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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:vermont:1750479581ca",
    "title": "VERMONT",
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    "verified_text": "the population of the state was 352,428 in 1920, as compared with 355,956 in roro, a loss of 3,528, or 1%. as in many other states, there were losses in the rural districts and gains in industrial towns and cities. in roro, 27°8% of the total population lived in villages and cities of 2,500 and over, and in bozo) 31°2%. native whites of native parentage constituted 64:°7% of the population. foreign born whites constituted 12:6% of the population. of the foreign born whites, 31-8% were french canadians, and, including all canadians, the percentage was 55-8. the following are the cities and towns pee ing a population of 9,000 or over and the percent- age of increase or decrease for the decade:— 1920 burlington . rutland 22,779 14,954 10,003 9,982 barre bennington a griculiure.—vermont is pre-eminently a dairy state and its | principal crops are hay and forage grown for cattle. the number of farms in 1920 was 29,075, and in 1910, 32,709, a decrease of 3, 634, or 11-1 %. improved land increased trom 1,633,965 ac. in 1910 to i 691,595 in 1920, a gain of 3:5%. the value of a farm property in 1920 was $222,736,620, an increase of 53-2° over the rgro total of $145,399,728. the average value nee farm was $7,661 in 1920, a gain of 72-4 over 1910. the average vermont farm area, 145-7 ac. is the largest of any state east of the mississippi river. on jan. 1 there were 377,000 milch cows, 83,000 other cattle, 73,000 horses, 48,000 sheep and 50,000 swine. much milk and cream is shipped daily on special trains to the new york and boston markets. in 1925 practically half the milk and cream supply of boston came from vermont dairies and quite a good proportion of that consumed in new york city. vermont's ratio of dairy cows per capita (1:19) is the highest of any state. only three states surpass veoniont in percentage of pure bred cattle. 946 the value of vermont crops as reported by the census of 1920 was $47,999,600, and of this total the value of hay and forage was $29,581,464. in round numbers there were produced cereal crops worth $5,000,000, chiefly corn and oats; vegetables valued at $7,000,000, of which white potatoes were valued at $5,000,000; maple sugar and syrup, worth $3,500,000; and fruits worth $2,000,000. the total value of all vermont’s agricultural output crops, dairy products, poultry, eggs, maple sugar and syrup, meat products and forest products of farms, was $89,757,053. crop reports of the u.s. dept. of agriculture for 1924 showed that vermont led all other states in average yield of bushels of corn per ac. (47 bushels). in 1924 the production was: oats, 2,888,000 bu.; maize, 3,901,000 bu.; wheat, 21,000 bu.; barley, 279,000 bu.; potatoes, 3,340,000 bushels. vermont produces more maple sugar and syrup than any other state, according to crop reports of the u.s. dept. of agriculture (1925). manufacturing.—vermont leads all other states in the pro- duction of marble and granite and ranks second in its output of slate and talc. owing to its large supply of hard and soft woods, it contains many woodworking establishments. it contains the largest plants in the united states producing scales, pipe organs and reed organs, screen windows, portable ovens and brush fibre. in 1921 there were 1,101 manufacturing establishments; 2,931 salaried employees, recciving a total of $6,433,000; 25,767 wage earners, receiving a total of $28,068,000. raw material to, the value of $63,688,000 was used; and the output amounted to $113,904,000—a decrease of 32% on that of roto. there are large plants in springfield and windsor making machine tools, and springfield contains a large factory for util- ising reworked wool. bellows falls contains large paper mills; burlington and brattleboro manufacture cotton goods on a large scale, and winooski contains a large woollen factory. bennington is noted for the manufacture of knit underwear. readsboro contains a large plant manufacturing school furniture. package dyes, butter colour, children’s washable play clothes, refrigera- tors and boxes are made in large quantities in burlington. rut- land manufactures silos, maple sugar utensils and marble- and. granite-working machinery. brattleboro produces chairs and overalls in large quantities. barton produces piano actions; orleans, piano sounding-boards. montpelier manufactures saw- mill machinery and clothes pins. st. albans contains a large factory manufacturing summer clothing. bristol contains a large burial-casket factory. in hyde park is a very large plant dealing in green calf skins. history —during the administration of gov. fletcher, the state constitution was amended, changing the date of the bien- nial state elections from sept. to nov. and the time of the con- vening of the legislature from oct. to january. the power of the governor was strengthened by requiring a two-thirds instead of a majority vote for overriding the veto. the power of com- muting sentences was taken from the legislature. in 1915 a workman’s compensation law was enacted. beginning in 1912 a series of acts was passed leading to the establishment of a state system for the care of dependent, neglected and delinquent children. an important step was taken in 1917 in co-ordinating the work of state departments, commissions and boards, and it was carried still farther in 1923. a direct primary law was passed in 1915 with a referendum clause attached. the result of the referendum was a small majority in favour of the law. a presidential primary act was repealed in 1921. the educa- tional laws were revised in 1915 and in 1923 greater control in the management of school affairs was given to municipalities. following the ratification of the amendment to the national constitution granting the right of suffrage to women, the state constitution was amended along similar lines, and in 1921 a law was enacted giving women the right to hold office. vermont has been republican in state and national politics since the organisation of the party. the recent governors have been: john a. mead, 1910-2; allen m. fletcher, 1912-5; charles w. gates, 1915-7; horace f. graham, 1917-9; percival w. clement, 1919-21; james hartness, 1921-3; redfield proc- tor, 1923-5; franklin s. billings, 1925- . (woe. cr.) verrall —versailles, treaty of verrall, arthur woollgar (18s51-r10t2), british scholar, was born at brighton feb. 5 1851. educated at wel- lington and trinity college, cambridge, he graduated in 1873, becoming fellow and tutor of his college. he published editions of many classical plays, especially the medea (1881), agamemnon (1899) and choephoroe (1893). in 1895 appeared euripides the rationaltst, followed in rgo5 and ror1o by editions of most of euripides’ plays. he was an original critic, and a frequent contributor to the classical review and other journals. in feb. rg1rt he was appointed to fill the new king edward vii. professorship of literature at cambridge, which had been en- dowed by sir harold harmsworth, later viscount rothermere. he died at cambridge june 18 1012. versailles, treaty of.—the german treaty was signed on june 28 1919, and came into force by exchange of ratifica- tions on jan. ro 1920. it was intended originally that it should be only one part of a general and inclusive treaty, comprising settlement with austrians, hungarians, bulgars and turks, as well as germans. in such case it would have been strictly com- parable to the treaty of vienna in 1815, which was, in fact, an “ omnibus treaty.” but the delays in dealing with these peo- ples, particularly hungarians and turks, not only separated the german treaty from the others, but caused it to be the first to be signed and the first to come into force, just as it was the first in importance. it is also an important fact that, in the end, all the principal allied powers (except the united states) recog- nised the wilsonian principles and maintained that they had been applied in the german treaty. no state, except the united states, recognised or attempted to apply the wilsonian princt- ples to the austrian, hungarian, bulgarian or turkish treaties. i. negotiations before the armistice it is important, therefore, at the outset to understand the im- plications of the correspondence conducted between the ger- man govt. and president wilson during oct. and nov. 1918, when the former was asking for peace. the governing document of the series is the reply of president wilson to the german govt. of nov. 5, which embodied the result of the decisions of the principal allied and associated governments as a whole (t.e., france, great britain, italy and the united states). in that document they offered to make peace on the basis of president wilson’s speech of jan. 8 1918, which embodied the ** fourteen points ’? (excluding only point 2 relating to the free- dom of the seas). in addition, they promised to make peace by “the principles of settlement embodied in his subsequent ad- dresses,” 7.e., speeches up to nov. 5 1918. they added to this a definition of what was meant by president wilson’s statement, (jan. 8 1918) :— that the invaded territories must be restored, as well as evacuated and freed, and the allied governments feel that no doubt ought to be allowed as to what that provision implies. by it they under- stand that compensation will be made by germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the allies and their property by the aggression of germany by land, by sea and from the air. so we may say that the allies offered to make peace on the general basis of president wilson’s speeches in 1918, minus his point about ‘freedom of the seas,” and plus a definition of loss and damage. the germans sent no reply to this offer in writing, but in fact accepted it by communicating with marshal foch and asking for an armistice. the germans never denied that they were bound by the wilsonian principles, and the principal allies explicitly admitted their binding force in their repiy to germany of june 16.2 so there was no difference between allies and enemies as to the binding character of the wilson principles in the german treaty, though they differed greatly in the end as to their interpretation. the course of the negotiations is re- lated in the article peace conference, and all that can be done here is to indicate the character of the treaty itself and its apparent meaning as deduced from its clauses. it is at once the 1for the text see fourteen points. 2text of the reply in misc. 4, 1919, cmd. 2883 (h.m. station- ery office). versailles, largest and the most complicated of modern treaties, and the best way to analyse it would seem to be to take its 15 parts separately. if. analysis of the treaty part i. the covenant.—part i. deals with the covenant of the league of nations (see covenant). it may be here remarked that the covenant unites all its members in a league guaran- teeing their territorial independence and integrity. the entrance of germany into the league was deprecated at the time by some of the allies and only became a certainty after the signature of the agreements of locarno on dec. 1 1925, and their ratifi- cation in 1926. the most important powers granted to the league are the supervision of mandated territories (art. 22), whereby the future government of the german colonies, after having been assigned to various mandatory powers, is subject to supervision by the permanent mandates’ commission. this is appointed by the league, and it inspects the annual reports of ‘ the mandatory powers on the territory committed to their charge. similarly, the racial and religious minorities’ treaties have been placed under the guardianship of the league, but their supervision here, though real, is not so effective as over terri- tories under the mandates. ultimately the supervision of cis- armament, as provided in the german treaty, is to fall into the hands of the league, and this has finally been accomplished by the dissolution of the inter-allied naval and military commissions and their supersession by the league at the end of 1925. the in- ternational control of health and disease is provided for in article 25 and has been actually much extended since. article 23 pro- vides for international co-operation in labour questions (see below, part xiit.). the most binding obligation of the league is found in articles 12-16, by which members bind themselves not to go to war in disregard of its covenants until three months of arbitration or inquiry by the council have elapsed. it is provided under article 8 that the league shall formulate plans for reduction of national armaments, and it will take the lead in the disarmament con- ference about to meet in 1926. the actual machinery, through which the league functions, consists at the outset of a council of nine, of whom five must be france, great britain, italy, japan and the united states. as the latter declined to accede, five out of the original nine seats were left to be filled by smaller states, whose representatives are elected by the assembly of the league. the assembly con- sists of representatives of all member states, and is an annual international parliament. two institutions connected with, but actually separated from the league are the permanent court of international justice (provided for under art. 14), and the international labour office and annual confcrence (art. 23-4). the league also, as will be described below, is the governor of two important pieces of territory, the saar basin and the free city of danzig. paris if. and iii. territorial dispositions. (a) western fron- tiers —germany lost territory in the south, north and east as a result of the war, whilst other arrangements tended to weaken her influence beyond her own borders. belgium, for example, ceased by article 31 to be a neutralised state, and has since entered into a military alliance with france. she has also acquired by cession from germany the frontier districts of moresnet, eupen and malmedy (art. 32-4); luxembourg similarly ceases to be a neutralised state (art. 40-1), and has since entered into an economic union with belgium. by articles 42-4 the whole left bank of the rhine and the right bank to the west of a line drawn so km. to the cast of the rhine, has been demilitarised forever. fortifications are to be dismantied there, and no per- manent works for manoeuvre or mobilisation are to be permitted. by articles 45-50 the saar basin forms an area under the con- trol of an international commission and of the league, and its coal-mines are ceded to i'rance. at the end of 15 years a plebi- scite will be taken, whereby the inhabitants will vote as to their preference (a) for the existing international regime, (6) for union treaty of 947 with france, (c) for union with germany. finally, and most im- portant of all, by articles 51-79, alsace and lorraine are ceded by germany to france. the latter thus gains nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants, great strategic advantages, and over three-fourths of the german-produced iron with other valuable minerals. (6) northern fronticr—toward the north germany con- sented (art. 115) to demolish the fortifications of heligoland and to demilitarise it, but she retains its territorial sovereignty. she has lost the northern part of schleswig to denmark. by articles 109-14 it was provided that there should be a plebiscite in two zones. of these, the northern voted for incorporation with denmark and the southern, or flensburg, zone elected for germany. denmark thus received that plebiscite which bis- marck had promised her but which he never gave (art. jil, treaty of nikolsburg july 26 1866). | (c) eastern frontier —by articles 87-93 it was provided that there should be a plebiscite in upper silesia. this has resulted (1921) in a decision in which the southern half of the area— including valuable mines—passed to poland, the upper half re- turning to germany. two other such plebiscites were provided for in east prussia in the allenstein and marienwerder districts respectively, both of which went in favour of germany. by the boundaries as drawn, a large part of the posen and bromberg area goes to the new polish republic. in addition, a polish cor- ridor is run to the sea between east prussia and brandenburg ending in the free city of danzig. the latter is administered by the [league but its foreign relations are controlled by poland. finally, the city and hinterland of memel, ceded to the principal allies in the treaty, was handed over to lithuania in 1924. about 3,500,000 former inhabitants of germany are ceded to poland or lithuania in the east, of which rather jess than one- third are german. altogether, the total number of inhabitants ceded to the various powers under the german treaty falls not far short of 6,000,000. and this loss is probably a good deal less serious than the economic injury suffered by germany in the loss of most of her iron and other minerals. part iv. german rights and interests outside germany.—by articles 119-27, germany ceded all her oversea colonies to the principal alhed powers. she thus lost in africa the cameroons (divided between france and the british empire as mandatories); togoland (to great britain as mandatory); southwest africa(to the union of south africa as mandatory); east africa (to great britain and to belgium as mandatories). these territories in- cluded some 18,000 germans and between 12,000,000 and 13,- 000,000 natives. in the pacific she lost the marshall isles (ceded to japan as mandatory); samoa (to new zealand as manda- tory); new guinea (to australia as mandatory); nauru island — (to the british empire as mandatory). she also renounced out- right to japan (art. 156-8) the peninsula of shantung, a province japan returned to china in 1921. in addition to all these ces- sions of territory, germany lost all her state property, movable and immovable, in her colonies. she was further obliged to can- cel all her valuable treaty rights, capitulations and concessions with countries like china, liberia, siam, egypt and morocco. an absolutely clean sweep was made of her transmarine pos- sessions, properties, powers and rights. by article 438 even the property and stations of german missionaries are to be handed over to trustees, and the individual missionaries controlled or expelled from the mandated territories, at the will of the man- datory. the course of time will show how far the general dis- abilities inflicted on german oversea undertakings will cripple the transmarine state enterprise of germany in future, and hamper her private traders and steamship lines, as well as her missionaries. part v. military, naval and air clauses —the aim of these clauses was similar in all cases, to destroy the existing german fortifications and the maeeriel of war, and to maintain germany permanently in an absolutely weak and crippled condition, so far as armaments went. the maximum of the german army in future was to be 100,000 men, with stores of ammunition, guns, etc., in strict proportion. beyond this figure all existing muni- tions, etc., were to be surrendered and destroyed and munition 948 manufacture henceforth restricted. germany consented to abolish conscription and to adopt a system of long-period volun- tary enlistment of at least 12 years for the men, and of 25 for the officers. military training outside the army was forbidden, and the existence of a large general staff prohibited. the naval clauses were almost equally drastic, and the ger- man fleet was henceforth restricted to six battleships of the * deutschland ”’ type, six light cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 tor- pedo boats (art. 181), in short, to a flotilla for coast defence, with the important proviso that submarines were absolutely for- bidden. no new ships above 10,000 tons are to be built for replacement purposes. a voluntary long-period recruitment for the navy, on the lines of that of the army was provided. a complete demolition of naval works and fortifications within 50 km. of the coast was insisted on. the air clauses (art. 198-202) were the most drastic of all, for they absolutely prohibited naval or military air forces, and arranged for the total destruction of all military or naval air maieriel. inter-allied commissions of con- trol were provided for all these arms of the service, and their work was finally concluded in 1925. but the german armaments are still subject to supervision and inspection by the league. part vi. prisoners of war and graves.—this section is com- mon to all the treaties and provides for the return of prisoners of war and for the upkeep and maintenance of graves. it calls for no special remark. part vii. penalties -—this is the most disputable of all parts of the german treaty,.as it is the only one that has remained wholly a dead letter. it provides (art. 227) for the trial of william ii. “ formerly german emperor, for a supreme offence against international morality and the sanctity of treaties.” an international tribunal of five, with one member nominated by each of the principal allies, was to try this high-placed offender. the statement of the procedure to be adopted, and of the punishment to be inflicted, was judiciously vague. the project never came to anything because the netherlands govt., in whose territory the ex-kaiser had taken refuge, refused to surrender him in accordance with the allied request. articles 228-30 provided for the punishment before military tribunals of the allies of germans “ accused of having committed acts in violation of the laws and customs of war.” eventually a list of over roo such criminals was drawn up, and their extra- dition demanded from germany. finally, about a dozen of them were tried in germany itself by germans and, though only a few were convicted, the allied governments decided to drop the matter, for extradition was impossible without fighting. in 1925 field-marshal hindenburg, himself a ‘“‘ war criminal,” was elected president of the republic without any formal allied protest. part vit, reparation.—this ts among the most celebrated and important of the sections of the treaty, and it was affected more than any other by outside and popular influences. the payments demanded were called ‘‘ reparation ”’ rather than in- demnity, in deference to the principles of president wilson, but it is hard to see how more money could have been demanded under any name. ‘ the reparation chapter,” as it is called, opens with the famous article 231, which is here given in full:— the allied and associated governments affirm and germany accepts the responsibility of germany and her allies for causing all the toss and damage to which the allied and associated govern- ments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of germany and her allies. standing by itself, this article might be construed to mean no more than that germany is rendered liable to pay by a pro forma admission of her guilt. but the rcfly of the allies to germany of june 16 must be considered an authoritative interpretation of their views. they admitted in it the binding character of the wilsonian principles and interpreted the treaty as a whole, and therefore article 231 in particular, as fixing the war guilt on germany. article 232 defined (in connection with an annex) the categories of loss and damage under which germany was liable. among these was included pensions to civilians. this versailles, treaty of scems clearly contrary to the definition given in the memo. of nov. 5 1918, which has been quoted above. it would appear from the doubtful manner in which this question 1s handled in the covering letter and reply of june 16 that the allies themselves were uneasy upon this point, and most impartial observers would now agree that this uneasiness was justified. the remainder of part viii. 1s concerned with the ways and means of paying reparation, and a body, known as the repara- tion commission, was set up with very extensive powers. it appears that mr. lloyd george intended these powers to be used for the purpose of greatly reducing the ultimate liabilities of germany, but the absence of the united states from the commission and the french influence upon it, together with english popular opinion, defeated this idea. the later course of reparation cannot detain us here, but the original proposals were greatly modified in execution. mr. keynes estimated at the time that about £2,000,000,000 was all that could be got out of germany, and it is pretty certain that £3,000,000,000, or at most £4,000,000,000, represented the utmost they could have ' paid. the institution of the dawes scheme in 1924 put an‘end to the original reparation clauses and to the reparation com- mission. the payments in kind provided for in article 236, and in vari- ous annexes, were based on sounder ground. they included, among other things, “‘ the ton for ton, and class for class ”’ replacement of allied merchant shipping by german vessels. great britain benefited most under this head; france most by deliveries of coal and coal derivatives; belgium by livestock. part ix, the financial clauses,—this section is largely technical, dealing with order of priority, with the meeting of special debts from special assets, currency questions, etc. it is closely connected with the ‘reparation chapter.” part x, economic clauses.—the first section of this consists of articles 264-75, which deals with commercial relations, shipping and unfair competition, commercial treaties, etc. much was at- tempted at the conference in the way of promoting internationalisa- tion of rivers and canals and transport. it was even proposed to make raw materials free of tariffs throughout the world. but in the end the only practical gain was that the allied powers secured a “most favoured nation treatment”’ from germany for five years, and adjusted various commercial treaties for this purpose. sections jii.-viii. (articles 296-311) provide for the regulation of enemy property, debts, contracts, etc. in the liquidation of ger- man property in foreign countries the principle was adopted of giving the allies power to confiscate the private property of german individuals in an allied country, and of crediting the sums obtained to the amount paid as reparation by the german national govern- ment. in other words, the private property of german individuals held anywhere abroad was as liable to confiscation for reparation purposes, as if it had been german state property confiscated in a ceded colony. the german odsertations to the allies seem to admit that german private property held abroad could not be expected to escape altogether. the allies, in their rep?y of june 17, pointed out that they had had, as a result of the war, to take over foreign investments from their nationals, thus infringing on their private rights. they added: *‘ the time has arrived when germany must do what she has forced her opponents to do.\"' it is quite true that, though private property was invariably respected in former wars, the advance of socialistic «leas and the conditions of modern warfare cause difficulty in apply- ing strictly the doctrine of total immunity of private property. none the less, it appears that the demands of the allies in this par- ticular went much too far, as is evidenced by the fact that the powers thus given to the allies have been exercised i toto no- where except in france, that they have been only partially applied in great britain, and that they have been abandoned aliecet lee in some countries, e.g., the union of south africa. anyhow it con- stitutes a dangerous precedent for the future. it is notable as being one of the very few parts of the treaty with which “ the big four \"’ did not interfere. part xi, aertal navigation.—this merely arranges for full liberty of passage and facilities for allied airships flying over germany up till fan. 1 1923. part xif. ports, waterways and ratlways.—this is an important section, though a highly technical one. the aim was to secure international control over rivers which flowed through more than one country. this was a very extraordinary development from the doctrine laid down as to international rivers at vienna in 1815. it was, however, affected by the desire to provide access to the sea for countries like switzerland and czechoslovakia. these were land-locked, though they are the source of rivers which end in the sea. international commissions were set up to control the rhine, verwey oder, elbe, niemen and danube. the result is that germany is in a minority in the control of three rivers regarded as typically german, the rhine, oder and elbe. the kiel canal is in effect international- ised to give freedom of access to all vessels of whatever country in peace and in war but, subject to this condition, is under german administration. access to the sea is secured by providing free zones for czechoslovakia in the harbours of hamburg and stettin. as regards international transport by rail, the clauses were mostly of a temporary nature; and were subsequently more defined by an inter- national transport conference held at barcelona in 1921 under the auspices of the league. part xiii, labour.—this section marks the beginning of an attempt to build up an elaborate fabric of international labour machinery, to provide for periodic international discussion, and to arrange for the representation both of employers and of working men. three of the most distinguished of labour representatives took part in its construction, samuel gompers of the united states, gseorge n. barnes of great britain, and albert thomas of france, the last-named becoming the permanent head of the internationa! labour office. this is established at geneva side by side, but not identical, with the league secretariat. it is, in fact, the instru- ment set up to carry out article 23a of the covenant by which the members undertook ‘‘ to endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and in- dustrial relations extend.”” though an integral part of the league, its character and organs are autonomous, which is not the case with the machinery set up to deal with health and transit questions. in the allocation of its finance the league has control, but not over the organs, of international labour. the labour office is controlled by the governing body of 24 persons, of whom 12 represent govern- ments; six are elected by employers’ delegates to the conference and six by workers’ delegates to the conference. | the general conference, or labour parliament, which has to meet once every year, consists of over 200 members, and is constituted as follows: every member of the league is entitled to four repre- sentatives, of whom the state government nominates two, while a third is elected by the employers and a fourth by the workers of the state concerned. the conference has met annually, but has met with grave difficulties in the application of universal rules and stand- ards. [t is largely due to the conference, however, that the hours of labour in the west have been recognised as 48 per week, while most eastern countries have been induced to adopt a 60-hour week standard, which represents a great advance upon anything previously done in this direction. the care with which questions of injury to workers, ¢.g., lead poisoning, are investigated and the publicity given to the deliberations is, however, a matter of the greatest importance (see international labour office), part xiv. guarantees—provision was made in the military clauses (sce above) for the demilitarisation of the left bank of the rhine. but a military occupation of allied troops is also provided for. by article 428 the whole of this area, together with bridgeheads across the rhine, is to be occupied for 15 years from the coming into force of the treaty (jan. 10 1920). but it is provided in article 429 that there shall be a successive allied evacuation of the three zones and bridgeheads into which the area is divided. that of cologne is to be evacuated in five years, that of coblenz in 10 and of mainz in 15. these evacuations are not, however, to take place unless germany faithfully carries out the provisions of the treaty asa whole. the cologne evacu- ation was delayed from jan. to dec. 1925 on this account. but the meaning of articles 429 and 430 appears to be that the allies are only permitted to continue occupation if german conduct proves unsatisfactory. there does not seem any justi- fication under the treaty for the action taken by the allies as a whole, including great britain, in 1921, when areas in germany beyond the bridgeheads were occupied. still less would there appear to be any justification for the occupation of the german district of the ruhr by the french and belgians in jan. 1923. this was not approved of at the time by the british govt., and was subsequently declared by them to be in their opinion illegal in a note to the french govt. (aug. 1923). as a guarantee for the settlement of the eastern frontier of germany, as fixed at the peace, article 433 abrogates the brest-litovsk treaties between germany and soviet russia and binds all german troops to evacuate territory beyond their new frontier. part xv. miscellaneous provistons—this consists of a number of miscellaneous and technical matters which were accidentally omitted elsewhere. in so far as they are of any im- portance they are mentioned in connection with their appro- priate subject above. 949 hit. summary the german treaty appears, when its variousitems are assem- bled together, to have been crushing and severe to a high degree. this result was partly due to the fact that the separate parts of the treaty were worked out by the different committees, and its cumulative effect not recognised when they were assembled together. it is due, however, more particularly to the fact that popular pressure was very great both on president wilson, mr. lloyd george and m. clemenceau not to make a lenient peace. indeed, the scheme prepared by mr. lloyd george on march 25 (published as cmd. 1614) shows sufficiently what his ideas were. and he only modified them when he received on april 8 the famous “ round-robin ” telegram of 370 m.p.’s, whereupon he abandoned his ideas of leniency. at the beginning of june he again showed a tendency to mod- eration, but by this time president wilson had made up his mind and all efforts were useless. m. clemenceau was consid- ered by some french organs not to have sufficiently supported the interests of france, and he could hardly have been more moderate, even had he so desired. the representatives of the british dominions were generally in favour of severity, with the conspicuous exceptions of generals botha and smuts, who strongly urged moderation. the chief defects of the peace, the procedure against the kaiser and the war criminals and the in- clusion of pensions to civilians in reparation, must be considered concessions to popular feeling rather than due to the deliberate judgment of the peace negotiators. the first two have been abandoned and the last greatly modified. the territorial con- cessions were carefully considered and may, with some effort, be brought within the bounds of “ the fourteen points”? and of the wilsonian principles. as regards permanent maintenance of the new frontiers, the british govt. has guaranteed these in the west by the locarno treaty, but they are evidently not prepared to give any special guarantees for the existing eastern frontiers of germany, though france has promised to support poland and czechoslovakia against germany, if need arise. the “ guarantees ” section of the peace treaty was carried out by the evacuation of the cologne area and by the tacit aban- donment of policies like the invasion and occupation of the ruhr. the property section of the treaty has been, in great part, modi- fied or abandoned. no great diplomaticinstrument has ever been so speedily modified, revised or altered, whether by tacit consent or by deliberate design. two parts of the treaty alone have expanded and developed, the institutions set up by the inter- national labour organisation and by the league. president wil- son is known to have thought that other parts of the treaty were, to a large extent, temporary but that the league would be permanent and eventually prove the corrective and solvent of such difficulties as other sections had created. his prediction is now in a fair way to become verified. brpliograruy.—j. m. keynes, economic consequences of the peace (1919); h. w. v. temperley, ed. zistory of peace conference, 6 vol. (1920-4); a. tardieu, the truth about the treaty (1920); b. m. baruch, the making of the reparation and economic sections of the treaty, new york (1920); r. lansing, the peace negotiations (1921); col. e. m. house and c. seymour, what really ilappened at parts, new york (1921); r. s. baker, woodrow wilson and world settlement (1923). texts. the treaty of peace, ed. with notes by h. w. v. temperly, with introduction by lord r. cecil, (oxford, 1920); do., with reply of the allies and official index, h.m. stationery office, (i.ondon, 1920). ce wie ve ts) verwey, albert (1865- ), dutch man of letters, was one of the leading figures of the revival of dutch literature, called ‘‘ ‘the movement of 1880.”’ he helped to found and from 1884-9 was one of the editors of the nieuwe gids; from 1894- 1904 of the tweemaandelijksch tijdschrift and de xxe eeuw, and from 1905-19 of de beweging. in 1924 verwey was ap- pointed professor of dutch literature in the university of leyden. his anthology with commentaries of nederlandsche dichters behulve vondel (1893, etc.)and his essay on potgieter and his ‘circle het testament van potgieter (1908) are works of lasting value. verwey, who held an honorary doctor’s degree from the 950 university of geroningen, translated into dutch shelley’s a defence of poetry and sidney’s an apology for poetry (1891). in 1885 he issued an article on the sonnet and the sonnets of shakespeare. see m. uyldert, albert verwey (1908). vesnic, milenko (1862-1921), serbian diplomatist, was born as a turkish subject in what was then the sanjak of novi pazar, but made his way to belgrade, where he was educated. after studying law he took his doctorate in munich. he entered the serbian diplomatic service in 1891, but soon left it to edit the serbian law journal and became professor of international law at the high school (soon to become the university) of bel- grade. in 1893 he entered parliament and was for a short time minister of education in the gruiji¢e cabinet. in 1899 he and other radical leaders were charged with complicity in the attempt on king milan’s life, and though entirely innocent, he was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. after a year he was pardoned, resumed his professorship, and in 1901 became min- ister in rome. in 19004 he was appointed minister in paris, a post which he held, with short intervals of political work, until his death. he was one of the delegates sent by king peter to negotiate the peace of london in 1913, and in 1919 was delegate of the new yugoslav state at the peace conference. in 1920 vesnie, who remained a staunch though level-headed radical, was selected to fill the office of premier and remained in office for 12 months with a coalition cabinet. he died on may 15 1921.",
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