YELLOW FEVER

the dreaded ‘‘ vomito negro”? which for four centuries claimed more than 50% mor- tality among its victims, has been relegated to a place of second- ary importance since the institution, in 1901, of the anti-mos- quito campaign. between 1910 and 1925 no epidemic invasion of yellow fever into temperate regions occurred, and some of the most noted endemic centres in ecuador, mexico and brazil have been freed of the disease, probably forever; no case has been re- ported in the entire western hlemisphere for many months. the use of oil for destroying mosquito larvae has now been practically abandoned in favour of placing in the tanks which serve as water supply for houses in the tropics one or two small fish, which eager- ly devour the “ wrigglers.” connor, in guayaquil, first used this method successfully in 1919, and it has since been used in other countries with excellent results. the fish must be of small size and able to withstand handling and transportation. those chiefly used are the min- nows, gumbusia affinis, dormitator latifrons and fundulus heteroclitus and the common “‘ lefa ”’ of south america (pygidiza piurae c.) some being top-feeding and others bottom-feeding fish. isolation of the cuusative micro-organism of yellow fever and preparation of a prophylactic vaccine and a curative serum.— while the transmitter of the yellow-fever germ had been experi- mentally proven, by the american army board under reed, to be the mosquito, acdes acgypti (formerly known as stegomyta fasciata or s. calopus), the microbe which produced the disease, had remained unknown until 1918 when a minute spiral organism, subsequently named leptospira icteroides, was isolated from the blood and organs of yellow fever patients, 1n guayaquil, ecuador. inoculation of cultures of this organism reproduced all the characteristic symptoms and lesions of yellow fever in guinea pigs, marmosets and young puppies. yellow fever was also transmitted directly to guinea pigs with blood taken from yellow-fever patients and the same micro-organism from ex- perimentally infected animals. investigations previously con- ducted by the american army board in havana had demon- strated that the germ of yellow-fever could pass through the pores of certain bacteria-proof filters (sce filter-passing microbes), and this fact alone had been sufiicient to disprove the relation to yellow fever of a dozen or more dilferent bacteria. leptospira icleroides, on the other hand, proved to be a filter-passer and to conform with other well-known characteristics of the yellow- fever virus: thermal death-point; transmissibility by acdes aegypti; ability to produce typical fever, extensive hacmorrhages into the gastro-intestinal tract, resulting in the ‘‘ black vomitus”’ and melena, severe nephritis, general jaundice and the character- istic changes of liver and kidney (fatty degeneration and ne- crosis). another important proof that connects leptospira icteroides with yellow fever is that this micro-organism is killed by the blood serum of persons who have just recovered from yellow fever but not by that of healthy persons or persons re- covering from other diseases. leptospira icteroides was subsequently isolated from cases of yellow fever in mexico, peru and brazil. it is actively mo- tile, measures 4-gu long and o-2% wide and there are two spirals for each micron. the ordinary microscope does not yellow fever—york reveal its presence in the living condition, but it is easily seen by means of dark-ground illumination. it grows only on special culture media. the isolation of leptospira icterotdes has made it possible to prepare a preventive vaccine, similar in type to that in use for protection against typhoid fever, and a curative serum. while a given locality may be freed from ycllow fever by destruction of mosquito larvae, this type of preventive work requires some months. newcomers meantime are in danger, and protection, even of a temporary nature, is welcome. injection of a small quantity of killed cultures of leptospira ictcroides, as first shown in experimental animals, confers temporary protec- tion from the yellow-fever infection, the inoculation taking effect within about two weeks. the results of prophylactic inoculation of 20,000 or more individuals since 1919 indicate that if persons are satisfactorily vaccinated they are protected against yellow fever for about six months. the curative serum has been tried in 237 cases. when it has been used early in the disease, t.c., before the fourth day of illness, the death-rate has been comparatively small (16% as compared with the usual 50°% or more in yellow fever). it is without appreciable benefit when given later in the iliness, when the micro-organisms have done irreparable injury to the liver and kidneys. bistiocrapiry.—h. r. carter, nelson’s loose-leaf medicine, vol. 2, p. 113; m. e. connor, amer. jour. trop. med., vol. 4, 277 (1924); hf. nogucht and others, afonograph no. 20 of the rockefeller in- stitute for medical research, (new york, 1924); if. noguchi, jour. trop. med. and iiyg.,28, 185; (1925); f. f. russell, “ war on disease " signa mt quarterly, (13, 11, 1925); rockefeller foundation, annual report, p. 168 (1923). (hi. no.) yellow river: sce hwang ho. yokohama (sce 28.921), the chief port of japan, with a popu- lation of 422,942 in 1920, was practically destroyed by an earth- quake in sept. 1923. many thousancls of its inhabitants were killed, some 60% of the houses were burnt and about 19% col- lapsed. temporary barracks and tents were used at first to house the surviving population. the electric light and water systems and the tramways were restored very promptly, but in the recon- struction yokohama was far behind tokio in 1925, owing largely to the fact that it had a much bigger foreign element and was much more western in construction. the debris of these solid erections was more difficult to remove, and their replacement slower and costlicr than that of the japanese type of buildings. the starting-point of reconstruction was the new railway sta- tion on the coast, and it is proposed to widen 25 m. of existing streets and to build 29 m. of new streets; but in 1924-5 there re- mained many acres of ruins, the bluff was still bare, and there were only temporary buildings, mostly dwelling-houses, on the bund. railways had been restored, and a plan for their further reconstruction was in hand. a memorial hall was opened in 1925. in 1924 shipping and industry were gradually approaching normal conditions and trade, especially in raw silk, exceeded expectations. shipbuilding, however, had not recovered. con- siderable improvements in the dock accommodation, wharves and equipment of the harbour had been effected before 1923, but during the earthquake about a mile of the breakwater sank 8 ft. and most of the wharves were destroyed. the repair of the docks and harbour was undertaken by the central government, and was practically complete in 1924. two-thirds of the original warehouse accommodation was then available, and the space for open storage had been doubled. york, albert frederick arthur george, duuke of (1895- ), second son of king george v. and queen mary, was born at york cottage, sandringham, dec. 14 1895. after passing through osborne and the royal naval college, dartmouth, he was gazetted midshipman in sept. 1913. though debarred by ill health from active service during the early years of the world war, he served in the battle of jutland as a sub-lieutenant, being mentioned in despatches. at the end of 1917 he was attached to the naval branch of the royal air force and, in oct. 1918, was on the western front, qualified as a pilot and eventually became wing-commander in 1920. after the war (oct. 1919) he entered trinity college, cambridge, taking an abridged course in his- tory, economics and civics. he has since shown a special interest yoshihito—ypries, earl of in industrial questions, becoming president of the society for industrial welfare. he was created duke of york in june 1920 and k.t. on the occasion of his marriage to lady elizabeth bowes-lyon, april 26 1923, having been previously (dec. 1916) created k.g. in 1922 and 1923 the duke represented the king at court ceremonies in rumania, serbia and czechoslovakia. in 1925 he was made president of the british empire ex- hibition, wembley, and in june was appointed to the privy council. on april 21 1926 a daughter was born to the duke and duchess of york. the princess elizabeth, as she is called, is, after the prince of wales and her father, the heir to the british throne. yoshihito (1870- ), 122nd emperor of japan, third son of the emperor meiji (mutsuhito), was born at tokyo on aug. 31 1879. on the eighth anniversary of his birthday the prince was proclaimed heir-apparent, the first and second sons of the emperor meiji having died in infancy. in sept. 1887 the prince commenced attending the peers’ school, and on nov. 3 1889 he was declared imperial crown prince. two years later he left the school to continue his studies under private tutors. in 1897 he took his seat, in accordance with prescriptive right, in the house of peers. on may 1o1goo the crown prince married sadako, fourth daughter of the late prince michitaka kujo, and on april 29 1901 a son, hirohito, was born, followed by a second son prince yasuhito chichibunomiya, on june 25 1go2, and a third, prince nobuhito takamatsunomiya, on jan. 3 1905. on july 30 1912 on the demise of his father, the crown prince ascended the throne; but owing to the national mourning the formal ceremony of enthronement did not take place until nov. 1914. in the following year a fourth son, prince takahito suminomiya, was born on dec. 2. owing to the indifferent health of the emperor, crown prince hirohito became prince regent on nov. 25 1921. yoshizawa, kenkichi (1874- ), japanese diplomat, born in niigata-ken. he had literary tastes as a student and studied english literature for his degree in the imperial university of tokyo. he later turned his attention to diplo- macy, and he had his first experience, as eleve-consul at amoz, south china. after spending two years in shanghai and in london he returned to the foreign office in tokyo, and was sent as secretary to the legation in peking. this office he held until, in r919 he became director of the asiatic bureau, where his experience of far-eastern people enabled him to adjust differences between his own country and other oriental powers. he retained this post until 1923, and was again in peking in an official capacity when the new russo-japanese alliance was broached in 1924. many japanese fought against the proposed alliance, thinking it unwise to link their country with sovict russia, but mr. yoshizawa believed that this bond between the two countries could bring nothing but good and worked to that end. it is said that the strain of innumerable conferences and discussions undermined yoshizawa’s health. when, in january of 1925, the treaty was made mutually agreeable, it was signed by the representatives of the two powers grouped round the japanese minister’s bed. he was made ambassador in the same year. young, mahonri mackintosh (1877- ), american sculptor, painter and etcher, was born at salt lake city, uiah, aug. 9 1877. he studied with j. t. harwood, salt lake city, at the art students’ league, new york city, and at the julien and other academies in paris. after his return to the united states he became instructor in drawing at the art students’ league and later instructor in sculpture at the american school of sculpture. i¥is works are characterised by simplicity, dignity and breadth of conception, united with exquisite workmanship. he is known chiefly through his statuettes, figures of labourers and cowboys, which exhibit close observation of nature and virile form. among his best known works are * man with pick” in the metropolitian museum of art; the hopi and apache groups in the museum of natural history, new york city; ‘‘ a labourer” and “ the rigger ” in the free public li- brary, newark, n. j.; the ‘‘ sea-gull ” monument in salt lake liz city; “ rolling his own ”’; and‘ monument to the dead ” (with bertram goodhue), in paris. young, owen d. (1874- ), american lawyer and business man, was born at van hornesville, n. y., oct. 27 1874. he was educated at st. lawrence university, n. y., (a.b., 1894), and boston university (ll.b., 1896). he commenced the practice of law in boston, 1896, being associated with and later a partner of charles h. tyler until 1912, when he retired in order to become general counsel for the general electric company. in 1913 he was elected vice-president in charge of policy and in 1922 was elected chairman of the board of directors. he organised and became chairman of the board of the radio corporation of america. he was also a director of the federal reserve bank of new york, general motors corp., the international general electric co., and chairman of the american section of the international chamber of commerce. he was a member of president wilson’s second industrial conference, chairman of the committee on business cycles and unemployment appointed by president harding, and chairman of the american group, international court of arbitration of trade disputes of the international chamber of commerce. in december 1923, he accepted the invitation of the reparations commission to act as a member of the first committee of experts charged with the enquiry into the balancing of the german budget and the stabilising of the german currency. their ensuing report was accepted by the commission, sept. 1. (see reparations.) he was appointed agent-general for reparation payments ad interim on that date, holding the position till oct. 31, when he resigned and was succeeded by s. parker gilbert. youngstown, ohio, u. s. a. (see 28.941), the centre of a district which produces one-twentieth of the world’s output of steel, extended its boundaries from 6,606.8 ac. in 1910 to 16,224 by 1923. the population increased 67-4° in the 10 years after 1910 to 132,358 in 1920, of whom 6,662 were negroes (an in- crease of 244%) and 33,945 were foreign born; and was esti- mated at 159,970 in 1925 (census bureau). the output of factories within the city was valued at $81,271,000 in 1000; $241,458,000 in 1919; $272,183,553 in 1923. the character of the dominating industries is reflected in the preponderance of men in the population (114-9 males to 100 females, 1920) and in the small number of women employed (18-5°% of all 10 years of age and over, the smallest proportion in any of the large cities in 1920). natural gas from ohio and west virginia is used for domestic fucl. improvements (to 1925) included a belt-line railway, a service-al-cost franchise for the transit system, zoning ordinances, new school buildings, parks and playgrounds, a golf course, the butler art institute and the stambaugh memorial auditorium. a new charter, effective jan. 1 1925, provided for non-partisan ballots, the recall of elected officers, the initiative and referendum and a budget system. ypres, john denton pinkstone french, ist fart of, (1852-1925), british soldier, was born at ripple, kent, sept. 28 1852. the son of a naval officer, he entered the royal navy, in which he served as cadet and midshipman from 1866 to 1870. joining the militia he passed from this into the army in 1874 and was gazetted to the 1gth hussars. he married eleanora, daughter of r. w. selby lowndes in 1880. he served in the nile expedition in 1884-5, and commanded his regiment from 1889 to 1893. after two years on the war office staff he com- manded a cavalry brigade from 1897 to 1899, and on the mobilisa- lion of the expeditionary force for s. africa in the latter year he was chosen to command the cavalry division and was promoted major-general. pending the assembly of this he served in natal where he commanded the troops on the field at elandslaagte and took part in the early combats near ladysmith, but he pro- ceeded to cape colony just before the place was invested. after a few wecks in charge of the force at colesburg, he led the cavalry during lord robert’s advance from cape colony, relieved kimberley, cut off the retreat of cronje’s army, and occupied bloemfontein. during the subsequent advance into the transvaal he was in command of the left wing, and at a later stage of the victorious campaign he played a prominent ti22 part in the move from pretoria to komati poort. for these services he was given the k.c.b. during most of the second phase of the struggle he was in command of the forces operating against the enemy in cape colony, and he was on the conclusion of hostilities promoted leutenant-general and was given the k.c.m.g. he commanded at aldershot from 1902 to 1907, in which year he was promoted general, and he then became inspector-general of the forces for five years. he was appointed chief of the imperial general staff in 1912 and was promoted field-marshal in 1913. in april 1914 he vacated the post of c.i.g.s., owing to military troubles in ireland in connection with ulster, but four months later he was chosen to take charge of the expeditionary force on the outbreak of the world war, and he commanded the british army on the western front from the outset of the struggle until the end of rgr5. he resigned in december of that year, sir d. haig taking his place, and he returned to england, to be raised to the peerage as viscount french of ypres and high lake in recognition of his great services. he then became commander-in-chief in the united kingdom, and he held that appointment until may 1918, when he was selected to be lord lieutenant of ireland. this position he occupied under most trying conditions until early in rg21. on resigning he was re- warded with an earldom. he died may 22 1925 at deal castle, kent. at the end of the war, lord french published his personal narrative under the title, “ zgz4.” ypres, betcium (see 28.941), for four years the centre of the ypres salient, never more than seven and sometimes less than three miles from the front line, suffered greatly during the world war. the town was deliberately wrecked, and was a blazing furnace for three days in 1915. nothing remained after the armistice but cellars and foundations, excepting fragmentary ruins of the cloth hall and st. martin’s church. the town was awarded the british military cross and the french croix de guerre 1n 1920. ypres is now again a beautiful town, with a population esti- mated at 14,000 in 1924. first temporary hostels, garages, etc., were built outside the menin gate, the ruins were cleared, and the materials found were classified. then the rebuilding of the streets on the old lines, with houses of the original picturesque designs, was pushed rapidly forward. work was begun at once on the cathedral, the churches of st. martin, st. peter and st. james, the templars’ house, the chatellerie (now used as the town hall), the belle hospital and the boucherie. the recon- struction of the cloth hall and the building of a palais de justice were started in 1924. a hospital has been built outside the town in place of the old one in the grande place, and the working class district has been replaced by the garden city of kalfvaart, between the roads to bruges and zonnebcke. the station square has been laid out with lawns and flower beds, and only the battered ramparts remain to show what yprcs suffered. the menin gate has been rebuilt as a memorial to missing british soldiers, with a fine triple arch and a hall of memory in the centre. there are 40 cemeteries within two miles of the town. ypres, first battle of.—while the operations which preceded the battle of the yser were in progress (sce yser, battle of the), the british i. corps arrived in flanders. on oct. 19 it was ordered to ypres, sir john french still hoping to push back and outflank the german right. the full strength of the germans had not yet been disclosed and the opinion at british headquarters was that there were not more than 33 german corps north of the lys; actually there were 53. first phase of the battle-—-the i. corps advanced with the expectation of attacking the enemy and it was not untilthe ast, when it had taken up position on the ieft of rawlinson’s com- mand between the ypres-roulers railway and rixschoote and had repulsed a great attack by the german xxiii. and xxvt. res. corps upon langemarck, that the true facts became known and sir john french issued orders that positions were to be entrenched and held defensively. it had become a question of saving the channel ports, not of outflanking the enemy. ypres—ypres, first battle of joffre, informed of the situation, had informed sir john french that he was sending his 1x. corps at once to ypres. the arrival of this corps enabled gen. d’urbal to take over the front from the roulers railway to bixschoote and enable haig to place his rst div. in reserve. d’urbal hoped to take advantage of the repulse of the germans at langemarck and ordered an attack for the 24th, but at this period the opposing forces were approximately equal and neither side had sufficient strength to force the other back. the effort of the french ix. corps, therefore, yielded but small results, and so the first phase of the first battle of ypres ended with the french holding the northern and the british the southern half of a semi-circle around ypres, the apex of the semi-circle and the dividing line between the french and british being near broodseinde. preparations for renewed action.—during the next few days there was a comparative lull, of which haig took advantage to ses 4 a by eee ra : ot merenthagef ; oy id : ; ‘brat - ya oa molen dy 60 } l =) + klein zillebeke net} - a yi ea messines on battle of ypres 1914 engtish miles q = 3 ‘ ; kilometres a ci - oat cs arm enti fres se rl” main roads aalwoys mmm canals re-organise his front. the 7th div., weakened by prolonged fighting, was placed under his orders, rawlinson licaving the battle front to await other employment; the front of that division was shortened and part of the rst div. went again into the line between it and the 2nd division. the attempt of duke al- brecht’s army to break through had been foiled but the germans were not yet at the end of their resources. falkenhayn had formed a new army group composed of the ii. bavarian corps, the xv. corps, the 6th bavarian res. div. and the 26th div. behind von marwitz’s cavalry, which had been engaged with the british cavalry corps and the left of the british iii. corps on the messines ridge. this group under von fabeck was with the help of von der marwitz’s six cavalry divisions to drive in the british front between the lys and the menin road. this was to be continued with a new atiempt on the yser front before the rise of the floods had made attack impossible. the attack on the yser front began on oct. 30 and the germans breaking through the front of the 2nd belgian div. captured ramscapelle. the situation was critical but was restored by a counter-attack, ordered by gen. grossetti, the commander of the 42nd div. which took the french and belgians again into ramscapelle and repaired the gap. the rising water prevented the germans from re- ypres, second battle of newing the attack as they had intended and this ended the battle of the yser except for a few somewhat desultory efforts on either side. the battle had cost the belgians some 18,000 and the french some 5,000 casualties. lhe german attack.—meantime von fabeck, after some pre- liminary attacks on the zoth, made his principal effort. on oct. 30 the xv. corps fell upon the weary 7th div. and drove it back from zandvoorde, while the ii. bavarian corps pushed the british cavalry back through hollebcke and oosttaverne. there appeared to be real danger that the roads through ypres behind the british and french troops cast of the town would be cut. foch at once promised reinforcements for the hollebcke front. the french 32nd div. went to the help of the british cavalry at oosttaverne ard five french battalions under moussy came up to support the left of the 7th div. at kicin zillebeke and st. eloi. ere the effect of these reinforcements could be felt a crisis had developed on the menin road. on oct. 31, the german xv. corps and 54th res. div. attacking on either side of the road, had captured gheluvelt and broken the line between the rst and 7th divisions. fora time it appeared that retreat was inevitable but a gallant counter-attack organised by brig-gen. fitzclarence and delivered by the 2nd bn. worcestershire reg. against gheluvelt from the north drove the germans out of the village. later in the day this success was confirmed by another counter-attack on a larger scale organised and directed by maj-gen. bulfin. thus the situation was with difficulty restored. but if von fabeck’s right was checked his left and centre were not done with. on nov. 1 and 2 he renewed his efforts against the british cavalry and captured messines and wytschaete and the whole of the messines ridge, but his further progress was stopped by the timely arrival of french reinforce- ments, and on this portion of the battle front the allied line was established east of the village of kemmel and of the important mount kemmcl. german guard attack: nov, rr.—another lull ensued and the battle of ypres appcared to have come to an end. the indian corps had relieved the infantry of the ii. corps on the la bassee-neuve chapelle front and the greater part of that infantry had gone up to ypres and taken over the trenches of the 7th div. which had left only 4,149 of the 12,522 infantry landed at zecbrugge a month before. these changes were made without further interference from the enemy than constant shelling, but the germans had yet another great effort in pre- paration. six more divisions, including a division of the german guard, were collected for a final effort to break through to ypres. in preparation for this attack duke albrecht was directed to keep up the utmost pressure and this resulted in a series of local attacks chiefly against the french, in one of which, on nov. 10, the gallant defenders of dixmude were at iength driven out of the ruins of that place. on the next day the attack, commonly called the german guard attack, was made after an intense bombardment on the front from the messines ridge to the north of the ypres-menin road. the german guard attacking astride the menin road gained the only success of importance won by the germans on nov. 11. the guard broke through the left of the rst div. and penetrated into the nonne wood, but again the situation was restored by two counter-attacks, the first delivered by the royal scots fusiliers near the menin road, the second by the 2nd oxford and bucks light infantry driving the germans out of the nonne wood. in preparing the latter attack gen. fitzclarence was killed. further south the german xy. corps secured hill 60 near verbranden-molecn, a small rise destined to be a bone of contention during the early months of 191s, but else- where the attack made no progress. closing stages.—the failure of this last attack by the germans to break through practically closed the battle, though duke albrecht made on nov. 17 an attack on the herentage wood which met with no success. thereafter the germans decided to adopt a defensive attitude in the west and to send all available troops against russia. on nov. 21 the british troops were relieved by the french, the infantry of the ii. corps being 1123 returned to its commander, who took over the front opposite the messines ridge, while the i. corps went into reserve for a short rest. from oct. 14 to nov 17 the battle had been almost continuous from the la bassee canal to the yser and on that front during that period the british losses had amounted to 54,106 killed, wounded, and missing. bibliograpity.—viscount french, despatches of lord french (1917); e. von falkenhayn, general ifeadguarters 1914-6, and its critical decisions (1919); viscount french, rorg (1989); o. schwink, ypres roz4, olficial account published by order of the german gencral staff (1919); i. e. edmonds, afi/itary operations: france and belgium ror4, being vol. 2, jtistory of the war based on official documents (1925). see also world war: bibliography. (f.b.m.) ypres, second battle of.— early in april rors the british front was extended some five m. to include the ypres salient, so that by the 17th the left of the v. corps (plumer) rested on the ypres-poelcappelle road. situation before the action.—the v. corps right joined the ii. corps (fergusson) just north of hill 60 on the ¥pres-comines railway, and the two corps formed the ii. army commanded by sic horace smith-dorrien. between the british left and the yperlee river at steenstraat, a distance of five miles were the trench 45th and 87th divs., which with a cavalry detachment formed the “‘ groupement d’elverdinghe ” commanded by putz. the belgian 6th div. (de ceuninck) then held the canal to drie grachten, with the remainder of the belgian army extending through the flooded area to join another group of foch’s com- mand between it and the sea at nieuport. on the german side lay the lv. army with the xxiii. res. corps opposite the bel- gians and adjoining the xnvi. res. corps, whose ieft was marked by the ypres-poelcappelle road; facing the point of the salient were the 2nd ersatz and 38th landwehr bdes. with the xxavii. res. corps and the xy. corps on the south. on april 14 reliable and detailed information was received at british and french headquarters that the germans intended to use a new weapon: to discharge asphyxiating gas from cylin- ders installed in the trenches opposite langemarck and south- wards beyond the ypres-poelcappelle road. two german corps would follow through the gap made by the gas cloud. the offen- sive would begin on the night april 15-6 or with the next fa- vourable wind thereafter. the intention, as is now known, was to cloak the transportation of divisions to russia for a new drive in galicia, and to shorten the line by reducing the salient at ypres. the first move would secure a bridgchead across the canal on the north; successive attacks in echelon to the south would roll the british line back to the west of ypres; thus the threat of combined operations by sea and land along the flemish coast would be dispelled, and the stage set for a thrust towards the channel ports. the warning was timely; formations in the salient were cautioned to expect an attack, but the intended use of gas was not communicated to the troops. the days passed without any noticeable augmentation of the german forces, already concentrated unseen in hfouthulst forest. the unusual noise of traffic behind the enemy’s lines caused so little alarm that three of the eight canadian ficld batteries in action were caught in the act of carrying out reliefs. beginning on the roth, the preparatory bombardment of ypres and elverdinghe by heavy guns, including a 17-in. how- itzer, and an increase of gas shelling in the forward area, were ominous signs of the coming battle. the extension of the british front was effected without incident, but to the south the germans on april r4 fired a mine at st. eloi; three days later the british blew up most of iuill 60 and the 5th div. on the ii. corps front attacked and captured what remained. these and consequent activities diverted attention from the northern face of the salient where the first german blow would strike the junctions of the british, french and belgian forces. lhe british positions.—the new line taken over by the british was marked by short unconnected lengths of breastwork with little wire and no parados. there were no trenches for supports, and ditches served for communication; a few localities had been fortified with breastworks similar to those of the front line and 1124 affording as little protection; but 5,000 yd. behind the british line and running from zillebeke to east of wieltje, then turning northwest, was a second position consisting of a continuous belt of wire covering a series of strong points, each capable of holding 50 men and sometimes linked by trenches. this was known as the g.h.q. and line. on completion of the readjustment on april 17 the v. corps held an arc of 83 m. with a five-mile radius. of this the 27th div. occupied the right, the 28th div. the centre and the cana- dian div. the left. on april 21 the dispositions of the canadian div. were: from right to left the 2nd canadian infantry bde. the 5th bn. from south of the gravenstafel road to the stroom- beek; the 8th bn. north of the stream and along the valley for 1,000 yd., two companies from each being in support and reserve on and behind the gravenstafel ridge; the 7th bn. was in bri- gade reserve between wieltje and fortuin, the roth in divisional battle of ypres i915 - gas attack english miles i z 3 kilometres o t 2 3 4 main roads canals railways = i teenstraate lizerne ah wee as “ =f ste eeesel boesinghe* i , ‘pie ees suf, eves’ si i i | ie i in > ota? a an z) astjulien ao fo os bree s i abhi ofortutn oe ad ‘ pets sa me an as ebeke >. | sm are gheluvelt i eitili 60 a reserve between st. jean and ypres. on the left the 3rd cana- dian infantry bde. also held the line with two battalions: the 15th and 13th each with three companies in the trenches, and two platoons in support; the remaining two companies, with one of the rath, were posted in st. julien as a garrison. the 14th (less one company) was in brigade reserve at st. jean; the 16th, along the canal north of ypres, was in divisional reserve. the 1st canadian infantry bde. lay at vlamertinghe in ii. army reserve and had been under orders to be ready in case assistance should be required at hill 60. german gas attack —at 5 p.m. on april 22 a heavy greenish yellow smoke rose from the german trenches opposite lange- marck and rolled southwestwards in a sullen penetrating cloud on the gentle breeze of that sunny afternoon. soon native french troops were seen staggering back through: the storm of high ex- plosive and gas shells, past the canadian batteries and reserve infantry battalions already standing to arms. it was clear that the line on the left had broken, but the extent of the clisaster was not realised at first. actually the german nniti. and xxvi. res. corps., after a short artillery preparation, had at- tacked under cover of a discharge of 180,000 kgr. of chlorine gas, the former with the 46th res. div. to secure the line pilckem- boesinghe, the latter with the 52nd and 5rst res. divs. to cap- ture the ridge marked by the road from pilckem to poelcap- ypris, second battle of pelle. the effect of the gas was greater than the german infantry had anticipated; by nightfall the a xu. res. corps, inclining to the right, had reached the canal and crossed at het sas and steenstraate, the nnvl. had penetrated 2,000 yd. south of pilck- em, and swinging to the left was close to st. julien. by 8 p.m. there were no formed bodies of french troops east of the canal, all their batteries in that sector had been captured, and the cana- dian flank for more than 8,000 yd. lay bare and exposed to at- tack. a gate to ypres had been pushed open; the belgian and canadian hinges held firm, but no german troops were ready to pass through, although the 43rd res. div. had been concen- trated near roulers to support the attack. at the first alarm the st. julien garrison manned the half-made trenches north of the village, and the two brigades in line ordered their reserve battalions up to the left flank, the 7th to locality c (a few trenches near the houses along the keerselaar-7zonne- beke road crowning the gravenstafel ridge), the 14th to the g.h.q. line at mouse trap farm, 1,000 yd. north of wieltje. the left company of the latter pushed on until at hampshire farm, yoo yd. farther west, they found about 200 vrench, with a machine-gun, occupying elements of a trench and in touch with the enemy. conditions at the left of the canadian front were precarious from the first, but some 200 of the algerians, although gassed, took up a position near and parallel to the ypres-poelcappelle road and, reinforced by two platoons and a machine-gun from the 13th bn., formed a short but effective flank. between there and st. julien the two supporting platoons of that battalion were exterminated in countering the move to penetrate behind the trench line and roll it up; the roth canadian field bty., by switching fire to the left rear, stopped the enemy at 200 yd. before moving to a less exposed position. british counter-atiack —meanwhile, the roth and 16th bns. had been placed at the disposal of the 3rd canadian infantry bde. for a counter-attack to capture the bois des cuisiniers, an oak wood of 160 ac. lying 1,000 yd. west of st. julien. the roth moved up from the g.h.q. trenches occupied when the attack began, and was joined near mouse trap farm by the 16th. short- ly before midnight the battalions formed up in eight ranks on a two-company front, the roth leading, and the advance began. at first hedges and ditches made it difficult to keep order in the darkness. three hundred yards from the german trench cover- ing the wood on the south the movement was detected, flares soared upwards, rapid fire nlickered from the parapet, and the two battalions charged. sweeping over the trench they pressed on through the wood, recovering the four guns of the 2nd london heavy bty., but, losing direction, they inclined to the right and emerged to dig in along a hedge northeast of the wood. thus far the counter-attack had been a remarkable success, but ma- chine-guns placed near the southwest corner of the wood still commanded the southern approaches; the nearest troops on the right were about st. julien, and the 14th were equally distant on the left; so before daylight the line was withdrawn to the cap- tured trench south and east of the wood. the 16th extended towards st. julien and dug in; the roth held the left and patrolled the wood. the case of the defenders at the point of the new salient was becoming hourly more serious. between the short refused flank and st. julien, a distance of over a mile, was a gap through which the germans had crossed the road, and a machine-gun swept the unprotected rear of the old front line. a withdrawal of 250 yd. by the left company of the 13th was cancelled after midnight on the arrival of reinforcements laden with ammunition. the old front line and the flank along the road were held in the hope that a counter-attack would restore the left. soon after 3 a.m. conditions were further improved by the 7th bn. (less one com- pany) moving westwards along the ridge to dig a north and south line some 700 yd. long, the left in touch with the st. julien gar- rison, the nght bent back and in the air east of keerselaar. other troops in the vicinity when the battle opened were the and fast kent, 3rd middlesex and 5th king’s own all in bivouac about st. jean as 28th div. reserve. of these, b company of ypres, third battle of the east kent was detached, two companies of the middlesex moved after dark to guard the canal bridge east of brielen; the remainder with the 1st york and lancaster from south of brielen were placed as a detachment under the canadian div., and com- manded by col. geddes of the east kent. ilis instructions were to advance and occupy the gap between the canadian left near mouse trap farm and the french, behind whose right the 2nd east york from 28th div. res. had arrived before midnight at brielen. daybreak found the oth royal scots, 2nd duke of cornwall’s light infantry and 4th rifle brigade, from 27th div. res. west of ypres, already east of st.jean and the first two added to geddes’ detachment. consolidation of the british line —as soon as news came back of the breaking of the line on the left, the rst canadian infantry bde. at vlamertinghe had been released from army reserve and returned to the canadian division. the 2nd and 3rd bns. were sent to the 3rd canadian infantry bde. to strengthen the line between st. julien and bois des cuisiniers. they arrived at trap farm at 1:30 a.m. the rst bde. was first sent to the canal bank at the bridge east of brielen, and then ordered to cross and attack along the ypres-pilckem road at 5:30 a.m. in conjunction with the advance of geddes’ detachment on the right and a projected french attack on the left. this latter at- tack had been ordered by foch at midnight to regain the ground lost, and the french 153rd. div. was being brought up, but it took some time to gather fresh troops and three belgian battal- ions were lent for the attack. the greatest handicap was lack of guns; the canadian frontage was 300 yd. per gun. at daybreak began the process of establishing a continuous - line along the canadian flank to join the french on the canal. two companies of the 3rd bn. went into the gap between st. julien and the right of the 16th near bois des cuisiniers, the 2nd bn. moved into close support of the roth and 16th. the 2nd east kent by 6 a.m. had worked forward to the g.h.q. line northwest of mouse trap farm, and on their left found the french detachment and the company of 14th canadians in ilampshire farm. then there was a gap of 1,000 yil.: orders to the 5th king’s own and rst york and lancaster had miscarried and they did not go forward. but farther left the two companies of the ard middlesex established touch with the 4th canadian battalion. advancing by short rushes across the open under devastating fire, they carried that part of the line to the lower slopes of the pilckem ridge within a short distance of the enemy’s new trench. on the right the middlesex captured turco farm (3,200 yd. from ypres) but the survivors were too few to hold it and the line came to a standstill immediately south of the farm, with the canadian left, now strengthened by the 1st bn., bent slightly back to form a flank, as the french attack had not materialised. to take the place of the v. corps res., the 13th bde. of the sth div. moved late on april 22 from the ii. corps res. to west of ypres. the british cav. corps also, from g.h.q. res., was brought to poperinghe on april 23 and the 1st cav. div. was sent at 11:40 a.m. towards elverdinghe-woesten to clear up the situation on the canal. at 5:15 p.m. the whole cav. corps be- came the mobile reserve of il. army. the 5oth div. in g.h.q. res. just out from england was warned to be ready to move. but there were not sufficient french reserves available to recover the lost ground and a further thrust across the canal was to be expected, so the 13th bde. at 10:30 a.m. was given to the cana- dian div. and ordered to counter-attack northwards along the east of the canal towards pilckem. this attack began at 5 p.m. and the right advanced to the thin line of the rst canadian bde.; the left, assisted by the french, came up abreast and extended to the canal. simultaneously a second advance moved down the open slopes towards the german trenches on the opposite ridge. two field batteries only were available in support, and casualties were so heavy that little ground was gained in the face of the 24oth res. regt. which, aided by the 37th landwehr bde. en- trenching along the pilckem ridge, filled the gap caused by the divergent attacks of the xxiit. and xxvi. res. corps. positions after the actton.—the position of the line at night- fall on april 23 was little different from that of the morning; the i125 german move to widen the breach had failed; an attempt to cross the canal in front of the belgians met with no success and the refused flank of the 6th div. still held; opposite the french the ground captured west of the canal had been slightly increased in spite of the efforts of the 87th div. reserves and fresh troops brought down from nieuport, but the objective for the day had not been reached and lizerne was not taken until midnight. on the british front the counter-attacks of the morning had made it possible to build up the long exposed flank, and, but for a gap of 1,000 yd. along the ypres-poelcappelle road north of st. julien a line of defence now existed from the original canadian left to the canal. but the situation of the troops in the salient was des- perate; if the french could not recover the ground on the left an extensive retirement would be necessary, and converging attacks might break down the apex before a withdrawal could be com- pleted. bibliograpity.— viscount french, despatches, april rorq-july 1916 (1917); hl. fe. r. stecle, the canadians in france, 1915-8 (1920). (see also world war: bibliography.) (a. f. d.) ypres, third battle of.—almost continuous fight- ing took place in the ypres-yser region during many weeks in summer and autumn of 1917, but the operations asa whole may be said to have consisted of two distinct phases. first came the brilliantly successful combat, lasting a few hours, which has come to be known as the battle of messines. then, after a lull, there came to be launched immediately north of the scene of the mes- sines victory a series of attacks at short intervals which gained ground by successive waves and which lasted four months. . british objectives —the object in view throughout was the occupation of the whole of the belt of high ground which extends from a point about three m. north of armentieres to near dix- mucde. it rises some roo to 150 ft. above the great flanders plain, and reaches a height of over 200 ft. at some points. in the spring of 1917 its southern portion enclosed to a great extent the ypres salient, although the allies’ trenches gave them possession of the lower slopes of their side of the high ground. tarther to the north the enemy held the whole of the high ground, as well as some stretches actually to the west of this. the allies’ general plan of operations was to begin at the southern end and to work thence northwards. but the capture of the high ground, it should be noted, only represented the first part of a strategical plan which contemplated a subsequent effort that was to be car- ried out in the coast district by fresh forces. positions of the adversarics.—the line held by the allies to the north of armentieres, at the outset, formed in plan an in- verted ‘s,” with the lower loop turned to the west, the upper loop turned to the east, and creating the ypres salient. the lower loop, on the other hand, represented a pronounced enemy salient jutting into territory in allied hands and consisting almost entirely of high ground known as the messines-wytschaete ridge. from this position the germans enfiladed and even took in re- verse allies’ trenches along the east and the north of the salient, and they commanded the communications leading up to these trenches from the rear, while they also overlooked the town of ypres within field-gun range; so haig framed his plans for the flanders offensive so as to capture the high ground about mes- sines and wytschaete in the first place. tie first stage general plumer and his ij. army, who had been acting as wardens of the ypres front for two years, had been selected to carry out this operation, while the v. army under general gough had been transferred from artois to hold the line north of the ii. army. preparations for the undertaking had been going on during the winter and spring; they included an elaborate railway scheme, much road construction, and arrangements for deep min- ing on a colossal scale. twenty huge mines had been established at the end of galleries running right under the enemy’s front line of trenches, and 600 tons of explosives had been distributed among them. for the defence of this salient which they occupied the ger- mans depended on two separate sets of lines, coinciding in trace 1126 with its arc, the more advanced one pushed down the forward slope of the high ground while the rear one followed its crest; the enemy had also constructed two chord positions, stretching along the base of the salient on the reverse slope. the troops of the ii. army detailed for the enterprise were, enumerating from right to left, the il. anzac corps, with the australian 4th div. in sup- port, the ix. corps with the rith div. in support, and the x. corps with the 24th div. in support. there were thus nine divi- sions in front line and three in support. as the final objective & ‘ee oem: bix chee tee, steenstraatay ‘ * 2 i comines , gna 5 “battle of ypres english miles 3 2 4 5 kilometres 4 o t 2 3 4 & 6, approximate alhed line tune 6 $91, ) * british fsp ” mhed » suly yn» british © oct. ¢* oo alied © dec fe of the assailants was the chord of the arc forming the salient, the time-table took account of the greater distance which some divi- sions had to traverse than others. the first attack.—the moment of assault was fixed for 3:10 a.m. on june 7, and at that hour the line of mines exploded be- neath the enemy’s front line with devastating effect. at many points the hostile trenches were completely obliterated and their garrisons wiped out, so that at first very little resistance was offered to the assailants and the first objective was secure al- most at once. the infantry then proceeded to the execution of their next task, that of carrying the german second line, and here again they were completely successful. messines was taken by the new zealanders, wytschaete fell to the 36th (ulster) and 16th (irish) divs., fighting side by side, while on the left the 47th (london) div. overcame most formidable obstacles and took many prisoners. so rapid indeed were the movements of the attacking infantry in these opening phases of the combat, that the tanks in many cases were unable to get up in time to share in the struggle for the enemy’s second line of defence; by early afternoon all the upper part of the messines-wytschaete ridge was in the hands of the british and australian troops. guns were promptly pushed up ypres, third battle of on to the heights to assist in the capture of the german chord lines of trenches, and this closing effort, which was made later in the afternoon, proved completely successful. so it came about that by the evening the last objectives had been attained. the total casualties incurred by the assailants amounted to only about 16,000, while 7,200 prisoners, 67 guns, 94 trench mortars and 294 machine-guns had been taken from the enemy. ; a period of ouiet.—a pause of some weeks in active operations in flanders now took place while preparations for carrying out the rest of haig’s programme were being completed. al- though plumer’s victory of june 7 had put an end to the enemy overlooking ypres from the south, the germans still, in a meas- ure, dominated the place from the east, from the northeast and from the north, a fact which exercised an important influence over the arrangements in progress for the offensive about to be undertaken. the preparations could not be concealed and the germans knew that they were being made. the plan at the outset was that, while the il. army stood fast, the v. army under general gough on its left with the french i. army still fur- ther to the left, should attack the enemy line along their front extending from near hooge to some distance north of steen- straat on the yser canal. it should be noted that the valley of the little river steenbeke proved of considerable tactical importance during the operations that followed, for it created a marked depression in the high ground of which gough was to gain possession. between the depression and the v. army lay the low pilckem ridge—its first objective—and after that ridge was taken any further advance towards the main ridge involved crossing the depression. an- other point to note is that, whereas the line occupied at the out- set by the v. army and the french i. army ran from southeast to northwest, the main line of heights which formed the ultimate objective ran from south to north, so that the assailants would in due course be called upon to make a half-wheel to the right, pivoting on that section of the high ground which was situated about east of ypres. the troops forming the outer (left) flank in the wheel would moreover be called upon to traverse some miles of low, marshy ground before they began to ascend. aware since early spring that the allies contemplated offen- sive operations in this region, the germans had taken steps to meet the eventuality with characteristic thoroughness and inge- nuity. having learnt by experience that a continuous system of trenches did not proffer a wholly satisfactory form of defence unless there was abundant underground cover, and realising that the waterlogged character of the soil of flanders militated against the creation of subterranean galleries, they had estab- lished a system of numerous disconnected trenches and strong points, arranged in depth rather than in breadth, together with numbers of concrete blockhouses armed with machine-guns. as their front line near ypres had been in existence since 1915, they trusted to the old system to meet the first shock of attack, and it was rather in the later offensive operations that the allies found themselves confronted with these new defensive devices. the second stage the offensive was to have started on july 25 but it was for various reasons deferred until the 31st. during that period the enemy retired out of his foremost trenches along the canal be- tween boesinghe and stcenstraat, which enabled the british and french troops on the left to throw bridges, and facilitated their task when they delivered their attack. this first day proved very favourable to the allies, who reached the line of the steen- beke, after capturing the pilckem ridge. bixschoote and st. julien were taken, and only on the extreme right about the menin road did the assailants fail to gain their objectives. over 6,000 prisoners were taken, together with 25 guns, and as a re- sult of the fighting ypres was no longer overlooked from the northeast and north. but the weather broke that day, and in consequence of the continuous rain in the early days of august the offensive could not be resumed until the 16th of that month. on this day the allies were successful along the left half of the battle front, pass- yser, battle of the ing the steenbeke and capturing langemarck; but little progress was made along the right half of the battle front, which repre- sented the more important section. although 2,000 prisoners and 30 guns were captured, little improvement had been effected as a result of a fortnight’s operations about the crest of the ridge immediately north of the ground that had been won on june 7. up there, the line had only been advanced a very few hundred yards as a result of two regularly prepared attacks. haig there- fore decided to extend the left of the ii. army northwards and to entrust the attacks against this higher ground to plumer, who was to work in conjunction with the v. army operating farther to the left. the weather, however, continued most unfavour- able, and it was not until sept. 20 that the next attack was delivered. very important results were, however, achieved on this occa- sion, for the efforts of the ii. army were crowned with brilliant success in a sector where previous attempts had to a great extent failed. the crest of the main ridge on either side of the ypres- menin road was wrested from the enemy and a footing was gained close to gheluvelt and in polygone wood. the v. army likewise gained ground farther to the left, and over 3,000 pris- oners and many guns were captured. this victory was followed up by a fresh attack on the 26th, when the british position was improved almost all along the line and particularly about poly- gone wood, while another 1,600 prisoners were secured. the combats of sept. 20 and 26 having given almost the entire crest of the main ridge east of ypres to the british, to a depth of 13; m. from the positions that had been occupied on july 31, haig arranged for a very important operation to take place on oct. 4, the front this time extending from polygone wood to the ypres-staden railway, although a minor advance was also to take place to the south of polygone wood. a severe gale blew on the night of the 3rd, and torrents of rain fell, so that next morn- ing the ground in most parts of the battlefield was little better than a morass. the attacking side nevertheless gained a signal victory, securing neatly all its objectives in a few hours’ fighting. especially important were the gains made in the centre, where a position was won along the forward crest of the main ridge about the village of broodsinde and to the south of it, while on the left a footing was gained in poelcappelle and the v. army secured a line clear of the lowest and most marshy part of the steenbeke depression. prisoners taken totalled 5,200 with a number of guns, machine-guns and trench mortars, and this highly satis- factory achievement had moreover been accomplished without very heavy sacrifice. the finat operations as a result of the operations begun on june 7 the crest of the long belt of high ground overlooking the flanders plain had now, after four months of intermittent fighting, been secured from messines northwards to within a few hundred yards of the ypres- roulers railway. and yet, regarding this flanders offensive as a whole, the work was in reality only begun. the houthulst forest, with the long line of high ground forming the quadrant of a circle beyond it, was still in the enemy’s hands. until the ridge had been secured to the vicinity of staden it would be premature to embark upon the second part of the general scheme of opera- tions—an attack on the german positions along the coast be- tween nieuport and ostend, for which the lv. army under general rawlinson had been assembled on the extreme left, by the sea. winter was approaching and haig had now to decide whether or not to continue his gradual advance northeast of ypres. the whole undertaking had been much delayed at the outset owing to general nivelle’s unsuccessful offensive in the aisne coun- try. the weather since the end of july had been deplorable, with the result that the pushing forward of heavy artillery as new positions were secured proved most difficult, and that the british tanks were terribly hampered in their movements. had the line secured on oct. 4 been made good two months earlier, there would still have been a quite reasonable prospect of the ridge being secured to beyond staden several weeks before winter set in, thus allowing for the iv. army to play its part in 1127 the coastal region. as it was, but little likelihood remained of these flanders operations achieving the success that had been hoped for when the plan was matured. in view of the discourage- ment existing at the time in the french forces it was, however, almost imperative to occupy the attention of the enemy as far as possible, and there were, moreover, grounds for hoping that the allied position to the northeast of ypres could still be con- siderably improved from the defensive point of view within the next few weeks. haig therefore decided to continue the offensive to the north of the ypres-roulers railway, and with a view to this a certain readjustment of the orders of battle of the ii. and v. armies was effected. the wet weather unfortunately continued during early oct. but an improvement then set in which lasted till the 25th, the very day for which the fresh attack had been fixed. in spite of a down- pour of rain the troops detailed for the work on the crest of the ridge gained ground on that day right up to the outskirts of pas- schendaele. during the following week the french and belgian troops on the extreme left pushed forward successfully up to the blankaart lake and to the outskirts of the houthulst forest, while progress was also made at a number of other points along the line. then, on nov. 4 passchendaele was captured by a sud- den advance of the rst div. and the canadian znd div., and the victory brought the 1917 flanders offensive at last to a close. results of the undertaking the situation in this position of the western front had been transformed by the events of the past five months. the chain of, heights from north of armentieres to passchendaele had changed hands. the ypres salient, vastly extended, had, from constitut- ing a weak and barely defensible sector of the allies’ front, be- come a serious menace to the enemy. haig had secured a satis- factory defensive position between the yser and the lys, and great hostile forces had been kept fettered to the northwestern extremity of the general theatre of war, striving to maintain pos- session of a tract that had been captured by the invader three years before. but the main object for which the offensive had been undertaken had been only very partially attained. the german hold upon the coast district remained unshaken. the third battle of ypres, chiefly perhaps because of unfortunate de- lays in starting operations and of untoward weather conditions after they had been started, had not, as had been intended, pre- pared the way for subsequent advance upon ostend and the great plain north of the lys. bibliography.—f-. fox, the battles of the ridges: arras- messines, amarch-june 1917 (1918); earl haig, despatches, 1915-9 (1919); b. willson, ypres (1°20). see also worrld war: bibliography, (clec) yser, battle of the.—on oct. 10 rg14 the whole of the belgian field army encamped on the west bank of the ghent- terneuzen canal. the british naval div., which had embarked at sl. gilles-waes, regained dunkirk with the exception of two battalions, which were cut off, and passed into holland; the french fusilier marine bde., half of the english 7th div. and the 4th belgian bde. were holding ghent and had repulsed an at- tack on that city by the rst res. ersatz brigade. information had been received that a division of bavarian cavalry had advanced towards deynze, passing between the schelde and the lys; that a column of 20,000 men had passed by courtrai and menin and that the german iv. cav. corps was holding the region tour- coing-¥pres-poperinghe. the only way of baffling the threat to the belgian army of envelopment on a large scale was an imme- diate march to the coast, and it was decided to transport all the forces without delay to the coastal region of ostend-thourout- dixmude-furnes, the infantry by rail, the artillery and trans- port by road under the protection of all the cavalry and rawlin- son’s corps. plans of opposing commanders.—the “‘ race to the sea ”’ had in the meantime caused the western front to extend to la bassee. the british army had been withdrawn from the region of the aisne anc was beginning to detrain west of lille. certain french divisions, taken from other sectors, were given the same ti28 destination. it seemed to gen. joffre that the moment had come for bringing about the much-desired envelopment of the german right wing by a concentric offensive against lille. the british army, the belgian army and some french reinforce- ments would constitute, it was believed, under the high com- mand of gen. foch, an ensemble capable of securing a decisive victory. unfortunately, the assembling of the allied troops by means of the paris-calais and paris-hazebrouck rail- ways would take time. on the other hand, it was necessary to take in account that the von beseler army group would not fail to follow on the heels of the belgians. the mission of the belgian army was once again that of gain- ing time. the king, anxious to keep his left wing resting on the sea, and to preserve at all costs a fragment of national territory from invasion, thought best to entrench the army on the river yser and the ypres canal. the following orders were accordingly issued on oct. 14 and 15: ‘‘ the line of the yser constitutes our last line of defence in belgium and its preservation is necessary for the development of the plan of operations. this line is there- fore to be held at all costs.” events soon proved the wisdom of this decision. the british ii. and iii. and cav. corps were stopped at the lys by the german i[v., vii. and nii. corps; rawlinson’s corps found menin in the hands of the xix. corps. von beseler’s troops now entered bruges and ostend. it was known that numerous detrainments were taking place west of brussels and that a new german [yv. army had installed its headquarters at ghent. in fact falkenhayn, the new chief of the german general stall, had anticipated the allies’ projects and, like them, considered the moment for a decisive victory to have arrived. with four new army corps, composed entirely of volunteers, the xxit., xaaniid., xavi. and xavit. res. corps, von bese- ler’s group and the artillery park from the siege of antwerp, prince albert of wiirtemberg was charged to procced to the yser with his right towards the sea, in order to attack in flank and in rear the allied left, whose front the vi. army was engaging be- tween arras and armentieres. falkenhayn considered that: “ the conquest of the coast was the sole means of frustrating the war of blockade which england contemplated and of retaliating through our destroyers, submarines, aeroplanes and zeppelins. . . « if we succeeded in driving the enemy out of the yser val- ley and pursuing him at the point of the sword, there was no doubt that, having replenished our ranks and our stores, we should be in a condition to overthrow the western front.’”! thus the belgian army, which had only just moved into posi- tion in the general allied line, found itself in focus for a new battle. it occupied a front of 40 km., from the sea to boesinghe, with 43 divisions and 1} divisions in reserve behind the cenire. the cavalry division was operating with mitry’s french cav. corps, east of the forest of houthulst. on the army’s right a french territorial division extended as far as ypres and rawlin- son’s corps had entrenched itself along the line passchendaele- gheluvelt. opening of the battle—the battle commenced on the 18th with an attack by von beseler’s corps (4th ersatz and 5th and 6th res. divs.) between the sea and keyem. the belgian out- posts were only driven back after desperate fighting and the enemy did not even reach the yser. on the morning of the roth ronar¢h’s marine bde. and the sth div. dcbouched from dix- mude on the flank of the iii. res. corps. beerst and vladsloo were retaken; but the intervention of the xxii. corps, com- ing from thourout, and the xxiii. coming from cortemarck, checked the counter-attack. by the 2zoth the fighting had be- come general all the way from the sea to gheluvelt bet ween the duke of wiirtemberg’s 54 divisions on the one hand and the belgian army, mitry’s cav. corps and rawlinson’s corps on _ the other. after 48 hours of obstinate fighting the belgian posi- tions remained practically unchanged. | the attack of the 4th ersatz div. on nicuport had failed, partly on account of the flanking fire from admiral hood’s flotilla; while that of the nxii. corps against the bridgehead 1 falkenhayn, die wichtigsien entschliessungen der o. h. l. yuan shih-k’ai at dixmude had been checked by meiser’s brigade. but in the night of the 21st~22nd the 6th res. div. made a surprise crossing of the yser in the tervaete salient and threw over 2} battalions to the west bank. concentrated artillery fire prevented the division from making any progress on the 22nd, but a notable counter-attack, in which four battalions of grenadiers and cara- bineers faced death with superb indifference, broke down com- pletely under their machine-gun fire, owing to the exposed nature of the ground. the following night the germans passed a second regiment into the bend without, however, extending their ground. on the 24th, the whole of the iii. res. corps and half of the 44th res. div., preceded by a bombardment from ro heavy how- itzer batteries and rso field guns, broke through the front at st. georges-tervaete, only to find the belgians deployed behind the nieuport—dixmude railway embankment, together with the french 42nd div. which had arrived in the meantime. german failure at dixemude.—finding themselves checked in this direction, the germans renewed their attack on dixmude, preluding it with an intense bombardment of four hours (in which 21 and 42 cm. howitzers were employed amongst others) which left the town in ruins and in flames. at midnight the 43rd res. div. delivered its assault, driving its guns through the mid- die of—and even in advance of—its infantry, but in spite of a three-fold attempt it was completely repulsed by the r2th bel- gian regt., assisted by some french companies of marines. a new attack on the night of the 25th-26th met with the same fate. opening of the nieuport sluices—the battle had been in pro- gress for eight days. over a total of 48,000 rifles the losses amounted to 15,000 in all ranks. many guns had been put out of action, by excessive use of rapid fire; the munitions were nearly exhausted, the men at the end of their tether. neither the british nor the french, both hard pressed at bixscoote, langemarck and zonnebeke, were able to send reinforcements. having no reserves, the belgian commander decided to call in the sea to his assistance. the nieuport sluices could, by opening a net- work of small canals to the ocean, put part of the battlefield under water; but the king did not wish to have recourse to this expedient until the last extremity. ; on the 26th and 27th all the pioneers were set to stop up the 22 aqueducts of the nieuport-dixmude railway embankment so as to prevent the liberating tide from invading the belgian posi- tions; fortunately, the germans—being also weary—remained relatively quiet during that time. on the 29th however, their artillery blazed forth again, and it seemed that a new attack was imminent. the sluices were therefore opened during the night. at dawn on the 30th, the three divisions of von beselcr’s corps attacked along the line of the railway, taking possession finally of ramscapelle and pervyse; but the drains were now ovcr- flowing; the flooded meadows soon made it impossible for the germans to move, and forced them to a hasty retreat. the battle of the ¥yser was won and the left flank of the allies definitely saved. checked along the coast line, the germans moved off to make their desperate assault on ypres. the belgian army, in scrupulous observance of the spirit of the obligations of neu- trality, had, from aug. 4 to oct. 31 1914, gloriously defended its honour and fulfilled all international obligations, paying the price with its blood and abandoning practically the whole of its ter- ritory. (see also ypres, first battle of; also map, p. 961.) brislrography.—p. northomb, z’yser (1916); l. madelin, melee des flandres (1917); j. pirenne, vatngqueurs de l' vser, 1914-5 (1917); tasnier and van overstraeten, l’armee belge dans la guerre mondiale (1926). see also world war: bibliography. (r. van o.) yuan shih-k’ai (1859-1916), chinese statesman, was born at hsiang cheng, a member of a family belonging to the smaller landed gentry of the province of honan. through the influence of relatives he entered upon the career of a military official, hav- ing failed to achieve distinction at the literary examinations. his first important post was in korea, where, as imperial resident and the trusted lieutenant of the viceroy li hung-chang, he strove by adroit diplomacy to preserve china’s shadowy suze- rainty over the hermit kingdom and to check the steadily in- yuan shih-k’ai creasing ascendancy of japan. after the disastrous war with that country (1894-5) he held office as judicial commissioner, with military functions, under the viceroy li, in chihli. ‘the re- markable success which he achieved in this post, by bringing a division of troops to a standard of discipline and efficiency hitherto unknown in the chinese army, gained for him the favourable notice of the manchu court. thenceforward, as the prestige of his foreign-drilled forces increased, he and they became important factors in the plots and intrigues around and about the dragon throne. in aug. 1898, the emperor kuang hsii, hoping to secure yuan’s loyal services in support of his scheme to seize and imprison the em- press dowager, summoned him to a special audience at the sum- mer palace. reassured by his promises and by his professed sympathy for the objects of the reform edicts, his majesty issued a decree conferring upon yuan the rank of an expectant vice- president of a board, with special duties in connection with army reorganisation. the subsequent coup d’etat by the em- press dowager, which removed the emperor from the throne and replaced him under severe tutelage, owed its success to yuan’s betrayal of the emperor’s confidence and to his active support of the conservative manchu party. from the orthodox chinese official point of view, his action was to some extent de- fensible, the emperor’s plot against the empress, his aunt, be- ing tantamount to lack of filial piety. in any case, it was justified by success and never seriously condemned by chinese public opinion. but to the end of his unhappy career, the emperor never forgave yuan’s treachery, and on his death-bed (nov. 1908) bade his brother, prince chun, see to it that he should not go unpunished. after the return of the empress dowager to the control of affairs, yuan received the governorship of shantung as reward for his services. accompanied by the pick of his troops, he en- tered upon that office at the end of 1899. in the summer of the following year, upon the outbreak of the boxer rising, he dis- tinguished himself by prompt and unhesitating firmness, in maintaining order and protecting foreigners throughout his jurisdiction. he was never under any delusions as to the futility and folly of the empress dowager’s policy in encouraging the anti-foreign movement. after the signature of the peace proto- col (peking ro901), as the aged li hung-chang desired to be re- lieved of further duty, yuan was appointed to act in his place as viceroy of chihli. at li’s death (dec. rgor) the appointment was made substantive. thus at the early age of 42, yuan at- tained to the highest office in the gift of the throne; at the same time he was made a junior guardian of the heir apparent. a month later the yellow jacket was conferred upon him, together with the appointments of consulting minister to the govern- ment council and director general of the northern railway. in the following year he became a minister of the army reor- ganisation council. during the five years of his viceroyalty, he raised and equipped six divisions of troops, greatly superior in every way to those of the peking field force or the best provincial levies. but his rapid rise to place and power aroused fears and jealousies of a number of high manchu dignitaries, and many were the schemes for injuring him in the eyes of the empress dowager. finally, the cabal against him, led by his old rival, the ex-boxer tartar general tieh liang, succeeded in persuad- ing her majesty, in the autumn of 1907, to transfer him from the tientsin viceroyalty to the capital. she saved his face and her own, however, by making him a grand councillor and presi- dent of the board of foreign affairs, which post he held until the aie of the empress dowager and the emperor in nov. 1908. the subsequent accession to the regency of prince chun, brother of the late emperor, was fraught with peril for yuan. for a month after the death of the “ old buddha,” rumours were rife in the north concerning the regent’s vindictive intentions with regard to him. it was the general belief that his days were numbered; but the regent was eventually persuaded that ex- treme measures would be impolitic. his decision, finally an- nounced by an edict of jan. 2, merely deprived yuan of office 1129 and ordered him into retirement at his native place in honan. there, until the outbreak of the revolution in the autumn of 1911, he remained, professedly contented with a life free from the cares of office and devoted to the management of his estates. but the lack of his guiding hand was unmistakably felt, even by his enemies, at peking during those two years. after the death of chang chih-tung (1g09), yuan was the only survivor of the great chinese viceroys to whom the manchu court had looked for help and counsel in time of trouble. when, therefore, the first signs of the revolutionary movement at wuchang were followed by ominous symptoms of hostile activity amongst the catonese faction, the regent lost no time in summoning yuan to his assistance. by an edict of nov. 14 1911, he was appointed viceroy of hunan and hupeh, with a mandate to proceed south with his foreign-drilled troops and put an end to the insurrection. whatever the defects of his character in other respects, there was never any doubt as to yuan’s unswerving belief in the mon- archical principle as essential to the good government of china; there was therefore no question of his refusing to obey the sum- mons of the throne in peril. it was impossible for him to sym- pathise with the republican programme, gradually evolved by the cantonese extremists as the helplessness of the manchus and the disorganisation of the government became revealed. if, at the outset, he seemed disposed to temporise and to make terms, it was not because of any hesitation to face the situation, but simply because he realised that his failure or success would de- pend upon control of adequate funds. before consenting to emerge from his retirement (he arrived at peking on oct. 27) he insisted on assurances from the national assembly and from his foreign supporters at the capital, that the sinews of war would be forthcoming. if he eventually failed in his brave endeavour to maintain the monarchy, it was because, at the most critical junc- ture of the struggle, the predominant influence of great britain with the diplomatic body was finally exercised in favour of a policy of impartial neutrality. yuan clearly foresaw and declared that if the monarchy were overthrown, the result would be chaos, ‘‘ amidst which all interests would suffer and for several decades there would be no peace.” thus his avowed policy was to preserve a limited monarchy, pledged to systematic and practical reforms. had he been loyally served by his representative, tang shao-yi, in the negotiations with the revolutionary leaders at shanghai, above all, had he received the support which he was entitled to expect in the shape of a for- eign loan, he would most probably have won. as it was, he con- tinued to fight on, practically single-handed, against the forces of disruption, until feb. 1912 when the manchu court, terrified by bomb explosions at the capital, decided to abdicate. within two days of the issue of the abdication edict. (feb. 12), the southern revolutionaries, on the initiative of sun yat-sen, exem- plified the ‘‘ unbroken continuity of immemorial tradition ”’ in china by inviting him to stand for the presidency of the republic. despite his previous declaration that ‘‘ to be a party to the establishment of a republican form of government would brand him as a liar before all the world,’”’ yuan made a virtue of neces- sity and on march 12 took the oath of office as president. but he did so with mental reservations which were soon demonstrated and ostensibly in deference to the sanction of the new form of government given by the throne in its abdication edicts. his policy as president reflected his unmistakable and fixed de- termination to maintain the authority of the central govt. and with it the prerogatives and practice of benevolent despotism. he continued to uphold the principles which he had publicly proclaimed in justification of his defence of the monarchy, and to insist upon maintenance of the continuity of the classical tradi- tion of government and the preservation of the confucian sys- tem. he was willing for a time to pay lip-service to the republican formulas, but his actions proved clearly that he had no sympathy with the “‘ rampant democracy ” of the cantonese radicals. his methods of ridding himself of prominent members of the kuo-min tang (radical party) who opposed his authority were typically oriental and ruthless, but being in accordance 1130 with chinese traditions of statecraft, they aroused no popular indignation beyond the ranks of the republican group of politicians. in the summer of 1913, a ‘‘ war to punish yuan ” was started in the south by sun yat-sen, huang hsing and other malcon- tents, but yuan, having by this time secured a foreign loan and the moral support of the powers, had no difficulty in retaining the venal “loyalty ” of the chief military commanders in the provinces; the cantonese insurrection came, therefore, to a swift and inglorious end. he proceeded, thereupon, to dissolve and proscribe the kuo-min tang and with it made an end of its farce of parliamentary government and representative institutions. upon his formal “ election” to the presidency in october, he announced his intention of governing the country thenceforward without interference. ie took occasion to observe that “ he had always preferred conservative to radical courses,’”’ and denounced the ‘‘ minority of turbulent demagogues ”’ who, under the name of republicanism, had “ dragged principles and jaws in the dust ”’; finally he declared his intention of proceeding with a policy of gradual and suitable reforms. the dissolution of the kuo-min tang was naturally followed by the abolition of the national assembly, and parliament was replaced by a political council, consisting chiefly of yuan’s own nominees. the provincial gov- ernorships having been similarly filled, he was able to proceed with his schemes for the centralisation of power and the restora- ion of autocracy; unanimous recommendations by the provincial tuthorities enabled him to assert in his presidential mandates that they were in accordance with the will of the people. simi- larly fortified by their approval, after the suspension of the pro- visional constitution and other significant measures, he announced his intention of performing the winter solstice sacrifice at the temple of heaven, a declaration tantamount, in chinese eyes, to the assumption of autocratic rulership and the impending resto- ration of the throne. that he should aspire to revive the monarchy in his own person was the logical conclusion of his openly avowed principles; as a matter of internal politics, his ambition was not only defensible but likely to be justified by results. the movement for the restoration of the throne organised by a society composed chiefly of yuan’s adherents, began to assume a definite direction in the autumn of 1915;its plans and propaganda were skilfully handled, but, like yuan himself, they erred in failing to appreciate the necessity for conciliating foreign, as well as native, opinion. the leaders of the movement failed especially to perceive the danger of the situation created by japan’s twenty- one demands (may 1915) and to realise that the active opposition of the japanese govt. would in all probability be fatal to yuan’s ambitions. warned in this sense from more than one quarter, yuan nevertheless persisted. in oct. the state council made an elaborate show of constitutional procedure by referring the question of the monarchy to the provinces. the result (a foregone conclusion) was a practically unanimous vote in favour of yuan’s accession. meanwhile, however, the japanese minister at peking, supported by his british and russian col- leagues, had made friendly representations to the chinese for- eign office, deprecating the restoration of the monarchical system at this juncture. yuan apparently believed that the war in europe would prevent the allies from actively intervening and overlooked the possibility of serious opposition being organised against him in china. on dec. 12 the monarchy was proclaimed and the enthronement ceremony fixed for feb. 9 1916. but it was not to be. -a week after the issue of the mandate in which this announcement was made, an insurrection, led by one of yuan’s own nominees, broke out in yiinnan; several of his provincial military commanders proved disloyal and the movement began to spread with great rapidity, one province after another declaring its independence. on jan. 22 yuan was persuaded to an- nounce that the establishment of the monarchy would be indcfi- nitely postponed. but the tide of ill fortune was now running too strongly against him and his position soon became untenable. at the end of march, his few remaining supporters urged him to retire into private life. towards the end of april he consented, while retaining the presidency, to surrender all civil authority yudenich—yugoslavia to the cabinet, under the premiership of tuan chi-jui. had he lived, some compromise of this kind would most probably have been arranged, but his health gave way and on june 6 1916 he died. with him passed the last of the great viceroys of the old regime and the last hope of an early restoration of stable gov- ernment in china. (0s pb) yudenich, nikolai nikolaevich (1862- }, russian soldier, was born july 18 1862. he entered the army in 1879, and from 1887 to 1902 served on the general staff. in 1902 he became a regimental commander, in 1905 a general, an assistant chief of staff in 1907 and a chief of staff in 1913. at the beginning of the world war he commanded the h. turkistan corps with marked success and was soon placed in command of all the military forces in the caucasus, a post which he held till the arrival of the grand duke nicholas in 1915. in march 1917 he resumed command, but here as elsewhere further advance was rendered impossible by the increasing disorganisation of the russian army. in 1919 yudenich led anti-bolshevik forces in an attempt against petrograd (leningrad). this venture was a failure and shortly afterwards yudenich went into retirement. yugoslavia, officially known as “the kingdom of the serbs, croats and slovenes ” (kraljevina srba hrvata 1 sloven- aca), came into being in the closing months of 1918, as a result of the collapse of austria-hungary and the voluntary union of its yugoslav territories with the former kingdoms of serbia and montenegro. in point of international law, its existence may be said to date from dec. 1 1918, when the prince regent alexander of serbia formally complied with the invitation of the yugoslav national council, to assume the regency over the sister provinces also. that the great powers were so long in according official recognition to the new state, was due to purely political reasons, connected with the adriatic dispute. the previous history of the units which now comprise the yugo- slav kingdom, will be found under serbia, montenegro, croatia-slavonia, bosnia-hercegovina, dalmatia. area and population—the new state covers a total area of 96,136 sq. m. whereas serbia before the balkan war only comprised 19,286 and after her conquests in 1912-13, 36,938 square miles, the area of the other provinces is:— bosnia- hercegovina, 20,429; croatia- slavonia, 16,920; slovenia, 6,241; voivodina, 7,213; dalmatia, 4,662; montenegro, 3,733. the total population at the census of 1921 was 12,017,323 or a net decrease of 608,444 during the previous 11 years in the area corresponding to the new state. this decrease, duc to the ravages of the two balkan wars and the great war, was naturally heaviest in serbia proper (316,271 or 10-9 %), in macedonia (222,599 or 13-4°%) and montenegro (38,566 or 16%). this is the more striking because in the two decades 1890-1910 serbia's popula- tion was increasing at the rate of 34-6% (or 749,740 in a total of 2,911,701 inhabitants), the only province which showed an increase of population was the voivodina (+27,569 or 2%). that the de- crease was much less marked in the provinces north of the save and danube line was due not only to the fact that the war hardly reached them, but also to the steady immigration into them from hungary since 1918. . the population was divided as follows:—serbia (1912 area) 2,655,078; southern serbia (i.e. macedonia, etc.) 1,474,560; monte- negro 199,857; bosnia-hercegovina 1,889,929; dalmatia 621,429; croatia-slavonia (with medjumurje) 2,739,593; slovenia (with prekomurje) 1,056,464; voivodina (banat, batka, baranja) 1,380,413. on a basis of nationality the population is divided as follows:—serbo-croats 8,946,884 (74:4%), slovenes 1,024,761 (8-5%), germans 513,472 (4:3%), magyars 472,409 (3-9 %), al- banians 441,740 (3-7°%), rumanians 229,398 (1:9%), other slavs (slovaks and ruthenes) 174,466 (1-5%), italians 12,825 (o-1 pa): ‘others (i.e, mainly turks, spanish jews, gypsies) 201,368 (1-7°%). thusthe yugoslav population amounts to 82-9 % of the total. religious distribution shows the following results: orthodox 5,602,227; catholic 4,735,154; mahommedan 1,337,687; protestant 216,847; jewish 64,159. the principal towns are: belgrade 111,740; zagreb_(agram) 108,338; subotica (szabadka) 101,857; sarajevo 66,317; ljubljana (laibach) 53,306; skoplje (uskub) 41,066; novi-sad (neusatz) 39,147; osijek (essek) 34,412; sombor 31,332; senta_ 30,697; maribor (marburg) 30,641; bitolj (monastir) 28,418; beckerek 27,511: vrsac 26,975; kikinda 25,809; nish 25,096; split (spalato) 25,042. {. political history the adriatic dispute at paris —at the paris conference there was from the first a deadlock in the adriatic dispute (see yugoslavia (ry) ii3i , —aan | a ——— 7 loznarca ———— on braz vornik ames : bit ane we aljevor ? td ee ty ke =e ~ ot pn = wiht , es “ees a a” os *, 7 life vi spe r. ara _ rout, {zt (ce, q hen oo, a. ia < ori o e: i — eco ss prag bg bats anb vsearas — ° stu. ei 0 we wal ty 2s “mita a aayonyick ace a: tse | — wy. 2% ore y bt “ze wy ihaallie’s ah od vb 3 mes ay >, ‘ ue se et ‘ 4 ay otis er ping j a ra ef] “qe — bf =) py “gy . , ces aah a ‘oa : \— ss n \ 4, a — | ry a - sm yugoslavia english miles oo 50 100 kilometres a re | oo 50 100 provincial boundartes wun : main ratlways serbia). m. clemenceau and mr. lloyd george found them- selves between two irreconcilable standpoints—between sonnino, who claimed the literal fulfilment of their treaty pledges, with the addition of the port of fiume, and wilson, who refused all cognisance of the secret treaties and regarded them as abrogated by the allics when they accepted his successive notes as the basis of the armistice. the three western powers were in the impossible position of judges in a dispute to which one was a party, while two were accessories. on feb. 11 1919 the yugo- slavs offered to submit the whole dispute to the arbitration of president wilson, and on april 16 to leave the settlement of frontiers to a plebiscite. but these proposals were rejected by the italians, who even withdrew for a time from paris; and wilson’s public manifesto on the adriatic question (april 23) so far from improving matters, actually stiffened italian resistance. the problem was left unsolved during the final stages of the negotiations on the german treaty, and was still being postponed when on sept. 12 d’annunzio and his arditi, with official italian connivance, seized fiume and procceded to create a fait accompli. on dec. 9 r919 the supreme council made a definite proposal to italy on the basis of a slight modification of the so-called “ wilson line,” fiume as a buffer state, a special regime in zara, valona in full sovereignty and an italian mandate in albania. neither this nor a later improvised proposal of clemenceau and lloyd george (abandoning the buffer state) found acceptance, while wilson’s three notes to the allied cabinets (feb. 10 and 25 and march 6 1920), though they will always remain classic documents of the controversy, failed to overcome the opposition of italy, ——— = ————ragusa(dubrovai fare 3 bai, fo ee eee ee who reckoned with the eclipse of his influence at home in america- late in april the yugoslavs consented to direct negotiations with italy, but the nitti cabinet fell before any decision could be reached, and it was not till nov. 12 1920 that the treaty of rapallo was signed.!' by it italy acquired a frontier consider- ably farther east than the wilson line, the watershed of the julian alps as far as snjeznik (monte nevoso), almost all istria with abbazia and volosca, and a narrow strip of shore connect- ing it with fiume, which was to become an independent unit under the league of nations, while the croat suburb of susak was to remain in yugoslavia and the baros port was added as an outlet for yugoslav trade. zara became a free city under italian sovereignty, but as a tiny island isthmus without hinter- land or islands. italy renounced all claim to dalmatia, and of all the islands retained only lussin and cherso. special linguis- tic and other privileges were assured to the tiny italian minority in the dalmatian towns, but no corresponding charter was granted to the 400,000 lo 500,000 slovenes and croats annexed to italy. the settlement, though far from ideal, involved concessions on both sides: and italy though still forgetful of the principles enunciated at the roman congress, could at jeast claim to be the only victorious power which had relinquished its hold upon conquered territory. one practical result of the treaty was that italy tacitly abandoned the cause of king nicholas and accepted as inevitable montencgro’s incorporation in yugoslavia. un- happily italy allowed the treaty to remain a dead letter as 1 fuller accounts of these long negotiations willbe found in a his- tory of the peace conference of paris (ed. h.w. v. temperley), vol. iv. 1132 regards fiume, which was firmly held by d’annunzio’s irregulars, to the utter ruin of its trade and prosperity. the final liquidation of the adriatic dispute was postponed till jan 27 1924 when mussolini and pasie (pashitch) concluded the so-called ‘‘ pact of rome” guarantecing the peace treaties of st. germain, trianon and neuilly and promising neutrality if either should be attacked by a third party. a supplementary agreement recog- nised italy’s annexation of fiume, but left to yugoslavia the baros harbour and also a free commercial zone in fiume itself, with proper railway access. the new frontiers.—in four other directions also the regula- tion of the new frontiers was a slow and difficult process. 1. the frontier between yugoslavia and rumania rests on a decision of the peace conference, published on june 13 1919. re- jecting equally the frontier fixed by the secret treaty of 1916, under the terms of which rumania entered the war, and the line up to which the serbs had been allowed to occupy after the armistice, the allies divided the banat on a mainly ethnographic basis. at the last moment they drove two awkward salients into rumanian territory, in order to include vrsac and bela crkva in yugoslavia, thereby blocking the railway outlet of timisoara and arad towards the danube at bazias. 2. the regulation of the austro-yugoslav frontier was decided according to a plebiscite supervised by an inter-allied commission at klagenfurt. after a keen contest between rival slovene and pan- german propagandists, voting took place in oct. 1920 and re- sulted in a majority of 12,747 for austria in zone a (the more southerly section in dispute), whereupon zone b also was auto- matically assigned to austria 3. by the treaty of neuilly (nov. 27 1919) bulgaria was forced to cede to yugoslavia (a) the strumnica salient, which threatened the vardar railway from the east, (0) the district of koeana and the bregainica and (c) the town and district of tsaribrod, which places sofia strategically at the mercy of her neighbour. 4. the albanian frontier remained in suspense till 1921, when the supreme council sanctioned the line laid down by the council of ambassadors in the winter of 1913, thus putting an end to the dis- reputable design favoured in some quarters of an italo-yugoslav ‘* deal” on the lines of ‘ skutari for fiume.” . the frontier with hungary was the last to be regulated. by the treaty of trianon the banat (save a small magyar triangle opposite the city of szeged) was divided between rumania and yugoslavia, while the latter received the whole batka (except baja and district), part of the baranya (forming the angle between drave and danube) and the medjumurje (between drave and mur). thus, in order to secure the town of subotica (szabadka) with its large bunjevac (or catholic serb) population, she was allowed to annex not less than 250,000 magyars. her claim to pecs (fiinfkirchen) was disallowed, but owing to the long delay in ratifying the treaty yugoslav troops remained in occupation of this district and its valuable coal-mines till aug. 1921. the provistonal parliament, 1918-20.—so long as vital frontier disputes were unregulated, the central government in belgrade held that elections could not be held, and governed for the first two years through a provisional parliament for which no one could claim a really representative character. the deputies for serbia held mandates which had actually expired as long ago as june 1914, but whose renewal war and invasion had prevented; those for croatia had been clected in jan. 1914, those for monte- negro were delegated by the revolutionary assembly of podgo- ri¢ain nov. 1918. but in bosnia and most of the other provinces the deputies had no popular mandate whatever, beyond being members of the revolutionary local committees formed when austria-hungary collapsed. the union of so many distant political organisms had reduced the party system to a state of chaos, and the first two years were taken up by a process of regrouping, the issue being centralism versus federalism. there was a very keen struggle between the radicals, who still possessed the best party machine and stood for a narrowly serbian as opposed to a yugoslav programme, and the newly constituted democratic party, which absorbed most of the serbian opposition parties, the old serbo-croat coalition of zagreb and the slovene liberals. the radicals of serbia, being conservative in all but name, made a working alliance with the clericals of zagreb and ljubljana, and under the leader- ship of protie favoured decentralisation, combined with con- cessions to the expropriated land-owners. but in the land question the radical party was paralysed by its bosnian wing, which sided with the peasantry; and thus in aug. 1919 proti¢ yugoslavia was replaced by davidovie, the democrat leader, and though the government remained a coalition, its weight was trans- ferred farther to the left. aninternal trial of strength continued throughout the winter between the rival governmental groups, until in may 1921 a breach was averted only by a reconstruction of the cabinet under vesnie, who as serbian minister in paris since 1905 enjoyed wide prestige, and, though a radical, stood aloof from party dissensions. under his weaker but more neutral guidance, and aided by the unifying force of the adriatic crisis, the parties reached agreement upon a new parliamentary fran- chise, based on universal suffrage. the constituent assembly and the constitution—the elections to the constituent assembly (nov. 1920) did not clear up the situation as had been expected. no party secured an absolute majority, and the two strongest, the radicals and democrats, being almost exactly balanced, were forced to prolong still further their unnatural alliance. in open opposition stood (a) stephen radi¢e, the croat peasant-leader whom the democrats had unwisely imprisoned in 1919-20 and who now swept the boards in croatia with a republican and federalist programme and induced his party of 50 to absent itself from the constituent assembly; (6) the croat and slovene clericals, who strongly advo- cated decentralisation; and (c) the 58 communists, led by a small group of extreme theorists, but owing their strength to the sub- versive elements in the ba¢eka, macedonia and montenegro and the secret aid of the carlists in vienna and budapest. as the coalition lacked the necessary majority, it was reduced to gathering support piecemeal among the more neutral groups and for this task pasi¢e, who became premier in jan. 1921, was specially qualified. by the promise of 100,000,000 dinars to the expropriated begs, he won over the moslems of bosnia, and by similar methods he detached the slovene section of the newly founded agrarian party (zemljoradnici). but though he was thus able to carry the first reading of the new constitution by 227 to 93 votes (may 12), he was faced by the passive resistance of the great majority of croats and slovenes, who regarded with suspicion his ‘‘ great serbian ” and centralising aims. it is significant that protie, hitherto pasi¢’s most intimate associate, withdrew from the radical party and from parliament rather than sanction a constitution so inimical to provincial interests; while trumbie, the foremost advocate of full national unity, recorded his vote against it. the struggle between centralists and federalisis —on june 28 (kosovo day) the prince regent took the oath to the new constitution, but the ceremony was marred by an attempt to assassinate him and the premier by a bomb thrown as they drove home to the palace. this outrage, which was traced to the communists, provided fresh proof that the democratic leader draskovie, as minister of the interior, was justified in his charges of widespread terrorist conspiracy and even in the much- debated decrees (obznane) by which he sought to combat them. when on july 21 draskovie was murdered by a young bosnian communist, parliament resolved on reprisals, and 10 days later passed, by 190 to 54, laws of extraordinary severity for “the defence of the state,” terrorist agitation being made punishable by death, prolonged penal servitude or heavy fines. the mandates of the 58 communist deputies were annulled, and the party rendered ineffective. as the croat peasant party under radie maintained its unwise policy of abstention, the parliamentary opposition became almost negligible, but the dissensions between the two govern- ing partics rendered constructive work impossible. at last in the winter of 1922 it came to an open breach and the democratic ministers resigned. after the failure of prolonged attempts to produce a compromise between davidovi¢e and radi¢, the king invited pasi¢ to form a purely radical cabinet, which appealed to the country. the elections of march 1923 still brought no definite decision. the radicals increased from or to 108, and the croat peasants from 50 to 70, while the demo- crats fell to 52. the government lacked a majority, but so long as radi€ and his followers refused to take their seats in the yugoslavia skupstina, there was no possibility of overthrowing or replacing it. negotiations between radie and emissaries of pasi€ failed, and in aug. after a series of iindiscrcet and inilammatory speeches radie fled abroad, and settled first in london, then in vienna, in the hope of interesting western opinion in his cause. early in 1923, from this retreat, he reached a working agreement for a joint opposition bloc with the democrats, agrarians, slovenes and moslems, and instructed his deputies to enter the skupstina. pasie saved himself for the time from a precarious situation by allying himself with the dissident democrats under pribieevie who were strongly centralist. from april till july there was a prolonged political crisis, during which government and opposition used threatening language toward each other. at last on july 27 davidovie and his bloc were invited to form a cabinet, which the radie party supported but did not enter. radi¢e, who-had meanwhile visited moscow and coquetted with the “‘ peasant international,” now returned home and undermined the government’s position by a series of more than usually indiscreet speeches, with the result that on oct. 15 davidovie, under pressure from the crown, the army and other quarters, resigned office. after another long crisis he was re- placed by a ‘‘ concentration cabinet ”’ under pasie and pribicevie which only commanded 123 votes out of a total of 315; it there- fore ordered new elections, quashed the last cabinet’s enquirics into corruption and governed on rigidly centralist lines. in jan. 1925 it went so far as to dissolve the croat peasant party, pro- hibit its newspaper slebodni dom and throw radie himself into prison on a charge of revolutionary and anti-militarist propa- ganda. at the feb. elections the government, by employ- ing pressure and corruption wherever possible, succeeded in securing a small working majority—163 to 152—though it polled 300,000 fewer votes than its rivals. radie remained in prison, but with his approval his party changed its name from ‘croat republican peasant party ” to “‘ croat peasant club,” issued a new programme and formed a united bloc with davidovie, trumbie, korogee and the moslems. the government retorted by annulling 58 out of the 67 croat mandates. at the last moment, however, radie’s nephew paul issued a declaration in the party’s name, recognising the constitution, dynasty and army, and thus abandoning the whole basis of its agitation for the six years previous. after a further interval radie made his terms with pa8ie, the one abandoning his alliance with the democratic bloc while the other dropped the now useless ballast of the pribieevie group. radie himself became minister of education, and though his flow of indiscreet public speeches increased rather than dimin- ished, his statements ceased to be taken too seriously, while his stronghold upon the minds of the peasantry could now be exploited in the interests of national unity and concord. this alliance between the strongest serb and the strongest croat party, though setting at defiance all the political principles hitherto current, none the less represented a fresh stage in the consolida- tion of yugoslavia. the federalist idea in its extreme form has probably been finally defeated, and it now remains to work out the lines of local autonomy and reasonable devolution of powers in provinces whose culture, institutions and traditions will long remain too divergent to be treated satisfactorily on uniform lines. bibliography—v. klai¢e, povijest iirvata (5 vol., 1901-11); f. isic, geschichte der kroaten (1917) and jirvatska povijest (3 vol., 1911-4); r. w. seton-watson, the southern slav question (1911; much enlarged german ed., 1913); l. von siidland, die stidslavische frage und der weltkrieg (1918, austrophile); llermann wendel, der kampf der stidslaven um fretheit und einheit (1925), an admirable and detailed survey, and aus dem stidslavischen risorgimento (1920); t. g. masaryk, vasie-forgech-aehrenthal (1911); v. kiithne, ceux dont on ignore; le martyre (1917), and les bulgares peints par eux- memes (1917) f. barac, croats and slovenes friends of the entente (1919, contains important original documents}; the southern slav library (8 pamphlets published by the jugoslav committee, 1915-8). on bosnia, see a. fournier, wie wir zu bosnien kamen (1909); m. prelog, povijest basne; f. schmidt, bosnien-iterzegovina (1914). on banat, sce radonic, [histoire des serbes de llongrie (1919, with documents); d. j. popovie, vojvedina (1925). on dalmatia, see g. prezzolini, la dulmazia (1915); lujo vojnovic, dalmatia (1920). 1133 on adriatic questions, see c. maranclli and g. salvemini, la questione dell' adriatico (2nd ed., 1919); f. sisie, history of fiume (1919); l. hautecoeur, l’ffulze sens orlando (1919); two collections of documents, viz.; ff. sisi¢e, jadransko pitanje (1920), and adriaticus, la question adriatique (1920). on the murder and the black hand, see stanojevie, die ermor- dung des ershersogs (1923); 8. jevtie, sarujevski atentat (1924); ljuba jovanovie, the amfurder of sarajevo (1925); tajna previratna organisacija (salonika, 1918) (minutes of the black hand trial). on the jugoslav economic situation, see a. mousset, le royaume des serhes, croates et slovenes; slavonre review, dee. 1925, and belgrade economic and financial review (official monthly). il. economic and financial history agriculture —agriculture occupies about 80° of the total popula- tion of yugoslavia. the different provinces vary greatly in climate, soil, configuration and methods of cultivation. the coastal districts and the high karst !and immediately behind them are mountainous and often barren and present great difficulties of communication. the most fertile districts are the voivodina (banat and batka), slavonia and northern serbia (especially the ma¢va, morava and timok districts) and portions of croatia, slovenia and bosnia. the principal crops are maize and wheat (40° of both being produced in the voivodina), sugar-beet, hemp and hops (also in the north), opium (in macedonia) and tobacco (chiefly in macedonia and hercegovina). area sown and production in 1024 quintals 15,722,496 2,934,577 1,407,508 3,018,477 37,949,376 378,020 217,953 10,274,825 48,257 10,631,066 17,526 2,262,592 13,086 84,746 25,070 253,076 clover . 112,601 3,607,746 lucerne , , 60,345 1,989,442 haye ye a eke 1,595,698 33.427.712 hectares wheat . barley . rye oats maize . . hlaricot beans 1,717,343 363,041 195,303 352,074 1,965,355 40,080 potatoes sugar-beet : beet for fodder . flax hemp . admirable wines are produced in dalmatia and hercegovina (both rather strong), syrmia (of the hlungarian type) and along the danube in serbia (smederevo). the fruit industry is growing steadily in importance, notably in the sumadija district of serbia and in the east of bosnia. in an average year some 750,000 tons of fresh plums are produced, and 40,000 to 50,000 tons of dried plums and prune pulp are exported. great efforts are being made toa improve the methods of drying and packing. the famous maras- chino liqueur is made in the district round zara (zadar), and excel- lent plum brandy (sljivovica) in almost all districts. the pyrethrum is grown in considerable quantity in dalmatia, for the purpose of preparing insect powder. there are eight sugar factories, two state-owned, the rest in the hands of foreign banks and companies; but though the area of beet cultivation has actually grown since the partition of the great estates among the peasantry, the decline in the price of sugar in the world-market has produced a certain crisis in the industry, despite the specially low freights granted on the state railways. forestry —the forests of yugoslavia cover 7,500,000 hectares of land, of which all save 2,000,000 is old forest. timber is a main article of export, italy, egypt and the levant being the best cus- tomers, the most important state forests are in bosnia, beech, fir and oak being the commonest trees. the slavonian oak (known abroad as “ austrian oak”) is valuable and of high quality. in serbia 60°, of the forests are beech. at tesli¢ there is a wood-dis- tilling factory which is the largest in europe and produces meth- ylated spirit, alcohol, formaldehyde, acetone and other chemical products. here and at bijclise¢ charcoal is produced by the dry distillation process. {in slovenia large quantities of tannin are pro- duced. there are cellulose factories in bosnia and belgrade, and bentwood furniture is manufactured to a considerable extent in slovenia and croatia. livestock.—the livestock of the country, though greatly deplen- ished by the war, afterwards rapidly revived. in 1924 there were 1,062,893 horses (46,800 being exported), 3,869,985 horned cattle and 7,639,257 sheep (half of the latter being in serbia). pigs are estimated at between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000, goats are naturally most numerous in the poorer districts of the south (ilercegovina, dalmatia, montenegro). mining and mineral resources.—the mincral resources of yugo- slavia have for the most part lain idle since roman and mediacval times, but offer very great possibilities. iron ore of good quality occurs in enormous quantity and near the surface at ljubija, in bosnia, where it is mined by the state mining authorities and sold t134 for exportation. another iron mine worked by the state exists at vares, in bosnia, and is worked in conjunction with a coal mine and iron-smelting establishment and the ironworks at zenica. the metallurgical works here are on a primitive scale, thetr production being pig-iron and small castings. ‘the ironworks at jesenice (slo- venia), which have a capacity of 70,000 per annum, produce bar iron, iron and steel sheets, steel rails up to 22 kilogramimes per metre (as used on the bosnian narrow-gauge railways), cold rolled iron, drawn iron and wire nails, bar iron is manufactured at store, near celje, in slovenia; steel and steel springs at gustanj, on the maribor- klagenfurt railway, and highly-silicated foundry iron is produced at sopusko in slovenia. large deposits of brown coal and lignite occur in many parts of yugoslavia, but there is no coking coal. copper is produced at bor and majdanpek in serbia, the first mentioned being an important concern, largefy in the hands of french interests. whereas the total production in terms of metal in 1923 was 6,700 tons for the whole country, in ig1 1-2 it was 7,600 tons from the bor mines alone, and in 1917 it is estimated that from the latter mincs the central powers obtained as much as 30,000 tons. alluvial! gold is found in the river timok (east serbia), manganese ores are worked near sarajevo, lead in the mezica valley (slovenia), bauxite or aluminium ore in dalmatia. foreign trade.—the total exports in 1924 amounted to 3,734.97 4 metric tons, valued at 9,533,774.432 dinars—the principal items being as follows: — metric tons dinars cereals ; ; 454,046 1, 359,852,056 beans and potatoes 41,994 172,393,715 fruit. , ; . : 32,440 246,547,434 wine and spirits . 1,508 9,521,227 alcohol ; ‘ : . 1233 19,213,610 | animal products 23,783 748,428,831 skins . 7°. ; , 3,452 276,740,543 wood . , ‘ ; 10,043 119,473,432 soda. : . 21,8387 65.917.813 calcium. : : ; 47,133 123,591,652 cement ; 341,628 189,421,784 iron, f : ; 4,07 33,05.4,22 lead . 10,641 135,596,956 copper , 7,605 346,490,091 other minerals . 813,976 308,085,497 live stock (less poultry) | 698,429 1,353,045, 347 (head) their chief countries of destination were as follows:— ao dinars 1,530,878 452,338 244,333 699,284 255,374 70,226 45,461 84,205 91,656 75,602 italy austria , czechuslovakia . 2,757 305,162 2,332,971,109 943,747,132 756,133,382 676,169,377 389,554,057 338,962,378 362,574,301 252,623,807 131,529,444 imports amounted to 1,127,686 metric tons, valued at 8,221,- 713,552 dinars, the most important articles being cotton and woollen fabrics (25% 5) and machinery. among the countries of origin italy again takes first place (29-52%) followed by czechoslovakia, austria, great britain. revenue and expenditure —the budget for april 1 1924-march 31 1925 estimated a revenue of 10,405,000,000 dinars and an expenditure of the same amount. the actual expenditure amounted to 10,579,388,339 dinars but the revenue exceeded the estimate, hungary (sreece switzerland germany france rumania great britain — no semin oa amo od kes yukon territory the principal sources of revenue as estimated for 1925-6 were as follows:— a. general: dinars customs duty and customs dues 1,690,000,090 excise : ; i, 810,006,000 monopolies —. e 2,468,050,000 profit on exchange 163,000,900 turnover tax ; , 225,100,000 receipts from communications . 2,.462,850,000 post-office saving dank 15,000,900 war invalids tax . 140,000,000 ordnance tax : ‘ : 70,000,000 direct taxation with surtaxes. ‘ 500,000,000 state properties . , : 235,000,000 various revenues 21,000,000 b, spectut: indirect taxes 910,000,000 siate enterprises miscellaneous total . 1,120,000,000 £6,000,000 11,910,000,000 public debt.— according to figures published by the inspectorate- general of the ministry for finance, the consolidated public debt stood as follows in 1926:— amount in 1926 | annual pay- dinars ment: dinars tr. pre-war debts 2,217,630,960 125,159,576 2. war debts. 15,312,967,707. | (not commenced) | 3. post-war debts . , 6,054,989,870 293,204,827 4. debts arising from the innsbruck agreement 1,353,291,749 48,293,213 total (dinars) . 24,935,880, 2387 467,288,316 the statistical data given above are based mainly upon an “ economic survey of yugoslavia ’’ (compiled for the department of overseas trades, and published in no. 11 of the slavonic review) and on ‘' economic resources and problems of yugoslavia,’ by miss m. r. shackleton (scottish geograph. afag., nov. 1925). (r. w. s.-w.) yukon territory (sce 28.945), a territory of the dominion of canada.. with the decline of the gold-mining industry, the population decreased from 27,219 in 1901 to 8,512 in rg1i and 4,157in 1921. in ror8 anamendment to the yukon act abolished the council of the yukon and the territory 1s now administered by the northwest territories branch of the canadian depart- ment of the interior. law and order are enforced by members of the royal canadian mounted police. the yukon is repre- sented in the dominion parliament by one member in the house of commons. the mincral production in 1923 was valued at $2,972,823. placer gold is still the principal mineral product, the value of the gold output in 1923 being $1,243,287. the yukon has also been a steady producer of silver and in 1923 yielded 1,914,435 oz. valued at $1,241,953. lead production amounted to 6,771,113 lb. worth $486,098. the wide distribution of the ores of gold, copper, silver and lead indicate enormous mining possibilities. coal, of which there are large reserves, 1s mined in small quantities, 313 tons valued at $1,485 being produced in 1923. large game and fur-bearing animals abound. the value of pelts purchased by traders from trappers in the yukon during the season of 1922-3 amounted to $199,522. zaghlul—zanzibar aghlul, saad (1860- _—s—-),, egyptian pasha, was the son of a notable in the district of ibian, gharbia province. he was educated at the village school and afterwards at the university of fe] azhar, in cairo. when he had com- pleted his prescribed course of studies, he was, in 1880, appoint- ed editor of the official journal. later he was nominated a moawin under the ministry of the interior and eventually became chicf of the contentieux for the province of giza. involved in the arabi revolt, he was one of the many notables detained on the occu- pation of egypt by british troops in 1882. on his release he ceased to hold office and in 1884, when the native tribunals were instituted, he began to practice at the bar. in 1892 he was appointed counsellor of the native court of appeal. having become proficient in the french language and in the science of law, he obtained his diploma in law. he became minister of education in 1906, and under his “ enlightened administration ”’ it was said by lord cromer (afodern egypt, vol. il., p. 535) that ‘‘ education in egypt made rapid strides in advance. ” a change of the ministry during lord kitchener’s tenure of the cairo agency resulted in zaghlul’s ceasing to hold the port- folio for education, but he was appointed vice-president of the legislative assembly and he took a special interest in its delib- erations until the outbreak of the world war. on the signing of the armistice zaghlul, who had for long been considered the principal spokesman of the nationalist party, appealed to the residency in cairo for the recognition of egyp- tian independence, basing his demand on president wilson’s self-determination policy to which effect had been given by the british government’s issue of a proclamation defining the status of the other countries liberated from turkish rule by the war. when his proposal that he and some representative nationalists should visit london to press their views was re- fused by the government, he became discontented, and his attitude was so hostile that he and three others were arrested on march 8 1919 and deported to malta. this was the signal for a murderous outbreak in egypt in which british officers and others were killed and the country became much disturbed. zaghlul and his friends were later released by lord allenby, and freedom of travel, which war measures had hitherto restricted, was per- mitted to all. a special mission under the chairmanship of viscount milner was sent to egypt in nov. 1919 to inquire into matters and make representations. zayhlul eventually came to london and discussions between him, adly pasha and lord milner took place, the results of which were published in the “* milner report. ” zaghlul returned to egypt early in 1921, where he represented the extreme nationalist party in opposition to the more moderate ministry under the presidency of adly pasha. at the end of the year, when the trouble again broke out in egypt, zaghlul was arrested once more and deported, first to aden and then to the seychelles. in sept. 1922 he was transferred to gibraltar, whence he was released on april 4 1923, on the grounds of ill- health. after the promulgation of the new constitution, martial law was abolished and zaghlul was free to return to egypt. an enthusiastic reception was accorded to him on his landing at alexandria and in the elections of jan. 1924 his supporters gained an overwhelming majority. yehia ibrahim pasha resigned and zaghlul formed a ministry. the question of the evacuation of the sudan now became prominent and conversations took place in london (sept. 25—oct. 3) between the egyptian and british prime ministers; zaghlul refused to modify his intran- sigent attitude and returned to egypt. on nov. 19 1924 sir lee stack, the sirdar, was assassinated and zaghlul was forced to resign. (see egypt.) zagreb, yugoslavia (see 1.382).—zagreb or agram has increased largely in population (79,083 in 1910; 108,338 in 1921), as the influx of officials and business men since the formation of the state of yugoslavia has outweighed the exodus of magyars 1135 and germans. zagreb is the second city of the kingdom and its financial and commercial centre. it is also the home of an aris- tocracy and a seat of culture on a level with more famous euro- pean centres. previously the centre of the yugoslav movement, it is now particularist and croat in sympathy. the modern part of the town, with tall buildings, wide streets and large open spaces, stands in a long narrow tract between the levels along the river sava and the ridge on which the old town, with its narrow winding streets, is situated. an exchange was opened in 1919, and additions have been made to the buildings of the medical faculty at the university, but little building is in progress. a hydroelectric station has been planned, but sufficient capital was not forthcoming in 1925. the chief industries are the manu- facture of linen, leather and tobacco. a trade fair is held twice yearly, and a motor exhibition was instituted in 1924 and is intended to be annual. work is in progress on a railway to unite zagreb with spalato (spljet) and sebenico (sibenik). there were nationalist disturbances in the town in 1912, and the two military courts of justice which sat here during the world war were considered too strongly croat in sympathy by the authorities at vienna and budapest, so that in 1918 prisoners on trial for treason or military offences were sent to bratislava (pressburg). in that year, when the austrian empire was break- ing up, an independent nationalist body assembled at zagreb. in 1924 there was serious rioting between the croat nationalists and the yugoslav sokols at a meeting of these patriotic athletic societies in the town. zaimis, alexander (185s5s- _—+), -greck statesman, was born in athens oct. 28 1855, and came of a family of politicians. entering public life rather from duty than ambition, zaimis became the “ utility man ” of greek politics; thus he was first appointed prime minister in oct. 1897, to clear up the aftermath of the disastrous greco-turkish war. resigning in 1899, after having accomplished that task, he again became premier after the ‘‘ gospel riots ” had caused the fall of theotokes in nov. 1901, but succumbed to the majority which supported his uncle, deliyannes, in 1902. in sept. 1906 he was appointed high commissioner of the powers in crete, a post which he held until 1911. in 1913 he was appointed governor of the national bank. he became premier for the third time in oct. 1915, but returned to the bank after a month’s office, emerging, however, to resume the premiership in june 1916. he became for the fifth time premier in 1917, and announced to king constantine the decision of the three protecting powers that he must abdi- cate. he then retired again to the national bank, but was removed on the restoration of king constantine. after the king’s second abdication, sept. 1922, zaimis refused a sixth premiership, and was talked of as a possible president. zangwill, israel, (1864-1926) english man of letters, (sce 28.956) died aug. 1 1926. zanzibar (see 28.958) had a population (1921) of 221,925, including 295 europeans and 18,965 asiatics, mostly british indians. in 1924 the population had fallen to 203,265 (zanzibar island 115,616; pemba island 87,649). with the development of trade direct between mombasa and dar-es-salaam and oversea ports, zanzibar has lost its pre-eminence as the entrepdet for the commerce of east africa, but zanzibar and pemba islands continued to provide the greater part of the world’s supply of cloves. the port, too, still commands the coastwise trade with the mainland, and the very considerable dhow traffic with arabia and persia. history.—the sultan (sayyid) ali bin hamud, a young man educated at harrow and fond of travel, abdicated in rorr. (he died in paris in 1918). his successor, sayyid khalifa bin harud (born 1879) was a great nephew of sultan bargash. sayyid khalifa showed the greatest loyalty to the british connection, and, as the leading moslem prince in east africa his moderating influence did much to steady moslem opinion in 1136 zekbrugge, that part of africa during the world war. the most dramatic incident of the war, for zanzibar, was the sinking of the ancient british cruiser “ pegasus ’’ by the german cruiser ‘‘ kenigs- berg’ on sept. 20 1914, the ‘* pegasus ’’ being at the time at anchor in zanzibar roadstead, undergoing repairs. in july 1913 the control of the protectorate was transferred from the forcign to the colonial office. the governor of british east africa (kenya colony) was appointed high commissioner of zanzibar, the local administration being in the hands of a british resident. the high commissioner had, however, little time to spare from kenya to supervise the affairs of zanzibar, where local feeling was also against centralisation. in sept. 1925 the high commissionership was abolished and the british resident became directly responsible to the colonial office. in 1926 the purely advisory council which had existed for some years was superseded by a nominated legislative council, with six unofficial members, holding their seats for three years. of this council the british resident is president, and has a casting vote. economic conditions —trade 1s largely dependent on the clove harvest, the only other important industry, apart from trans-shipment of goods, being the production of copra from the coco-nut palm. in poor seasons profits are precarious, for the islands are dependent upon the free immigration of labour from the mainland and rates of pay are high. many of the arabs, who own the large clove plantations, are backward in the syste- matic planting of new trees—the only means of indefinitely maintaining supplies, all land suitable for cloves being under cultivation. the average clove crop for the 20 years end- ing 1924 was 512,000 fraslas; the crop for 1924-5 was over 700,000 fraslas. (a frasla equals 35 ib. avoirdupois.) for copra the average yicld for 10 yearsending 1923 was 534,000 fraslas; in 1924 the yield was the highest recorded, being 988,000 fraslas. the copra, however, is generally of poor quality. during 1920-5 improvements at zanzibar harbour included the building of a concrete wharf 800 ft. long, and the erection of a clove depdet and goods sheds. the loss of part of its transit trade was shown in the shipping returns. the tonnage of ship- ping using the port was 1,503,000 in 1913 and 1,068,000 in 1924. the trade returns, with the rise in the price of commodities, showed an increase. imports were valued at £1,103,000 in 1913 and at {2,223,000 in 1924. exports in 1913 were valued at {1,048,000 and in 1924 at £2,286,000. trade is mostly with india, tanganyika and great britain. the chief source of revenue is the customs. revenue increased from £275,000 in 1913 to £589,000 in 1923 and was £498,000 in 1924. expenditure in 1913 was £248,000, in 1923 £480,000 and in 1924 £452,000. _ breltiocrapity—annual reports issued by the colonial office, london, and the east african red book (nairobi, periodically); j. e. craster, pemba, the spice island of zanzibar (1913); major fb. b. pearce (sometime british resident) zanzibar, the island metropolis of eastern africa (1920); zanzibar: an account of tts beople, industries and history (zanzibar, 1924). (f. r. c.) zeebrugge, attack on.—on april 22-3 1918, an attack was made by british forces on the german submarine bases at zeebrugge and ostend in order to block the entrance to the bruges ship canal and bar all passage to the flanders flotilla of submarines. at both zeebrugge and ostend the entrances are narrow (about 300 ft. wide) running between two piers. at zeebrugge on the west side of the entrance a great mole sweeps out for 13 m. to a lighthouse at the end where the germans had erected a battery of three 5-g-in. and six 4-in. guns. british plan of attack.—the general plan of attack was simple. supported by the fire of two monitors, a cruiser was to assault ‘the mole on its outer side and divert the german fire from three blocking ships which were to dash in and be scuttled in the en- trance. a short viaduct joining the mole to the shore was to be blown up by a submarine. ostend was to be blocked simultane- ously by two blocking ships. the whole coast bristled with guns and the chance of success depended largely on an effective smoke screen. the attacking forces.—the attacking force consisted of the old cruiser ‘‘ vindictive ” (5,750 tons displacement, 320 ft. long, 24 attack on ft. draught) armed with ro 6-in. guns and specially equipped with one rr-in. and two 7-s5—in. howitzers, stokes’ mortars, tlame throwers, lewis guns and pom-poms. she was commanded by capt. alfred b. carpenter (awarded v.c.); she carried a storm- ing party of 1,030 sailors under capt. henry halahan and 750 royal marines under lt.-col. bertram elliott; she was sup- ported by two liverpool ferry boats, the “ iris iit. ’’ (comm. valentine gibbs) and “ daffodil” (lt. harold g. campbell). her task was to storm the mole. the blocking ships were the old cruisers “ thetis ”” (comm. r. s. sneyd), “ intrepid ” (lt. stuart bonham-carter) and “ iphigenia” (lt. e. w. billyard- leake). behind them were 13 destroyers under capt. wilfred ‘tomkinson, 18 coastal motor boats (55 ft. long, 3 ft. draught, 35 knots, two 18-in. torpedoes) under lt. arthur welman, and 33 motor launches for smoke screens and inshore rescue work. submarine c. 3 (lt. richard sandford) was to blow up the via- duct. in command was rear-adml. roger keyes with his flag in the destroyer “‘ warwick.”’ at ostend the blocking attempt was to be made by two old cruisers, the “ brilliant ” (comm. alfred e. godsal) and “ sirius ” (lt. comm. h. n. hardy) sup- ported by five bombarding monitors, eight british and six french destroyers with 18 motor launches under comm. hamilton benn. es daffodil ete? pasicer. ee aes as noi zeebrugge april 22-23 1918 scale b lighthouse £3 5-sun (101 1b) ee nares — oe 47 v > na ? en a fd = “2 depth in entrance, low water zofe =) is a pee lepm. wft{approx) eh pm. fwtrepid pc between lohigenta &per about 60f* yt 459 4 760 yds.to westward the atlack.—the force started at 4:53 p.m. on monday, april 22; the bombardment was to open at 11:20 p.m.; the smoke screen was to start at 11:40 p.m.; the “vindictive” was to reach zee- brugge mole at midnight; the first blocking ship was to pass the lighthouse at 12:25 a.m. twelve miles from zeebrugge, the force took up its formation for attack. the night was overcast with a light wind from the northeast; the small craft dispersed and soon a thick cloud of smoke began to rol] down the coast, shroud- ing everything from sight. but as the “ vindictive ” neared the shore, the wind shifted to the southward and the smoke screen drifted back. a glare of searchlights fastened on her and under a tornado of fire the storming party drawn up ready to rush ashore suffered heavily and lost both its leaders. the intention was to run alongside the mole close to the battery, but a sluicing tide carried the ship about 300 yd. farther on. the storming of the mole—it was one minute past midnight when the “ vindictive ” ran alongside the mole. this was a criti- cal moment, for the rush of the three-knot tide created a heavy swell which threw the ship off the mole, but the little ‘‘ daffodil” came up and, butting the ship bodily into the mole, enabled the storming party to get ashore. they got ashore but a mass of barbed wire lay between them and the battery. as they were gathering for the assault, a great sheet of flame rose with a roar into the sky. the viaduct had gone up. lt. sandford had jammed c.3 with 5} tons of amatol successfully into it. it was 12:20a. m. there was fighting on the mole and here captain bamford and able seaman mackenzie won v.cs. by 12:50 the blocking ships were in and the ‘‘ daffodil’s ” siren blared out the order to relire. zeppelin, ferdinand—zinc the retirement.—the storming party retired in perfect order, bringing their wounded with them. capt. t. m. palmer refused to leave the shore and was subsequently numbered among the missing men for whom he had waited. the ‘ daffodil ” pulled the “ vindictive’s ”’ bows off the mole. the “ iris i[.’’ came under a heavy fire; and her commander and maj. chas. eagle were mortally wounded, but licutenant spencer, himself seriously wounded, steered her clear, while motor-launch 558 hid her in a friendly cloud. action of the blocking ships—-meanwhile the three blocking ships had passed in under a storm of shell. the ‘ thetis ” fouled a net and ran aground. the ‘ intrepid ” ran right into the canal and lt. bonham carter blew the explosive charges, then with six others got on board a carley raft and was picked up by m. l. 282 (lt. percy dean, awarded the v.c.). the cap- tain of the “ iphigenia ’’ found himself heading for the western pier, but going hard astern managed to make the entrance, drove into the gap between the “‘ intrepid ” and eastern bank, and blew the charges. the crews were saved by the motor launches. by 1:30 a.m. it was all over and the ships were on their way back. the destroyer “ morning star’ had come under a heavy fire and had to be abandoned and sunk. the ostend operations.—at ostend things had gone badly. the smoke cloud was blown back; the mark buoy had been moved and both blocking ships ran ashore three-quarter mile east of the entrance. on may g-1o0 another attempt was made by commander godsal in the “ vindictive.”” under a heavy fire in which the com- mander was killed, the ship under lt. victor crutchly just made the entrance and grounded. the crew was saved by two motor launches, under lt. geoff. drummond and lt. rowland bourke, both of whom were awarded the v.c. the casualties in these two attempts amounted to 637 (killed 197, wounded 413, miss- ing 27). zeebrugge was closed for a time, the flanders sub- marines received a check, and the measure of the enterprise lies in the nine v.cs. which were awarded for it. bip_iogrraeny.—p. hislam, mow we twisted the dragon's tail (1918); keble howard, the glory of zeebrugge (1918); a. h. pollen, lhe navy in battle (1918); c. s. terry, zeebrugge and ostend dis- patches (1919). (see also worrld war: bisliograppny.) (a.c. d.) zeppelin, ferdinand, count von (1838-1917), german airship inventor, was born at constance, baden, july 8 1838. he was educated for the army and received a commission at the age of 20. he served, as a volunteer, in the federal army during the american civil war and whilst in america made his first balloon ascent. returning to germany he saw active service in the austrian war of 1866 and in the franco-german war of 1870. in 1891 he retired from the army with the rank of gencral and thenceforth devoted his energies to the study of acronautics. in 1900 he built an airship, which rose from the ground and re- mained in the air for 20 minutes, but was wrecked in landing. in 1906 he made two successful flights at a speed of 30m. an hour, and in 1907 attained a speed of 36 miles. from that time onwards his airship construction made steady progress, and the success he had achieved was evidenced by the exploits of the zeppelin airship in the world war (sce arrsuip). he died at charlottenburg march 8 1917. zeromski, stephen (1864-1925), polish novelist, poet and dramatist, was born at strawczyn nov. 14 1864. ban- ished from poland by the russian govt. carly in his life, he first attracted attention by a collection of tragic tales entitled lhe ravens and the crows are picking us to pieces (1895, eng. tr. 1906). in the publication of the homeless (1900) zeromski supplied a generic name for all his polish heroes. his philosophy, full of symbolic pessimism, is clearly expounded in the novel aryman takes revenge (1904), while the triumph of evil over good is vividly treated in the story of sin (1906, 2 vol.) describing the slow and terrible downfall of a woman of culture. in his epic poem asses (1904, 2 vol.) he delineates the minds of the polish people after the partition and their efforts to liber- ate their country by serving in the napoleonic legions. during the world war zeromski published his great trilogy the fight with satan—the conversion of judas (1916), the blizzard (1918), 1137 charitas (1919)—a kind of epilogue and synthesis of his previous work and at the same time an autobiography of his own life. after the polish achievement of national independence, zeromski turned to the drama, finally producing the broken spell (1924) in which the hero dedicates himself to the services of a resusci- tated poland. he died nov. 20 1925. see s. brzozowski, o stefan zeromski (\varsaw, 1905); w. jampotski, stefan zeromski, the spirttual leader of the race (lwoew, igi8). zichy, eugen count (1837-10906), hungarian traveller (see 28.979), died at merano, italy, on dec. 26 1906. ziem, felix francois george philibert (1821-1011), french painter (sce 28.979), died in paris nov. 11 1911. zimmermann, arthur (1859- ),german diplomat was born may 8 1859 at frankenstein. after having been vice- consul at shanghai and acting consul in 1900 at tientsin, he entered the forcign office in 1902 and rose by ro1o tobe a director of the political section. in rort he was appointed under-secre- tary, and in nov. 1916 secretary of state in succession to von jagow. in this capacity he addressed to america the note of jan. 31 1917 on the subject of u-boat warfare. he was also the author of the invitation of jan. 19 1917 to mexico to enter into alliance with germany and to sound japan as to her willingness to co-operate. for mexico the price of this alliance was to be the american states of new mexico, texas and arizona. this proposal, which was sent through the medium of von eckhardt the german minister to mexico, was intercepted in america and president wilson was in a position to publish it on march 1 1917. the disclosure was one of the primary causes resulting in america’s declaration of war upon germany. zimmermann rctired on aug. 5 1917, shortly after the resignation of beth- mann hollweg. zinc (sce 28.981).—the united states is the principal pro- ducer of both zinc ore and spelter. the goplin area in missouri is the principal region, but large deposits are worked in the upper mississippi region, franklin furnace (new jersey) and, since the application of improved methods of zinc concentration, in the western states. australia is next to the united states as a zinc produccr, most of the ore being obtained from the broken hill district (new south wales). tasmania also has important deposits and occurrences are known in queensland and western australia. in canada, the most important deposits of the metal occur in british columbia and quebec, these two provinces sharing practically the whole of the canadian production in the pro- portions of four-fifths and one-fifth respectively. the principal countries in europe participating in the zinc industry are germany, italy, poland and spain. for many years germany ranked second only to the united states. her most important deposits were in upper silesia, which yielded about three-fourths of the total german production. before the war the european industry was almost wholly controlled by the german zinc convention, a widespread organisation for the control of pro- duction and selling prices. in italy the chief mines now worked are in sardinia, though occurrences of ore are found in lombardy, piedmont and tus- cany. during the post-war period poland produced more zinc ore than any other european country, her richest mines being situated in silesia; her exports in 1923 amounted to 80,000 long tons. in spain the chief zinc-mining centres are in the provinces of santander and murcia. the ores of santander are mainly calamine, while those of murcia are principally blende and galena. mention should be made of the zinc-ores mined in the united kingdom. these are almost invariably blende associated with galena, and occur chiefly in north wales, the north of england, the isle of man and at dumfries in scotland. the ores occur in veins traversing the paleozoic rocks of those regions. the number of producing mines is considerable, but the output is small. in the table on the following page the production of zinc in the principal countries of the world is set out for the three years, 1913, 1918 and 1923. / | 1138 zinoviev—zionism zionism (sce 28.986).—when the zionist organisation was founded in 1897, it set to work with a clear-cut programme. with the consent of the powers, a charter for the colonisation of pales- secured, the jews were to be systematically settled in palestine en masse. till then, the zionist organisation was to hold its hand and keep its resources intact. the porte was duly ap- proached and desultory negotiations followed. opinion in the movement became sharply divided. the “ practical ” zionists, who included most of the zionist leaders in russia, pressed for an immediate start to be made in palestine. the “ political ” zionists whose strength was in western and long tons i9i3 1918 1923 united states 309,532 462,435 455,745 australia 4,121 9,444 41,153 canada at 11,227 26,972 germany 279,000 232,000 349,400 italy . i 1,169 3,622 poland 10,331 i 90,000 spain . ; : 5,907 15,644 10,746 united kingdom 66,000 50,000 27,530 belgium ; 200,938 9,096 144,677 france 66,799 18,052 48,541 japan . a 39,203 13,671 brsliograpity.—l. c. ball, “ the etheridge mineral field,” dueensland geological survey, no. 245 (1915); j. c.moulden, “ zinc; its production and industrial applications,” jour. roy. sec. arts, vol. 64, pp. 495-513, 517-529 (1916); a. stansfield, ‘‘ canadian zinc resources,’ canadian mining institute bull. 52 (1916); w. l. uglow, ‘‘ lead and zinc deposits in ontario and in eastern canada,” rep. ontario bur.mines, vol. 25, pt. 2 (1916); j.c. brown, “‘ geology and ore deposits of the bawdwin mines,” records geol. surv. india, vol. 48 (1917); zinc ores, imperial institute monographs on mineral resources (1917); a. ©m. sen, ‘“‘ notes on the occurrence of lead, zinc and antimony ores in mysore,” dept. afines and geology, mysore state, pp. 9-20 (1917); t. e. lones, zine and its allovs (1919); w. versfeld, ‘‘ the base metal resources of the union of s. africa,’ dept. mines and industry of union of s. africa (1919). for full bibliography see impcrial mineral resources bureau, the mineral industry of the british empire and foreign countries 1913- 20, pp. gi-104 (1921). (n. m. pr.) zinoviev, grigory evseevich (1883- ), russian politician, was born in sept. 1883 at elisavetgrad (zinovievsk). he studied chemistry and later law at bern university, switzer- land. he was active as a revolutionary before he was 20 and in 1903 met lenin. he joined the left or bolshevik wing of the russian social democratic party, of which lenin was head. he was head of the bolshevik party in bern and during 1903-4 started bolshevik propaganda in south russia. apart from his activitics abroad, he came into prominence in russia during 1906-8 as a member of the bolshevik st. petersburg committee of the r.s.d.p., by his organisation of the attempted kronstadt rising after the dispersal of the first duma, his editorship of the bolshevik paper v pered (forward), and of the social democrat, the central organ of the party. in 1908 he was arrested and imprisoned but was released, the authorities being unaware of his identity. hethen went abroad and did not return until the revolution in march 1917. during these nine years zinoviev did not cease to work for his party. he was a membcr of the central committee, co- editor of the principal bolshevik publications, and representative of the party at the copenhagen congress of the international. in 1912 he went with lenin to galicia to control from the nearest possible point the growing labour movement tn kussia. in galicia he founded the forcign bureau of the central committee, which guided the party work in russia and the activities of the bolshevik group in the duma. during the world war the conflict between the bolshevik party and the social democrats increased. zinoviev edited with lenin against the tide, a work of propaganda against the imperialist war; and at the zimmer- wald conference (1915) they began to organise the communist international. on the outbreak of the march revolution (1917) they returned to russia and at once set to work to prepare the way for the nov. revolution. zinovicv was co-editor of the pravda and, after its suppression, of the prolefarian and the worker. he thus became one of the leading figures in the union of socialist soviet republics. in 1919 he was elected president of the communist international, and after the death of lenin in 1924 was one of the most jealous upholders of pure “ leninism. ’ his influence lasted until 1926, but in june of that year he was expelled from the political bureau. a prolific writer, he published many volumes of collected essays and speeches, which form a comprehensive guide to the problems of the revolution and of the reconstruction of soviet russia. cz. vo central europe, still clung to the charter as an essential pre- requisite, protesting that zionist resources should not be dissi- pated on petty colonisation. the “ practical” zionists won their first important success in 1908, when a zionist agency was established at jaffa. at the tenth zionist congress, which met at basle in 1911, they came for the first time into control, and they maintained their ascendancy at the eleventh congress— the last before the war—which met at vienna in 1913. the political field was not abandoned, but the movement now threw itself more and more vigorously into the actual settlement of jews on the soil of palestine. for this purpose its main financial instrument was the jewish national fund, which in 1914 owned property in palestine to the value of £144,000, as compared with £35,000 in 1909 and £11,000 in 1907, when its active operations began. the marked quickening of the pace which dates from i9to reflects the change in the direction of zionist policy, though the resources of the movement were still small in comparison with those which were lavished upon the jewish settlements in palestine by baron edmond de rothschild. i. from 1910 to the british mandate practical zionism was at first inclined to concern itself solely with colonisation. but between 1910 and 1914 other aspects of the movement were beginning to come into the foreground. in 1913 the efeventh zionist congress, while approving an ambi- tious programme of rural colonisation, resolved at the same time that steps should be taken towards the early establishment in jcrusalem of a hebrew university. almost immediately after- wards, the zionist organisation found itself drawn into the con- flict precipitated by the policy of the hilfsverein der deutschen juden, a german-jewish body which controlled a number of educational institutions in palestine. the hilfsverein laid itself open to the charge of favouring german at the expense of hebrew as the language of instruction. the teachers rebelled, and many of the schools had to close. at this point the zionist organisation stepped into the breach by opening hebrew schools of its own, and on the eve of the war, the maintenance of these schools was the principal rallying-point of zionist enthusiasm. between toro and ror4 the organisation considerably enlarged its com- mitments in palestine, and its influence was much extended. the war period.—the outbreak of the world war in rora, followed almost immediately by the intervention of turkey on the side of the central powers, brought zionist work in pales- tine to a standstill and threatened the integrity of the zionist organisation itself. the movemcnt was essentially international, and ils complicated constitulion was unworkable in a world at war. at the end of 1914, a zionist bureau was established on neutral soil at copenhagen. meanwhile, the american zionists, acting on their own initiative, had already set up a “ provisional executive committee for general zionist affairs’ under the chairmanship of mr. (later supreme court justice) l. d. bran- deis. this body remained active throughout the war and played a part of growing importance in the direction of zionist policy. other groups organised themselves as best they could elsewhere, but though the organisation was thus kept in being, its machinery was thrown out of gear, and at the close of the war, it found that in the interval the balance of forces within the movement had completely changed. a new world was in the making, and it was now at least con- ceivable that the zionists might secure something like the charter zionism on which they had originally staked their hopes. political zion- ism was again in the ascendant. the initiative was taken by a group of zionists in great britain, headed by dr. chaim weiz- mann of manchester university. dr. weizmann was soon to become the foremost figure in the zionist movement and the president of the zionist organisation, but in 1914, though al- ready prominent, he was not within the inner circle. not long after the outbreak of war, dr. weizmann and his friends were brought into touch with a number of influential public men, including mr. lloyd george, mr. herbert samuel, mr. balfour and mr. c. p. scott of the manchester guardian. what the zionists proposed was, in effect, that great britain should make it an avowed part of her policy to provide in the peace settlement for the establishment in palestine of a national home for the jews. their desire was that the national home should be under british protection. palestine was still in turkish hands, and great britain could not in any case think of moving in the matter without consultation with her allies. there was, however, even at this early stage, a growing body of british opinion which was sympathetically interested in the zionist view of the jewish problem and of the part which great britain might play in solving it. by the beginning of 1916 the british govt. had come to the conclusion that there were other and more practical reasons for taking zionism seriously. in a memorandum dated march 13 1916, the british ambassador in leningrad (petrograd) informed the then foreign minister, m. sazonov, that “ the attention of his majesty’s govt. had recently been drawn to the question of jewish colonisation in palestine’ and that ‘ a numerous and most intluential section of jewry in all countries would highly appreciate the proposal of an agreement concerning palestine which would fully satisfy jewish aspirations.”’ this memoran- dum has, up to the present, only been published in an official collection of documents from the archives of the russian foreign office, but there is no reason to doubt its authenticity. this was on the eve of the anglo-french accord defining the sphere of interest of the two powers in the middle east. in the sykes- picot agreement, as it is commonly called, zionist interests were disregarded, and when the zionist leaders in england formally laid their proposals before the british govt. in oct. 1916, there was no immediate response. the balfour decluration—meanwhile, a new situation was developing in the eastern theatre of war, and a british conquest of palestine was becoming a possibility of the near future. at the same time, the hour of decision was approaching in the united states, where there was a jewish population of over 3,000,000, while russia, where the jews were still more numerous, was steadily drifting into chaos. a declaration in favour of zionism would help to rally jewish opinion throughout the world to the side of the allies. further, the settlement in palestine of a jewish population attached to great britain by ties of interest and sentiment might well be of value in guaranteeing the perma- nent security of the approaches to the suez canal. to these practical motives was added a genuine desire to contribute towards the solution of the jewish problem, in which british statesmen had shown themselves sympathetically interested long before the war. all these considerations played their part in bringing the british govt. into closer relations with the zionist leaders. with sir mark sykes as the principal intermediary, an exchange of views began in feb. 1917, with the result that on nov. 2 the foreign secretary, mr. balfour, wrote to lord rothschild:— dear lord rothschild—i have much pleasure in conveying to you on behalf of his majesty's government the following declaration of sympathy with jewish zionist aspirations, which has been submitted to and approved by the cabinet: ‘‘ his majesty's government view with favour the establishment in palestine of a national home for the jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done whicn may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-jewish communities in palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by jews in any other country.”’ i should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the zionist federation. t1139 the balfour declaration, as it has come to be called, was the act of great britain, but it was issued with the knowledge and concurrence of the allied powers. the french govt. had actu- ally anticipated the balfour declaration by publicly expressing its general sympathy with zionist aims as early as june ro17. france formally associated herself with the declaration in feb. 1918, and italy in the following may. as for the united states, president wilson had personally intervened to make it clear that he would welcome a british pronouncement in favour of zionism, and soon after the declaration was issued, he publicly expressed his satisfaction. in 1922 resolutions associating the united states with the policy embodied in the declaration were unanimously adopted by both houses of congress. at the in- stance of great britain, a zionist delegation was given a hearing by the peace conference in paris on feb. 27 ro19, but it was not until april 24 1920 that the supreme council of the allies, at its meeting at san remo, formally agreed that palestine should be placed under a british mandate and that great britain should be responsible for carrying the balfour declaration into effect. british mandate for palestine —in dec. 1920, the proposed terms of the palestine mandate were submitted by the british govt. to the league of nations for confirmation by the council. there was a succession of unforeseen delays, but a slightly modi- fied draft was eventually approved by the council at its meeting in london on july 24 1922. a few weeks earlier, the british govt. had issued a statement of british policy in palestine, in which it interpreted the balfour declaration as meaning, ‘‘ not the imposition of a jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of palestine as a whole, but the further development of the existing jewish community, in order that it may become a centre in which the jewish people, as a whole, may take, on grounds of religion and race, an interest and a pride.” the mandate came into full operation on sept. 29 1923. in its final form, it recites the balfour declaration in the preamble, and includes among its provisions various articles dealing with jewish immigration, the settlement of jews on state and waste lands, the use of hebrew as one of the official languages, and the status of the zionist organisation, which is recognised as a public body entitled to advise and co-operate with the manda- tory government in matters affecting jewish interests. the organisation is, at the same time, required to take steps to secure the co-operation of all jews who are willing to associate themselves with it in the establishment of the jewish national home. with this end in view, the organisation has opened nego- tiations with representative jewish bodies in great britain, the united states and elsewhere, and in 1925 the fourteenth zionist congress resolved that an immediate effort should be made to build up a jewish agency for palestine on the broadest possible basis. when the balfour declaration was issued, it was acclaimed with enthusiasm in almost every part of the jewish world, but it caused some anxicty among a minority who feared that the establishment of a jewish national home in palestine might impair their status as citizens of their respective countries. these fears cannot be said to have been completely dispelled, but though there are still many jews who hesitate to call them- selves zionists, there is a growing tendency among jews of all shades of opinion to unite in the practical work which is being done in palestine under zionist auspices. ii. the new regime in palestine although a zionist commission was sent to palestine, with the approval of the british govt., in the spring of 1918, little prac- tical work could be done until well after the close of the war. the foundation stone of the hebrew university of jerusalem was laid on mount scopus in july 1918, but the zionist com- mission was mainly pre-occupied with relief work in the liberated areas, where the jewish settlements had suffered severely from the direct and indirect effects of the war. zionism at work.—the return to normal conditions was marked by the san remo decision of april 1920, which was followed by the establishment in palestine of a civil administra- tion in the following july. subject to the general control of the 1140 government, the zionist organisation was now for the first time in a position to bring in immigrants and to purchase land. between the close of the war and sept. 30 1925, about 67,000 jewish immigrants have entered palestine, including 8,517 in 1921, 7,844 in 1922, 7,421 in 1923, 12,856 in 1924 and about 21,000 in the first nine months of 1925. during the same period there have been about 10,000 jewish emigrants, of whom about two-fifths were pre-war settlers, leaving a net immigration of 57,000. the jewish population, which was about 90,000 in 1914, was reduced during the war to about 55,000. it was found to be 84,000 at the census of oct. 1922, was officially estimated at 108,000 in march 1925 and must have risen by the end of the year to close on 130,000 or nearly 16% of the total population. in march 1925 the number of jews on the land was estimated at 23,000 or 21% of the jewish population, as compared with 15,000 or 18° in oct. 1922. at the same date the total area of land in jewish possession was 319 sq. m. as compared with 177 sq. m. in 1914. with the exception of about 20 sq. m. of state and waste lands, all the land acquired since the war has been bought, often at inflated prices, in the open market, and in addi- tion to the heavy expenditure in which they have thus been involved, the jewish national fund and other jewish bodies have had to sink large amounts of capital in improvements, including in particular the drainage of marshes. at the same time there has been considerable increase, which has been par- ticularly marked since 1924, in the jewish population of the three leading towns, jerusalem, jaffa and haifa. in the neigh- bourhood of jaffa, the jews have built up the separate township of tel aviv, which had in aug. 1925, a population of 34,000 as compared with 13,000 in dec. 1922, and 2,000 in aug. igr4. the rapid growth of the towns is connected with the industrial development of palestine, which in turn is largely due to the influx of private jewish capital. in march 1925, it was officially estimated that since the war 150 industrial enterprises had been established in palestine, representing in the aggregate an invest- ment of £1,200,000, of which more than 90% was jewish. an important factor in the industrial and general development of palestine is the palestine electric corporation, which has been financed from zionist and other jewish sources and which is already supplying jaffa with electric light and power. education.—since the war, the zionist organisation has largely extended the scope of its educational work in palestine. at the end of 1924 it controlled 132 schools of various grades, with 550 teachers and 13,000 pupils. a jewish technical institute was opened at haifa in feb. 1925 and the zionist organisation also maintains an agricultural institute at tel aviv. in april 1925, lord balfour formally inaugurated the hebrew university of jerusalem, which consists at present of three research msti- tutes, devoted respectively to chemistry, microbiology and tropical medicine and jewish and oriental studies. in all these institutions the language of instruction is hebrew, which has already become the jewish vernacular in palestine and is the mother-tongue of the whole of the new generation. an impor- tant branch of zionist work in palestine is that represented by the hadassah medical organisation, which at the end of 1924 maintained five hospitals and 39 clinics, five laboratories and a rentgen institute, with a total staff of 63 physicians and bac- teriologists. in its maternity and infant welfare work, which forms an important part of its activities, the hadassah co-oper- ates with the women’s international zionist organisation. the entire expenditure of the zionist organisation is defrayed by voluntary contributions from jews in all parts of the world. on nov. 30 1925 its total receipts since 1917 amounted to £3,- 000,002. during approximately the same period, the jewish national fund, which exists for the purchase of land in pales- tine, raised independently a further {1,026,286, making a total of £4,026,288. including the expenditure of ‘other jewish bodies, such as the palestine jewish colonisation association, and the investments of private individuals, the jewish capital brought into palestine since the war was officially estimated at the beginning of 1925 at a total of at least £6,000,000, to which about {2,000,000 must have been added in the course of the year. zobeir rahama—zoology though substantial progress has thus been made, there are zionists who consider that the pace is too slow and who divide the blame between the zionist executive and the british govern- ment. disappointment on this score was expressed at the first two post-war congresses in 1921 and 1923, and came to a head at the fourteenth congress in 1925, when the zionist executive, headed by dr. weizmann, felt obliged to retire from office. there was, however, an immediate revulsion of feeling. dr. weizmann’s leadership, though freely criticised, was felt to be indispensable, and his re-election by an almost unanimous vote implied accep- tance of the cautious policy for which he had always stood. caution is essential, if only in view of the presence of the arabs, who still form more than 80° of the population of palestine. the arabs did not take kindly to the balfour declaration, which they not altogether unnaturally misconstrued, and for some time after the war there was a tense situation which might easily have become dangerous. there were anti-jewish dem- onstrations in jerusalem in 1920, and 95 jewish and arab lives were lost in six days’ rioting in and near jaffa in 1g21. since - then, however, there has up to the present (1925) been no serious disturbance of the peace. anti-zionist agitation has continued, but even this has shown a tendency to die down. ribliography.—r. gottheil, zionism (1914); h. sacher, ed., zionism and the jewish future (1917); n. sokolow, history of zionism, 2 vol. (1919); zionism, handbook prepared under the historical section of the foreign office, no. 162 (1920); hi. m. kallen, zionism and world politics (1921); afemoranda submitted to the league of nations by the zionist organisation (1922, 1924, 1925); l. simon and l. stein, ed., awakening palestine (1923): report of the high commissioner on the administration of palestine 1920-5 (white paper, colonial no. 15, 1925); l. stein, zionism (1925). (las) zobeir rahama (1830-1013), egyptian pasha (see 28.992), died at geili, near khartoum, jan. 5 1913. zoology (see 28.1022) the scheme of classification pro- posed in rg1o0 requires but little modification except in the verte- brata; in this group considerable advances have been made. (see distribution of animals.) the biological exploration of the continents and oceans has been carried on in all parts of the world, and the great museums have been enriched with enormous collections of both recent and extinct animals. thus the zoological specimens in the british museum (natural history) increased from 1,300,000 in 1882 to 3,000,000 in 1904, and in 1926 number more than 6,000,000, of which 4,000,c0o are insects. the systematist not only has to study much larger collections than formerly, but he has also to master a vastly greater literature; in addition, a more detailed and critical analysis 1s now expected. thus the tendency is to- wards an ever-increasing specialisation. particular attention has been paid to certain groups that directly affect man’s welfare, €.g., as pests of crops or carriers of disease; thus protozoology (q.v.), parasitology (g.v.) and entomology (g.v.) have become in- dependent branches. marine biology also has made great strides, following the recognition of the fact that fishery development and fishery legislation must depend on knowledge of the condi- tions of life in the sea. other branches that have attracted many workers in recent years are the experimental study of heredity (g.v.) and variation, cytology (q.v.) the physiology of develop- ment and animal behaviour. the specialisation which is so characteristic of modern zoology cannot be avoided, but makes it difficult for a worker to keep in touch with the results obtained in other fields, and is partly re- sponsible for the output of hypotheses without application. classification of vertebrata new methods, such as the study of the microscopic structure of scales and of teeth, have revealed unexpected relationships; the more detailed study of anatomy and the discovery of a mul- titude of extinct types hitherto unknown have made the lines of evolution more certain, but have shown that parallelism and con- vergence are much more widespread than had been supposed; as a result classification is more complex, and there is an increas- ing tendency to subdivision. zoology exoskeleton of plates and scales, and the differences between them sir ray lankester recognised (see 28.1022) five classes of cran- iate vertebrates, but was careful to say that the classification was that of the specialist contributors and did not always express his own views; elsewhere he has left us in no doubt as to his opinion that the marsipobranchii (or cyclostomata) form a class apart, and may be regarded as constituting a separate branch, the monorhina, opposed to the remaining classes, which may be collectively termed diplorhina. for some years the selachians have been recognised as a class distinct from the bony fishes, since the differences between them are more fundamental than those that separate the bony fishes from the batrachians. ‘the arrangement of the diplorhina in five classes only is wanting in balance; it would be more reasonable to place all the four-footed vertebrates in one class than to treat the fishes in this way. if we wished to emphasise the principal evolutionary steps we should divide the diplorhina into two main groups, selachians and bony vertebrates, and the latter again into two, pisces and tetrapoda. the acquisition of a bony exoskeleton, including dentigerous praemaxillaries and maxillaries forming a secondary upper jaw, paired frontal and parietal bones, etc., and the de- velopment of an air-bladder or lung, distinguish the pisces from the selachians and indicate their affinity to the tetrapoda, which originated from the pisces by the transformation of the paired fins into pentadactyle limbs. recent detailed work on the palaeozoic fish-like vertebrates by kiaer and stensio has cleared up their relationships, so that the systematic position of palaeospondylus alone remains in doubt. the anaspida and cephalaspida are monorhina, the arthrodira and antiarcha may either be included in the selachii, the defini- tion of which would then have to be modified, or may constitute a class apart, and the heterostraci, as the only diplorhina with gill-pouches, may also rank as a class. thus nine classes of crani- ate vertebrates may be recognised, namely monorhina, heteros- traci, selachii, placodermi, pisces, batrachia, reptilia, aves and mammalia. monorhina.—the most important recent contribution to our knowledge of this group is that of kiaer (1924}, who made an elaborate study of the silurian and devonian anaspida and has shown that these, and also the cephalaspida, agree with the modern lampreys and hagfishes in having an unpaired nostril, and in the form and number of the branchial openings (see fig. 1). ny rae ss = >. ni mia ts if n het res fig. 1.—upper view of head of petromyzen. (a) compared with that of rhyncolepsis (b). in both, the pineal organ is seen between the eyes, and the unpaired nostril in front of it. (from kiaer, vedensk., skrift., kristiania, 1924). the similarity of the microscopic structure of the bony armour of the cephalaspida to that of the diplorhinal antiarcha and arthrodira is an extraordinary example of convergence. kiaer’s researches give a new conccption of the antiquity and diversity of the monorhina. in the anaspida the mouth was a terminal fissure with a distinct lateral cleft,and it may be inferred that the rounded mouth and the toothed protrusible tongue of the modern cyclostomes are specialised features peculiar to them. both the anaspida and cephalaspida had a complete l141 may be in great part due to the fact that the former were free- swimming, whereas the latter lived on the bottom; they parallel the differences between the sharks and the rays. it is probable that the anaspida had no jaws homologous with those of the higher vertebrates, but some of them had the mouth margined above and below with paired plates, which must have functioned as jaws. seluchit.—the selachians (regan, 1906) may be defined as fol- lows: craniate vertebrates with gills supported by visceral arches, one pair of which is modified into jaws. nasal organs paired blind sacs; exoskelcton of dermal denticles, which are typically similar in structure to teeth; no dermal bones; endoskeleton cartilaginous; no air-bladder or lungs; fins with several layers of horny rays on each side; vertebral column with neural and haemal arches and intermuscular ribs; no supra-neural or infra- haemal arches. of the fivesub-classes the palaeozoic pleuropterygii and acan- thodiit are more primitive than the rest in having no mixoptery- gia; the presence of these intromittent organs, which are paired appendages of the pelvic fins, indicates the derivation of the ichthyotomi, euselachii and holocephali from a common stock. in the holocephali the upper jaw is fused with the skull, but the hyoid arch has the same number of elements as the succeeding branchial arches, including a pharyngo-hyal; this primitive con- dition is a clear indication that in the common ancestor of the three sub-classes in which mixopterygia are developed the hyoid arch was not modified for the suspension of the jaws, and con- sequently that the condition in the euselachii, in which the pharyngo-hyal has been lost and the hyomandibular (epi-hyal) articulates with the skull and supports the jaws, has been ac- quired independently and does not indicate relationship to the pisces. some authorities have expressed the view that the old division of the euselachii into sharks and rays is unnatural, and have tried to improve upon it by a classification based upon sup- posed differences in the calcification of the vertebral centra; but a detailed anatomical study has revealed that the sharks and rays are well defined and natural divisions, and that the only group in which the structure of the centra is distinctive is the galeoidea, in which there are four uncalcified areas radiating to the bases of the arches. euselachit.—the euselachii may be classified as follows:— order 1. pleurotremata.— gill openings lateral. pec- toral fins relatively narrow based; propterygial margin free. pec- toral radials typically simple and of few segments. ‘lwo halves of pectoral arch well separated above. pterygo-quadrate attached to cranium, ilyomandibular supporting first hemibranch; ceratohyal unsegmented. sub-order 1. iexanchidae. sub-order 2. galeoidea. families odontaspididae, lamnidae, orectolobidae, scyliorhinidae, carchariidae, sub-order 3. squaloidea. families cochliodentidae, ifybodon- tidae, ileterodontidae, protospinacidae, pristiophoridae, squatidae, squatinidae. the position of the petalodontidae is uncertain; they may not belong to the euselachii. order 2. hypotremata.—gill openings ventral. pectorals broad-based; propterygial margin joined to side of body and head. pectoral radials of many segments, distally bifurcated, extending to free edge of fin. suprascapular cartilages united to vertebral column (batoidea) or meeting above it (narcobatoidea). pterygo-quadrate not attached to cranium, iilyomandibular purely suspensory; ceratohyal of two or three segments. sub-order 1. narcobatoidea.—family torpedinidae. sub-order 2, battorpea.—families rhinobatidae, ratidae, trygonidae, alyliobatidae, mobulidae. notidanoidea. families chlamydoselachidace, pristidae, the jurassic protospinax, described by smith woodward (1918), appears to be ancestral to the pristiophoridae, having the same relation to them that reainebatus has to pristis. it is interesting to see in both the sharks and the rays the development of a long flat snout leading toa still longer projection armed with teeth on each side. the torpedinidae are a good example of cor- related adaptations, the development of the paired electric organs entailing considerable modifications of structure of the rostral and pracorbital cartilages and of the pectoral arch. the soft 1142 smooth skin of these electric rays contrasts with the tough spinate skin of the other members of the order; evidently their power of giving electric shocks renders other means of defence euperfluous. the fact that in all three sub-orders of the pleurotremata the pterygo-quadrate is as a rule only loosely attached by ligament to the cranium, but that in both the notidanoidea and squaloidea there are families in which there is a direct postorbital articula- tion (hexanchidae, hybodontidae), and in the squaloidea also one (heterodontidea) with a praeorbital articulation, between pterygo-quadrate and skull, points to the conclusion that in the euselachii the purely hyostylic condition is primitive. placodermi.—stensio (1925) has shown that in the arthrodira the general characters of the neurocranium and brain are shark- like, and that although bony dermal plates are developed these fishes have no relationship to the pisces, but are independently derived from primitive sharks. a thin layer of bone wholly or partly covers the inner and outer surface of the cartilaginous cranium, but there are no dermal bones on the ventral surface of the skull. stensio regards the antiarcha as rather closely related to the arthrodira. pisces.—this class must have originated in silurian times from primitive selachians. dermal ossification led to the formation on the body and tail of ganoid scales, rhombic plates arranged in parallel longitudinal and oblique series, and, where flexibility was not a requirement, to the development of bones, including primarily paired nasals, frontals, parietals and supratemporals on top of the cranium and a parasphenoid below, praemaxillaries and maxillaries forming a secondary upper jaw, and on each side ectopterygoid and mesopterygoid on the primary upper jaw, dentary, angular and praearticular sheathing the lower jaw, cir- cumorbitals and praeoperculum covering the cheek, operculum, suboperculum and branchiostegals protecting the gill-chamber, and a series of bones overlying the pectoral arch and connecting it with the skull, post-temporal, supra-cleithrum, cletthrum and clavicle. the fin-rays are ossified and segmented and form a single series on each side of the fin; these dermal rays have exactly the same relation to the muscles and the endoskeletal supports as the horny rays of the selachians, and should be considered as homol- ogous with them. ossification also extended in some degree to the endoskeleton, for all bony fishes have a certain number of cartilage bones that must have been developed in their common ancestor, e.g., articular, quadrate, metapterygoid. in addition to the ossified skeleton, the development of an air-bladder, or lung, the reduction of the interbranchial septa, etc., there is another very important feature that distinguishes the pisces from the selachii, namely the structure of the vertebral column, the pisces having not only neural and haemal arches, but supra- neural and infra-haemal arches as well; the last named are repre- sented in the praecaudal region by pleural ribs. the typical structure may be obscured by union or loss of some of the elements, but it is well seen in the sturgeons and dipnoans. structure of scales——the work of goodrich (1908) on the microscopic structure of the scales is of considerable importance in elucidating the relationships of the main divisions of the class pisces. it is generally recognised that the primitive scales were thick rhombic juxtaposed bony plates—usually termed ganoid scales—and that thin rounded overlapping scales are more spe- clalised. goodrich has shown that the ganoid scales belong to three very distinct types. the first, found in the palaeoniscidae and polypterus, consists of parallel layers of ganoine, a glassy homogeneous substance, near the surface and of bone within, separated by cosmine, a vascular layer with bunches of minute tubules arising from the outer channels. the second, found in lepidosteus, lepidotus, pholidophorus, etc., differs in that there is no layer of cosmine separating the layers of ganoine and bone. the third type of scale, found in the rhipidistia and dipneusti, resembles the first, except that the cosmine has a very specialised and definite structure and is covered by only a thin layer of ganoine; whereas in scales of the first and second types growth is accompanied by the formation of successive layers of ganoine, zoology in those of the third type the ganoine increases in area, but not much in thickness. the relationship of polypterus to the palaeo- niscidae, first indicated by goodrich, becomes apparent when its other characters are studied; for example, budgett’s re- searches on the development have shown that the pectoral fin is derived from the palaeoniscid type; of great interest is the pres- ence in polypterus of an air-bladder which in structure, position and vascular supply is more primitive than that of any other fish. the close relationship of the rhipidistia and dipneusti was maintained by dollo and his views are confirmed by good- rich; from the work of stensio (1923) it is clear that the actinistia also are very near the rhipidistia. we propose then to recognise only three sub-classes of the class pisces, corresponding to the three types of scale-structure described by goodrich, and to classify the pisces as follows:— sub-class 1. palaeopterygii.—scales, when ganoid, with a cosmine layer covered by several layers of ganoine. dorsal and anal fins (except the dorsal of polypterus) with dermal rays paired, more numerous than and not definitely articulated with their endoskeletal supports. orders archistia, selachostomt, belonorhynchii, cladistia. sub-class 2. neopterygii.—scales without cosmine layer. dorsal and ana! fins with dermal rays united to form a median series of rays, each of which has its own endoskeletal support and forms a definite articulation with it. orders protospondyli, ginglymodt, halecostomi, isospondylt, haplomi, niomi, lyomeri, ostartophysi, apodes, heteromi, synen- tognatht, aficrocyprint, salmopercae, anacanthint, alotriognathi, solenichthyes, berycomorphi, zeomorphi, percomorpht, scleroparez, hvypostomides, [leterosomata, discocephalt, plectognatht, xenopterygit, haplodoct, pediculati, opisthomi, symbranchit, sub-class 3. crossopterygit.—scales, when ganoid, with a cosmine layer covered by a single layer of ganoine. orders rhipidistia, dipneusti, actinistia. palaeoniscoids.—the archistia (palaeoniscoids) are in many respects the most generalised members of the class pisces. the ear- liest fishes of this group were the palaeoniscidae, swift-swimming predaceous fishes, with fins like those of the modern polyodon- tidaeof the order selachostomi. in these the long based pelvic fins are essentially similar in structure to the dorsal and anal, being supported by a series of pterygiophores, segmented into two princi- pal pieces, basals and radials, the latter contained in the well-de- veloped muscular lobe at the base of the fin; some of the anterior basals maybe united to form a pelvis. the pectoral fins are somewhat more specialised, the anterior basals forming a coraco- scapular cartilage which is firmly rooted by dorsal and ventral outgrowths, the posterior forming a metapterygium. the primitive structure of the paired fins in the palaeoniscidae and polvodontidae makes it impossible to derive the palaeopterygii from any known group of fishes except the pleuropterygian sharks. the relationship of the belonorhynchii to the palaeonis- coids and sturgeons has been insisted on by stensio in his valuable account of the fishes of this order. neoptervgit.—the sub-class neopterygii includes most living fishes and its classification is a difficult matter; the different orders have been dealt with in a seaies of papers (regan, 1902- 25), and only a general sketch is necessary here. the proto- spondyli, represented in the living fauna by amia, began in the upper permian with the semionotidae, probably derived from the palaeoniscidac; these were small-mouthed slow-swimming fishes feeding at the bottom on small invertebrates and many of their differences from the palaeoniscidae may be interpreted as re- lated to their different habits. the ginglymodi (lepidosteus) and halecostomi (pholidop- toridae, oligopleuridae) are offshoots of the protospondyli. in these three orders the hypurals supporting the upper lobe of the caudal fin are attached to the upturned end of the vertebrae column. the halecostomi are distinguished by their mouth structure, the jaws being delicate and feebly toothed and the praemaxillaries smal! and loosely attached, whereas in the pro- tospondyli and ginglymodi the praemaxillaries are strong fixed bones that extend backwards to join the frontals and are per- forated for the olfactory nerves. the halecostomi are herring- like fishes, and were evidently plankton-feeders like the herrings, whose place they occupied in triassic and jurassic times. at the zoology end of the jurassic they gave rise to the earliest isospondyli, fishes almost identical with the modern elopidae, larger and more active swimmers than the halecostomi, with a more widely forked caudal fin, the upper lobe of which is supported by hy- purals attached to a few paired bones—uroneurals—probably enlarged and displaced neural arches of posterior vertebrae, the centra of which have aborted; this caudal structure is char- acteristic of the remaining orders. the isospondyli are physos- tomous, i.e., the air-bladder has a pneumatic duct; of other fishes that agree with them in this respect it is easy to separate off the ostariophysi, in which certain elements of the anterior vertebrae form a chain of ossicles connecting the air-bladder with the ear; and the apodes, or eels, in which the praemaxillaries are fused with the mesethmoid. but the limits and contents of the order isospondyli are a dif- ficult question. in the clupeoids, which include the elopidac, the vertebral column is primitive, the parapophyses, or at least those of the anterior vertebrae, being separate bones wedged into pits in the centra; the salmonoids and stomiatoids agree with them in this, but the more specialised families of both these groups have lost the mesocoracoid, which was formerly consid- ered diagnostic. other fishes that have retained the mesocora- coid (osteoglossoids, mormyroids, etc.) have strong parapophyses ankylosed to the centra; these are provisionally classed in the isospondyli, but should perhaps be separated as orders. the haplomi (esocidae, umbridae, dalliidae) differ from the clu- peoids in the loss of the mesocoracoid and in having the meseth- moid replaced by a pair of large dermal bones. the iniomi (scopeloids) are a large and varied group, the most primitive members of which are near the elopidae, but dificr in that the praemaxillaries exclude the maxillaries from the oral border, the parapophyses are not autogenous, and the mesocoracoid is absent the lyomeri (saccopharynx, gastrostomus) are perhaps an off- shoot from the iniom}. of the physoclistic orders the first seven (heteromi to solen- ichthyes) are isolated groups that may have evolved inde- pendently from the isospondyli or iniomi; they agree in that the pelvic fins are formed of articulated rays and are abdominal in position, or if thoracic (anacanthini, allotriognathi) the pelvic bones are not directly attached to the cleithra. jungersen (1908) has made a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the oste- ology and classification of the solenichthyes. the berycomorphi, which were abundant in cretaceous seas, are evidently derived from clupeoid isospondyli; in this group we see acquired fea- tures that are characteristic of the remaining orders, the anterior dorsal and anal rays and the outermost pelvic ray modified into spines and the pelvic bones directly attached to the cleithra. the zeomorphi are related to the berycomorphi, from which the percomorphi also are derived; these are unknown before the basal eocene; they differ from the berycomorphi in the loss of orbtosphenoid, the reduction in number of the pelvic rays (never more than six), etc.; they are the dominant benthic fishes in the coastal waters of tropical and warm tem- perate seas and have branched out in all directions, giving rise to a number of more specialised groups, some of which, e.g., gobioids, blennioids, are provisionally retained within the order, whereas ten others are given ordinal rank, including the scleroparei, or mail-cheeked fishes; the heterosomata, or flat- fishes; the discocephali, or sucker-fishes; and the pediculati, or angler-fishes. the position of the hypostomides is somewhat uncertain, but jungersen (1914) regards them as related to the scleroparei. special orders —some zoologists may be surprised at the large number of orders of the sub-class neopterygii, if they have not realised that this group is much larger and more varied than either of the classes aves or mammalia. attention may be called to three orders in which discoveries of special interest have been made, namely microcyprini, allotriognathi and pediculati. the microcyprini include the cyprinodonts, a group of small brackish and fresh-water fishes that includes both oviparous and viviparous forms; in most of the oviparous species there are marked differences between the sexes, and in some of them court- 1143 ship and pairing have been observed; viviparity has arisen in- dependently three or fourtimes in tropical america, accompanied by quite different modifications of the anal fin of the males for purposes of internal fertilisation; but in the viviparous phallos- tethinae of johore the uro-genital openings are remote from the anal fin, and the males are provided with a priapium, an extraor- spinous fin rays 4 1913 is94 1915 i916 1917 year classes fic. 2.—fluctuation in average number of spinous rays in dorsal fin of zoarces viviparus in successive year classes (excluding 1916) of two separate populations (after j. schmidt). i918 =: 1919 dinary intromittent organ placed beneath the head and chest, with a special skeleton, muscles, glands and external appendages of its own, and involving remarkable modifications of the cleithra and of the anterior vertebrae and ribs for its attachment. the allotriognathi, a small but isolated and particularly well defined group of oceanic fishes, are noteworthy for the difference in form and structure between the most generalised and the most specialised members of the order, the deep-bodied lampris and the eel-shaped stylophorous. in siylophorus the eyes are tclescopic that is to say they are large, cylindrical, placed close together and directed forwards; it may be inferred that stiloph- erus uses binocular vision to find food; this would be captured by the sudden protrusion of the small toothless mouth, which is extraordinarily protractile. the very long lower jaw 1s articulated far behind the head, and by a downward movement of its anterior end pulls the upper jaw away from the head so that the mouth appears at the cnd of a long membranous pouch. the most in- teresting feature 1s that this protraction of the mouth would be downward, not forward, the direction in which the eyes have sighted something to be caught, were it not accompanied by an upward movement of the head, produced by the contraction of the muscles attached to the top of the skull; thus stylophorus loses sight of its prey in the act of catching it. in the pediculati, or angler-fishes, the first ray of the dorsal fin is placed on top of the head and is modified into a line and bait; there are three sub-orders, of which the ceratioids are inhabitants of the middle depths of the ocean, from about 500 to 1,500 metres below the surface; they are uniformly pigmented and their bait is a luminous lure. it has been discovered that in the ceratioids the males are dwarfed and parasitic on the females, to which they are attached by outgrowths of the snout and tongue that unite with the skin 1144 of the female in such a way that it is impossible to say where the one fish begins and the other ends (see fig. 3); the blood systems of the two fishes appear to be continuous, and it seems that the male must receive nutriment from the blood of the female, as the small toothless mouth is closed in front and the alimentary oe fhe 6 sot eae © benet e ee ge pags oc se ee ee 's-tets be ean cy. ale, he ate hme es . eee ae heel an ae j } ql i] de pac w ick ‘ial wek ware a ls ee ar eer ch at i earner ae lee wat seta tele ta te ee oe a? ree ser ed aa? e ss is wee: ay om ee " re . ni ae “fee . 3 : fic. 3.—edriolychnus schmidti, male, attached to inner face of praeoperculum of female. four, times natural size. (from proc. roy, soc., (b), 97, 1925). canal is vestigial. the evolution of males of this kind becomes intelligible when we consider that the ceratioids are solitary, slow-swimming fishes that live in darkness and are necessarily few in number in comparison with the more active fishes on which they prey; in such circumstances the difficulty experienced by mature fishes in finding a mate may have led the males to form the habit of seeking for females as soon as they are hatched, when they are relatively numerous, and if they find one becoming attached to her. cressopterygit.—the rhipidistia, which flourished in devonian and carboniferous times, are the most generalised order of the sub-class crossopterygii; in the structure of the pectoral fins they are more specialised than the archistia, none of the radials articu- lating with the pectoral arch and the segmented metapterygium projecting outwards, so that the lobe of the fin tends to separate from the body and to become narrow based; the pelvic fins ap- pear to have been somewhat similar. the scales may easily have been derived from the palaconiscid type by reduction of the ganoine and specialisation of the cosmine. the dipneusti, dis- tinguished by fusion of the pterygo-quadrate with the skull and the reduction of the hyomandibular, doubtless originated from unknown early devonian or pre-devonian rhipidistia; they are the only order of the sub-class with living representatives. the actinistia (devonian to cretaceous) appear to be highly special- ised rhipidistia in which the lobes of the paired finsare shortened, the pectorals having about four radiating radials (one probably representing the metapterygium) that articulate directly with the pectoral arch; the hyomandibular (epi-hyal) is small and does not support the jaws (cf. stensio). the skeleton of the head of the rhipidistia is almost identical with that of the earliest batrachi- ans, and the pectoral fins are of a type that might easily have been transformed into pentadactyle limbs; the origin of the batrachia from fishes of this order seems certain. batrachtia.—watson (1919) has made a detailed investigation of the structure of the stegocephalia, from which he removes the phyllospondyli (branchiosauria) and lepospondyli (micro- saurla) as separate orders, and for the remainder uses the name labyrinthodonta in an extended sense. labyrinthodonts.—there is a complete gradation of structure between the rachitomous and stereospondylous forms, which merely mark evolutionary stages. watson’s classification of the labyrinthodonta is as follows:— order labyrinthodonta. grade 1. embolomeri. families anthracesauridae, loxommidae, cricotidae, etc. grade 2. raciitom1. families eryopidae, rhinesuchidae, dis- sorophidae, trematopsidae, micropholidae, etc. grade 3. stereospondyli. families capiiosauridae, sauridae, brachyopidae, etc. tremato- it has long been recognised that the current classification of the frogs and toads is unsatisfactory, but great progress towards a more natural arrangement has been made by noble, who has followed up the work of nicholls (1916) by a more extended zoology investigation of the structure of the vertebral column, and has tested his results by detailed research on the thigh musculature. noble’s classification 1s as follows:— order salientia (ecaudata). opisthocoela, families discoglossidae, pipidae. anomocoela., family pelobatidae. __ procoela. families bufonidae, hylidae, brachy- sub-order 1. sub-order 2. sub-order 3. cephalidae. sub-order 4. diplasiocoela. families ranidae, brevicipitidae, this scheme is perhaps not final, and the reduction in number of families which has followed the discovery that the characters supposed to be diagnostic were of little value may be replaced by an increase in number when further work clears up the re- lationships of the genera and enables natural groups to be de- fined. the bufonidae, for example, appear to be a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage. repitlia.—in recent times our knowledge of extinct reptiles has been greatly advanced by a number of workers, especially broom, case, williston and watson; as a result many modifica- tions of the classification have been proposed. there seems to be general agreement that the primary divisions should be termed sub-classes rather than orders, but none as to their number. the proposal to recognise only four or five sub-classes according to the number and position of the temporal vacuities has received considerable support, but appears to be open to the objections that apply to most classifications based on modifications of a single character—objections that are strengthened by the proba- bility that the temporal vacuities are related to the jaw muscles in such a way that they either give exit to them upon the top of the skull or afford room for them at the sides (gregory and adams). we prefer for the present to retain the nine principal groups defined in 1910 (see 23.142), adding to them a tenth, the cotylosauria, formed by the removal from the anomodontia of those primitive reptiles in which the temporal region of the skull is completely roofed over. in the following scheme of classification of the reptilia only those orders are included whose position seems assured; a com- parison of the recent classifications of watson (1917) and willis- ton (1925) will show that there is some difference of opirion as to the groups that should be given ordinal rank and as to the re- lationships of many incompletely known extinct forms. class reptilia sub-class 1. cotylosauria. orders sevmouriamorpha, diadectomorpha, captorhinonior pha. sub-class 2. anomodontia. orders pelycosaurta, therapsida. sub-class 3. chelonlia, orders pleurodira, cryptodira. sub-class 4. sauropterygia. orders nothosauria, plestosauria, placodonta. sub-class 5. [cmithyosauria. sub-class 6. squamata. orders pythonomorpha, lacertilia, ophidia. sub-class 7. rhynchocephalia. orders thecodonta, sphenodonia. sub-class 8. crocodilia. orders eosuchia, thaluttosuchia,. sub-class 9. dinosauria. orders theropoda, sauropoda, ornithopoda, stegosauria, cera- lopsia. sub-class 10. pterosauria, the most important orders omitted are the proganosauria and thallatosauria, aquatic reptiles of uncertain relationships, but the former perhaps near the ichthyosauria. some of the cotylosauria are not easily distinguished from the contemporary labyrinthodonts, and the classes batrachia and reptilia are no longer definable by skeletal characters. some of the therapsida approach the mammalia, which are evidently derived from this group. chelonians.—the chelonian genus dermochelys was formerly isolated in a group athecae, in opposition to the rest of the che- lonia, which were termed thecophora; it is now included in the cryptodira, the flattened ribs and modified vertebrae indicating its derivation from forms that possessed a carapace. dollo pointed out that the chelonian carapace and plastron must have zoology originally been acquired as a protection by slow-moving terres- trial reptiles, and that in some late cretaceous members of the group this armour was greatly reduced or was lost in relation toa pelagic life. if the descendants of such forms resorted to the coasts to breed they might have acquired a new armour not supported by the vertebrae and ribs, and if their descendants again became pelagic this also might have been reduced. he interpreted the numerous little smooth polygonal plates in the skin of the pelagic dermochelys as the remnants of a secondary armour that was at one time strong and effective. in psephophorus of the oligocene and miocene, related to dermochelys, the plates were stronger than in that genus and were sculptured and dollo considered that an eocene genus must have existed in which they were larger and stronger than in psephophorus; this has since been discovered in eocene deposits of nigeria and was described by c. w. andrews as cosmochelys, a leathery turtle with a strong epithecal shield with sculptured surface. it is of great interest that the soundness of dollo’s method of reasoning should have been confirmed by the discovery of this link in the chain. aves.—little has been done since 1910 on the classification of birds, but the division of these into ratitae and carinatae is artificial and the grouping proposed by pycraft (1899) is prefer- able. pycraft showed that there are two types of palate, and he divided the neornithes into two groups, the palaeognathae (ratitae+tinamiformes) and the neognathae. in the palaeog- nathae the pterygoids are connected with the palatines by suture or ankylosis, in the neognathae by means of opposed glenoid surfaces. the tinamovs are the only modern birds with the primitive type of palate that have retained the keeled sternum. mammalia ~the origin of the mammalia from the therapsid reptiles is now generally accepted, and among these the cynodonts make the nearest approach to the mammals in skeletal structure. broom (1912) has shown that in cynognathus a considerable part of the articular surface for the lower jaw is formed by the squamosal, and that the posterior end of the dentary nearly takes part in the joint; there is thus no longer any difficulty in understanding how the quadrate-articular joint of reptiles has given rise to the squamosal-dentary joint of mammals. as the direct articulation of the dentary on the squamosal became more firmly established, the quadrate, articular and angular degenerated, and according to broom might have been lost had not the attachment of the stapes to the quadrate compelled them to take on an auditory function, the quadrate becoming the incus, the articular the malleus and the angular the tympanic bone. thus the vexed question of the homology of the mammalian auditory ossicles may be regarded as settled, palaeontology confirming the conclusions derived from embryology. another paper by broom (1914) on the structure and affinities of the multituberculata may be considered to have settled the long controversy as to the systematic position of these animals, which are definitely shown to be prototheria and not marsupials. the resemblances to the living monotremes are so close that it is suggested that these are specialised and degenerate descend- ants of jurassic multituberculates. broom (1915, 1916) has studied the structure of the “ organ of jacobson,’”’ and remarks:— ““ changes in habit bring about the most marked alterations in teeth, bones and many viscera, but the delicate little cartilages in the nose are so little affected that we find almost the same type of structure in forms so dissimilar as the sheep, cat, hedgehog, bat and lemur. and as the arrangement is an extremely complicated one we seem justified in assuming that the similarity indicates affinity and common origin of these types, rather than independent develop- ments of this remarkable structure.” so far as is known at present there are two types of structure of this organ in the mammalia, the primitive or marsupial type, found in dasypus, orycteropus and rodents; and the higher eu- therian type, found in ungulates, carnivores, lemur and pro- cavta. broom has investigated this organ in insectivores, and has shown that in macroscelides, tupaia, etc., it is formed as in 1145 polyprotodon marsupials, whereas in frinaceus, gymnura, etc., it is of the higher eutherian type. consequently he regards the insectivores as an artificial group, and separates from them tupaia and its allies to form the order menotyphla. further, as chrysochloris has the organ of jacobson of the primitive type, but with peculiarities of its own, and as this genus differs widely from the menotyphla in other characters, he places it in a separate order chrysochloroidea. centetes, which had been considered to be related to chrysochloris, was found to be a true insectivore, the organ of jacobson resembling that of sorex and talpa. the general result of other studies of the mammalia has been to increase the number of orders; for example, giving ordinal rank to the groups formerly placed together under the headings “‘ edentata ” and “‘ ungulata.” comparable in importance with broom’s investigations on the organ of jacobson are those of carter (1917, 1922) on the micro- scopic structure of the teeth, which lead him to state that the enamel pattern, in conjunction, with tube penetration of the enamel, sufhces to discriminate between multituberculates, mar- supials and placentals, and the different groups of placentals. he has found that marsupial teeth are characterised by tubular penetration of the enamel, and his demonstration that the teeth of dasyurus and thylacinus are precisely similar in structure accorded with regan’s view (1914) of the close relationship of these genera, in opposition to american authorities (gregory, sinclair) who thought that thjlactnus was allied to that puzzling group of carnivorous mammals from the miocene of patagonia known as sparassodontia. whether these are marsupials or creodonts is still uncertain, for although carter found in them tubular penetration of the enamel, his later researches led him to the conclusion that enamel pattern is more important than tubular penetration in determining affinities, and the enamel pat- tern of the sparassodonts is creodont. a suggestion put forward by wood-jones that tursius should be regarded as more nearly allied than any other living animal to man, led to a discussion at a meeting of the zoological society (1919) when the weight of opinion was against wood-jones, but seemed to favour the view that jarsius was more nearly related to monkeys than to lemurs. had carter’s results (1922) been available the debate would probably have run on quite different lines. he has shown that in the teeth of primates the enamel pattern is of two distinct types—(1) in the catarrhines and mascarene lemurs (and in the eocene lemuroids notharctus and pelycodus) the prisms or rods of the enamel are of asomewhat granular structure, have straight, even margins and are separated by a slight amount of interstitial substance. (2) in the platyr- rhines, tarsius (and the eocene tarsioid hemiacodon), asiatic and african lemurs the prisms have undulating margins and are separated by a considerable amount of interstitial substance. from this it is evident that the classification of the primates will have to be revised, and that the evolution of the anthro- poidea, or catarrhines, from the lemuroidea, has been to some extent paralleled by the evolution of the platyrrhines and tarsi- oids from another group of lemurs. there are plenty of compa- rable examples in other groups—for instance, the evolution in south america of the litopterna, which show many resemblances to the perissodactyla. human descent.—tarsius is thus clearly seen to be nowhere near the line of descent of man, whose affinities to the anthro- poid apes have been made more certain in recent vears by the discovery of extinct types of man possessing ape-like features that have been lost in modern man (smith woodward, 1925). of these the most notable is the piltdown man, discovered in gravels of late pliocene or early pleistocene age at piltdown in sussex, combining a typically human skull with an ape-like lower jaw and large canine teeth that interlock in the true ape fashion. this find gave rise to a great deal of discussion, and some were ready to maintain that the skull was that of a man and the lower jaw that of an ape, and that their association was accidental; the discovery of fragments of another skull associated with another ape-like canine tooth may be considered to have disposed of this idea. the rhodesian skull, from a cave in the broken hill mine, 1146 rhodesia, is of unknown age; it is remarkable for the enormous brow-ridges, more prominent than in any other human skull. in spite of this ape-like feature smith woodward maintains that the relationships of rhodesian man are with the australian race, and he compares it especially with the fossil australian skull from talgai in queensland rather than with the more primi- tive neanderthal man, to which at first sight it seems to bear more resemblance (see evolution of man). vertebrate classification. publications: c. w. andrews, “a leathery tortoise from the eocene of nigeria,’’ proc. zool. soc. (1919); r. broom, ‘‘ mammalian auditory ossicles,’’ proc. zool. soc. (1912); 2b7d., ‘‘ organ of jacobson in the insectivora,’’ proc. zool, soc. (1915); tbid., “ structure and affinities of the afultite- berculata,”’ bull. amer. mus., vol. 33 (1914); ‘‘ origin of mammals,” phil, trans. r. soc. (b) vol. 206, (1915); j. s. budgett, ‘‘ structure of larval polypterus,” trans. zool. soc., vol. 16 (1902); j. t. carter, “ structure of enamel in marsupials,” phil. trans. r. soc., ser. (b) vol. 208, (1917), and j. anat. (1919); “ structure of enamel in primates,’’ proc. zool. sec. (1922); e. s. goodrich, “ structure of scales of fish,” proc. zool. soc. (1907); w. k. gregory, “! orders of mammalia,”’ bull, amer. mus. vol. 27 (1910); w. k. gregory and l. a. adams, ‘‘ temporal fossae of vertebrates,” sczence, vol. 41 (1915); h. e. jungersen, “ ichthyotomical contributions,”’ dansk. vidensk. selsk. skrift, vol. 6 (1908); “‘ anatomy of pegasus,’’ rep. brit, assn. (1914); j. kiaer, ‘“‘ anaspida,”” vidensk. skrift (ikkristiania, 1924); g. k. noble, ‘‘ phylogeny of the salientia,”’ bud. amer. mus., vol. 46, (1922); w.p. pycraft, ‘ palaeognathae and neognathae,” trans. zool, soc., vol. 15 (1899); c. t, regan, papers on classifica- tion of fishes in ann. mag. nat. iiist. (1902-25 especially 1909-13); ‘* classification of selachians,’’ proc. zool. soc., vol. 2 (1906); “‘ allo- triognathi,’’ proc. zool. soc. (1908) and proc. r. soc., (b) vol. 96 (1924); ‘* phallostethinae,”” proc. zool. soc. (1916); lepidosteus and lower neopterygian fishes, proc. zool. soc. (1923); ‘‘ dwarfed males of ceratioids,’’ proc. r. soc., (b) vol. 97 (1925); e. a. stensio, triassic fishes from spitsbergen, pt. 1 (vienna, holzhausen, 1921): pt. 2 in svensk. vet. akad. itandl. (3) 2, (1925); ‘‘ the head of the macro- a ree (arthrodira). field mus, publ. geol. vol.4, no.4 (1925); . m. s. watson, “ evolution of amphibia,” phil. trans. r. soc., (b) vol. 209, (1919); “ classification of pre-jurassic tetrapoda,” proc. zool. soc. (1917); s. w. williston, osteology of reptiles (1925); a. s. woodward, ‘‘ new elasmobranch fishes from the jurassic," proc. zool, soc, (1918); ‘' the origin of man,” in phases of modern science (denny, 1925). (cie rd zorn, anders (1860-1920), swedish artist was born at mora, sweden, feb. 18 1860, of a family of farmers. he began his artistic career as a water colour artist, later transferred his attention to oil painting, and made his first attempt at etching in london in 1882. he afterwards achieved distinction asasculptor. from 1881 he travelled extensively abroad, and in 1888 settled down in paris, where he stayed about 10 years. in 1893 he became the swedish commissioner at the chicago world exhibition. zorn is renowned for his extremely character- istic and picturesque portraits, in which, owing to his sensitive study of values, he gives proper play to light and half tones. he was not only a master of oil painting, but one of the fore- most etchers of his time, attaining great effects by simple means. zorn, whose production was particularly abundant, passed his last years in sweden and died in his native town on aug. 22 1920. zubaty, josef (1855- +), czech philologist, studied classical, slavonic and especially sanskrit philology and in 1891 was appointed professor of sanskrit and comparative philology at the czech university of prague. his numerous publications, which deal with the most varied aspects (etymology, grammar, phonetics and metrics) of indo-european philology with special reference to sanskrit and balto-slavonic, include: on the develop- ment of metrical form (1886); contributions to the interpretation of oscan inscriptions (1886); on the development of the indian drama and its relation to greek drama (1887); on vedic literature (1888); on the mahabharata (1892); on alliteration in lettish and lithuanian folk-songs (1894). the above are all in czech, but zubaty wrote extensively in german, his most important work in this language being the etymological lithuanian dictionary now in preparation (1926) for streitberg’s indo-germanic text- books. he translated kalidasa’s dramas into czech. zuloaga, ignacio (1870-— _—+), spanish painter (see 28.1049), had become by 1921 the head of a definite school of basque and castilian painters, whose work was marked by a realistic and decorative treatment of contemporary spanish life, con- zorn—zurich sciously based on velasquez, el greco and goya. his art showed increasing emphasis on silhouette, simplification of form and use of broad masses of sombre colour relieved by splashes of more vivid tints. in his figure compositions a low horizon and a panoramic background were favourite devices for obtaining a decorative monumental effect. women and the nude figure played an important part in zuloaga’s work. in his portraits, of which typical examples are ‘ lucienne breval in carmen,” ‘cousin candida,” “the duke of alba” and “ countess mathieu de noailles,” emphasis is on the type rather than the individual, and the combination of realism and simplification tends towards caricature. this also appears in his gewre paintings of spanish types, peasants, dancers, bull- fighters, priests and beggars, such as “old castile,” “the bottleseller’ and ‘the witches of san millan.” his land- scapes, mainly painted round burgos, salamanca and scgovia, have a similar bizarre, fantastic quality. his later work in- cludes “my uncle danial and his family” (1912), “a cardi- nal” (1914), “toreadors” (1914) and “un versolari’”’ (1916). an important retrospective exhibition of his work was seen at the rorg international exhibition at bilbao, and he was repre- sented by three portraits in the 1920-1 exhibition of spanish paintings at burlington house. see also: l. benedite, zgnacio zuloaga (1912); juan de la encina, ei arte de ignacio zuloaga (1916). zululand (see 28.1050),has an area of 10,427 square miles. in 1921 the natives numbered 250,829; the white inhabitants 3,955. although incorporated in natal most of zululand is held as native reserves. since 1907 the country has been peace- ful. european influence has modified native life, but the tribal system continues and although there is no longer an official recognised paramount chief the zulu sense of nationality remains strong. this was shown at the indaba held in june 1925 in honour of the prince of wales, when 40,000 warriors assembled at eshowe. on that occasion solomon dinizulu, a grandson of cetewayo, though officially of no higher rank than other chiefs, was selected to address the prince as the spokesman of the nation. dinizulu, cetewayo’s son, had died in oct. 1913. in ro905 the coast belt was opened to white planters for the cultivation of sugar cane; by 1923 some 70,000 ac. were under cane. cotton cultivation has been taken up since 1922, in which year the union govt. had a survey made for a rail- way and harbour in northern zululand. see oficial year book of the union of south africa (pretoria, 1925); and the south and east african year book and guide (london, annually). zurich, switzerland (see 28.1057), a busy industrial city, with large silk manufactures and the financial centre of switzer- land, had a population of 207,161 in 1920. new quarters, with broad streets and fine buildings, have developed round the old town, and ziirich is now largely a modern city, with an admirable system of traffic control. the pestalozzium, which contains educational exhibits and pestalozzi’s study, has been moved to a new building on the left bank of the limmat, near the urania bridge. a central library on the right bank, in which the libraries of the town and canton, and those of the legal, medical and natural history societies have been combined, was finished in 1916; 1t contains also collections of prints and engravings. the ziirich society of arts has thrown open the kunsthaus, in the heimplatz, with collections of pictures, sculpture and engravings; and in 1919 the landolthaus, an interesting example of a noble- man’s house in the hirschengraben, was arranged as a museum by the same society. new municipal offices have been built, and a site was chosen in 1923 on the left bank of the river for a town hall. the state archives of the town are now kept in the old prediger kirche in the zahringer platz. the frau munster church, near the bridge of the same name, was modernised in 1912. the university, which is noted for its medical school and for the large numbers of women students, has been moved to a site south of the city. the new buildings, finished in 1914, consist of two wings connected by a massive tower. zurich, university of—zuyder zee