education of young men in farming, foremost amongst them being the ontario agricultural college at guelph. agricultural colleges are also maintained at truro, nova scotia, and winnipeg, manitoba. in most of the provinces are dairy schools where practical instruction and training are given. since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education and rural training in canada have been greatly stimulated by the munificence of sir william c. macdonald of montreal. a donation by him of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on canadian farms for prizes in a competition for the selection of seed grain, as recommended by professor j.w. robertson, led to the macdonald-robertson seed growers' association. this soon assumed national proportions in the canadian seed growers' association, which, with the seed branch of the department of agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a uniform standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas of the canadian wheat-fields. the macdonald institute at guelph, ontario, the buildings and equipment of which sir william provided at a cost of $182,500, and the macdonald college at ste anne de bellevue, 20 m. west of montreal, have been established to promote the cause of rural education upon the lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training domestic science, &c., which on both sides of the atlantic are now being found so effective in the hands of properly trained and enthusiastic teachers. the property of the macdonald college at ste anne de bellevue comprises 561 acres, of which 74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research plots, 100 acres to a _petite culture_ farm and 387 acres to a live-stock and grain farm. the college includes a school for teachers, a school of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of household science for the training of young women. the land, buildings and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were presented by sir william macdonald, who in addition has provided for the future maintenance of the work by a trust fund of over $2,000,000. in connexion with the public elementary schools throughout canada, where the principles of agriculture are taught to some extent, manual training centres, provided out of funds supplied by the same public-spirited donor, are now maintained by local and provincial public school authorities. (e. h. g.)