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    "title": "TECHNICAL EDUCATION",
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    "verified_text": "the tendency in re- cent educational administration has been increasingly to focus phases of industry in particular institutions. i. in the british empire the statutory duty of local education authorities to co-ordinate all forms of education within their area has led them, since 19009, to develop technical education by a progressive delimitation of the functions of rival schools. secondary education (g.v.) and, to a less extent commercial education (g.v.) are being removed from technical schools. and concentrated elsewhere; similarly, adult education (g.v.) now being developed at evening schools for men and women and at literary institutes, is being taken away, by degrees, from the technical schools to utilise accommodation for the teaching of scientific and technological processes. in large centres of population, technical instruction is grouped around the major technical schools within the area, minor or junior technical schools being affiliated to a parent institution. in 1913, the evening school system of london was re-organised by the london county council on these lines, and a similar re- organisation has been effected in other large towns. the present system is designed to encourage boys and girls on leaving the elementary schools at the-age of 14 to enrol in junior technical schools or junior commercial schools for a course of study until the age of 17 or 18 is attained, provision being made by most authorities for trade scholarships at the age of 13 for children of exceptional ability. at the age of 17 or 18 the junior students can be transferred to the appropriate senior school, free places being awarded to those who have given promise of assiduity or ability. the need, especially in rural districts, for the old type of ele- mentary instruction for more or less illiterate adults has practi- cally disappeared, and, in the opinion of the board of education, the tendency to concentrate classes and to reduce their number has on the whole been beneficial. in recent years, the function of evening schools has considerably changed; and, although the number of students has been diminished by schemes of re-organ- isation, a general raising of the standard of attendance and of work has been achieved. the modern type of evening school or institute is more closely in touch with industrial and com- mercial requirements than formerly, and the enrolment of serious students steadily increases, notably among women and girls by 739° reason of the development of trade schools for girls and of wom- en’s institutes. special schemes—in london and elsewhere special schemes have now been drawn up for technical education in textiles, me- chanical and electrical engineering, chemistry, technical optics, architecture and the building trades, furnishing and furniture making, flour milling, retail distribution, banking and secreta- rial occupations, grocery and provision trades and the boot and shoe trades. recent advances include the institution of national certificates by the board of education in conjunction with pro- fessional associations dealing with mechanical enginecring, chem- istry and the gas industry, and the extension of the day training of apprentices in various trades, e.g., the rubber trades, music trades, printing and gas fitting. consultative committees have been appointed, either by the board of education or the local education authorities, to co-ordinate the details of technical instruction with trade requirements. monotechnic institution.—the monotechnic type of institution has shown great potentialities in pushing forward education for specific trades, particularly in towns with a population or an industry large or important enough to support a technical insti- tute of this type. comparatively new industries have tended to go forward in education more rapidly than old industries, but, gradually, the application of scientific principles is extending through the medium of specialised technical training. technical institutes in great britain may now broadly be divided into three categories:—(1) the monotechnic type which deals with every- thing in relation to one particular trade; (2) the polytechnic which provides instruction in practically all subjects of local im- portance; (3) junior technical schools and trade schools. the monotechnic type of technical institute has achieved its greatest development in london, the largest institute of this type being the london school of printing and kindred trades with 2,500 day and evening students. other monotechnic in- stitutions have been provided in london for the building trade, the meat industry, lithography and photo-engraving, and for the leather and boot and shoe trades. printing schools are also maintained at the ecole estienne in paris, and at utrecht, brus- sels, amsterdam, zurich, leipsic, vienna and other european centres. economic depression arising from the great war re- stricted the development of technical education abroad. one effect of the war was a world-wide reaction in favour of the hu- manities, but later economic stress led to a more insistent demand for technical education. canada.—in canada subventions have been voted for the improvement of technical and agricultural education, and in denmark also development has been very largely in favour of agricultural education. in australia technical education is being increasingly modelled on british lines. lower commercial in- struction has been organised in norway and a number of agri- cultural continuation schools have been opened in austria. statistics.—in england and wales in 1922-3, there were 4,129 schools providing technical education. the enrolment at these schools was 659,936, of whom 23,317 were in day continuation courses. the enrolment was greatest in london which had an average of 4% of its total population under technical instruction; the average for the county boroughs was 2%, and for the admini- strative counties slightly over 1%. these percentages do not, however, represent the effectiveness of the instruction, since there is considerable divergence in local regulations governing the opening of classes and the attendance of students. post-war conditions caused violent fluctuations in the number of students receiving technical education. the highest atten- dances were recorded in 1921; subsequently economic duress and unemployment caused a decline, but in 1924 and 1925 enrol- ments began to increase again in many towns, notably in london which had an increase of nearly 20,000 students in two years in its day and evening technical and continuation schools. the average number of student hours worked by each student rises steadily; in 1923 it was 76 hours per student for the county bor- oughs, 61 hours for london, and 56 hours for the other adminis- trative counties. the total public expenditure from rates and 740 taxes on technical education in great britain in 1925 was slightly over {£3,000,000. for bibliography, see epucational litera- ture. (g. h. ga.) ii. in the united states agriculture was the first subject in which technical education was provided in the united states, because the country was long an agricultural country. the congress of the united states made appropriations for agricultural education during the civil war, and at later periods gave large grants to support schools of agri- culture and divisions of agriculture in state universities congressional support was extended in 1014 through the smith-lever law to what is known as agricultural extension. under this law agents are distributed through the various states operating from the agricultural colleges, and promoting the development of popular courses in agriculture for adults and also courses in the high schools. the development of high school courses in this line has been so rapid that the colleges of agricul- ture find their student bodies seriously falling off in numbers because the subject-matter which they used to teach has been taken over by the high schools. the registration in all day agri- cultural schools under the supervision of the federal board for vocational education is indicative of the growth in interest in such courses at the secondary level. the details of this expansion are as follows:— number of pupils in all-day agricultural schools 15,453 1922. 2,961 31,201 =: 1925 . 65,945 engineering.—the development of engineering schools in the united states came much later than the establishment of schools of agriculture. in recent years, various types of enginecring have come to be an important part of university curricula, espe- cially in the great state universities of the middle west and west. furthermore, the larger citics have organised technical high schools in response to the demands of industry. these were originally thought of as schools for the training of mechanics. experience has shown, however, that a relatively small percent- age of the graduates of these schools actually work in the trades. most of them enter upon higher careers as managers or follow the high school training by study in higher institutions. in the technical high schools and im the so-called mechanic arts courses of the ordinary high school, the pupils who are preparing to enter the trades usually remain only for one or two years. the short-period pupils in the technical courses constitute the group who are receiving what is commonly defined as industrial training rather than technical education. part-time plan.—a method of relating theoretical training in the technical arts to practical operations in the world of indus- try was devised and first practised at the university of cincin- nati. this method is called the part-time plan, and provides for a periodical shift of students from school to factory and back again. the period of stay at school and factory varies in different institutions from one week to a month. usually two equal groups of students alternate with each other, so as continuously to pro- vide the industrial plant and the school with classes for the type of work which it is the share of each to contribute. the early experiments with the part-time plan demonstrated the necessity of a careful correlation of the work carried on in the two institu- tions concerned. the advantage of such a plan is that it releases the school from the necessity of equipping itself with the tools and machines demanded by modern mechanics. the learner gains the advantage of contact with current methods in industry and with the results of science. the plan is so successful that it has been imitated in commercial schools and in some of the lower industrial schools. the larger industrial concerns have found that it is necessary for their success to carry the training of some of their employees to levels which equal those reached in college and university laboratories, and have accordingly established research labora- tories and schools for the training of engineers. the effort is being made on an increasing scale, especially in 1918 1920 teeth—telegraphy urban centres, to train all the people in matters mechanical through industrial museums and exhibitions. the purpose of such institutions is to satisfy the popular desire for mechanical knowledge which has been stimulated by the extensive use of the automobile and the electrical contrivances and machines which are now common in homes. the successful example of europe in this line has undoubtedly contributed to the development of such experiments in a.nerica. (c.h j.) teeth: sce dentistry. tehran, persia (see 26.506), with a population of about 200,000, has, like the rest of persia, seen little change. the lalazar, the centre of the city, has some well-built shops, and in the suburbs are wide shady roads, lined with houses in large gardens. there are no factories except those for making carpets, but tehran is one of the chief commercial centres of persia, and an exhibition, with the object of increasing trade, was held in 1923. a police force, trained by swedish officers, was organised in 1911 to trv to enforce law and order in tehran and southern persia. the lightly metalled road from tehran to khanagqin on the persian frontier, which was made by the british during the world war, has been kept up since by means of heavy tolls on traflic, and has become one of the main trade routes, as khanaqin is linked with baghdad by rail, and the northern trade routes have been closed. a.road fit for light traffic has recently been made to the caspian, and a motor service to resht was started in 1924; it is also planned to metal the route to bushire on the persian gulf, which carries a large proportion of the foreign trade, but is only a caravan track. no railway had been built to tehran up to 1925. teisserenc de bort, leon philippe (18s5-10913), french meteorologist, was born in paris nov. 5 1855, the son of an engineer. he began his scientific career in 1880, when he entered the meteorological department of the bureau central meteorologique in paris under e. e. w. mascart. in 1883, 1885 and 1887 he made journeys to north africa to study geology and terrestrial magnetism, and during this period published some important charts of the distribution of pressure at a height of 4,000 metres. in 1892 he became chief meteorologist to the bureau, but resigned in 1896 and founded a private meteorolog- ical observatory at trappes, near versailles, where he carried out investigations on clouds and the problems of the upper air. in 1898 he published an important paper in comptes rendus detail- ing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere. his discovery of the so-called isothermal layer, or stratosphere, as il is now generally called, will always stand out as one of the most important events in the study of the upper atmosphere. he also carried out investigations in sweden and over the zuider zee, the mediterranean and the tropical region of the atlantic, and fitted out a special vessel in order to study the currents above the trade winds. he was elected a fellow of the royal meteorological society in 1903, hon. member in 1900, and was awarded the symons gold medal of the society in 1908. he collaborated with hugo hildebrandsson in les bases de lu nveteorologie dynamique (1900-5). he died at cannes jan. 2 1913.",
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