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    "title": "TREATIES",
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    "verified_text": "the question of the sanctity or renewal of treaties is always a very serious one at the close of a war. but before the world war many great authorities held the opinion, which was expressed by some (e.g., professor oppen- heim) actually during the war, that the apparent “‘ breaking-up of laws,’ which takes place in war is usually succeeded by a stronger emphasis upon them when peace is attained. the sanctity of treaties is a dogma open to several interpreta- tions. [tor instance, many international jurists, including bethmann-flollweg, hold that germany committed a breach of international law in invading belgium in defiance of the treaty of 1839. others, among whom is sir ernest satow, an authority on both the theory and practice of diplomacy, would maintain that germany by violating belgium merely gave any other guaranteeing state the right to attack her. in other words, germany risked her existence but did not specifically break international law. ‘the difference between these two views is that the first relies upon custom, etc., to establish the sanctity of treaties, and the latter upon force. the difficulty of the first view lies in the fact that custom may change. [or instance, it was thought to have been established in 1871 that no great power which had joined with other great powers in signing a treaty could violate the provisions of that treaty without the consent of the other signatories, 7.c., without a european con- ference. but in 1908 austria-hungary violated article 25 of the treaty of berlin (1878) by annexing bosnia and hercegovina, and refused the demand for a conference. there can be little doubt that this principle had been abandoned before 1914. the peacemakers of 1919 therefore tried to set up a state of things whereby the sanctity of treaties would be upheld by the general co-operation of all states. president wilson condensed this aspiration into a single sentence: “ what we seek is the rule of law sustained by the organised opinion of mankind.” league and regional guarantees —some treaties which had proved impotent to guard certain countries, as, e.g., those neutralising belgium and luxembourg, were abrogated alto- gether (cf. articles 31, 40-1 of the german, article 83-4 of the austrian and articles 67-8 of the hungarian treaties). the league of nations covenant, however, attempted to give a gen- eral guarantee to all the members of the league in respect of their territorial integrity and independence. this general guarantee, embodied in article 10 of the covenant (q.v.), has, on the whole, been rather watered down in its interpretation. it 824 has, in fact, been succeeded by a system of special or regional guarantees. thus in the treaty of locarno (signed dec. 1 1925), the demilitarisation of the rhineland, enacted by the treaty of versailles, articles 42-44, was guaranteed by france, great britain, germany and italy. this guarantee becomes effective on the admission of germany to the league of nations in case of need great britain guarantees france against the un- provoked attack of germany, and vice versa. similar regional guarantees are given by france to poland and to czechoslovakia. the “ little entente treaties ’ (of which the first was signed aug. 4 1920) constitute a system of regional and special guar- antees between czechoslovakia, the serb-croat-slovene kingdom and rumania to preserve the territorial limits laid down in the treaties of st. germain, trianon and neuilly (see lirrte en- tente). similarly it was recognised in article 26 of the covenant that the monroe doctrine was ‘a regional understanding,” which meant a practical admission by the principal powers that the united states guaranteed other states on both american continents against the aggression of non-american neighbours. there can be no doubt that many smaller states now enjoy greater advantages under the covenant and special and local guarantees than did the neutralised states of the roth century. the covenant was successfully invoked by great britain on behalf of albania against the serb-croat-slovene kingdom in 1921, and by greece against italy in the matter of corfu in 1923. also the inclusion of germany in the league will in itself mean a strengthening of league guarantees. compulsory arbitration.—it is a singular and interesting fact that many smaller powers (e.g., the scandinavian kingdoms, the netherlands and china) have signed the compulsory jurisdiction clause in the protocol establishing the permanent court of international justice. if both litigating powers have signed the compulsory clause a peaceful settlement can be imposed by the court. there can be no doubt that such smaller powers as cannot depend on the guaranteed protection of larger ones feel that they are safest in this way. and it is an interesting fact that den- mark is the first state in europe since the war to propose the reduction of her armed forces to the level of mere police, and to trust to the justice and opinion of the world for support in time of need. if it continues, the permanent court will in time create a standard of international justice which it can impose upon all those who have signed the compulsory clause. were it possible, or certain, that the principal powers would also sign the com- pulsory clause the peace of the world could be reasonably assured. abrogation or renewal of treaties after war.—highly technical points are raised by this question which, though less generally interesting than those already mentioned, are none the less of some importance for the future of diplomacy. treaties are of two kinds, bilateral between two states, multilateral between several states. all treaties between the contending parties cease on the outbreak of war. it is clear that in the case of bilateral treaties when state a can force state b to sign a treaty of peace after the war, a can renew or refuse to renew with b all the pre-war treaties that she chooses. germany did not question this right in bilateral treaties. in the case of multilateral treaties the allies claimed the right to refuse permission to germany and to the enemy powers to keep in force treaties with states not actually then engaged in the war, as, e.g., soviet russia, or with neutrals who had not been in the war at all though they had severed diplomatic relations with germany, as, e.g., peru and ecuador. in reply to the german protests, the allies maintained and in- serted in the german and other treaties their right to “‘ reapply ” all “ multilateral treaties which seemed to them to be com- patible with the new conditions arising out of the war,” and “ to indicate which of these treaties with germany they intend to revive or allow to be revived.” the allies particularly insisted on making germany grant for limited periods to the allies them- selves or to some of them certain terms already granted to her friends or neutrals. but they did not dernand that germany should be prevented from negotiating new instruments with tree—trenchard states other than the allies after certain limited periods had passed, e.g., article 268, of german treaty. nor did germany fail to avail herself of her power. after having been compelled to abrogate the treaties of brest-litovsk with soviet russia, she — negotiated the treaty of rapallo with them on april 16 1922. this step evoked much protest from the allies, and it was con- tended that germany had not the right to do it. the use of power by the victor to enforce on his defeated antago- nist the abrogation of treaties with neutrals is not in itself desirable; but it does not appear, on the whole, that such power, even if abused at the moment of victory, is likely to be abused for very long. the special grievances or difficulties thus created by any such abuses in 1919 will be well compensated for if the settlement of europe has in fact brought a greater sense of security and permanence, whether through the agency of the league, of regional guarantee or of the court of international justice. (see also commercial treaties.) bibliography.——l. oppenheim, international law, 3rd ed., 2 vol. (1920): sir e. m. satow, diplomatic practice, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1922). each of the peace treaties of 1919 contains a section headed ‘* treatics.\"’ the passages on treaties in the german observations on the draft treaty and the allied reply are quoted in hl. w. v. tempcrley, ed. history of the peace conference of parts, 6 vol. (institute of international affairs, 1920), 322-6, and these are authoritative expositions of the rival points of view. (h. w. v. t.) tree, sir herbert beerbohm (1853-1017), british actor and manager (see 27.234), died in london july 2 1917. he published a volume of thoughts and afterthoughts (1913) and other occasional papers. see max beerbohm, herbert beerbohm tree: some memories of him (1920). trench, frederick herbert (1865-1923), british poet and playwright, was born at avoncore, co. cork, nov. 12 1865. educated at haileybury and keble college, oxford, he was elected a fellow of all souls’ college, and from 1891-1908 was an examiner in the board of education. this appointment he gave up in 1908 in order to devote himself to literary work. in 1908 he became director of the haymarket theatre, london, where he staged king lear and maeterlinck’s blue bird. his first volume of poems, deirdre wedded, appeared in 1901. it was followed by further poems, notably “apollo and the seaman,” included in new poems (1907), and lyrics and narrative poems (r9o1r). among his later publications were an ode from italy in time of war (1915); poems: with fables in prose (1918); anda poetic play napoleon (1919), which was produced in london by the stage socicty in 1919. he died on june 11 1923. his col- lected works, edited by h. williams, were published in 1924, and a volume of selected poems in the same year. see abel chevalley, herbert trench: notice sur sa vie et ses oeuvres (paris, 1925). trenchard, sir hugh montague (1873- ), brit- ish air marshal, was born feb. 3 1873. commissioned in the royal scots fusiliers in 1893, he served in the south african war with the imperial yeomanry and the canadian scouts. from 1903 to 1910 he served in west africa. in ro12 he qualified as an air pilot and became an instructor at the central flying school at upavon, where he was appointed assistant commandant the fol- lowing year. on the outbreak of the world war trenchard as- sumed charge at farnborough, but before the end of 1914 was summoned to france, and became head of the military wing of the royal flying corps. his strong personality, foresight and power of command made his name a household word in france, and with the expansion of the air service he rose from major to major-general in little over a year. after the formation of the royal air force he became, in march 1918, chief of the air staff. this position he resigned a month later, owing to disagreement with the first air minister, lord rothermcre. but a few weeks later he received command of the newly formed independent air force, whose mission was to raid germany, a post that gave scope to his gift for inspiring men and to his development of the strategical rele of aircraft. in the same year he was created k.c.b.; and in 1919 was again appointed chief of the air staff and received a baronetcy. in 1922 he was promoted air chief marshal. trent—trianon, treaty of trent, england (see 27.250).—a scheme of improvement of navigation between nottingham and newark has been proceed- ing on the river trent for some years, and aims at encouraging industrial development. the river is to be regulated by locks so that barges of 120 tons will be able to come up to nottingham. locks, 190 ft. long and 30 ft. wide, were in course of construction in 1925 at stoke bardulph, hazleford and gunthorpe, and the last was completed in september. trentino: see tirol. trenton, n.j., u.s.a. (see 27.251), grew to a population of 119,289 in 1920, of whom 30,168 were foreign born; and to 132,020 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). its factories produced goods valued at $49,115,000 in 1909; $122,478,000 in 1919; and almost as much ($116,622,782) in 1923, after some decrease in the period of depression. it maintained its leadership in the production of pottery, wire and wire rope, structural steel, and linoleum, and ranked second in the manufacture of automobile tires and other rubber goods. the public school system con- tained 31 schools by 1925, with 698 teachers and an enrolment of over 20,000 pupils. the board of health paid particular atten- tion to measures for promoting the health of children, both in the public and in the parochial schools. three municipal markets were established in 1920. docks, wharves and warehouses on the delaware river were owned by the city. a modern sewage disposal plant was under construction in 1925. in 1911 a com- mission form of government was adopted. trevelyan, george macaulay (1876- ), british historian, was born feb. 16 1876, the third son of sir. g. o. tre- velyan (see 27.255). educated at harrow and trinity college, cambridge, he devoted himself to historical research and became an authority on certain phases of italian history. in 1904 he married janet, daughter of mrs. humphrey ward. trevelyan's works include gartbaldi’s defence of the roman republic (1907); england in the age of wycliffe (1909); garibaldi and the thousand (1909); garibaldi and the muking of italy (1911); manin and the venetian revolution of 1848 (1923); the life of john bright (1913, new ed. 1925); history of england (1926). treves, claudio (1872- ), italian politician, was born in turin of a jewish family. he graduated in law and at an early age became a socialist. he first edited 1 tempo of milan, and when that paper came to an end he joined the staff of avanti, the official organ of the socialist party, which he afterwards edited. but he soon resigned, owing to disagreements with the general tendencies of the paper, and subsequently limited his journal- istic activities to writing articles in turati’s la critica sociale. he entered parliament in 1906 as member for milan, and was re- elected at all subsequent elections, being returned as a unitarian socialist at the 1924 elections. in socialism he represents the orthodox marxian view. when the split over the reformist ten- dency occurred at the reggio emilia congress in 1912, treves re- mained with the majority, but he also held out a hand to the secessionists (bissolati, bonomi, etc.). during the world war he adopted an uncompromising non-interventionist attitude. af- ter the fascist advent to power he ceased to play a prominent part in politics, but he continued to edit giustigia, the official organ of his party. treves, sir frederick (1853-1923), british surgeon, was born at dorchester feb. 15 1853, and was educated at merchant taylor’s school, london, and the london hospital, where he became surgical registrar. in 1881 he was appointed as professor of pathology and in 1885 as professor of anatomy at the royal college of surgeons, subsequently going into private practice. he served as consulting surgeon during the south african war in t900, and was made surgeon extraordinary to queen victoria in that year, and surgeon to king edward vii. in 1901. ele will be particularly remembered for his skill in operat- ing on king edward vii. when he fell suddenly ill in june 1902. he was created k.c.v.o. in tg01 and a baronet in 1902, and later serjeant surgeon to king george and surgeon in ordinary to queen alexandra. during the world war he assisted in the founding of the british red cross. his work on the intestinal canals of man and mammals was based on hundreds of original 825 dissections, and corrected many popular misconceptions. he died at lausanne on dec. 7 1923. his publications include several surgical and medical books, of which surgical applied anatomy (1883) is well known, and va- rious treatises on intestinal obstruction, peritonitis and appendici- tis, as well as a number of more popular books such as the tales of a field hospital (1900), the riviera of the corniche road (1921), the lake of geneva (1922), and the elephant man and other reminiscences (1923). trianon, treaty of.—the treaty of peace between the allied and associated powers and hungary was signed at the trianon on june 4 1920. owing to the outbreak of bela kun’s revolution in hungary, the delegates of that nation were not summoned to the peace conference till nov. 191g. previous to that date, however, on june 13 1919 the supreme council had decided upon the new frontiers of rumania and czecho- slovakia and had published them. the hungarian govt. re- ceived the treaty in jan. 1920 and on june 4 it was signed at trianon. it actually came into force on july 26 1921. general observations.—though the separation of hungary from austria and its complete independence are recognised, the details of the hungarian treaty otherwise are very closely akin to those of the austrian. the most important difference is that, while the treaty of st. germain is signed with the republic of austria, that of trianon is signed with hungary, or with “the national government of hungary,” a phrase permitting her to be regarded as a government where the monarchy is temporarily in suspense. though charles never abdicated the kingship of hungary and there is no provision in the treaty for his deposition or for that of any habsburg, he was formally deposed by a law passed by the hungarian assembly (after his attempted putsch oct. 1921) at the insistence of the allies. (see habsburg.) on her admission to the league of nations in 1922 hungary submitted to the league a document pledging herself not to re- store the habsburgs without the consent of the allies, and con- firming the undertaking to the conference of ambassadors of nov. 10 1921. it may therefore be said that, while an interna- tional understanding has been given by hungary, prohibiting the election of a habsburg to the hungarian throne, there is no in- ternational obligation to prevent any other individual from being elected king. territorial clauses.—the territorial clauses of the hungarian treaty reduce her to a population of 7,500,000 (1910 census), of whom 6,250,000 are hungarians (magyars); 500,000 are germans, 500,000 are jews, 230,000 are slavs and slovaks and 50,000 are rumanians. fiume was ceded to the principal allies by article 53 and, after being erected into a free city, was even- tually annexed by italy (1924). hungary has lost to other nations over 3,000,000 magyars, of whom 1,500,000 go to rumania, nearly 1,000,000 to czechoslovakia and 500,000 to yugoslavia. these losses have been much bewailed by the mag- yars on the ground of self-determination, but their complaints are not wholly sound. much of the magyar population lost (as e.g.,the szekler area) consists of magyar islands isolated amid a sea of slavs or rumanians. the pecs area, with its val- uable coal mines, has been returned and a line drawn in this area so as to give hungary a defensible frontier. the chief of- fence against nationality is on the eastern border of hungary, where the line is so drawn as to give to rumania the three mag- yar towns of satul-mare (szatmar) oradea-mare (nagyvarad) and arad and the surrounding magyar zone. but this concession was made primarily for economic reasons. without the railway line connecting these three cities from north to south there would be no connection between north and south transylvania. had the hungarian govt. possessed the intervening strip, it would certainly have made difficulties as to the cheap and easy transport of food from south to north. on the whole, however, whether we consider rumania or the serb croat-slovene kingdom, we must admit that both got much territory at hungary’s expense, though neither of them got as much as they wanted and demanded. the hungarians, with complete indifference to the claims of nationality, have always asserted that they have a 826 right to the whole original kingdom of hungary, including the rumanians, slovaks, italians, serbs, croats and germans, of which the magyar population formed little more than half. it is entirely true to say that the allies, in making the treaty, showed much more respect for nationality than hungary has ever done. | articles 36-78 deal with the details of ceding territory to italy, czechoslovakia and yugoslavia, and are similar to the corresponding section in the austrian treaty. tlungary is less affected by interests outside europe than austria, but is, none the less, compelled to cede all rights in capitulations, concessions, etc., in china, siam, egypt, etc. part v.—the military, naval and air clauses are almost exactly similar to those of the austrian treaty, except that hungary 1s allowed an army of 35,000 instead of austria’s 30,000. part vi., prisoners of war and graves, and part vil., penalties, are the same as in the austrian treaty. (see st. germain, treaty of.) part viii.—reparation.—this section is verbally almost identical with the austrian section, and both are a close imitation of the german. for various reasons it was not possible to fix the exact amount of reparation. but hungary was forced to surrender all rights to her merchant ships on “the ton for ton, class for class basis,” and her reparations in kind were to be fixed in three months by the reparation commission, which was to deliver cattle to italy, to rumania, and to the serb-croat-slovene kingdom (annex. iv. to part viii.). as parts of hungary had already been amply sacked by rumanian soldiers in aug. 1920, this did not leave them much livestock in hand. financial and economic clauses.—articles 180-199 are mainly concerned with liquidating the austro-[hungarian national bank, thus separating the last link with austria, part x., the economic clauses, calls for no special remark, nor does part xf., aerial naviga- tion. the economic clauses are the same as the austrian, the latter like that of both german and austrian treaties. part xil., ports, waterways and railways, is mainly concerned with the regulation of the danube, for which a statute was eventually drawn up. as in the case of the austrian treaty (article 311), the hungarian in article 294 provides for the free access of ilungary to the adriatic, though practically nothing has been done to secure it. part xiii., labour, is the same in all treaties and part xiv., miscellaneous provisions, calls for no remark. summary.—iin the hungarian treaty, as in all others, the war criminals and reparation sections proved impossible of exe- cution. indeed, it is a great misfortune that these clauses of the hungarian treaty were modelled so closely on those of the aus- trian and german. in the result, hungary, being an agricultural country, has proved much more elastic in her recovery than aus- tria and her economic and financial situation are both sound. it has not proved true, as was averred by her statesmen at the time, that the loss of so much territory and population would cripple her. she retains areas of great agricultural, and some mineral, wealth. her conduct is, however, open to suspicion. on her admission to the league in 1922 the military experts stated that her army was above the limit of 35,000 men, and there was an extraordi- nary forgery of french francs in 1926 in which a prince, a bishop, the budapest chief of police and possibly higher officials, were implicated. the real cause of discontent is the refusal of the mazyar irredentists to accept the inevitable and their incessant pressure upon the government. the prospect is not a good one in the political sense, but the presence on her borders of three hostile nations, each formidably armed, is probably sufficient to keep the peace for some years. that the present treaty will ever be sincerely accepted by the present governing class in hungary no one acquainted with their mentality believes to be possible. but their energy and their resources are quite suf- ficient to keep the country prosperous, if they abstain from rash political projects. . bisltiograrny.—h. w. v. temperley, ed. history of peace con- ference, vol. 4-5, including texts of treaty and of agreements of contributions towards act of liberation (1921); george birming- ham, a wayfarer in hungary (1925). see also: treaty of peace between the allied and associated powers and hungary, and protocol and declaration, signed at trianon, june 4 1920 (treaty series no. 10, cmd. 896 of 1920). ch wa voto) trieste, italy (see 27.269), a centre of italian patriotism under austrian rule, was ceded by austria to italy under the trims te--tripolitania treaiy of st. germain in 1918. italian, the official language, is generally spoken. with a population of 238,655 in 1921, trieste is the eighth city of italy, and the chief port of the adriatic harbour improvements were in hand in 1925. the austrian- lioyd steam navigation company, which for many years has had its headquarters at trieste, is now the lloyd-triestino company. there are dockyards and an arsenal. the inland republic of czechoslovakia has been granted rights in the use of the port. a university was opened in 1924. trinidad: see west indies, britisii. | |",
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