URUGUAY

the smallest of the south american republics, has an area of 72,180 square miles. uruguay broke off diplomatic relations with germany in oct. 1917 after a govern- ment decree had been published defining the country’s attitude towards the american powers which had preceded it into the war. the estimated population on dec. 31 1925 was 1,758,334, an increase of 68-6°% since the last census in 1908. the popula- tion of montevideo, the capital, on june 30 1925, according to the municipal statistical office, was 381,228. cities with a popula- tion of 30,000 or more were paysandi, salto and mercedes. the average density of population increased from 12-9 per sq. m. in 1908 to 24-4 in 1925, the latter being greater than that of any other south amcrican country. i; political-history the administration of president claudio williman (1907-11) marked a definite period of progress and stabilisation. since no serious armed attempt was made to overthrow the government its efforts were largely concentrated on educational progress and internal devclopment. the first child-labour legislation was adopted, the death penalty abolished, and a model penitentiary and a tuberculosis sanatorium were established. the social and educational progress of the country continued during the second administration of jose batlle y ordeiiez (1911-5), who succeeded williman. hours of labour were regu- lated, a national insurance bank was established and experts were brought from the united states and europe to ad- vance education, particularly industrial and agricultural. the first south american international conference of agricultural defence was held at montevideo on may 2 1913, and 200,000 gold pesos (1 peso= $1.03) annually was appropriated for free seeds for farmers. a law of july 12 1911 set aside 100,000 pesos for the encouragement of immigration. in may 1910, ratifications of the boundary treaty concluded in oct. 1909 were exchanged between uruguay and brazil; this set- tled several minor but long-pending questions. a subsequent treaty of may 7 1913, since carried out, provided for delimiting and marking the boundary. brazil ceded to uruguay “‘ the wa- ters and navigation ”’ of lake mirim and the jaguarao river, and the contracting parties agreed not to fortify their new frontiers. uruguay continued to prosper under her next president, felici- ano vieira (1915-9), who surrounded himself with able advisers of the young and progressive group which continued to dominate utah uruguayan affairs. most of them had studied or travelled abroad. baltasar brum, vieira’s successor in the presidency, had been minister of foreign affairs in the latter part of vieira’s ad- ministration, when the growing pro-ally sympathies of uruguay were crystallised by the entry of the united states into the world war. although no military or naval aid was sent to the allies, uruguay’s sympathies continued with them until the end of the war. on nov. 9 1917, the eight german merchant vessels in montevideo harbour were seized by the uruguavan govern- ment. a credit of 15,000,000 pesos (approximately £3,000,000 at normal exchange) was advanced to england by the uruguayan govt. at 5%, to be used for the purchase of supplies in uruguay. in 1916 a constitutional convention met to discuss a new con- stitution to replace that of 1830. the convention concluded its task in oct. 1917, and the new constitution came into effect on march 1 r9tg. the most important change in it was the definite separation of church and state. the roman catholic church, though no longer recognised as the state religion, was given con~ trol of those places of worship wholly or parily constructed by funds from the national treasury. members of the clergy were eligible for election as representatives or senators. decentralisa- tion of the formerly strongly centralised federal govt. was brought about by the installation of popularly elected assem- blies and autonomous councils of administration to regulate the local atfairs of the departments, with control over the municipali- ties. the chief of police in each department, paid by the national treasury, was made subordinate to, and appointed or dismissed by the president of the republic. the executive power was dli- vided between the president (elected by the direct vote for four years) and an administrative board composed of nine mem- bers elected by a popular vote for a six-year term, one-third of its members retiring every two years. the president was to co-operate with this board, which directs the affairs of the de- partments of finance, public instruction and public works, the president controlling those of the interior, foreign relations, war and marine. minority representation was protected by a system of plural voting, and woman suffrage provided for, sub- ject to acceptance by a two-thirds majority of each chamber of the legislature. the general assembly, composed of two houses, was charged with the interpretation of the constitution and the election of justices of the supreme court. uruguay spends more money on education than on her combined army and navy under this new and liberal constitution. uruguay’s youngest president, baltasar brum, took office on march 1 1919, and surrounded himself with an able and progrcs- sive cabinet. uruguay ratified the treaty of versailles in 19109, and also concluded obligatory arbitration treaties with great britain and italy in that year. a system of old-age pensions was introduced in 1919, and a total of 20,000 pensions had been grant- ed by 1925. jose serrato, an engincer of italian descent, became president on march 1 1923. in 1922 uruguay became a non- permanent member of the council of the league of nations. education.—primary education is compulsory. in 1923 there were 1,045 government schools with 120,583 children in attend- ance. private schools in 1922 were 186 with 20,168 pupils. eve- ning courses for adults were attended by 6,678. the agronomi- cal institute of the university of montevideo, which was opened in sept. 1906, was developed into a national agricultural col- lege, modelled on the best european and united states institu- tions. vocational training was given gratuitously to 185 pupils in the school of arts and trades supported by the government. the university of montevideo had a student body of 1,615 in 1922. ii. financial and economic history the public debt of uruguay was 129,774,119 pesos in igoo and 176,693,631 pesos in 1924, a small relative increase. the budget estimates for 1924~—5§ were, revenuc 45,182,207 pesos and expend- iture 45,120,052 pesos. it was decided to prolong the budget of 1924~5 for the whole of the period 1925-6, with the estimated ex- penditure altered to 47,199,900 pesos. revenue for 1923-4 was 44,963,678 pesos and expenditure 43,033,998 pesos. customs re- ceipts in 1924 were 14,573,890 pesos. 921 production and trade.—agricultural development has _ fa- voured the increase of small holdings and of peasant proprietors. the number of rural holdings in 1908 was 48,874, in 1916 there were 57,0974. the cattle census of 1924 gave the number of meat cattle as 8,431,613, as against 7,802,442 in 1916. the wool-clip 1923-4 yielded 49,500,000 kilos of wool, the number of sheep be- ing estimated at 14,443,341. the meat-packing industry has de- veloped rapidly, and in 1912 a large and up-to-date packing and freezing plant was established at montevideo. in 1920 uruguay had two freezing plants, 13 salting plants, three canning and three tongue-preserving factories, as well as a large factory for hquid meat extract. extensive manganese deposits were discovered in 1924. the accompanying table, given in thousands of gold pesos, contains the latest available statistics of foreign commerce :— | imports exports countries 1924 1923 1924 1923 great britain 11,398 | 11,592 | 24,253 | 25,536 united states 14,917 | 10,340 7,103 | 14,911 germany 6,613 5,166 | 17,731 | 12,530 argentina . 6,211 5.460 | 11,384 6,007 i‘rance 3,516 2,378 | 13,791 | 10,429 razil — 5,295 4,927 | 6,135 1,802 communications. —through rail communication between mon- tevideo and rio de janeiro was completed in 1911 by the connec- tion of various railways in southern brazil. work has been expedited on the san carlos-rocha line, and it is proposed to con- struct a direct line from montevideo to the free port of colonia. in 1921 there were 1,625 m. of railway open for traffic in uru- guay. bibliography.—a nuario estadistico de la republica oriental del uruguay (montevideo annual); w. h. koebel, uruguay (london, 1911); e. acevedo, manual de historia uruguaya (montevideo, 1916, etc.); h. j. gordon ross, argentina and uruguay (london, 1917); w. parker, uruguayans of to-day; in hispanic notes and monographs, vol. 6, 2nd ed. (new york, 1921); department of over- seas trade, reports (london, 1922, etc.). (c.-l gy) utah (see 27.813), a state of the united states. owing to increase in industry in the years 1910-25, the urban population of utah increased more rapidly than the rural. the population in 1925 was estimated at 485,530, as compared with 440,396 in 1920. . political history.—political divisions are no longer on re- ligious lines. utah was republican between 1910 and 1925 except in 1916, when both the electoral vote and state officers were democratic; and in 1924, when the national and state officers clected were republican, but the governor was a demo- crat. the governors from 1909 to 1925 were william spry (rep.), 1909-17; simon bamberger (dem.), 1917-21; charles r. mabey (rep.), 1921-5; george dern (dem.), 1925- section 3 of article 10 was amended, nov. 8 1910, to provide that funds from the state tax for high schools be apportioned among cities and school districts according to attendance at high schools. section 4 of article 13 was amended to provide that after jan. 1 1919 metalliferous mines and mining claims be assessed at $5 per ac., and in addition thereto at a value based on some multiple or sub-multiple of net annual proceeds. all other mineral deposits, including coal, are assessed at full value, as are also machinery and surface improvements. article 22 was amended to prohibit, after jan. 1 1919, the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor containing in excess of one-half of 1°4 of alcohol. education.—tvhe state tax furnishes approximately $25 per annum for each child of school age. the total expenditure for elementary and high schools in 1923-4 was $9,882,768.47, making $71.79 for each child of school age. in 1925 there were 130,457 children of school age in the state, 93% of whom were enrolled in public schools. of this number, 23,379 were en- rolled in the high schools. attendance at high school in 1924 was double the attendance in 1978. 922 irrigation.—an important irrigation enterprise, the straw- berry project, begun in 1906, has been completed. by means of a tunnel 4 m. long through the wasatch mountains, water is brought from a drainage basin on the east side of the mountains into the utah valley, 45 m. away. the reservoir in strawberry valley, covering 8,100 ac., 7,600 ft. above sea-level, has a capacity of 280,000 ac. ft., of which only 75,000 are to be used annually until the project is enlarged. the state’s irrigated acreage in 1qiq was 722,772; in 1924, 1,371,651. the great salt lake basin project, under construction in 1925, is designed to double the irrigated area in the northern valleys of the state. agriculiure—important acts in the interests of agriculture were passed by the legislature of 1921. several separate boards and commissions were consolidated and placed in a department of agriculture composed of seven members with an executive officer, called the commissioner of agriculture. in 1920 there were 25,622 farms, with an acreage of 5,050,410, of which 1,716,380 ac. were improved land. the chief products in 1924 were:— | quantity value wheat . 4,413,000 bu. % 5,737,000 corn 728,000 bu. 1,056,000 oats 3,080,000 bu. 2,156,000 barley 936,000 bu. 807,000 rye 99,000 bu. 106,000 pay. oe : 1,631,000 tons 19,246,000 alfalfa seed 350,000 bu. 3,430,000 | potatoes 2,184,000 bu. 1,616,000 | sugar beets 568,000 tons 4,703,000 livestock on jan. 1 1925 were estimated at 2,246,000 sheep, 385,000 beef cattle, 101,000 dairy cows, 97,000 swine and 122,000 horses and mules. the wool clip in 1925 was estimated at 16,000,000 jb. minerals—during the period r910-25 the development of all the mineral resources of utah proceeded rapidly. there are 13,130 sq. m. of workable coal land in the state. at the end of 1923 approximately 80,000,000 tons had been mined. it was estimated in 1925 that only -o5 of 1% of the total available sup- ply had been taken out. in 1924 utah was the leading metal mining state. mining supplies 85% of the freight traflic origi- nating within the state. the mines, mills and smelting aflord employment to over 18,coo0 men, and the wages bill is about $30,000,000. the chief mineral products in 1924 were: silver 17,000,000 0z., copper 242,700,000 lb., lead 241,425,000 ib. utica—uzbegistan industries —the chief industries of the state tn 1920 were meat-packing, creameries and condenseries, cannerics, flour and cereals, candy, salt, metal and sheet iron, cement and lime. by 1925 there had been important additions, including two large establishments manufacturing radio sets and appliances; a concern manufacturing car wheels; and two iron and steel industries; $4,000,000 of capital was added to the flour-mill business. in 1924 the manufacture of pig iron had been under- taken by the columbia iron and steel corporation, with a capital of $20,000,000. this corporation has coal mines at columbia, utah, iron mines at iron springs and blast furnaces at ironton, about 30 m. from salt lake city. the blast furnaces are capable of producing 400 tons of pig iron per day, which requires 800 tons of iron ore and 400 tons of coke, and to make the necessary coke 800 tons of coal are required, the daily output from the coke ovens being 11,000,000 cu. ft. of gas, 100,000 gal. of coal tar, 2,000 gal. of benzol and 18 tons of ammonium sulphate. the number of employees reported in the classified industries by the industrial commission was 58,464 in 1925. the railway and highway systems radiate from salt lake city. vhe total length of main line railway was 2,207 m. in 1923, and a network of excellent highways connect the principal towns with the capital. | (g. e. f.) utica, n.y., u.s.a. (see 27.820), increased 26-5°% in popula- tion in the decade after 1910, reaching 94,156 1n 1920, of whom 23,291 were foreign-born; and 101,604 in 1925, according to the state census (local estimate, 110,000). the area was more than doubled, increasing from 9-2 sq. m. in 1910 to about 24 in 1924. the varied products manufactured within the widening city limits were valued at $31,199,000 in 1909; $77,746,000 in 1919; 76,060,528 in 1923. utica is served by the new york state barge canal, opened in 1918. the abandoned bed of the erie canal was utilised for a water conduit, and a roadway was built over it (1921). hydroelectric power, generated at trenton falls, is available, and the proposed super-power development for the eastern states contemplates utica as one of the load centres and distributing points. by 1925 zoning ordinances had been adopted; a soldiers’ and sailors’ memorial hospital had been added to the buildings of the state masonic home; and the park system had been expanded until it con- tained about 700 acres. - uzbegistan.—a soviet republic in central asia. it com- prises districts formerly known as bokhara and ferghana and also including a part of former turkestan. (see turkestan.) vaccine therapy accine therapy.—this consists in the introduction into the body of a suitable vaccine, in order to stimulate the tissue cells to elaborate a sufficiency of specific antibodies to resist the subsequent invasion of a particular micro- organism; or in the case of an already infected individual to pre- vent the further multiplication and diffusion of the invading bacte- rium—in other words, to establish a condition of active immunity. to edward jenner belongs the credit of exploiting the use of an attenuated virus for the production of an active immunity to smallpox, and originally the term “ vaccine ” was restricted to the virus of smallpox as altered by its passage through the bovine species, in which it gives rise to cow-pox or vaccinia. pasteur then applied the principle to the prophylaxis of bacterial in- fections and almroth wright expanded it to embrace not only the prevention but also the treatment of microbial disease. consequently, the word “‘ vaccine ”’ now includes suspensions of bacterial cells and emulsions of bacterial protoplasm, which when introduced into the human economy result in the formation of specific antibodics. in either case the plan adopted was to inject successive quantities of bacterial protoplasm derived from artificial cultures of the particular micro-organism under study. in the initial stages of the process these cultures are usually modified by some physical agent, such as heat, in order to attenuate or destroy the virulence of the microbe. for instance, pasteur vaccinated sheep with cultures of the anthrax bacillus which had been attenuated by growth at a temperature (41°c) some degrees above the optimum, to protect them against the natural discase splenic fever; and wright used cultures of b. typhosus, killed by heating to 60° c. for the pteeeon of british soldiers in india against typhoid fever. the success that attended this work ei wright, sufficiently notable in the later stages of the bocr war, reached its cul- mination during the world war, when first typhoid, and sub- sequently paratyphoid, fevers were eliminated from the british army by the use of appropriate vaccines, and in consequence prophylactic vaccination against these diseases has established its position in preventive medicine. attempts have naturally been made in the direction of pro- phylaxis against many other infective diseases by the use of special vaccines, as, for example, cholera; plague; dysentery; cerebro-spinal fever; tuberculosis; pneumonia; influenza and the common “‘cold’’; but although considerable success has been attained, the results have not presented the uniformity of those achieved in the prevention of typhoid and para-typhoid fever. at the same time, it must be conceded that it ts a difficult matter to arrange ‘‘ mass ” experiments in which the numbers of inoculated and unimoculated or “control” individuals are sufficiently large to permit of the application of statistical mctheds in the evaluation of the results obtained, particularly in view of the very brief ‘‘ incubation ”’ period of many of these diseases. this difficulty becomes even greater when vaccines are employed in the treatment of individuals already incapacitated by bacterial infections, for here cach case must be judged as a separate entity and accessory means of treatment, to say nothing of the long arm of coincidence, are factors which cannot be ignored when attempting to form a just estimate of the value of vaccine therapy. in the opinion, however, of those who have devoted themselves to the study and application of this type of medication no reasonable doubt exists as to the importance of what may be termed specific therapy—despite the acknowledged imperfections of the vaccines in use. types of vaccines——vaccines belong to one of two main types— stock ” or heterogenous—that is to say prepared from a cultivation of the required species of microbe which has already been isolated from an infected individual and after identification stored in the laboratory; and “‘ autogenous,” prepared from the actual organism isolated from the particular patient under 923 treatment. obviously “ stock ” vaccines must of necessity be utilised in the attempt to immunise the normal individual prior {0 exposure to infection by the corresponding microbe. stock vaccines also possess a distinct value in therapeutic medicine particularly in the case of certain chronic infections such as tuberculosis, but since bacteria exhibit so many _ biological variations presumably due to the operation of environmental factors, the employment of a number of diffcrent ‘ strains ”’ of the same species, thereby rendering the ‘“ stock ’’ vaccine “polyvalent,” for this purpose is advocated (sce also serum tuerary). inthe treatment of acute discases, however, ‘‘ autog- enous ” vaccines are immeasurably superior even to polyvalent stock vaccines. when the serum containing the specific immune antibody for a particular strain of micro-organism is available it may be combined with that germ during the process of manufacture and a “sensitised ”’ vaccine—either stock or autogenous, as the case may be—results. detoxicated vaccine —another variety of vaccine, in which the bacterial protoplism has been ‘so modified as to remove its toxicity, as well as its infectivity, is known as ‘“‘ dletoxicated.” pasteur’s anthrax cultures incubated at an unsuitable temper- ature, and raw’s tubercle cultures grown for a long period of years upon artificial culture media, were detoxicated in this sense by purely biological methods. recent workers have at- tempted to effect the same object by treating the bacterial pro- toplasm with either mineral acids or alkalis. these chemical methods, however, profoundly change the protoplasm of the organism, and the injection of the resulling vaccines into the animal economy is not asa rule followed by the production of any large amount of the “specific” antibodies as at present rec- ognised. that detoxicated vaccines of this type do subserve a useful purpose is beyond question, however, although the mech- anism which is here brought into action is probably closely allied to that ef protein shock (see immunity). afode of preparation.—aall the above varieties of vaccines are prepared on very similar lines. the selected organism is culti- vated usually on a solid substratum, under optimum conditions for that particular period which will give the maximum develop- ment, and the resulting growth is emulsified in norma! saline solution. in the preparation of sensitised vaccines the appro- priate anti-serum is added to the emulsion and the mixture is allowed to stand at o° c. for a period of about 12 hours. next, the amount of bacterial protoplasm held in suspension per unit volume (1 c.c.) is measured, and several methods are avail- able for the purpose. undoubtedly the most accurate method involves drying and weighing the mass of bacteria, but this is a lengthy process, and often the time factor is of paramount importance where therapeutic vaccines are concerned. for this reason the plating methods ordinarily employed for the estima- tion of the number of bacteria suspended in fluids, such as water, are rarely resorted to, and other more rapid methods have been utilised. thus sir almroth wright mixed equal volumes of the bacterial emulsion and blood from a normal individual, and by means of microscopical films estimated the ratio existing ‘between the red cells and the bodies of the bacteria in the mixture. this ratio having been ascertained, a simple calculation determines the number of bacteria in the unit volume, since the number of erythrocytes normally present in man is a remarkably constant factor (amounting to 5,000 million per cubic centimetre). again; the bacteria may be counted by means of the ordinary haemo- cytometer, or the estimation may be made by comparing the suspension of bacteria with standard tubes containing opaque fluids corresponding to definite numbers of various organisms per cubic centimetre. in most instances the microbes contained in the emulsion are now altered by heat coagulation (by suspension in a water bath adjusted to the thermal death point of the particular organism) by autolysis, or by lysis due to the action of chemicals such as 924 sodium fluoride or carbolic acid, so that their infectivity is destroyed; in the case of sensitised vaccines the microbes may, at the discretion of the bacteriologist, be left in the living state and unaltered—save for their combination with the corresponding antibody. in the chemically detoxicated vaccines the solution of the bacterial protoplasm is effected at this stage by the ad- dition of the requisite acid or alkali, and the vegetable protein is further purified by repeated precipitation and solution. finally, the emulsion, is adjusted to some pre-determined standard by dilution or concentration, a small quantity of a preservative, such as tricresol or phenol, is added and the finished product stored in suitable receptacles. birliograpiy.—edward jenner, an inquiry into the causes and fiffects of the variolae vaccinae (1798); louis pasteur, chamberland and e. roux, “ de la possibilite de rendre les moutons refractaires au charbon par la methode des inoculations preventives,” com ptes rendus de l’acad, des sciences, vol. 92 (1881), and ‘ le vaccine du charbon, ” ibid, (1881); a. e. wright and d. semple, ‘‘ remarks on vaccination against typhoid fever,” brit, med. jour., vol. 1 (1897); a, e, wright, ‘ synopsis of the results which have been obtained by anti-typhoid inoculation,” lancet, vol. 2 (1902); and '‘ notes on the treatment of turunculosis, sycosis and acne by the inoculation of a staphylococcus vaccine etc.,”” ibid., vol. 1 (1902); nathan raw, * attenuation of human, bovine, and avian tubercle bacilli,” tbtd., vol. t (1919); david thompson, ‘ detoxicated vaccines,” ibid., vol. i (1919). | j. w. ed