VIRGINIA

the population in 1g10 was 2,061,- 612; in 1920, 2,309,187, a decennial increase of 247,575 (12%) and an average annual addition of 24,757; in 1923, 2,398,441, an increase in three years of 89,254, and an average annual adidhi- tion of 20,751. with 671,096 in 1910. urban population in places of more than 2,500 inhabitants was 23-:1% of the whole in 1910 and 29-2°% in 1920. the population of the principal cities and its increase were :— increase ee re per cent richmond . : 171,667 127,628 34°5 norfolk ; , , 115,777 67,452 71-6 portsmouth ; ; 545387 33,190 63:9 roanoke. et 50,842 34.874 45:8 agriculture and industry —in 1900 the value of farm prop- erty—land, buildings, implements, machinery, livestock—was in 1920 negroes numbered 690,017 as compared. 905 $323,515,077; in 1920 it was $1,196,555,772, an increase in 20 years of 269%. in 1908 the value of agricultural products was $100,531,000, in 1920 $187,038,000 and in 1924 $165,775,000. the production of the staple crops was:— 1920 1924 1925 maize (bu.) 36,058,000 corn (bu.) . 50,100,000 | 35,679,000 wheat (bu.) ii,425,000| 9,628,000| 8,946,000 oats (bu.) 4,813,000 4,019,000 | 5,826,000 rye (bu.) . 864,000 537,000 das barley (bu.) 405,000 324,000 buckwheat (bu.) 540,000 348,000 - tobacco (lb.) 177,390,000 | 141,240,000 |1 29,542,000 ilay (tons) . 1,235,000 1,545,000 ot peanuts (bu.) 4,416,000] 3,700,000 io potatoes (bu.) 13,608,000 | 19,200,000 | 11,340,000 cotton (bales) 19,000 30,000 52,000 apples (bu.) 8,844,000 the mining and quarrying industry in the decade rgqo9g-19 showed an increase of 34°7°% in the number of enterprises, 1-9°% in capital and 233-8 in the value of the product, and a loss of 11-5% in mines and quarries, 2:7 in persons engaged and 4-7“ in wage-earners. 1919 enterprises , 202 139 mines and quarries . 216 140 persons engaged. 15,537 x3 wage-earners 14,547 13,675 capital : $57,035;775 | $59,730,376 value of product 29,363,449 26,953,329 virginia in 1920 led in the production of iron, pyrites and soap- stone, was third in the production of lime and manganese and sixth in mineral waters. the latest available report lists the pyrites plants as idle. the following figures are from the report of virginia bureau of labour and industrial statistics:— | estab- ‘at value of lish- capital : | wales p product coal . , ; ; 92 $54,106,000 $23,106,694 iron ore. ‘ ; : 6 621,338 qol, 203 mineral waters 4 43,800 29,098 pyrites plants idle soapstone 3 342,905 796,287 miltlstones, sand and grav el. 15 460,600 429,938 slate . ‘ 4 275,000 327,604 miscellaneous ores . : . 3,103,596 &58,554 pmg ne 8 ys 39 5,799,337t__ 5,406,907 statistics of manufactures show great variations in the decade 1909-20 and after, due to the war prices. in 1909 the value of products manufactured by 5,685 establishments was $219,794,- 000; in 1919 by 5,603 establishments it was $641,810,000, and in 1923 by 2,oro establishments was $547,927,531. the following figures for 1920 are from the r4th census and for 1923 from the report of the virginia bureau of labour and industrial statistics — 1920 1923 2,010 establishments reporting 159 capital invested $362 28 506 $416,678, 544 materials 268,940,460! value of products 638,93 6,186 | 547,927,53i 185,321,001! 121,416 value added by manufacture . wage earners (average) 129,2 251! 1 figures are for ig21; no record in 1920. property values.—the valuation of property assessed for {uxation in 1910 was $756,194,480; in 1920, $1,4509,762,653. in rg0o0 the estimated true value of all property was $1,102,310,000; in 1922 $4,891,570,000, distributed as follows: real property and improvements $2,772,373,000; live stock, $92,653,000; farm implements and machinery, $35,576,000; manufacturing machinery, tools and implements, $164,146,000; railroads and their equipment, $501,972,000; motor vehicles, $63,113,000; street railways, shipping, etc., $178,308,000; all others, $1,083,- 429,000. the estimated true value of wealth added in 1912-22 966 was $2,601,656,214. in 1909 the public debt was $24,956,950, in 1919 it was $23,561,823, and in 1923 it was $21,173,703. in 1910 the state’s income was $11,333,490, in 1920, $18,442,324, in 1923, $27,992,317, and the disbursements (1923) were $26,562,012. between r9ro-20 notable reforms were made in taxation and financial administration. the tax laws were in 1915 revised as follows: the state levy on real estate and tangible property was restricted to educational purposes, and state and local levies on intangible property were apportioned at 65 cents and 30 cents per $100 respectively. constitution.—in 1910 the state constitution was amended to permit the re-election of county treasurers and commissioners of revenue, and in 1912 another amendment. permitted the re-election of city treasurers and commissioners of revenue. in 1912 the legislature was empowered to classify cities accord- ing to population and to provide forms of city and town govern- ment, but cities with over 50,000 population were permitted to have special forms of government. under this amendment the legislature provided for general charters under the commission, or manager, form, but in 1920 another amendment was ratified which permitted the legislature to provide special forms of government for any city on condition that the sections of the constitution regarding franchises, changes in city boundaries, public debts and the assessment of property were not violated. in 1920 another amendment removed the requirement of resi- dence within the municipality as qualification for appoint- ment to office in a city government when technical training was requisite. in 1920, also, the construction of roads was made a proper subject for state debt. education.—the cost of public education is borne by the state. in 1922-3 there were 6,563 buildings for elementary schools with 13,606 teachers and an enrolment of 562,908 pupils. for secondary education there were 408 high schools, 49,450 pupils and 2,725 teachers. separate schools are provided for white and coloured pupils. there is a school at staunton for deaf and blind white children and one at newport news for deaf and blind coloured children. institutions for higher educa- tion receiving state support are the university of virginia, the virginia polytechnic institute, virginia military institute, the college of william and mary and five normal schools, one each at fredericksburg, farmville, east radford, harrisonburg and petersburg, the last for coloured students. other institutions of higher education are: for men—washington and lee uni- versity, university of richmond, roanoke college, emory and henry college, hampden-sidney college, randolph-macon college and virginia christian college; for women——hollins college, martha washington college, randolph-macon wom- an’s college, sweet briar college and west hampton college. the school revenue was $4,407,853 in 1910 and $13,791,864 in 1920. in the school year ending in 1923 the aggregate of state, city and county revenue expended for elementary and secondary education was $22,109,791. in 1918 a general property tax was added to the existing sources of school revenue which yielded approximately $660,000. in 1918 school attendance of all chil- dren between the ages of 8 and 12 for 16 weeks was required. in 1920 the legislature submitted for ratification the following amendments to the constitution: legalising the membership of women on school boards, removing the limitation on county and district school tax rates and all limitation on the legislature in enacting compulsory attendance laws, and giving the legislature the power to fix the duties of the state board of education. among statutes enacted in 1920 looking to the improvement of the school system were laws encouraging a nine months’ term in rural communities, making the school age 7 to 20 years, pro- vision for a school census, encouragement of rural high schools, conferring on the state superintendent the right to nominate candidates for positions as teachers, provision for physical edu- cation and medical inspection and placing the state institutions of higher education on an all-ycar basis of operation. the rail- road mileage in 1922 was 4,668; the electric-railway mileage, 447-27 and the telephone-wire mileage, 379,073. the number of telephones was 155,490. virgin islands—visconti-venosta legislation.—in 1912 the work of children under 12 years of age in coal mines was prohibited and the 10-hour day for chil- dren in factories was extended to workshops and mercantile establishments, with the exception of packing and fruit indus- trices between july 1 and nov. 1, mercantile establishments in towns of less than 2,000 population and saturday work in mer- cantile establishments. in 1918 the minimum age for employ- ment was raised to 16 years. in 1922 the legislature changed the name of the state board of charities and correction to the state board of public welfare, and conferred on it much larger powers, namcly supervision of state institutions, licensing of all child-caring institutions, organising of juvenile and domestic relations courts, local boards of public welfare, administration of child welfare legislation, direct handling of all delinquent children and of many dependent and neglected children. the charitable organisations under this board handled 135,000 cases at a cost of $4,279,873, and the correctional institutions 165,399 cases at a cost of $5,526,781. in 1918 a mothers’ pension law was enacted which allowed city and county governments to make payments to widows with children under 16 years of age. in the same year the principle of the uniform family desertion acts was adopted, and an industrial commission was provided to administer a workmen’s compensation system. three sanatoria for the treatment of tuberculosis have been established. in 1918 a state orthopaedic hospital was estab- lished at richmond. in rorq4 the virginia home and industrial school for girls, a private institution, became the property of the state, and subsequently three other reformatories were taken over. in 1919 the state prison board was reorganised, and reforms in prison management were adopted. in 1914 a state forestry commission was established. political histery—lin every state and national election after 1910 the democratic party had a majority. in 1909 william hlodges mann (dem.) was elected governor, his term being from 1910-4; he was succeeded by henry carter stuart (dem.), 1914-8; westmoreland davis (dem.), 1918-22; and e. lee trinkle (dem.), 1922-6. (jj. s.p.) virgin islands (sce 28.126).—this group, located in the lesser antilles, just east of porto rico, includes the former danish west indies (st. thomas, st. croix and st. john), pur- chased by the united states from denmark in 1917 for $25,000,- ooo, and the islands of vieques and culebra, acquired by ces- sion from spain in 1898. the popular language of the danish islands was at first a dutch patois, later english, though danish was always the official language during the 242-year period of danish rule. area and population.—the combined area of the three prin- cipal islands is 132-47 sq. m., and their population in 1917 was 26,051. st. croix had 14,901 inhabitants; st. thomas, 10,191; and st. john, 959. only 7-4°, were white; the rest negro and mixed blood. charlotte amalie, now st. thomas, on the south side of the island of st. thomas, is the largest town (population 7,747 in 1917) in the islands, is the seat of government, and has one of the finest harbours in the west indies. st. croix has two towns, christiansted and frederick- sted. st. thomas is 1,400 m. from new york and 1,020 m. from the panama canal. the chief products of st. croix are sugar and molasses. from the pimenta acris on st. john and st. thomas is produced the finest bay oil and bay rum in the world. the islands ‘have been administered by the u.s. navy department since iory. bibliography.—w, westergaard, the danish west indies under company rule, 1671-1754 (1917) is the only history based on original sources, for gencral descriptions sce brock, smith and tucker, the danish west indies, their resources and commercial importance (1917); l. zabriskie, the virgin islands of the u.s.a. (1918); t. de booy and j. t. faris, the virgin islands, our new possessions, and the british islands (1918). (w. we.) visconti-venosta, emilio, marquis (1829-1914), ital- ian statesman and diplomat (see 28.129). after representing italy at the algeciras conference the marquis visconti-venosta retired into private life, but on account of his great experience, vissering—vistula-san, battles of the profound legal and political culture and sound judgment, he was often consulted by his government, especially on questions of foreign affairs. he explicitly approved of italy’s declaration of neutrality on the outbreak of the world war. he died in rome nov. 28 1914. vissering, gerard (1865-— ), dutch banker and econo- mist, was from 1g06~—11 president of the java bank in batavia. in 1911 he was appointed adviser on currency and banking affairs to the chinese govt., and in the following year became president of the netherlands bank. dr. vissering was one of the vice-presidents of the brussels financial conference held in 1920 and after the world war his advice was repeatedly sought on matters concerning the stabilisation of the financial position of various countries. among his numerous works are de javasche bank; on chinese currency (1912); the netherlands bank and the war (1917); de goudquestie (the problem of gold,1918), afuntwezen en circulatie- banken in ned. indie (currency and circulation banks in the nether- lands east indies, 1920) international economic and financial prob- lems (1920). vistula (german weichsel, polish wisla: see 28.146).— rising in czechoslovakia, the vistula runs through poland, along the frontier of e. prussia, and debouches through the territory of the free city of danzig. its situation fits it to bea waterway of the first importance, although it is liable to floods and frozen over for three months in the year. it must be made navigable for river-craft at their full capacity during a sufli- ciently long period of the year; and must be open to international shipping on a footing of equality. at present it is navigable up to przemsza, but there ts not regular traffic above warsaw, although it is largely used for timber-floating. before the war conservancy works had only been carried out on the german part of the river, some 222 km. in length; spur and longitudinal dykes were built to maintain the water level, thereby facilitating the flow of water at flood-time and also im- proving navigability. since the war poland had been too occupied to carry out improvement works, or even much in the way of upkecp. traffic has greatly decreased, mainly owing to the general economic crisis. the vistula requires conservancy works throughout its whole course. the mean water-level should be maintained by the construction of spur and longitudinal dykes to narrow the normal river-bed; the river should be regulated at low-water level in the interests of its navigability, which might also be im- proved by the construction of reservoirs on the upper courses of some of the tributaries. under article 18 of the treaty concluded at versailles on june 28 1919, between poland and the allied and associated powers (the so-called ‘‘ minorities treaty ’’) poland undertook to apply to the river system of the vistula (including the bug and the narew), pending the conclusion of a general convention on the international regime of waterways, the regime set out in articles 332-337 of the treaty of versailles, that is to say, the regime applicable to international waterways. serious differences of opinion arose as to the interpretation of the legal status of the vistula. it has been asserted that article 18 should be held to provide for the possibility of the vistula being subject to the regime of the barcelona convention (see inland water transport), once that convention has been ratified by poland, and should the vistula come under the general definition contained in the said convention. but those who urge this theory do not consider that the vistula comes under this definition, since the criterion therein accepted ts that the part of the river which is naturally navigable should traverse or separate several states... as the right bank of the vistula in eastern prussia has been given to poland to a depth of 50 metres in land, germany is not a riparian state; and the free city of danzig should not in law be considered as a state. on the other hand it has been urged that the words “ pending the conclusion ” mean that the regime of articles 332 to 337 will be automatically superseded by the regime of the general see article 1 of the barcelona statute. 967 convention as soon as the latter has been concluded, and this regardless of the fact whether the vistula will, or will not, eventu- ally come under whatever general definition is established by the general convention given in the said convention. those who put forward this second argument assert that the minorities treaty certainly did not contemplate a temporary international regime for the vistula, since such an arrangement would have been contrary to all ideas of an international regime. they maintain that, if it is to the interest of international shipping to have certain guarantees of freedom of navigation and equality of treatment, that interest does not cease with the conclusion of an international convention. further, they are of opinion that the vistula is included in the category of navigable waterways referred to in paragraph 2 of article 1 of the barcelona statute. a solution to this acute legal controversy will hardly be found unless the dispute becomes an inter-state one and comes before the permanent court of international justice. navigation cannot be fully developed without equality of treatment for all flags. the acceptance of this principle by the states concerned, particularly poland, would be in their own true economic interest. see vistula: traite des minorites entre les principales putssances ailiees et associees et la pologne du 28 juin, 191g (great britain, treaty series, 1919, no. 8). (r. rn.) vistula-san, battles of the.—the middle of sept. r914 marked a distinct stage in the world war, both in the western and eastern theatres. the first clashes of the main armies on either side had ended. the general staffs of the contending powers had to take stock of the results and to make new plans accordingly (see eastern european front and map). german position.—to falkenhayn, who had succeeded moltke as the arbiter of german strategy, the problem of the eastern front must have presented itself somewhat as follows: the battle of the marne had shaken, if not shattered, the whole foundation of the ambitious german plan, built up through long years of preparation, tested till failure seemed impossible. the immediate overthrow of france could not now be achieved; but the west remained still the decisive theatre and no further reinforcements could yet be spared for the east. something, however, must be done to rally the beaten austrians and to save the important industrial area of silesia from invasion. the victories over samsonov and rennenkampf in east prussia (sce masuria, battles in) had rendered that province secure from invasion for some time, but these battlefields were too far distant from galicia for success to bring relief to the austrians. direct assistance was required. accordingly 53 corps, the bulk of the forces in east prussia, were transferred by rail to the cracow-czestochowa area in the latter half of september. this move required some 750 trains and was completed be- tween the night of sept. 16-17, when the troops began to entrain about koenigsberg and letzen, and sept. 28, when they were deployed on the frontier of south poland ready to advance. they were formed into the ix. army under hindenburg, with ludendorff as his chief of staff. the viii. army was left in east prussia with much reduced forces. the plan was for hin- denburg’s army to advance against the stretch of the vistula between zavikhost and deblin (iwangerod), with the intention of turning the northern flank of the main russian forces, which were at this time concentrated in eastern galicia. a part of the austrian i. army (dankl) was to advance on the north bank of the vistula to the right of the germans, while the main aus- trian forces moved to the attack south of the vistula, the iv. army (grand duke josef ferdinand) and iit. army (boroevich) towards the lower san and przemysl, while the iit. army (bohm- ermolli) from the carpathians moved in the direction of chy- row and sambor, south of przemyesl. russian problems —on the russian side, at the same period of mid-sept., the most urgent tasks of the commander-in-chief were to reconstitute his northwestern front, shattered by the clefeats of the [. and ii. armies in east prussia, and to build up a central force in poland about warsaw. first-line troops from 968 siberia and turkestan, which had not been available for the opening engagements, had now arrived, and a large number of additional reserve divisions were in the field. the ix. army, which was originally to have formed the nucleus of the central force, had been despatched south in the early days of sept. to the rescue of the hard pressed iv. army (see lemberg, battles of), and was now with four other russian armies (iv., v., ili, viii.) in eastern galicia, on the line of the san and dricsier. the supply of these five armies, comprising some 18 or 19 corps, ore on a comparatively narrow front, was extremely diff- cult. as early'as sept. 22 three corps were ordered to move north to relieve the congestion. shortly afterwards, information was received of the enemy concentration and advance, and a rapid change in the disposition of the armies became necessary to meet this threat. the question arose whether a line could be built up in poland west of the vistula with sufficient speed to render it safe to accept battle in advance of the river, or whether the change of front should be carried out behind the shelter of the river barrier. the safer course was chosen; and the principal masses moved to the north in rear of the vistula, only cavalry forces being left to oppose the hostile advance in trans- vistula poland. the decision was undoubtedly wise, but it involved certain grave disadvantages. it meant the surrender of the whole of southwest poland to the enemy, severe hardships to the troops in traversing the almost roadless region south of lublin, and the eventual forcing of passages over the vistula. three armies, the iv., lx. and v., moved north, while the iii. army took over the line of the san. the great wheel was completed by the third week in oct., by which time the v., [v. and ix. armies, in that order from north to south, lined the vistula from about gura kalvarya (south of warsaw) to zawichost. meanwhile a new ii. army had been formed round warsaw. austro-german offensive fuils—the austro-german advance, which began at the end of sept., met only slight opposition till the lines of the vistula and the san were reached. during the advance, however, the regrouping of the russian forces became evident and showed that the original german plan was no longer applicable. the main weight of the offensive of hindenburg’s army was therefore shifted northwards against warsaw, the whole of the austrian i. army being moved to the left bank of the vistula and extended from sandomierz to below deblin. by oct. 12 fighting was general on the whole front. hinden- burg’s army was within a few miles of warsaw, but had greatly superior russian forces against it; while all along the river from warsaw to zawichost the russian counter-offensive was battling for passages to the left bank. south of the vistula, the austrian iv. and iii. armies had driven in light russian forces and reached the line of the san by oct. 10, causing radko-dimitriev’s iii. army to raise the siege of przemysl. but they could make no headway in their efforts to force the line of the san. nor did the il. army, advancing from the carpathians towards sambor and chyrow, meet with any greater success, by oct. 17 it was obvious to hindenburg that his offensive could not succeed. north of the vistula, the german ix. army and austrian i, army were now assailed from warsaw, from deblin and from zawichost by four russian armies; while south of the vistula the three austrian armies could make no progress against the russian iii. and viii. armies. the austro-german attacks were, however, continued till the 21st. they were suc- ceeded by violent russian counter-attacks, which lasted till the 27th. hindenburg then broke off the battle and led his lx. army rapidly back to the frontier, destroying all communications as he retired. dankl’s austrian i. army withdrew in more leisurely fashion. between oct. 31 and nov. 2 it held the russian pur- suit at arm’s length in the kielce-opatew region; and then retired behind the nida. on the san, fighting continued till the end of oct., without marked advantage to either side. but early in nov. the austrian armies broke off the battle and withdrew, the iv. and iii. towards cracow, the ii. to the carpathians. vitamins hindenburg’s first invasion of poland had only relieved the pressure on austria for a time. its failure left germany’s ally still further exhausted. it was a bold move, typical of luden- dortf’s strategy. but he seems to have under-rated the russian leadership and to have over-rated the fighting powers of the austrians. the skill with which the russians changed front and the complete failure of the austrians to make any impression on the weakened forces behind the san placed the german ix, army in a perilous position. it was perhaps fortunate for it that the numerous russian cavalry showed little aptitude for pursuit. brr_iograpny.—a. w. f. knox, with the russian army, 1914-7 (1921); j. daniloff, russland im ‘eltkriege, 1914-5 (1925). (see also worlp war: brae iography.) (a, p. w.) vitamins.—there are several vitamins recognised. fat- soluble a vitamin is present in certain fats, particularly in cod- liver oil, fish roe, liver, egg yolk and in green vegetable leaves. this is necessary for growth, fertility and resistance to infective diseases. water-soluble b vitamin, present in the seeds of plants, egg yolk, yeast and in many fruits and vegetables, also is necessary for health, fertility and resistance to infective disease. want of this vitamin produces in particular beri-beri, a disease commonly caused by the polishing of rice. the rice berry is thus deprived of this vitamin and becomes a deficient food for natives who live largely on rice. there ought to be a sufficiency of this vitamin in the food eaten in order to ensure proper digestion and utilisa- tion of the food and to keep up appetite. water-soluble c vita- min is present in most juicy fruits and vegetables; its absence produces scurvy. there is also the antirachitic principle or vitamin d, which prevents rickets and is richly present in cod- liver oil, and can be obtained by irradiating cholesterol or phytos- terol with ultra-violet rays. cholesterol is a constituent of animal cells and phytosterol of plant cells. an animal, or child, can be prevented from be- coming rickety when fed on a deficient ricket-producing dief, by being irradiated or by being given cod-liver oil or irradiated cholesterol. a very small daily dose of the last suffices. irradiation with ultra-violet rays appears to endow the atoms of cholesterol with energy. probably when the skin is irradiated the cholesterol in the skin becomes activated and absorbed. with its help a sufficiency of the salts of calcitum and phosphorus required for bone formation are absorbed from the alimentary canal in place of being excreted in the faeces, and thus the defi- ciency of the diet as far as the bone formation goes 1s made good. it has not proved possible to separate vitamin d from irradiated cholesterol as a chemical substance, and the activity of irradiated cholesterol is found to be very easily destroyed, e.g., by over- irradiation or by recrvystallisution. vitamins may be concen- trated by certain means, but no vitamin has yet been isolated and its nature determined. their presence is detected by feeding experiments. in addition to the above four vitamins there is a vitamin e necessary for breeding power, which is most richly contained in the germ of wheat and red meat. want of this vitamin in animals leads to the death and absorption of the embryos while within the womb of the mother, and so to sterility. a, d and e vitamins are soluble in fats, while b is soluble in water and appears to be a basic substance containing nitrogen. c is water-soluble and very easily destroyed by cooking or canning foods. fresh, young, green vegetables, eaten as salads or lightly cooked are a most important source of the vitamins. so too are fish, which derive them from the plankton of the sea. the miller takes away the germ and outer layer of the wheat berry and these valuable parts are given to rabbits, pigs and fowls as bran and middlings. we get white flour robbed of its vitamins and of some of the protein and most of the very 1mpor- tunt salts of phosphorus which whole wheatmeal contains. rice, cornflour, sago, tapioca, pearl barley, pea flour, oatmeal, split peas and lentils are similarly impoverished by the miller. what are needed are wholemeal, with the germ ground very fine so as to be digestible, whole peas, beans and lentils, salads, fruits and vegetables, milk and butter of cows fed on green grass and so rich in vitamin a. stall-fed cows’ milk is deficient. (l. e. h.) vittorio veneto, battle of vittorio veneto, battle of.—diaz’s plan for the bigger offensive finally decided for oct. 1918 (see [valian campaigns) was to concentrate on the piave front between pedcrobba and fagare (east of treviso), to cross the river and break through by way of conegliano to vittorio veneto, dividing the austrian -v. and vi. armies which held the river line from the sea to val- dobbiadene. the attack was fixed for oct. 16, but bad weather and a rise of the piave caused a delay which was used to extend the plan of operations. ftaltian plans.—it was decided to open the action with an attack by the iv. army (nine divisions) in the grappa sector, with the double object of drawing the enemy reserves from the feltre sector and of breaking through in this direction. the attack on the piave was to be carried out by three armies, the xit., viti. and x., of which the first and last had been formed 12°30’ +e battle of engiish miles 5 10 1s kilometres 5 ww i 20 mun roads —— oi ae ge ad ala, 2 ~sbsr ere avs : 2 - es sa seperie © ee il > 3 s 5 py in » ur sink ames . by j le oa) eye fr ng saal es : : a a bea a ‘ a ae ne se as z "ee ea . : “ ’ os, quirino y—-———46 » =a,fordenone ig ‘ * ode rscite ocleaende crea aes dex sfnanceniga 4 ' ae sue fa motta, jo tries, ola = greenw. 12°30’ orig er specially for this offensive. the xii. army (one french division and three italian) was commanded by gen. graziani, the com- mander of the french troops in italy; and the x. army (two british divisions and two italian) by lord cavan. the main drive was to be made by the viii. army (14 divi- sions), attacking from below pederobba to ponte della priula. the xii. army was to advance northward outside the piave, while the x. army was to attack the right wing of the austrian v. army and form “a defensive flank to cover and protect the principal manoeuvre of the viii. army ” (gen. diaz’s report). on the battle front from the brenta to fagare were massed 41 divisions, 22 in line and ro in reserve. against this force the austrians had 23 divisions in line and immediate reserve, and ro more divisions within reach. the piave-grappa front was divided between two army groups: boroevie’s piave group (v. and vi. armies), from the sea to valdobbiadene, and the newly formed belluno group, under gen. goglia, from valdobbiadene to the brenta. austrian forces—the disposition of the austrian troops and guns showed a fear for the grappa positions and a failure to divine the direction of the main italian attack. in the grappa sector the belluno group had eight divisions in line and three in immediate reserve, while the infantry was backed by some 1,200 guns. the austrian vi. army, on the other hand, with seven divisions in line and two in support, had only about soo guns against a mass of over 2,000. opposite lord cavan’s x. army the right wing of the austrian v. army had three divisions in line and one in support. | alhed attack opens.—the italian iv. army, under gen. giardino, attacked at dawn on oct. 24, and though some head- way was made the enemy put up a very stubborn resistance. 969 already a very fine piece of work had been carried out by british troops of the x. army, who in the early hours of the same day occupied the northern part of the long shoal island of the grave di popodopoli, crossing the main channel in small flat-bottomed boats punted by italian specialist troops (pofiert), and driving back or capturing the enemy outposts. the general attack should have followed the next night, but a sudden rise in the river, which was coming down in heavy tlood at seven miles an hour, counselled delay. it was not until the night of oct. 26, when the southern part of the grave di popodopoli had also been occupied by italian troops of the x. army, that the bridges began to be thrown across the river for the main attack. the crossing of the ptave—eleven crossing points were se- lected, one at pederobba for the right wing of the nii. army, seven on the viii. army front, and three for the x. army, at the grave di popodopoli. the xii. and x. armies threw their bridges successfully, but on the viii. army front only two of the seven sects of bridges could be established, both on the north of the montello. next day three bridgeheads were established: opposite pederobba, north of the montello, and opposite the grave cdi popodopoli. the most important advance was made in the latter sector, where the x. army succeeded in advancing to a depth of over two miles, on a front of about four miles. the british xiv. corps took 3,500 prisoners, and 2,100 were cap- tured by the italian vi. corps. this was the most successful advance of the day. the bridges of the vht. and xii. armies were all destroyed during the day. at pederobba some headway was made, and the troops of the vii. army, who attacked towards sernaglia, gained about a mile. but the right wing of the army (viii. corps) was unable to throw its bridges, and only a detachment of storm-troops reached the left bank. there was a gap of some six miles between the left wing of the viii. army and the british xiv. corps, which formed the left wing of the x. army, and the chief move in the general manoeuvre was checked. the viii. corps had been detailed to push straight for vittorio veneto, and the fact that it had been unable even to start its advance threatened to throw the whole battle out of gear. no better fortune attended the efforts made on the following night to bridge the river east of the montello. the swift current and the enemy guns defied all attempts to establish the bridges, and the engineers suffered very heavy casualties. in spite of the initial successes, the situation was unsatisfactory, but after the first failure to cross the river east of the montello, gen. caviglia, who commanded the viii. army and had the general direction of the attack, had detached the xviii. corps from his reserves, to pass under the command of lord cavan, cross by the x. army bridges, push north and clear the front of the troops who were held up. the move was entirely successful. the xviii. corps under gen. basso crossed the river in the early hours of oct. 28 and attacked northward, while the rest of the x. army continued its advance. position on oct. 29.—at the close of oct. 28 the xviii. corps had gained nearly four miles and had crossed the railway north of the priula bridges. the british xiv. corps had gone right through the austrian positions and had patrols out on the mon- ticano, while the italian xi. corps was threatening the enemy troops on the lower piave. the bridgehead was 10 miles wide and four miles deep. the xii. army and the left wing of the viii. had also made good progress, and at last the viii. corps was crossing the river, between nervesa and ponte di priula. the prospects of the following day were bright, for the separa- tion of the austrian vy. and vi. armies was effected; and the vi. army, heavily attacked in front, was threatened on its left by basso's x vill. corps. on the evening of oct. 29 an italian flying column entered the town of vittorio veneto. the attacking armies had already taken 33,000 prisoners, and the situation of the austrian troops on the piave was hopeless. next day resistance broke down, and the general retirement ordered on the zoth became a com- plete rout. the troops on monte grappa had hitherto held frm against the repeated attacks of the iv. army, and had made 970 many counter-attacks. but here too, on the night of oct. 30, a retreat began that was to turn into a flight. ausirian collapse and armisitce.—late on the evening of oct. 30 the austrian command announced that in view of the discussions regarding an armistice which were being conducted between germany and the united states, “‘ our troops fighting on italian soil will evacuate the occupied region.”’ on the same day the order for a general retreat was given, and that evening, in the val lagarina, gen. weber von webernau, commander of the austrian vi. corps, made a formal demand for an armistice. next day he and his staff were taken to the villa giusti, near padua, and discussions were begun. it was, of course, necessary to communicate with versailles, where the allied war council was discussing the question of a reply to germany’s demand for an armistice. meanwhile the fighting continued, and the armies of the monarchy crumbled away. the italian vi. and i. armies attacked in the trentino, and the iii. army, which had crossed the piave two days before, was already taking part in the pur- suit of boroevie’s broken divisions. on the night of nov. 2-3, although the armistice was not yet signed, the austrian com- mand issued an order for the cessation of hostilities. it was at first revoked by the emperor charles, but was reissued and reached the front on the morning of nov. 3. in point of fact, the terms of the armistice were only agreed on verbally on the after- noon of nov. 3, and signed at 6:30 p.m. hostilities were to end at 3 p.m. on nov. 4. the austrian surrender was complete. the troops of the monarchy were to retire beyond the treaty of london line, leaving all war material and railway equipment. the army was to be demobilised except for 20 divisions at pre-war peace strength, and the allies were to have the right to occupy any strategic points in austria-hungary which they might deem necessary, and were to have free right of passage and use of austro-hungarian means of transport “ over all road and rail and water-ways in austro-hungarian territory.” concluston.—when hostilities ceased, italian troops were far up the trentino and into cadore, and to the east the line of the old frontier was passed and the middle waters of the isonzo were reached. on nov. 3 trieste had been occupied from the sea, and half an hour before the expiration of the term fixed by the armi- stice an italian force was landed at zara. more than 300,000 prisoners had already been counted by the italians, and the total figure was in the region of 500,000. a number of troops who had been cut off were allowed to pass the frontier after being disarmed, but not much more than half of the austro- hungarian troops on the italian front reached the territory of the crumbling empire. all material was left behind, including some 7,000 guns. the austro-hungarian armies, in spite of bad food and grow- ing depression, began by putting up a stout resistance. the troops in the grappa sector in particular not only resisted firmly but counter-attacked with great vigour, and punished the italian iv. army very heavily. giardino lost over 23,000 men, more than three-fifths of the total casualty list, which exceeded 35,000. the fighting on the river front was stiff at first, but the defenders were heavily out-gunned (their main artillery concentration was in the grappa sector), and they were out-manocuvred and out-fought by the attacking infantry. they were already soundly beaten when the order to retreat was given. some of the reserve units had shown a disinclination to move up to the front, and two brigades had previously been sent to the rear because they could not be trusted. the troops in reserve had been more affected than those in line by the news of the general breakdown in austria-hungary, and they had no stomach for what must have seemed to them a useless fight. but, on the whole, the austrian soldiers showed a good spirit until obviously beaten. bibliography.—italian supreme command, report on the battle of vittorio veneto (1919); e. c. crosse, the defeat of austria, aug.- nov. 1918 (1919); italian official papers, diario della guerra d'tialia (1923); a. tosti, la guerra italo-ausiriaca, 1915-8 ee see also wortp war: bibliography. (w. k. mcc.) viviani—vocational training viviani, rene (1863-1925), french politician, was born at sidi-bel-abbes, algeria, nov. 8 1863. while still a young man, he made a considerable reputation as a lawyer, and in 1893 was elected socialist deputy for paris. it was not until the close of his life that he left the chamber to enter the senate. in oct. 1906 he was placed by m. clemenceau at the head of the re- cently-created ministry of labour. in the following month he made a famous speech in the chamber, in which he affirmed his atheistic belief. for these views he was often severely criticised subsequently. ‘““we have put out the lights of heaven,” he said, “and they will never be lit again.” it was m. viviani who was responsible for the law with regard to workmen’s pensions. in july 1909 when m. briand succeeded m. clemenceau as premier, m. viviani continued to be minister of labour. in oct. 1910, in consequence of the attitude adopted by the government in regard to the threatened railway strike, he tendered his resignation, with the result that the briand cabinet was broken up and had to be re-formed. in dec. 1913 he became minister of public instruction in the doumergue cabinet. in june 1914 m. viviani became premier and minister for foreign affairs. he was on his way back from russia with m. poincare when the austrian ultimatum was issued against serbia on july 23rd; this formed the prelude to the world war on his return he immediately took affairs into his own hands; and it was he who decided to withdraw the french troops 1o km. behind the frontier in order to give proof of france’s pacific attitude. when germany declared war he made a magnificent speech in the chamber which had an electrifying effect on his audience. on oct. 29 1915 he was succeeded as premier by m. briand, in whose government he became minister of justice. after the fall of the briand cabinet in march 1917 he no longer took any important part in public affairs. m. viviani died at clamart (seine) on sept. 7 1925 after a long and painful illness. his gifts as a speaker were remarkable; his eloquence, with its wealth of imagery and brilliant metaphor, has probably never been equalled in the french parliament. but it was, above all, the role he played during the tragic events of july and aug. 1914 which caused his name to go down to history. (p.b.) vladivostok, russia (see 28.169), capital of primorsk, a province of union of soviet socialist republics, now governed by a soviet, had a population before the world war of 91,000, about one-third chinese and the majority of european extrac- tion. the closing of the russian free customs zone in the far east in rg09 and the subsequent disturbed conditions have had a most detrimental effect on trade; in 1925 a free port zone for transit traffic was opened in the hope of bringing improvement. (see japan.) vocational training.—logically, the term vocational training should include preparation for the practice of medicine, jaw and other professions; but it is convenient to restrict it to courses of regular instruction intended to fit boys and girls for commerce, domestic life or some branch of industry. the rapidly growing complexity of industry and commerce and the intensity of international competition compelled all the progres- sive nations to consider the provision of vocational training, in this sense, to replace or to supplement the methods of appren- ticeship (q.v.) which sufficed in simpler times. it is, moreover, widely held that under the conditions of modern life, especially in great cities, some form of education, continued through the critical years of adolescence, is needed to preserve the physical, intellectual and moral health of the masses of the people; and vocational training, with its appeal to the practical interests of young wage-earners, 1s regarded as a particularly effective form for this purpose. administration.—in some countries vocational schools are administered as part of the general educational system. in eng- land, for instance, they are provided by the ordinary local authorities for education and subsidised through the national board of education. in other countries vocational training is treated rather as a distinct educational function. thus in the united states the smith-hughes act of ror7 set up a federal board for vocational education, independent of the bureau of vogan— voice sounds education and charged with the duty of encouraging vocational training in the several states. in wisconsin there have been, since 1911, distinct boards for general and industrial educa- tion with separate taxing powers; but so complete a division within a state is exceptional. types of courses——in the chief countries many large cities provide vocational schools offering “all-day” courses lasting from two to four years, sometimes in combination with a modified form of trade apprenticeship. these prepare pupils for office business and other commercial activities, or serve industries such as agriculture, engineering, furniture-making, upholstery, dressmaking, which offer scope for highly trained skill or taste, scientific or technical knowledge and capacity for leadership. but by far the greatest amount of vocational training is given everywhere in part-time continuation classes: i.e., classes which provide a few hours of instruction per week for boys and girls who have left the elementary schools and have already entered upon some occupation. in parts of germany and czechoslovakia attendance at continuation classes, generally in the evening and on sundays, was long ago imposed upon elementary school leavers; but the modern tendency, largely influenced by the pioneer work of kerschenstciner at munich is to require employers to release their young employees for instruction during working hours. in england and germany laws making this system universal and compulsory have been adopted since the war, but financial difficulties in both countries prevented their coming into imme- diate effective operation. in the united states the effect of the smith-hughes act has been to multiply part-time and especially evening continuation schools much more rapidly than all-day schools and in some states attendance is required by law. in some countries ‘‘ works schools,’”’ maintained by employers for the training of their employees, are an important supplement to the public provision for vocational education. they are especial- ly numerous and well-organised in germany, but in england and the united states met with some disfavour on political and educational grounds. finally, it should be noted that programmes of vocational training almost always include some teaching intended to con- tinue and widen the student’s general education. instruction in the duties of citizenship is common, and in many cases attention is given to physical training and simple hygienic teaching. vocational training involves many matters that are still de- bated. these include the questions whether vocational schools should be organised for single trades or should offer a general industrial training, how far they should aim at technical train- ing for its own sake or use it rather as a general educational instru- ment, and what mode and amount of co-operation is desirable with bodies representing commerce and the trades. as regards the age of training there is astrong disposition to postpone specif- ic vocational teaching as long as possible, and to prepare for it by “ pre-vocational ”’ courses, practical in bias and outlook and having general cultural value. (t. p..n,} vogan, boris andreevich: sce pilnyak. | vogt, hans (1890- ), german inventor, was born sept. 25 1890 at worlitz, bavaria, germany. he began his career as an inventor in the sphere of high frequency technology, tele- phone research and earth current telegraphy. in 1918 he began to collaborate with joseph massolle and dr. engl, and this led to the formation of the triergon-arbeitsgemeinschaft, which aimed at the creation of the speaking film. on sept. 17 1922 the first public exhibition of the speaking film was held at the alhambra in berlin. the voice is photographed directly on to the film band after conversion of the acoustic oscillations, which are taken with an inertialess microphone (kathedophone), and are changed by a photoelectric cell into ight pulsations. repro- duction is effected by an electrostatic telephone with mica mem- brane (statophone). an essential feature of the experiments was the effort to work as far as possible with inertialess elements, so as to secure the absolute coincidence of the mouth movement with the sound. from the speaking film, vogt further developed a new process for the production of very loud gramophone records by first taking the photograph photoelectrically with 971 his apparatus and then engraving the gramophone plates while the film band was running off quite slowly. he found that with this arrangement the inertia of the gramophone needle did no harm, and could engrave deeply without any detriment to purity of tone. vogue, eugene melchior, comtee de (1848-1910), french author (see 28.172), died in paris march 24 1910. voice sounds (see voice 28.172; philology 21.416; phonet- ics 21.462; respiratory system 23.185; pharynx 21.359).— the human voice—as used in english and other european speech —can be produced in two different forms, namely (1) unvoiced, 1.e., breathed or whispered speech, and (2) voiced speech. in unvoiced speech the vocal chords are more or less separated so that the air from the lungs passes continuously between them. in voiced speech the vocal chords are brought closely together so that the forcible passage of the air between them sets up a rhythmical vibration of the chords which causes the air to enter the vocal cavities in corresponding rhythmical puffs. vowel sounds —until recently the accepted theory was that sounds like ias in eat, ef as in men, # asin hat, were each due to two separate resonances, that a as in calm, was produced in some voices by a single resonance, and in others by two resonances, and that ° as in all, ou as in no, u as in who, were all due to single resonance (1). according to helmholtz’s theory (2) the lower series of double resonances is set up in the cavity behind the tongue, and the upper in a tubular neck formed by the tongue and lips, while in the case of the single resonant sounds, the whole oral cavity is supposed to act as a single resonator. graham bell, the inventor of the telephone, and k. j. lloyd both held that all vowel sounds were due to double resonance (3). recent observations (4) have confirmed the views of graham bell and lloyd, and shown that all the english vowel sounds depend primarily on two characteristic resonances—the one formed in the cavity in front of the tongue—1i.e., between the point of nearest approach of the tongue to the palate and the lips—and the other in the cavity behind the tongue—7.e., be- tween the same point and the vocal chords. both cavities behave as helmholtz resonators connected in series. each can be independently tuned, by varying its capacity or by varying the size of its orifice to air and (or) to the adjoining resonator. increase of capacity lowers the resonant pitch; of orifice raises it. the following table shows typical resonances observed by ear in the whispered vowel sounds of the writer’s voice, using the southern english “ public school’? pronunciation: — vowel resonances e upper lower ||" a upper | lower sim} as in reso- reso- jlo. ,.| as in| reso- reso- : of nance nance dol nance nance i eat = [£7 2,434] {% 342 1) a [up = [2e'"1,625ifa” gi2 1 it ee!” 2,169 |#f’ 362 || a |calm |[4d’"'1,217|%¢”" 812 ei [hay |#c”’” 2,169 |d’” 574 || © (not j#c’’1,084\#g’" 812 e {men | c’” 2,048 |2d” 608 || 9 [all b” 966/2f"" 724 we | hat a’’’ 1,722 |2e"" 812 || ov |know j#a” gt12| b’ 483 2 |earth j#g’" 1,625 | ce” 645 || u |jwho [#f" 724l4f’ 362 2 |sofa | 2g’” 1,534] e” 645 | vo | put [#a” gi2led’ 304 the resonances are given in musical notation and in number of complete vibrations per second (c’= middle c on the piano- forte, about 256 vibrations per second). in the series from 9 to v inclusive, an additional high frequency component between 2,169 and 2,732 appears. the upper resonance of 1 to ov can be varied over a range of 5 to 8 semitones, and u and v by 10 semi- tones, while the lower resonances can all be similarly varied over a range of about 8 semitones (the other resonance, in each case, being kept nearly constant) without losing the vowel character. comparable resonances have been found—using purely instru- ment methods—by crandall and sacia (5). ‘the vowel symbols are those of the international phonetic association. 972 artificial production of vowel sounds.—potter (6) experi- mentally reproduced the english vowel sounds by a reed attached to a spherical indiarubber resonator of suitable aperture which was appropriately compressed (while sounding the reed) so as to produce approximately the form of the human mouth cavity. all the english vowel sounds have recently been produced by combining two suitably tuned helmholtz resonators in series and energising them by a continuous current of air, for unvoiced sounds, or by a pulsating current produced by a vibrating reed or equivalent for voiced sounds (7). the material of the resona- tors does not appreciably affect the vowel character. the addi- tional high resonances are of secondary importance, since recog- nisable reproduction may be made without them. artificial vowels have also been produced by j. q. stewart (8) and by dr. eccles (9), substituting electrical resonating circuits for acoustic resonators. diphthongs differ only from vowels in that their resonances change progressively from those of the initial to those of the terminal vowel which together form the diphthong. they can be reproduced by resonators of progressively variable pitch. consonants also are produced in speech by resonance in the vocal cavities (1c) (11). they differ from the vowel in that r. they depend essentially on more than two resonances—due to the functioning of more than two cavities, 2. they depend (like the diphthongs) on characteristic movements of the vocal organs which produce corresponding changes of resonance and of amplitude (loudness), 3. the orifices of the resonators (or some of them) are more constricted than those in the case of the vowels, or are temporarily closed altogether and suddenly released as in forming the so-called plosives, p, b, t, d, k, g and the nasal consonants m,n and y (ng), 4. the resonators are not always in series with the air current which energises them. thus they may be in parallel—as when the air is passed simultaneously through both mouth and nose; or a resonator may be lateral to the air current, as when passage through the mouth is closed by the tongue or lips and the air passes behind the soft palate into the nasal cavity and out at the nostrils. in such cases the air current flows past the inner orifice of a lateral single-orificed resonator formed inside the mouth. closure of the tongue against the back or the front of the palate produces a lateral resonator of high or medium pitch characteristic of the nasal consonant 1) (ng as in hung); closure of the lips produces a lateral resonator of the maximum capacity and lowest pitch, characteristic of m. the consonants can be artificially produced, like the vowels and diphthongs, by passing air (vibrating or not as the case may be) through resonators of variable number and capacity and/or orifice (10). in the cheirophone the variable multiple resonator is formed by the hands of the operator, so as to produce recog- nisable sentences (12). (see sounpd.) certain consonants have also been reproduced by e¢lectrical resonance (8). in the natural production of vowel sounds, ‘the soft palate may be closed against the back of the throat so as to close the passage to the nasal cavity, or it may be drawn forward so as to open that passage more or less. the best quality of voice production appears to be obtained by avoiding nasal resonance, except in connection with the nasal consonants m, n, and nj (ng). in the french nasal vowels € (pain) 4 (temps) 5 (bon) & (un) the nasal resonance is characteristic. the so-called nasal quality heard in english speech in parts of the north american conti- nent appears mainly to depend on the formation of an additional resonator of high pitch by (unconscious) constriction of the pharynx (13). broadly speaking, the voice sounds of human speech are due to characteristic postures (for vowel sounds) and gestures (for diphthongs and consonants) of the vocal organs— the tongue, lips and soft palate. the function of the larynx, in voiced speech, is to increase the range of audibility (from about ro to 20 times) by increasing the resonance of the cavities through or past which the air current flows. it also gives to speech the power of inflexion—+z.e., of variation of the musical pitch of the voice, as in song. the un- voiced consonants s, f (sh), f, and @ (th as in thigh) and the volapuk—voroshilov unvoiced aspirate, all of which carry no laryngeal energy and are incapable of emotional or musical inflexion, are inferior to all other voice sounds. (see singing.) bi3sliograpny.—(1)d. c. miller, sczence of musical sounds, pp. 225-6 (1916); (2) h. l. f. helmholtz, on the sensations of tone, pp. 105-110 (1885); (3) h. l. f. helmholtz, op. cit., p. 108 (1885); american jour. of otology, vol. 1 (july 1879); lord rayleigh, theory of sound, vol. 2, p. 477 (1896); (4) sir richard pagct, vowel resonances (international phonetic assoc. 1922); (5) bell system tech. jour., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 232-7 (april 1924); (6) proc. cambridge phil. soc., vol. 2, p. 306 (1864); (7) proc. roy. soc., a., vol. 102, pp. 752-68 (1923); (8) nature, vol. 110, p. 311 (1922); (9g) jour. inst. elec. eng., vol. 62, no. 335, p. 965 (nov. 1924); (10) proc. rey. soc., a., vol. 106 (1924); (11) bell system tech. jour., no. 4, pp. 586-641 (1925); (12) british patent no. 237316; (13) proc. british assoc., p. 360 (toronto, 1924). (cr. pa.) volapuk: see universal language. volga (see 28.193). after many vicissitudes the waterborne traffic was (in 1926) beginning to regain its former importance. a great deal of dredging has been done, but many of the steamers and river ports are suffering severely from lack of adequate up- keep, though regular services are now maintained. through the mariinsky and volga system, steamers now run from leningrad to astrakhan, and thence to persian ports. vollenhoven, cornelis van (1874- ), dutch jurist was in igor appointed professor of colonial law in the university of leyden. he achieved a wide reputation as an authority on the common law of the dutch east indies and in international law. his chief work is /letadatrecht van nederlandsch-indie (the common law of the dutch east indies; 1906-18). his other works include afiskenningen van het adatrecht (1909); drie treden van het volkenrecht (1918); de indonesier en sijn grond (1919), and became president of the royal academy of sci- ences at amsterdam. vollmar, georg heinrich von (1850-1922), german socialist (see 28.195), died on june 30 1922. vondrak, vaclav (18509-1925), czech philologist, was educated at the university of vienna, where he studied first romance philology and afterwards slavonic languages. in 1803 he became lecturer on slavonic languages and literature at the university of vienna. he wrote a large number of works mainly dealing with church slavonic and its literature. later he de- voted himself largely to the study of comparative slavonic philology. his chief works are: altslovenische siudien (vienna, 1890); onluve jana exarcha bulharskeho (prague, 1896); sindie zoborr cirkevneslovanskeho pisemnictsi (prague, 1903); wvergleichende slavische grammatik (gottingen, 1906-8), voroshilov, klementiy (1881- ), russian soldier and politician, was the son of a workman. at the age of seven he began to work in the mines and only learned to read when he was 12 years old. he became a revolutionary in 1903, and in 1906 was a delegate to the stockholm congress of the bolshe- viks. in the following year he was sentenced to banishment for organising strikes and similar activities, and in banishment, except for escapes and rearrests, he remained until 1914. his military career began in the ukraine where he organised a de- tachment of partisans and carried on guerilla warfare against the german forces of occupation. shortly afterwards he was commanding a small army and when it fought its way out, this army became the nucleus of the x. red army, the command of which was entrusted to voroshilov. when the germans left the ukraine, voroshilov became a member of the ukrainian soviet government. he was later associated with budenny as a mem- ber of the revolutionary military council of the i. cavalry army. in march 1921, when the kronstadt revolt broke out during the sitting of the tenth congress of the communist party, voroshilov, together with other delegates to the congress, went to lenin- grad and took an active part in the suppression of the revolt. at. the same congress he was elected a member of the central committee and in may 1921 was appointed to command the northern caucasian military district. in 1924 he was appointed commander of the troops in the moscow district, and a member of the revolutionary military councilofthe union. after the death voss—voting 973 of frunze in 1925, he became president of the revolutionary | erdenschenheit: ein reisebuch (1911); brutus auch du! (1917); military council and commissar for military and naval affairs. | das haus der grimani (1917); aus meinem reisebuch skizzen voss, richard (1851-1918), german dramatist and nov- | ud stimmungen (1918); erinnerungen (1920); der erlesung etc. elist (sce 28.215), died at kenigsee, thuringia, july ro 1918. | (1921); bergasyt (1922); abdpentragedie (1923). the following works by him have been published since 1910: voting: see electoral laws. 974 dutch physicist, was born at leyden nov. 23 1837. he first attracted notice in 1873 with his treatise over de continuitett van den gas-en vloeistoftoestand (on the continuity of the gascous and liquid state) by which he gained his doctor’s degree. in 1877 he was appointed professor of physics in the university of amsterdam, a post which he retained until 1907. in 1880 he discovered the “ law of corresponding states ’’ which aided dewar in the liquefaction of hydrogen and onnes in that of helium. his third important discovery was that of the law of mixtures. in 1910 he was awarded the nobel prize for physics. he died at amsterdam march 9 1923. wace, henry (1836-10924), anglican divine (see 28.224), died at canterbury jan. 9 1924.