SPINAL MENINGITIS

the term meningitis sig- nifies merely an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. an equivalent term is cerebro-spinal meningitis. as the inflammation is usually in- cited by microbes and attended by fever it is also called cerebro- spinal fever. the meninges, as is the case also with the corresponding mem- branes of the chest (pleura), heart (pericardium) and abdomen (peritoneum), are subject to infection with quite a wide variety of bacteria—cocci and bacilli. according to the microbic inci- tant, the infection is termed tubercular, pneumococcal, strepto- coccal, staphylococcal, influenzal (b. pfeifferi), typhoid, etc., meningitis. the precise diagnosis of one or another of these varieties is accomplished by means of the bacteriological exam- ination of fluid (cerebro-spinal) withdrawn by means of the de- vice known as lumbar puncture. the above-mentioned class of bacterial infections of the meninges tends to arise exception- ally or sporadically; as a rule it accompanics the corresponding bacterial infection affecting other parts of the body, the lungs, middle ear, tonsils, etc. epidemic form.—in sharp contrast with the sporadic varieties of meningitis is the epidemic form, incited by a particular micro- organism, the diplococcus discovered by weichselbaum in 1887, now called meningococcus, of which many epidemic outbreaks have been recorded in medical literature. the meningococcus possesses biological characteristics which serve readily to dis- tinguish it from other members of the large class of cocci; and it appears not as a single, sharply defined species, but rather as a group in which the composing strains, while showing many properties in general, are yet distinguishable by means of physi- ological differences, as of power to ferment carbohydrates, re- action to specific agglutinating agents, etc. as with other such disease-producing or pathogenic bac- terial groups, e.g., pneumococci, certain strains or types of meningococci have greater virulence for man than have others. the more virulent strains show greater fixity of biological prop- erties than the more fluctuant, less virulent ones. during epi- demics of meningitis the types of enhanced pathogenicity have the wider distribution; while in interepidemic periods the weaker, less defined strains are more frequently encountered. a very wide epidemic, so-called pandemic, of meningitis pre- vailed during the first two decades of the present century. it embraced europe, america, asia, africa and many islands of the seas. this pandemic was characterised by high mortality and by those multiple clinical features which have been noted in previous severe epidemics of the disease. a part only of the cases, usually not a large part, was attended by the visible haemorrhages in the skin and mucous membranes to which the name of spotted fever was applied in earlier times. usually the very severe and rapidly fatal so-called fulminating cases fell into this category. the fatality of the epidemic outbreaks, whether in europe, in america or in more distant countries, in the years between 1904 and 1g10 did not vary greatly. in the united states the percentage figures were from 75 to go; in great britain 70 to 80; in germany 60 to 70; in france, italy and belgium 75 to 80; in palestine 80; in greece 60; in the transvaal 75. in other words, the pandemic seems to have been little affected by local- ity or race. as in all previous epidemics closely observed, the mortality was influenced by the age period of the attacked; the very young and the very old rarcly survived attack. on the spielhagen—spinal meningitis other hand, children over five and adults up to 30 years of age have the best chance of recovery. serum treatment.—the outlook for recovery has been greatly modified by the discovery and use of the antimeningococcic serum, or as it is now called merely antimeningitis serum. in view of the advance of bacteriology and serum therapy, it was natural and inevitable that with the reappearance in force about 1904 of epidemic meningitis, efforts should be made to produce a curative serum. these attempts were carried out simultane- ously in germany by jochmann and wassermann, and in amer- ica by flexner. the former failed perhaps because the manner of use was wrong: the serum was injected chiefly subcutaneously. the latter succeeded, because the injections were made repeat- edly directly into the inflamed meninges by means of lumbar puncture. flexner’s method was based on an experimental study in which the meninges of monkeys were infected with the meningococcus, and the treatment was apphed by lumbar puncture. the serum-treated monkeys survived, while the un- treated and those treated by subcutaneous injections of the serum succumbed. this result is in harmony with what is known of the anatom- ical-physiological conditions affecting the passage of chemical substances from the blood into the cerebro-spinal fluid. such passage, even when the membranes are inflamed, takes place to a very small extent or not at all. in order, therefore, to bring the curative serum into relation with the seat of disease, it be- came necessary to circumvent the protective mechanism of the choroid plexus, which structure determines the quality of the cerebro-spinal fluid. this could readily be done by making direct injections through the lumbar puncture needle. results of serum treatment.——the consensus of competent opinion is that given a potent antimeningitis serum, which car- ries the immunity principles of the chief strains of virulent meningococci—a_ so-called polyvalent scrum—its proper em- ployment is capable of greatly modifying the course of the men- ingitic disease, of reducing the mortality, and of preventing crippling consequences. the results of the serum treatment are affected by such considerations as age of the patient, period of the disease at which the treatment is begun, the manner in which the repeated injections are carried out and also of course by the original severity of the cases themselves. little has been accomplished in mitigating the effects of the fulminant disease, since often the interval between onset and termination is only 24 to 48 hours. a number of tabulations have been published showing the effects of the serum according to age groups, days of first injec- tion, etc. the largest compilation is that of flexner, dealing with about 1,300 cases in which the mortality among those treated in the first three days of illness was 18-1, the second three days 27-2 and after the seventh day 36-:5%. the total mortality among these cases was 30-8% , as compared with 75 to 80% among corresponding non-serum-treated cases. netter’s figures for the corresponding three periods are 7-14, 11-1 and 23:5°%; and dopter’s 8, 20, 14-4 and 24:1%. flexner’s figures are compiled from the reports of physicians at many places, of whom not a few had had only slight experience with the serum, while netter’s and dopter’s are based on personal experiences largely with a more uniform material and method. similarly, the influence of age on the results of the treatment 1s shown as follows: according to flexner, under one year 50°, one to 20 years 75°, over 20 years 60% recovered; according to netter, under one year 40°, one to 20 years 79° recovered; and accord- ing to dopter, under one year 53%, one to 20 years 78%, and over 20 years 76° recovered. these are impressive figures when compared with those of earlier epidemics, and especially with corresponding and even simultaneous cases of the same epidemics in which the antimeningitis serum was not employed. it is desirable to ascertain whether the favourable action of the serum can be related to any other striking results of its use. in this way the mere numerical or statistical evidence may come to be supported. fortunately, certain important objective effects are produced. perhaps the most immediately impressive spitsbergen is the modifted character of the clinical course of the disease itself. briefly stated, this relates to the essential disappearance of the chronic cases slowly moving through weeks and months to a fatal issue, attended by hydrocephalus, extreme emaciation and other sequels. either the cases fail to respond and terminate quickly, or in a few days the real infection is over and the patient convalescent. the growth and multiplication of the meningo- coccus within the cerebro-spinal fluid are quickly arrested. probably it is this action of the serum which controls the disease. next, epidemic meningitis is a disease from which when recovery occurs spontaneously it tends to take place slowly, gradually, or by “‘lysis ’; under the influence of the serum, sudden termina- ation by “ crisis’”’ frequently takes place. finally, the severe consequences, as of hydrocephalus, impairment of vision and mentality, paralysis and joint affections, are diminished. the one severe complication which has not been influenced is deaf- ness, which occurs in a varying, usually small percentage of the cases, and usually very early in the disease. mode of infectton.—the mode of infection in epidemic men- ingitis may be regarded as established. the meningococcus gains access to the interior of the body by way of the mucous membrane of the nose and throat. the incidence of meningitis bears relationship to the proportion of nasopharyngeal carriers of the meningococcus. when the cases are few in any community or group of persons the carrier rate is low. when the carrier rate rises the cases tend to increase in number. during sharp outbreaks, among an exposed personnel, the carrier rate may reach 20%; ordinarily it is 2 to 3% or less. probably the meningococcus passes from the nasal mucous membrane into the blood, with which it is carried to the menin- ges. whether the microbe ever passes along the direct lym- phatic channels stretching from the nasal membrane to the meninges may be doubted. instances are known in which meningococci were present in the blood some time before signs of meningitis appeared. the intravenous injection of the anti- meningitis serum has been successful in removing the microbe from the blood and of curing the general or blood infection, no men- ingitis followed. it is because of the occurrence of meningococci in the blood stream that early intravenous injection of the serum is recommended by certain authorities as a regular part of its intraspinal use in the treatment of epidemic meningitis. to be of value, the intravenous injection should be carried out very early in the disease, and it should not be substituted for the direct injection into the inflamed meninges. as a rule, a number of intraspinal serum injections on successive days is required to control the infection. the successful employment of the antimeningococcus serum has led to efforts being made to control other microbic varieties of meningitis in a similar manner, but thus far without notable success. probably the meningococcus, as compared with the more hardy pneumococcus, streptococcus and pfeiffer bacillus, is a fragile organism easily subject to injury by direct action of the antiserum. certainly it tends to be taken up by the white blood cells (leucocytes) present as the result of inflammation. it is this striking intracellular feature which led weichselbaum, the discoverer, to invent for it the cumbrous name of drplo- coccus intracellularis meningitidis, now rarely employed. more- over, with so many of the class of microbes other than the men- ingococcus, the meningitis is a complication of some other severe infection, as a pneumonia, a peritonitis or other severe affection, so that its amelioration offers fewer possibilities of successful issue than when, as in epidemic meningitis, the chief if not the sole disease is confined to one place. even with the antimeningitis serum, the natural curative powers of the body come into play, when the recovery of one and not of another individual occurs and there are relatively comparable conditions of infection. hence, the more seriously embarrassed the body is with multiple sources of microbic poisoning, the less able are these inherent powers to assert themselves, even when assisted by artificially produced healing agents. bibliography.—s. flexner, jour. exper. med., 1907, 1x., 142, 168; s, flexner and j. w. jobling, jour. exper. med., 1908, x., 141; 5. 629 flexner, jour. exper. med., 1913, xvii., 553; a. netter, congres assoc. franc. de pediatrie (1910); c. dopter, congres frangais de medecine, bordeaux (1923). (s..f 3) spitsbergen, the arctic archipelago between greenland and novaya zemlya (see 25.708), is now officially known as svalbard, though the individual islands retain their former names. according to the most recent surveys, the highest peak in the archipelago is believed to be mount newton, 5,445 {t., in the eastern part known as new friesland. several other peaks in the same and near ranges are over 5,000 feet. mount eidsvoll, in king james land, is 4,770 ft. and mount monaco, on prince charles foreland, is 3,543 feet. geology.—considerable exploration has not greatly modified the main conception of the geological structure, but it is now realised that the caledonian folds of scotland and scandinavia pass through prince charles foreland and western spitsbergen and are probably continued in the north of greenland. the old rocks of the west, generally described as the hekla hook series, seem to be of ordovician age to which may also be ascribed most of the so-called archacan rocks of the northwest. there are no permo-carboniferous rocks in king james land and the strips of rocks on the northeast side of prince charles foreland and the opposite shores of the mainland, formerly attributed to that age, are now known to be tertiary. cer- tain of the coal measures in advent bay prove to be of cretaceous and not tertiary age and these cretaceous beds ptobably appear also below the tertiary beds in lowe sound. an extinct volcano and several hot springs with a temperature of 75° to 82° f. were dis- covered in bock bay, off wood bay in 1910. the volcano seems to date from a later period than any other volcanic manifestation found in spitsbergen. research has proved that dislocation has played a great part in determining the main features of the fjord system, especially in ice fjord where the course of the fjord has been decided by great faults. climate.—from the meteorological data now available, including eight years’ records from green harbour, the following means may be given: , cape thordsen—jan.+-o-3° f., july 39-9° f.; green harbour—feb. —8-3°, july 39:7°; axel i, (lowe sound) —feb. —7-2°, july s.e. of edge i.,—feb.+0-3°, aug. 37-473 bear i.—feb.+10-4°, aug. 4o-1°. the mean annual precipitation at green harbour is 11-6 in.; prince charles foreland has more and the interior of spitsbergen less. 40-3"; exploration.—recent exploration in spitsbergen has been devoted mainly to geological work, largely with economic ends in view, and detailed cartographical survey. the principal survey work has been done by norwegians working in small parties every summer since 1906, assisted by grants from the norwegian state. these parties have been successively com- manded by g. isachsen, a. staxrud and a. hoel, and have mapped in detail the western side of the mainland from the north coast to the south cape. the work is expedited by the use of photogram- metric methods to assist triangulation. the detailed survey of prince charles foreland was completed by w. s. bruce and assistants, who also mapped the area between klaas billen and sassen bays. swedish surveyors mapped the land round lowe sound and braganza bay. the prince of monaco showed continued interest in spits- bergen exploration by giving assistance to several explorers, includ- ing the swiss, h. stoll, who in re 3 crossed the unknown country between lowe sound and agardh bay. w. filchner in 1910 surveyed the glaciated region between temple bay and mohn bay. another german expedition under lt. schroe- der-stranz in 1912 came to grief on the north coast, with some loss of life, and accomplished nothing. in 1920 j. m. wordie scaled several of the highest peaks on the west coast, including mounts monaco, rudmose and barents. in 1923 and 1924 the oxford expeditions under g. binney carried out some surveys on the coasts of north- east land and crossed the island. hydrographic surveys have been carried out by g. isachsen and others on the west coast and in green harbour, by w. s. bruce in foreland sound, klaas billen and sassen bays and stor fjord, and by the norwegian naval survey in ice fjord and on the southwest coast. swedish govt. surveyors have been at work in lowe sound. oceanographical work has been done in spitsbergen waters by dr. f. nansen. king’s bay was used by r. amundsen ia 1925 in his unsuccessful attempt to fly to the pole and again in 1926. the norwegian govt. has maintained a wireless telegraph station and mcteorological observa- tory in green harbour since 1911. a german meteorological station was founded in ebeltoft haven, cross bay, in 1910 as the outcome of a visit by prince henry of prussia and count zeppelin, when experiments with dirigible balloons were conducted. this station was abandoned in sept. 1914. from 1920-6 norway maintained a meteorological and geophysical station for aerological and geo- 630 magnetic research at quade hook, king’s bay. in aug. 1921 a norwegian church was consecrated at longyear city. ‘there are norwegian post-offices at the chief mines. mining.—the development of the coal-fick!s has proceeded rapidly, greatly stimulated during the war by the scarcity and high price of coal in scandinavia. the coal-mine in longyear valley, advent bay, which has been under american ownership since 1905, was sold in 1916 to norwegians. several other norwegian mines have started, notably in king’s bay and hjorth haven in advent bay and on bear island. swedish mines were opened in lowe sound (braganza bay) in1917. there are dutch mines in green harbour. british enterprise, hampered by war conditions, revived in 191g in the coal bearing areas in klaas billen bay, temple bay and coles bay. by 1920 practi- cally all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one or other company. in 1925 seven mines were exporting coal. the total amount of coal exported in 1924 was 440,000 tons, nearly all of which went to norwegian ports, including some to narvik for the swedish railways. a few thousand tons went to arch- angel. the coal exported so far is of tertiary and cretaceous age and proves to be good steam coal. bituminous coal of carbonil- erous age will soon be available for export. mining continues throughout the year but the export season at present is from late may to september. the largest mining camp is longyear city in advent bay, housing some soo men in summer and 400 in winter. no other minerals besides coal are as yet exploited commercially, but large deposits of iron ore (36% iron) and gypsum are known, as well as smaller deposits of zine and asbestos. signs of oil have been reported. whaling was revived in spitsbergen waters in 1905 but after a few years was aban- doned. winter fur-hunting is pursued by a few norwegians. political history.—the question of political control had been discussed since about 1870, mainly by norway, sweden and russia, without any solution being found. spitsbergen there- fore occupied the curious position of being ferra wulfius. in 1907, however, norway again opened negotiations for an international conference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one was held at oslo (christiania) in july-aug. rgro, followed by another in 1912, without definite result. in july rorq a con- ference which included also representatives of britain, france, belgium, the united states, holland and germany tried to devise a form of administration consistent with the country remaining a ferra nullius, but the outbreak of the world war put an end to the discussions. in ro19g the supreme council conferred on norway, the sovereignty of spitsbergen, including bear i., and ail islands between 10° and 35° e., and between 74° and 81° north. the signatories of the treaty were great britain and the british dominions, france, italy, the united states, japan, holland, denmark, norway and sweden. ratifications were delayed and norwegian sovereignty did not become effective until aug. 1925. russia has now adhered to the treaty. the rights and territories of nationals other than those of norway are safeguarded, and norway is not allowed to show preferential treatment to norwegian mining companies or to levy taxes except for expenditure on the administration. disputed claims to estates are to be decided by a neutral commission presided over by a dane. the islands are never to be used for warlike purposes. svalbard is the new name for all islands in the nor- wegian sphere in the arctic but the names of individual islands are unchanged. svalbard is deemed a part of the kingdom of norway. _ . bibliography.—the literature is in the main scattered in period- ical publications, specially useful are fmer (stockholm) vwiden- skapsselskapets skrifier (oslo), naturen (bergen), scottish geographical magazine and albert [., prince of monaco’s resultats des campagnes scientifiques, vol. 40, 41 and 45 (1889, etc.). two modern works are r. n. rudmose brown, spitsbergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches (1919) and f. nansen, enferd tit spitsbergen (1920); or spitsbergen (leipzig, 1921). g. isachsen, “‘fra ishavet"' in det norske geografiske selskabs aarbok (1916-9) gives much information about norwegian hunters. h. m. cadell, ‘‘ coal mining in spits- bergen, ‘‘ trans, inst. min. eng., vol. 60 (1920) and a. hoel, “ the coal deposits and coal mining of svalbard’ (oslo, 1925) describe the coal-bearing areas. f. c. wicder, the dutch discovery and spittta—springfield mapping of spitsbergen 1596-1829 (amsterdam, 1919) has many reproductions of early maps. the meteorological observations at green harbour are published annually in jahrbuch des norwegischen meteorologischen instituts (oslo). a. miethe and h. hergesell, aft zeppelin nach spitsbergen (1911) is noteworthy for the excellence of its illustrations, including colour plates. g. binney, with sea plane and sledge in the arctic (1925) describes the work of the oxford expeditions. some of the results of the norwegian surveys are collected in expedition isachsen au spitsherg roog-10 resultats scientifigues (oslo, 1916). the geomorphology of spitsbergen is explained by g. de geer “on the physiographical evolution of spitsbergen ‘geog. annaler, vol. 1 (stockholm, 1919). spiftsbergen- flandbuch (berlin, 1916) gives full sailing directions. the spits- bergen treaty is published in treaty series no. 18, (md. 2092 (1924). (r. n. r. b.) spitta, friedrich (1852-1924), german theologian (see 25.711), died at gettingen june 7 1924. in roto he published das johannes-evangelium als quelle der geschichte jesu. spitteler, carl (1845-10924), swiss poet and novelist, known by his pen name of felix tandem, was born in liestal, switzerland, on april 24 18145. ife was educated at the basle gymnase and studied theology at the universities of zurich and heidelberg. from 1871 to 1879 he acted as a tutor in russia; from 1879 to 1880, he was a teacher at the girls’ high school, berne, andafterwardsat neuenstadt. in 1885 he became editor of the grexg post, basle, and in 1890-2 was fiction editor of the neue zitricher zeitung. in 1892 he settled down as an independent author at lucerne. in 1919 he won the nobel prize for literature and the prize of honour of the swiss schiller foundation. he died at berne dec. 29 1924. his chief works are: prometheus and epimethens (1881), an epic; fextramundana, a poem (1883); fmago, a romance (1906); schimetter- linge, poems; frtedl1, der koldert, a tale; gustav, a tale; balladen; conrad der leutnant, a tale; lachende wahretten, essays; olvm pischer frnihling, an epic (1900-3) ; glockenlieder, poems; die madchenfreunde; metne frithesten, eerilebnisse 1914); rede uber geitfried keller, etc. spokane, wash., u.s.a. (see 25.713), had a population in 1920 of 104,437 (of whom 17,096 were foreign born) and had grown by 1925 to about 125,000 within the city limits (local estimate). alter the world war there was a lively period of activity in all kinds of construction (public, commercial, indus- trial and domestic buildings) amounting to an aggregate value of $16,410,480 for the years to1g-24. ‘phe assessed value of tax- able property in 1924 was $86,540,024. industrial development progressed until there were (1924) 364 establishments in or near the city, with an output for the vear valued at $125,000,000, meat and other food products, lumber and lumber products, flour, machinery and paper were among the leading commodities produced. the wholesale and jobbing business for the same year was estimated at $197,538,000. by 1025 there were seven hydro-electric plants on the spokane river, within 30 m. of the city, which had an installed capacity of 185,400 h.p., supplying current in spokane for the street railways, street lamps and domestic and industrial use. the commission form of govern- ment was adopted in rorr. in 1917 a comprehensive park sys- tem was laid out. by 1925 there were 2,200 ac. in public parks (the highest per capita provision in the country), including a mountain 5,808 ft. high, 35 m. away, owned by the city. spokane had the lowest percentage of illiteracy and the highest percent- age of school attendance among the cities of 100,000 and over in 1920. | spraying: see entomology, economic. springfield, mass., u.s.a. (see 25.739), increased in pop- ulation 45:8% in the decade beginning 1910, reaching 129,614 in 1920, of whom 31,461 were foreign born, and reaching 142,224 in 1925 (state census). the numerous and diversified manufac- tures within the city had an output valued at $31,773,000 in 1909; $98,333,000 in 1919; and, after only a slight decrease during the post-war depression, $104,568,038 in 1923. in the industrial district, within five m. of the “ municipal group,” there were 543 plants in 1924 making 478 different products. in 1916 the fastern states exposition (agricultural and industrial) was established, with permanent grounds of 172 ac., in west spring- field; by 1924 plant and equipment were valued at $2,000,000 and included a coliseum with an unobstructed arena 100 by spring-rice—squire 200 ft. and seating capacity for 5,600 persons. a new union station was built in ror9. the hampden county memorial bridge (concrete) across the connecticut river, built in com- memoration of the patriotic service of the county’s citizens, was dedicated in 1922. zoning ordinances were adopted in 1922-3-4. spring-rice, sir cecil arthur (1859-10918), british diplomatist, was born in london feb. 27 1850, the second son of the hon. charles spring-rice (1819-1870), and grandson of the rst baron monteagle. educated at eton and balliol college, oxford, he entered the foreign office in 1882, becoming private secretary to lord granville in 1884 and precis writer to lord rosebery in 1885. he went to washington as third secretary in 1886, and in 1895 proceeded to berlin. in 1898 he became secre- tary at tehran, and in 1oor british commissioner on the caisse de la dette in cairo. in 1903 he went to st. petersburg (lenin- grad), first as secretary and later as councillor of embassy, re- maining in russia till the end of rg05. in 1906 he was sent to persia as minister, having lately been created k.c.m.g. in 1908 he was created g.c.v.o. and went to sweden as minister, and in 1912 was appointed ambassador to the united states. he died at ottawa on his way home to england, feb. 14 1918. see sir v. chirol, ceci! spring- rice: in memoriam (1919). sprue.—sprue (see 25.742) (dutch spruw) is fairly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and it is impossible to aflirm positively that cases do not arise in temperate climates. syn ploms.—the symptoms usually begin with dyspepsia and irregularity of bowel action. in a fully declared case the chief signs are the passage of large, bulky, frothy, pale porridge-like, fermenting stools, especially in the early part of the day, much flatulence and acidity, with a sore, tender, ulcerated mouth, a red, smooth and tender tongue, often with exquisitely painful ulcers on the fraenum and at the sides where the tongue comes into contact with the back teeth. loss of flesh is very rapid amounting perhaps to 40 lb. in two months. cramps of the fingers and of the feet and calves identical with those of tetany, are common in severe cases and death occurs either from emacia- tion, exhaustion and intercurrent disease or, more usually, from intense anaemia, with signs resembling in some respects, but not in all, those of pernicious anaemia (g¢.v.), or rarely from perfora- tion of the intestinal ulcer, since the alimentary tract may show ulcers similar to those present in the mouth. causation.—an carly and persistent symptom is intestinal disturbance, due, it may be, to the growth and products (toxins) of streptococci isolated from the stools and mouth lesions cr to fungoid organisms, monilia or as a sequela of dysentery, though many suffer from dysentery who never develop sprue, and many spruc patients have never had dysentery. it has been ascribed to food deficiency or avitaminosis, but sprue attacks mostly the european in good circumstances, not the native, underfed and living in unhygienic surroundings. recent investigations tend to regard sprue as due to dis- turbance of the parathyroid glands which are closely associated with the thyroid and seem to have a two-fold function, (1) to exert an anti-toxic action, especially against intestinal poisons and (2) to regulate the metabolism of calcium. in sprue the primary mischief appears to be the production of intestinal toxins, a condition very common in tropical and subtropical regions, and arising from one or more causes as noted above. the parathyroids perform their detoxicating function until ex- hausted and no songer able to cope with the poisons elaborated. determination of the calcium content of the blood at this time yields definite indications of upset of calcium metabolism. in normal blood plasma calcium exists in two forms, the ionic, or free, and the coagulative, or combined, and present in the proportions of 6 ionic to 4-5 of combined. when the blood coagulates, the calcium of the serum of normal subjects is all in the ionic form. in sprue, either the conversion of the combine to the ionic form does not take place, or a recombination occurs so that, though the total calcium content is about normal, the ionic is found to be reduced. this indicates that the tissues fail to use the calcium absorbed from the alimentary canal in the absence of the parathyroid hormone. in other conditions which 631 may be confused with sprue—such as pancreatic affections, the so-called coeliac disease of children, post-dysenteric diarrhoeas, ankylostomiasis, filariasis, to name but a few—this peculiar behaviour of the calcium does not obtain. the test, therefore, known as vines’s test, after its deviser, is of inestimable value in diagnosis and, since the proportion of ionic to total calcium in- creases with progress under treatment, affords a reliable indica- tion when carried out at intervals. the chief points on which the calcium parathyroid-deficiency theory is based are (1) the fatty diarrhoea, loss of weight, cramps, oedema and tetany as symptomatic of faulty calcium metabolism, (2) the low proportion of ionic calcium in untreated sprue, (3) the increase of ionic calcium as the condition improves and its fall if a relapse occurs, (4) the improvement when calcium is administered alone, which is quicker and more stable when com- bined with parathyroid. | treatment.—the treatment is rest in bed for a fortnight on a diet restricted to milk (increasing from 4 to 73 pints daily) which itself contains much calcium and, to ensure an abundance of this element, calcium lactate may be given in cachets (gr. 15 thrice daily) and, to regulate its distribution and support the failing glands, extract of parathyroid (gr. 1/1oth twice daily). the parathyroid must be free from all admixtures with thyroid (most preparations contain some of the latter) for these two appear to be antagonistic and if any of the latter be present, the symptoms become aggravated and palpitation and other indica- tions of thyroid excess are superadded. with a pure preparation, however, the sprue symptoms improve within a fortnight, the ionic calcium increases to about 8 mgm. %, the stools are re- duced to one a day and the soreness of the mouth disappears. gradual additions to the diet can then be permitted and the patient allowed up for an increasing time each day. at the end of four weeks in favourable cases, the calcium lactate can be dropped and the parathyroid reduced to half doses. by this time or within another week or so, the blood serum will show a normal calcium content, but the parathyroid extract should not be left off entirely for another three to four weeks in order to stabilise the condition before all support 1s removed. should any symp- toms of recurrence appear, arcturn for a few days to a simpler diet and to the parathyroid extract will restore health. many patients treated on these lines have returned to their duties abroad, many others, unable to come home, have been treated in the tropics and have recovered. a few years ago the appearance of sprue meant immediate return to a tempcrate climate, prohibition of future residence in the tropics and the ruin of a hopeful career abroad. (hs sc.) squash racquets (see 22.783) has developed remarkably since 1910. formerly it was played chiefly at public and private schools, while courts were to be found at a few clubs and private houses. shortly before the war the game began to increase in popularity and afterwards its spread has been rapid, both in great britain and america, while there are now a certain number of courts on the continent of europe. the standard dimensions for courts are different in the british isles and the united states and there are also some variations in the rules of the game as practised in the two countries. this, however, has not prevented the players meeting in matches. in 1924 a british team visited canada and the united states and an american team came to england in 1925. a number of individual and team competitions are now held annually, among them being an amateur championship and a ladies’ amateur championship. one advantage of squash racquets is that courts lend themselves readily to artificial lighting and the conditions for play are as good at night as during the day time. squire, john collings (1884- ), british man of letters, was born at plymouth april 2 1884 and educated at blundell’s school, tiverton, and st. john’s college, cambridge. he then engaged in publishing and journalism, working for a time in the press gallery of the house of commons. he became literary editor of the new statesman in 1913, and was its acting editor in 1917-8. his early poems were issued as poems and baudelaire flowers (1909), after which came some clever parodies, steps to 632 staif, parnassus (1913) and tricks of the trade (1917). further poems included the lily of malud (1917), the birds (1919), the moon (1920), and american poems (1923). in ro19 squire founded the london mercury, a monthly journal of literature and the arts, soon a distinctive stronghold in contemporary english criti- cism. he was also responsible for several volumes of reprinted essays and reviews (some originally under the pseudonym of ‘ solomon eagle ’’), a number of anthologies of verse, and a book of short stories, zhe grub strect nighis fntertatnments (1924). see english literature. staff, military (sce 25.75 2).—one result of the unqualified success which prussian arms achieved in the wars of 1866 and 1870-1 was that the general staff principle, which had so largely contributed to give victory to the hosts controlled by von moltke in those contests, was adopted by almost every military power during the last quarter of the roth century. thus in the different staff organisations as they were constituted in peace-time, work in connection with devising plans for offensive operations and for ensuring territorial defence, duties dealing with the collection of military information, the superintendence of the education of officers, the conduct of manoeuvres and the training of troops, were kept as far as possible distinct from administration— adjutantur, as the germans call it. general staff system.—only two of the more important na- tions—the united kingdom and the united states—adhered to previously existing systems, under which preparation for war was relegated to the background in staff duties. then came the south african war of 1899-1902. the difficulties and disap- pointments encountered by british military forces in that pro- tracted struggle, coupled with the unsatisfactory working of the staff in the field (especially in its higher grades) during the progress of the operations, made plain the need of reform, and in 1904, the government set up a “ war office reconstitution committee ” charged with the duty of reorganising the central administration of the army. by far the most important of its proposals was that a general staff department, which was to constitute the foremost branch of the professional side of the war office, should be created. the recommendations of the committee were accepted by the government, and so it came about that a british general staff was established to years before the outbreak of the world war. during those ten years remarkable progress was made, and when the nation was confronted by the tremendous emergency of aug. 1914 it had at its disposition a body of well-trained general staff officers, sufficient for the comparatively small army that was available to take the field at the opening of hostilities, although totally insufficient to meet the requirements of the vast forces which had to be improvised after war had broken out. the government of the united states was still later than that of the united kingdom in establishing a general staff of the kind that scharnhorst had thought of a century before. this was only set on foot in ro11, six years before the entry of the republic into the great conflict which was to upset so many preconceived ideas on the subject of conducting war, but which was to prove—even more conclusively than had the franco- german war and the japanese triumphs of 1904-5—how impera- tive it is under modern conditions for a state which embarks upon a serious struggle to have an eflicient and suitably organised military staff at its command. modern functions of the staff—yhe remarkable progress in modern science has tended toimpose new duties and new branches upon military staffs, for instance, the utilisation and control of railway communications, of electric communications, of mechanical traction. the appearance of the tank on the baitle- field increased staff work. finally, the establishment of air power introduced a factor of incalculable importance as affecting the control of the belligerent armies. one most important duty which devolves upon the general staff in a state compelled by its geographical position and by political and international problems to maintain fighting forces both by sea and by land is the establishment and maintenance of intimate relations with the naval authorities. attention had military fortunately been paid to this question in the united kingdom during the period that intervened between the creation of the british general staff and the outbreak of the world war, and to this is to be attributed the secrecy and the smoothness with which the british expeditionary force was transported across the channel to france during the fortnight succeeding the dec- laration of war in 1914. general staffs on the continent did not, on the other hand, prove to be equally well-informed as to mari- time conditions; this was made apparent during discussions such as often took place between military authorities representing the different allies, concerning the policy which ought to be pursued in the near east and other problems in which sea-power was necessarily involved. when a country elects to make of its air service a department of state distinct from the army, as has happened in the united kingdom, it necessarily falls to the lot of the military general staff to maintain those intimate relations with the air staff by which alone co-operation can be secured in time of war. staff and government.—< war,” said clausewitz, “is only a continuation of state policy by other means,” and elsewhere that “none of the principal plans which are required for a war can be made without an insight into the political relations.” it was @ recognition of this truth on the part of her government that led to the triumphs of prussia first over austria in 1866 and then over france in 1870. the history of the short-lived german empire indicates that in later vears there was a tendency for the general staff to attempt to direct, and even partially to succeed in directing the policy of the government. but the passages quoted above from the great prussian military writer do not inculcate anything of that kind. what they do inculcate is that there should be at all times an intimate understanding between what has been called the “ brain of the army ” and the civilian executive at the head of the state. it is on the central directing branch of the general stafi, #.¢., on the general staff department at the war office in the case of the united kingdom, as it was on the ‘* great general staff ” of the days of von moltke and the german empire, that devolves the duty of maintaining relations with the government and of advising it regarding the military aspect of problems created by the international situation. that central directing branch of the general staff is entitled to expect that the government shall keep it fully az courant with the political conditions of the day. the merits of the doctrine preached by clausewitz seem to be self-evident, but leaders of opinion in the united kingdom were slow to realise its importance. there existed an almost unac- countable inability to perceive the dangers to which a state unprepared for emergencies is exposed. the bitter experiences of the south african war were required to awaken british statesmen to a realisation of their responsibilities. the committee of imperial defence.—the lessons of that con- test were to some extent learnt, and there was set up the com- mittee of imperial defence, in which professional opinion was given a voice. but although the more prominent members of the government were included in it, the committee itself was merely a consultative body, and no executive action involving expenditure could follow on one of its decisions without the obtaining of at least nominal cabinet sanction. moreover, it did not necessarily follow that the view of the general staff would be accepted by the committee even on academical ques- tions. an interesting example of the working of the system 1s provided by the story of the dardanelles. when hostilities arise some instrument a good deal more effec- tive than a consultative committee is needed to control conduct of the war, and, from aug. 1914 to the date of the armistice, the operations were, in the case of the united kingdom, for the first two and a half years of the struggle under supreme charge of various forms of war council directly representative of the cabi- net and given a free hand by that body. they were later under supreme charge of the specially established war cabinet. the general staff was practically always represented at the meetings of the war councils and of the war cabinet, but purely in an advisory position without voting power. as a matter of fact its staff, opinion was occasionally ignored in questions of considerable importance. this was no doubt partly due to some want of confidence in its judgment felt in government circles owing to the slow progress made towards victory, and partly due to the personality and the temperament of certain members of the government itself. it has been said that a gencral staff must “ think politically.” if this maxim is merely to be taken as a meaning that a general staff should appreciate political habits of thought, watch political tendencies and keep itself acquainted with the political aspects of every question influencing military action alike in peace and in war, its truth is indisputable. but one of the most important duties falling to the lot of a general staff, especially in times of emergency, will often be to strive to prevent mere policy from adversely influencing the conduct of operations of war. history provides some striking examples of political con- siderations gravely prejudicing the prospects of armies in the field. macmahon’s fatal march to sedan was a case in point. the retention of gen. penn symons’ advanced force at glencoe in the opening days of the natal campaign of 1899 furnishes another instance. the administrative staff_—neither in the united kingdom nor in any other military state «<loes the staff of an army consist of a general staff alone. there must always be its “ administra- tive’ side. in peace-time, the administrative staff of an army is in a sense the more important of the two. the army has to be recruited and fed and clothed and equipped, andits discipline has to be maintained. the british plan subordinates the administrative staff to the general staff less than is the common practice. this is perhaps due to the nature of british campaigns of the 1874-1902 era, campaigns fought in regions often destitute of communica- tions and always poor in resources. almost everything hinged on supply and transport in these contests. losses in action were as a rule trifling as compared to losses from disease. for one thought that the commander or his chief advisers gave to the enemy, ten thoughts were given to communications. there was little difficulty in beating the enemy if only supplies could be got up to permit a fight. but, to whatever cause it may be attributable, the fact remains that the chicf of the general staff of a british army nowadays is merely in the position of primus intcr pares relatively to the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general—and it 1s the same at the war office. tn almost all other armies, on the other hand, including that of the united states, the chief of the general staff is definitely chicf of the staff. british and other systems compared.—lif the existing british staff organisation comes to be compared with those where the chief of the general staff is also chief of the staff, it will be found that there is something to be said on both sides. that part of the british system under which a command or a district is in peace-time supplicd with a superior officer in charge of administration, to whom wide responsibilities are allowed and who is generally in practice senior to the principal gencral staff officer, permits the general in command to devote nearly the whole of his attention to preparing his troops for war. but that arrangement would be unworkable in the field. there the prog- ress of operations is so dependent on the work of the administra- tive staff that the commander cannot transfer his authority in connection with the latter to somebody else—as is recognised in the british staff organisation in time of war by the heads of the adjutant-general and the quartermaster-general staffs, as well as the inspector of communications, then dealing direct with the commander. although peace represents the normal state of affairs, armies none the less exist for purposes of war, and in time of war the case for the british system is not so strong. in face of the enemy, operations—planning them, deciding whether the plan is feasible, and taking the necessary steps for their execution—are of paramount importance, but cannot be said actually to govern administration, for unless the army’s establishments are maintained and unless it has its food, its ammunition, etc., it cannot carry out the operations. it is for naval 633 the administrative staff to say whether the plan is feasible from the point of view of supply, transport, depets, hospital service, and so forth. it is, however, for the general staff to weigh the administrative as against the strategical aspects of the case and then lay the whole subject before the commander for a final decision. the british field service regulations clearly admit by implication that the chief of the general staff is the superior of the adjutant-general, the quartermaster-general and the chief of communications, without their being actually under him. that, under conditions such as develop on active service, is apt to prove a somewhat clumsy arrangement and to give rise to friction. it is neither one thing nor the other. granted that the “‘ chief of the staff’? system means centrali- sation, granted that it demands from the chief of the general staff a somewhat closer acquaintance with purely administra- tive questions than would be necessary if the heads of the chief branches of the administrative staff were virtually his equals, even granted that under it less of his time will be available for the consideration of the strategical and tactical situation than would otherwise be the case, the system does seem a more satisfactory arrangement for purposes of operations in the field than that which found favour in the british army after the setting up of the army council. (c. e. c.) staff, naval.—modern war involves the task of co- ordinating a multitude of subordinate commands, an array of specialised departments and a number of highly technical services towards a single end. the command must not lose itself in the maze of detail. it must be free to survey any part of the whole, to formulate important decisions and supply a strong impetus of direction. the task of co-ordinating all these activi- ties and of preparing a clear picture of the situation is performed through the instrumentality of a staff. the principles of german staff organisation are well known, a clear jine is drawn between “ operations”? and “ main- tenance, ”’ that is, between the task of using the instrument and the task of maintaining it in an efficient state. this is the first principle. the second is that the business of war must be per- formed by officers specially trained, drawn from the services they control, acquainted at first hand with their needs and seeing things through their eyes. this is the essence of scharnhorst’s and moltke’s system, one of the monumental achicvements of the 19th century. it did not, however, commend itself to the navy. the naval officer had been brought up to delight in detail. the old type of flag officer felt quite competent to con- duct with one or two assistants all the business of war and was jealous of the idea of training young officers to assist him. he could point, too, to an intelligence division in existence since 1885 and to a war college for senior officers, both of which had done a large array of good work. | it was only in 1912, after the agadir crisis, that mr. winston churchill was able to lay the foundations of a naval staff and to institute a course of staff training, but the navy had not suffered in the south african war and there was no weight of strong service opinion behind him, such as assisted lord haldane at the war office. under a first lord’s memorandum of jan. 1912 a chief of the war staff was appointed with three divisions of the war staff (operations, intelligence and mobilisation), and a staff college was started for ihe training of staff ofheers. the memorandum was a brilliant one, but the admiralty system was too strong for 1t. the chief of the war staff had no seat on the admiralty board, his function was purely advisory and he could not speak with any degree of authority. the space of two years was all too short to supply a sufficiency of trained staff officers, and the outbreak of war found the navy 10 years behind the army in this respect. when war broke out the machinery of the staff more or jess collapsed, and its work was performed by a small group of flag officers known as the “ war staff group, ’’ working more or less independently of each other, a system which made it difficult for the divisions of the staff to get information. no one was quite certain what the flag officers did or even where thcy did it. the conduct of the dardanelles campaign revealed the 634 deficiencies of this system and made it clear that there was no real machinery for the investigation of big strategical questions. two years passed, and the menace of the submarine led to the inauguration of a better system on the army model. in may 1917 the office of chiet of the nava! staff' was attached to that of first sea lord; and by the appointment of a deputy chief and assistant chief of the staff to the board, the staff was given direct representation on the board and any course of action could quickly be given board authority. new divisions manned by officers drawn from the fleet and in close touch with its work were added to the staff. an anti-submarine division was organised to control the campaign against the submarine, a plans division drew up plans for the mining of the bight, dover barrage and (in conjunction with adml. sims and his staff) the great northern barrage. a maritime movements division took the whole regulation of convoys into its hands, and the section dealing with wireless directionals and wireless intelligence was at last placed under the director of naval intelligence and opened to the staff. the naval siaff grafted on to the admiralty in war time in order to meet an urgent need, differs in some respects from the imperial general staff which grew up in peace-time at the war office under lord haldane as an integral part of army adminis- tration. thus in the general staff, the chief of the general staff and the director of staff duties exercise a much larger measure of control over the whole fietd of training than is to be found at the admiralty, where questions of education secm to get lost in an array of departments, for the division of training which mr. churchill contemplated in ror4 never fully material- ised. the question of the relationsaip of the chief of the naval staff to “ chiefs of supply ” (the third and fourth sea lords), corresponding to the chief of the imperial general staif and the quartermaster-gencral, is less acute, for the pirst sea lord has always exercised a high traditional authority in these spheres. difficulties between the chief of the naval staff and the second sea lord as chief of personnel (corresponding to the chief of the imperial general staff and the adjntant-general) on questions of training could be largely avoided if the secord sea lord’s office was reorganised on modern lines. outside the admiralty, the chief of the naval stat has relations to main- tain with the politicalexecutive and the other government denart- ments, more particularly with the army ancdeatrservice. the first is best maintatacd through the committee of imperial defence and the cabinet secretariat, the latter threugh daison and regular staff conferences. war on sca is one thing and war on land is another, and fusion of naval and military stafis would merely mean confusion. their orbits cross in larding operations and bombardments, and here both services can work together on uniform and well recognised lines. finally, no system can ris higher than the men who operateit. it is the men init who bring success to a staff system and mould it as circumstances re- quire. (see wortp war: bibliograrhy. ) (a.c.d.) united states. —the task involved in co-ordinating a multitude of subordinate commands and specialised technical departments is well illustrated in the organisation of the dept. of the navy of the united states. the department is presided over by the secretary of the navy, who is a member of the president’s c abi- net. under the secretary of the navy there is an ass-stant secretary of the navy who performs such duties as may be pre- scribed by the secretary, his chief duty being departmental ad- ministration of navy yards. in 1926 an additional assistant secretary of the navy was provided for by law, to aid the secre- tary of the navy in fostering naval aeronautics. under the secretary of the navy the two broad functions of operations and maintenance are handled by naval officers of the active list. the chief of naval operations is appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate for four years, with the rank and title of admiral. under the secretary he is charged with the operations of the fleet and with the preparation and readiness of plans for its use in war. to carry on the specialised work which may broadly be termed maintenance, there are under the secre- 1 the old name war staff was changed to naval staff. stage and stage production tary of the navy eight bureaux, each headed by an officer with the rank of rear admiral. the names of the bureaux are indicative of their functions, ‘they are: the bureau of navigation, in charge of all naval personnel, the hydrographic office and the naval observatory; the bureau of ordnance; the bureau of construc- tion and repair; the bureau of engineering; the bureau of yards and docks; the bureau of supplies and accounts; the bureau of medicine and surgery; and the bureau of acronautics. in addi- tion to the office of the chief of naval operations and the various bureaux, there are three other important offices under the secretary of the navy. these are the general board, the oftice of the major general commandant of the marine corps and the oflice of the judge advocate general of the navy. [very chief of bureau or head of an office furnishes such information and data as may be called for by the chicf of naval operations. the chief of naval operations, to carry out so large a task as the operation of the fleet and its preparation and readivess for war, has under him a considerable organisation. each of the divisions of his office is headed by a rear admiral or a captain. the divisions are organized to carry cut the functions of war plans, flect training, intelligence, inspection of ships, ship mevements, communication, the military administration of raval districts end the co-ordination of personnel and matcrial reacti- ness. with this organisation the chief of naval operations is able to prepare and maintain readiness plans for the use cf the feet in war, issue regulations fer the training of the fleet in peace and co-ordinate the werk of the bureaux in such a way as to mect the matertal and personnel requirernents of the meet and place it in readiness for war. to advise the secretary of war and the secre- tary of the navy in matters wherein co-ordination and ca-cnera- {ion are required between the army and navy regarding national defence, there is a joint army and navy eoard, whose personnel is drawn from the general staff of the army and from (the eilice of the chicf of naval operations. the word “ staff?’ ilseli is not used in the united states navy. ch avs de.) stage and stage production (sec 26.732).— during the period r9ro-26, many plays on the european and american stages were produced according to the principles and theories of the naturalistic theatre, the forraal theatre, synthesism, expres- sionism and constructionism, these movements in theatrical art being the most recent developments of stage theories. but the maijerity of modern theatres remain untouched by these movements, and, in these, plays cannot in any wav be said to be “ produced.” the acters play their paris, each for himself, and in the manner he finds most effective for himself, without consideration for, or even understanding of cithcr the total form of the play or the dramatic ensemble. the real pro- ducer, the ‘ regisseur ” or “ metteur en scene ’ in such theatres is unknown. his place is taken by the leading actor or by some- one whose business it is so to arrange matters on the stage that the leading actors may be continually in the limelight. .\s niewns of interpreting and expressing the play, the scenic surroundings in these theatres are entirely meaningless. nearly all the oper- atic, and a large proportion of dramatic theatres (for example, the comedie francaise in paris) must be included in this cate- gory. the waves of the stormy theatrical ocean beat upon them, but are not strong enough to move them from the spot where they have quietly rested for more than 70 years. the naturalistic theatre in germany, interesting naturalistic productions—especially of hauptmann’s plays—were given by otto brahm, mostly at the lessing theatre in berlin, from 1904 to 1912. the influence of brahm is very noticeable in the work of one of the best-known producers of our time, max reinhardt. in america, examples of this type are to be found among the productions of david belasco. in france the naturalistic theatre founded by andre antoine has had no followers worthy of mention, and, practi- cally speaking, has ceased to exist. in russia, on the other hand, stage naturalism reached its greatest perfection through the work of the moscow art theatre (now known in soviet russia as the moscow academical art theatre) founded by c. 5. plate from b. svetlov's ‘‘contemporary ballet’’ scene for the ballet, «*the fire-bird”’ decoration by a. golovin, from the aquarelle by renee lelong stage and stage production stanislavsky and v, t. nemirovich-danchenko. art theatre began by following the principles of the productions at the meininger theatre established in 1874 by duke george ii. of meiningen, and carried on until 1890. as at the mein- inger, the moscow artists fought against routine and stale tra- dition. they took from the meininger the sets invented by the duke george to give the full illusion of real living rooms, with ceilings, constructed three-dimensional details, natural lighting and perspective of other rooms. they used also the so-called ‘horizon ” (panorama), introduced for the first time on the stage by the meininger, the three-dimensional trees placed in the middie of the stage, the natural effects of singing birds, thunder, rain, crickets behind the stove, wind blowing the cur- tains, and so forth. the production of crowd scenes, neglected before the meininger, also became a very important feature of the moscow art theatre. some of the producers of the stanislavsky theatre trained their actors in the same way as did kroneg, prescribing the exact intonations and emphases, gestures, movements and facial expressions. for the mise en sceize they adopted kroneg’s method of dividing the stage into numbered squares like a chess- board, and moving the actors from one square to another. later, while working upon the production of chekhov’s seagull, stant- slavsky discovered that it is not enough for an actor to simulate nature by putting on a naturalistic make-up and using char- acteristic intonations, gestures, tricks and changes of voice. an actor has to “ live ” his part, @.c., to “ feel ” it really. to do this, he has to discover beneath the lines and stage directions the feelings that prompt those lines and directions—and because, according to stanislavsky, an actor, or human being, “ cannot naturally feel and express things he had not experienced in his own life,”* he has to remember ard repeat on the stage the emo- tions expericreed in his own life. the stastslavsky system-—on that principle is based the stanislavsky “system of acting,” at one time famous in russia. the system led his theatre from the outward naturalism, toward a kind of inward naturalism, which led not merely to a complete neglect of the form of the play, but even to its destruction. for acting is not a repetition of the feelings experienced by an actor in his personal life, but the creation and expression of compli- cated feelings and thoughts prompted by the style and form of the play. stanislavsky’s method was important for the gereral develop- ment of theatrical art, because it forced the producers and actors to forsake the outward naturalism and its tricks, and to give more value to the inner content of the plays and parts. but it brought the moscow art theatre and its followers baek to the 18th century, at which period theatrical scholars were of opinion that an actor on the stage “can only repeat emotions he has expericnced in his own hie,” and that “ the love-scenes are much better played by such actors as are really in love.’? the mescow art theatre, when dealing with naturalistic plays, gave, from every point of view, accomplished and bcautiful productions. among these were some of the chekhov plays, gorky’s night lodgings and alexis tolstoy’s tsar fedor. but when the producers attempted poctic or symbolic drama —shakespeare or pushkin, byron or gogol—they inevitably failed. plays by these authors were dragged down from their heights, and drowned in naturalistic details or pyschological ex- periments. the language was ruined, its power and beauty being sacrificed to naturalistic principles. a play written in verse was delivered as prose, because “ verse 1s unnatural.” in 1923 and 1924 the moscow art theatre went to america with scme of its earlier productions of chekhov, gorky, tolstoy and dostoievsky, and in 1925-6 were seen the new experiments of that theatre, with aristophanes’ lysistrafa, and two musical plays, offenbach’s pericolla and carmencita and the soldicr, an adaptation of bizet’s carmen. all these plays were produced by w. nemirovich-danchenko on the lines of the formal method of production mixed with the constructive method. neither method, however, is in any way typical of the work of the moscow art theatre. the moscow 635 the format. theatre the so-called ‘‘ formal theatre ” came into being as a pro- test against naturalism on the stage, at the very end of the roth century. the “ formalists ’”’ held that the naturalistic theatre was not art, but a soulless attempt to photograph life, and that its actors were monkeys, endeavouring to imitate on the stage, characters, with their little habits and tricks, which they had observed in real life. the ‘‘ formalists ”’ sought first of all to simplify the stage settings. for example, instead of reproducing life-like rooms, giving exact copies of nature, or restoring his- torical surroundings with fidelity to details of time and place, they recommended “ formal ” scenery providing for the actor only suitable backgrounds or necessary surroundings for his acting. the leading formalists—some of the formalists, notably a few of the new russian producers, being inspired by the paint- ings of the later impressionists and primitivists, and by the work of the modern russian and french painters, advocated the use of painted backgrounds, “ panneaux decoratifs,” only. others, such as adolphe appia in switzerland, gordon craig in figland and georg fuchs in germany, were against the use of flat painted settings, and recommended three-dimersional scenery. appla and craig went as far as to declare the painter- artist not only unnecessary, but a positive hindrance inasmuch as he was concerned only to make a picture and cared nothing for the placing of the actor. they thought that the building of the scenery cught to be in the hands of the producer himself. georg fuchs. advocated the use of “stylised” settings and costumes, instead of the faithfully reproduced historical settings, costumes and life-like anpearances. by “ stylised”? he meant that the settings and costumes should show not local details, or details of any particulir historical epoch, but should be de- siened to previde a general idea of the play. gordon craig advo- cated abstract costumes and scenic surroundings, high screens resembling the towers of ravenna, steps, platforms and other devices. the russian producers of the new school, such as evreinoy and meyerhold, and befere them, s. marmontov, director of the moscow private cpera house, discarded the old-fashioned scene-painter and had their scenery designed by regular artists. with them begins the “ picturesque ” formal theatrical move- ment, which brought into fame the names of theatrical decora- tors such as vroubcl, konstantin korovin, leo bakst, nicolas ssapounov, alexandr benois and golovin. the director of the famous russian. ballet, serge diaghilev, has always been one of the promoters of this movement, and thanks to him, such emi- nent french painters as derain, picasso, matisse, georges rracque, marie laurencin, have core into fame as theatrical decorators. the swedish ballet of rolf de mari, following rather unsuccessfully the road indicated by diaghilev, has shown us scenery by picabia, fujita and other modern painters. in their notions of mise en scene and acting, too, nearly al! the producers of the formulist school were influenced by appia, craig and fuchs. from the formal stage, the “ natural ” speaking of lines, the “natural”? movements and groupings, were banished, the symbolic and abstract costume plays being preferred. whe rus- sian producer, meyerhold, went as far as to advocate for the plays of maeterlinck a kind of monotone voice without inflection, sounding “like drops falling into a deep well.” as a reaction against the life-like movement which was the ideal of the natu- ralistic producers (the “ crowd-work ” of the meininger and their followers), the formalists, under the influence of macterlinck, were enthusiastically in favour of “ static ” acting. those who adopted the “ picturesque,” two-dimensional scenery dressed, grouped and posed the actors so that they should be in perfect keeping with the painted backgrounds, and even in some cases give the illusion of having been painted on the scenery. the actor being reduced to the position of a mere accessory, his art was climinated. some of the theorists had already come to the conclusion that the living three-dimensional actor, in front of the two-dimensional painted backcloth, was an anomaly in the picture, and should be replaced by a two-dimensional marionette. 636 the inventors of the three-dimensional ‘ formal ’’ scenery gave much more scope to the actor. they invented that kind of scenery in order to free the actor from the limitations of natural- istic settings, and give him a prominent position on the stage. appia recommended constructions composed of straight lines, as being more in harmony with the three-dimensional actor, and as giving the necessary value to the curved character of the human body. gordon craig followed that idea, but appia, in his scenic designs, although they were formal and stylised, still remained a naturalist. his formal, castle-shaped edifices were built of stone, and his forests, although formally related to the later futuristic scenery, remained real forests. craig simplified his buildings to abstract three-dimensional screens of one colour, and in his settings will be found rows of steps, and square plat- forms indoors and outdoors by which means everything is sym- bolised. elements of nature are absent, excepting perhaps in the suggestion of the sky. ideas of fuchs —at munich in 1908 georg fuchs in a theatre {miinchener kiinstlertheater) built in accordance with his new ideas, used scenery designed by erler and other well-known ger- man painters. it was simplified, constructed three-dimensional scenery, but it was not abstract. it was painted, and gave the impression of reality. for instance, the cathedral scene in faust was represented by a massive and lofty church column; the whole stage around the column faded into darkness, and in the background the altar was suggested simply by lights. in a pas- torale, he had a real “‘ bosquet ’’ made of real leaves, with arches, against a pale blue background. fuchs, hke all the formalists, attached great importance to lighting, and in his munich theatre he arranged a quite new system. there one had for the first time a stage without foot- lights and battens, but with special arrangements of diffused light resembling the hight of nature. his “ formal” stage was according to the old idea of goethe—very shallow and divided into three parts, each one complete step higher than the other. the lowest of these was a narrow permanent proscenium en- closed between two movable flats with doors (called “ towers ”’) and covered by a ceiling that could be raised or lowered. this arrangement was afterwards imitated by max reinhardt in his faust and other productions in berlin. the acting ideas of fuchs were on broad ‘ stylised” lines. the groupings were sculptural and picturesque, and instead of “ crowd ”’ scenes ingenious suggestions of masses of people were employed. reinhardt and granville barker —these features of the fuchs stage are to be found in the productions of the latest schools such as the “ expressionists ’ and the “ constructionists,”’ and in some of the productions of reinhardt. in dealing with this famous german producer, it must be said that his fame rests more upon his versatility and his big sense of theatrical business than upon his originality. he started his career as an actor at the municipal theatre of salzburg, and then came to berlin, where he was with brahm. when he opened his own theatres in berlin, he produced plays in a variety of manners, always attaching great importance to good acting. his work was obvi- ously influenced by brahm, the moscow art theatre, gordon craig, fuchs and others of the later period. in r919 he opened his grosse schauspielhaus in berlin, a theatre of ‘‘ masses.”” before beginning the performances there, he staged a greek play (oedipus tyrannus) in the circus, bring- ing the action into the midst of the audience, and in a sense making the audience take part in the performance. it is clear that he found that idea in the writings of some theatrical theo- rists of the beginning of the zoth century. among those, one of the most important was the russian philosopher viacheslav ivanof, an authority on greek literature and the greek theatre, who advocated the theatre of masses, and the participation of the spectators in the theatrical show, which, according to him, ought to be given in the arena. later, fermin gemier, in paris, followed reinhardt’s example by producing plays in a circus. in england, granville barker worked on nearly the same lines as reinhardt; but whereas reinhardt only changed the style of his productions for the sake of variety, granville barker stage and stage production varied the style to accord with the inner meaning of the particular play. moreover, although he had not such power as reinhardt in dealing with actors and extracting from them their finest possibilities, he showed much greater artistic taste in selecting his material, and did not work for “ stunts” as reinhardt did in many cases. the synthetic theatre it is in russia that the genesis of the theatrical theory of ‘‘ syn- thesism”’ is to be found, from which developed later “‘ expression- ism ” and ‘‘ constructionism.” ‘that theory originated partly as a result of some stage productions carried out by komisarjevsky in a new way, in opposition to the methods of the “ formal ” theatre and partly as an experiment for the purpose of finding a@ more perfect form of theatrical show. it was intended that this show should, by uniting all the stage arts, produce the most powerful and complete impression on the audience. the “ for- malists ” as the “ naturalists,” using the same methods of pro- duction for all plays, placed the actors and the plays in a condi- tion of dependence upon the laws of nature in the one case, or upon their theories of uniformity in the other. komisarjevsky, on the contrary, holds that the plays of each author should be produced and acted in a different form, each form to be expres- sive of the inner contents, rhythm and style of the play produced. production is an expression of the understanding of the play by the producer, and the ensemble of the actors. the form chosen for that expression need be neither life-like nor formally unlife-like, but it must be synthetically expressive; that is to say, the elements of the scenic surroundings must be selected and put forward in such a way as to create the atmosphere desired by the producer and without distracting the spectator’s mind with unnecessary factors, whether life-like, stylised or cubistic. on the other hand all the theatrical arts should be included in a synthesis, just as in an orchestra the different instruments are united for expression of the whole. irom these considerations there was evolved the conception of the synthetic play for a synthetic theatre, in which the move- ments, words, music and the colours and lines of the scenic sur- | roundings would be united. the general idea, of course, is the same as that which was expressed long ago by richard wagner. wagner, however, subordinated everything to his musical score, to the polyphony of his instrumental and vocal ensemble, and drowned the play and the actors in the orchestra. in acting, scenery, lighting, etc., and even in his treatment of his fantastic stories and characters, wagner was a pure naturalist, and more- over a stagey naturalist. a school of acting on synthesist lines was opened in moscow by th. komisarjevsky, who adapted and produced operas by mozart, rossini, offenbach and wagner, and plays by shakespeare, beaumarchais, moli¢re and other leading dramatists. in 1922 komisarjevsky produced on the same lines claudel’s the tidings brought to afary for the theatre guild of new york, the only “ art theatre ” at the present time in the english-speak- ing world. the provincetown playhouse in the same city fol- lows, under the leadership of robert e. jones (painter and producer) and k. macgowan, the path opened in america by the theatre guild. the guild, which started in a small place in washington square, now has its own playhouse in the west end of new york, equipped with the newest european and american technical improvements. without being extreme or daring, this theatre showed to new york examples of nearly all the european schools of production. in dealing with the for- ward movement of the productions in the united states, one cannot omit mention of amateur socicties in the provinces, which are much more advanced than the broadway commercial enterprises. in france, the methods of “ formal” production were used by jacques coppeau, who even built in his own play- house (vieux colombier) a permanent architectural stage; by dulain, louis jouvet and george pitoef. the latter in some of his productions followed the ideas of the expressionists and constructionists. in belgium delacre, and in italy pirandello follow the paths opened by the producers of the new schools. stahlberg—stambolisky the expressionist theatre in germany the “ expressionist ’”’ school came into existence. they destroyed reality, decomposing it to create out of its ele- ments new forms which were intended to be symbolically expres- sive of their understanding of life. some of the expressionists might be called “ cubists,”’ as they treat their productions in the same way as cubist painters treat their painting; others are developing the ideas of the ‘ formalists’’ and “ synthesists.”’ the most important expressionist is jessner, who, in r9r9, when he was appointed director of the berlin state theatres, began his expressionistic productions. of these, wilhelm tell, richard the third, don carles and marquis von keith (by wedekind) were extremely interesting. in the matter of acting, although jessner is the director of the schauspielschule, the expressionists have brought nothing new to the stage; they have followed the traditions of brahm and reinhardt. the constructionist theatre the ‘ constructionists ” came into being in russia in the last years of the revolution. like the expressionists they have made no new departure in acting, except to bring circus clowning upon the theatrical stage. they have exaggerated the move- ments of the actors to such an extent that, in their productions, the play itself (which as a rule is always adapted to suit the scenic constructions and the elaborate movements of actors) disappears in a kind of “‘ perpetuum mobile ” of the actors. instead of the painted or constructed scene, the constructionists used naked platforms, steps, ladders, etc., building the action up, instead of having it on the floor level. the most important constructionists are tairov and mevyerhold. the former at times uses painted, constructive scenery, and advocates ‘‘ clown- ing” and perpetual movement of actors on the stage. the latter, in his last productions, left out the ‘‘ clowning ” and exaggerated movement; he leaves the stage quite bare, using only necessary and undisguised rostrums, tracks and steps, sometimes adding insignificant pieces of scenery, or posters deal- ing with political propaganda, parts of machines, etc., under- lining with all these accessories the idea that the production is done in a republic of workmen and peasants. the first construc- tionist productions were seen in moscow in 1921. the most important of them are: crommelynck’s le cocu magnifique (producer—meyerhold in 1921), chesterton’s the alan ihe wus thursday (tairov in 1923), the storm by ostrovsky (tairov in 1924), forest by ostrovsky and the luke of ljull (both produced by meyerhold). constructionism during the last years was accepted in russia as a kind of national style, and the other producers, even in the very old-fashioned state theatres, have produced some plays and operas in that way. meyerhold, being a very experienced and imaginative producer, sometimes obtains very powerful ef- fects, but all his work is nowadays carried on in the very nar- b row channel of political propaganda. the theatre in russia of the last few years represents the latest phase in the develop- ment of stage-craft. it must be confessed that it is a very poor one, and only leads us back to where we started. the old followers of naturalism copied life as it is, down to all the smallest and artistically unnecessary details, but they did not lack romance and a certain poetry in their work. the con- structionists substitute scaffolds for natural life surroundings, and showed on these scaffolds actors in new naturalistic plays produced in accordance with the old naturalistic methods, or no methods at all. brs_rocrariy.+—a, appia, die afusrk u. die inscenterung (1899); v. meyerhold, on the theatre (1908); gordon craig, the art of the theaire (1911); georg fuchs, die revolution des theaters (1914); n. evreinov, fhe theatre of the soul (1915); gordon craig, on the art of the theatre (1924); books and theatres (1925); t. komisar- jevsky, the theory of stanislavsky (1919); f. gernier, le thetre (1923.) tt in.) stahlberg, kaarlo juho (1865- _), finnish politician, was born on jan. 28 1865. at the beginning of his public career, he held alternately university and administrative posts until he became a member of the diet in 1904 and of the finnish govt. 637 in r905. he resigned in 1907 and in the following year was appointed a professor of administrative law. at the outbreak of the world war, the government was [finnish in name only, being composed entirely of russian officials. stahlberg was then president of the diet and he had to act as the chief public representative of finnish opinion. he withstood the increasingly oppressive tendencies of the imperial russian govt. with unwavering firmness. after the russian revo. lution of 1917 finland became an independent republic, and in the summer of 1919 stahiberg was elected to the presidency as the candidate of the progressive and socialist parties. the country was still split up by sharp internal dissensions, and the new president had from the very beginning to fight the unconcealed hostility and distrust of the conservative parties. he pursued, nevertheless, a conciliatory and mitigating policy with the object of extinguishing the class hatred and casting oblivion over the past. the many beneficial etfects of this policy became gradually obvious, and when the time of the next presidential election approached, siahlberg could register the personal triumph that the country almost unanimously desired him to accept re-election. he refused, however, and retired on the expiration of his presidency. stalin, joseph (1870- ), russian politican, whose real name is dzhugashvili, was the son of a georgian peasant, and was born in the tiflis district and educated in a seminary from which he was expelled in 1898 for revolutionary opinions. from 1898 till r917 he was engaged in revolutionary propaganda, inter- rupted by frequent arrests, imprisonments and banishments. he escaped five times from exile. in 1917 he edited the bolshevik newspaper pravda. always a close supporter of lenin, and for a very long time a member of the central committee, he became after lenin’s death the most influential member of the com- munist party and general secretary of the central committee of the communist party. in the civil war he took an active part in the defence of tsaritsin, which town was subsequently, in his honour, renamed stalinsk. stambolisky, alexander (1879-1923), bulgarian states- man, was born at slavovitsa, in southern bulgaria, sept. 1 1879, the son of a peasant landowner. after studying at the village school and later in the neighbouring town, he attended the agri- cultural college of halle in germany. on returning to bulgaria, aged 18, he took up journalism, and in 1902 became editor of the organ of the newly-formed agrarian league. his articles brought him fame and six years later he was elected to the ssobranye, where he made steady progress, soon becoming leader of the agrarian party. ile now began to organise the peasant masses, who form 80% of the total population of bulgaria, into agricultural associations. in torr, when the grand sobranye met at tyrnovo to amend the constitution, his first conflict with king ferdinand occurred. after the treaty of bucharest (1913) stambolisky and the agra- rians were unmerciful in their criticisms of ferdinand’s policy, though deterred from extreme measures by the fear of external complications. stambolisky’s opposition to ferdinand came to a head in 1915 during the negotiations that preceded bulgaria’s entry into the world war. the story of the alienation of official bulgaria by the blunders of russian and western diplomacy remains to be written; but the bulgarian peasants were ‘‘ pro- russian by race and pro-british in sympathy.” stambolisky, their representative, backed the entente in spite of the king’s anger, pressure from the government and the growing influence of the central powers. summoned before the king, stambolisky threatened him with personal violence if he should fight against the allies, reminding him that he had a crown to lose. ferdinand warned stambolisky to take care of his awn head, and ordered his immediate arrest. after being tried by court-martial he was condemned to penal servitude for life. in sept. 1918, when the resistance of the bulgarian troops began to slacken, ferdinand released stambolisky, who left for the macedonian front. he returned at the head of the insur- rectionary troops and their arrival at sofia resulted in ferdi- nand’s abdication and flight. a partisan of the new ruler, king 638 boris, stambolisky became a membcr of the cabinet in jan. 1919 and prime minister in oct.; as head of the government he went to paris and signed the treaty of neuilly in the same year, on his return in dec. he was faced by a railway strike which he settled successfully. in feb. 1920 he dissolved the sobranye, and the following month was returned to power at the head of a homogeneous agrarian majority. from 1920 to 1923, the agrarians under stambolisky ruled bulgaria with a rod of iron. they were not only intolerant of all opposition, but even unjust in their treatment of political opponents. sur- rounded by ill-advised colleagues, stambolisky had neither the strength nor ihe time to exercise control over the firebrands. but though a dictator at home, he was a peace-maker abroad, and through his influence post-war bulgaria won the estecm ol the aliies. he inspired great confidence, not only at the peace conference, but at genoa, geneva and lausanne. he mace persistent efforts to improve relations between buigaria and yuzoslavia, and showed real statesmanship in concluding the nish agreement (1922) with that country. tle carried out the terms of the peace treaty loyally, and gave full satisfaction to the allied amfilitary commissioners in regard to cisarmament. with the help of dimitri stancioff, the bulgarian alinister in london, he secured a reduction of bulgarian reparations from £90,000,000 to 22,500,000. the overthrow of the june 9 1923 was caused by stambolisky’s government by a military faction on missuided policy at - home. the change of rezime took plice in one nisht, the agrarian ministers being arrested in their own homes. stam- bolisky, pursued by an armed detachment to his native village of slavovitsa, escaped and fled across the mountains, hoping to reach the frontier. after being followed by seluiers for threc days, he was eventually surrounded and shot on june r2. a formidable personality, attractive in many wavs, and made of finer clay than the averaze balkan statesman, stambolisky has been called a modern rienzi. tall and broad, his demecancur was fierce and his movements ungainly; his rourh-hewn face was crowned by 2 mass of black hair; he impressed everyone with his strenzth and sincerity. a true patriot but a man of great simplicity, he had only the use of primitive tools. stambolisky published several books, including audhority, anarchy and democracy; and what a politician ought to be. (n. mu.*) stamp, sir josiah charles (1ss80- ), british econo- mist, was born in london june 21 1880. he was educated at the university of london, where he took the degree of b.sc., with first class honours, in ro1z, becoming cobden prizeman in t912, d.sc. in 1916, and iiutchinson research medallizt m 1g16. h[e entered the civil service gnland revenue department) in 1896, and became assistant secretary to the boardin ro16. in 1919 he resigned from the service to join nohel industries lid., of which he was a director and secretary until he accepted the new post of president of the executive of the london, midland and scottish railway in tr9o25. we was nesemarch jecturer on statistics, university of london, 1919-20, and served the royal statistical society as honorary secretary and editor. sir josiah stamp was knighted in 1920 for ‘ valuable service to the government in financial matters.” as one of the most distinguished economists of his time, he was appointed a member ef the committees of experts of the reparation commission in paris and berlin. he played an important part in the london conference of 1924. he was also a member of the northern ircland finance arbitration committee in 1923-4 and a member of the committee on taxation and national debt in 1924, in which year he was created g.b.e. (see caprral levy; repa- rations.) sir josiah’s chief publications are british incomes and property; the application of official statistics to economic problems (1916, ard ed. 1922); wealth and income of the chief powers (1919); the fruadamenial principles of taxation in the light of modern develop- ments (1921, 2nd ed. 1923); wealth and taxable capacity (1922, and ed. 1923); joint report on double taxation, league of nations (1923); studies in current problems in government and finance (1924); business statistics and financial statements (1924), jointly with c. hewetson nelson; and the british edition of rignano's social significance of death duties (1925). stamp—stamp collecting stamp collecting (sce philately, 21.374).—new postage stamps have been issued in great variety in modern times, and the number of standard varieties listed in a simple catalogue has more than doubled since 1906, being 44,000 as against 20,000. the an- nual output tends to grow rather than diminish, though the abnor- mal figure of 15,000 new stamps between 1916 and 1925 was in part duc to warupheavals and post-war reconstruction. the eflect on the more detailed catalogues used by philatelists is still more muurked, and it is estimated that upwards of 160,000 varieties are listed in the leading bntish (gibbons) and american (scott) catalogues, while in germany a start was made in 1923 with an encyclopacdic catalogue (no#l-briefmarken- handbuch, ed. wer- bert munk) in which the first 1,056 pages reach only to “ de.” this vast increase has embarrassed publishers of printed albums of the comprehensive kind formerly popular, and it has obliced collectors to set broad or narrow limits on the scope of their collections. general collecting is still extensively pursued but few attempt to collect the stemps of the whole world, select- lng instead a geographical cr political group, ¢.g., great britain and her dominions, the united states and her possessions, ete. still more collectors have carried their emitations further, and specialise in the stanyps of individual countries. intensive spe- cial study has reached a stare where at the london inicraational stamp exhibition (1923) many exhibits dealt with single issucs, and even single stamps. exeept the tapling collection in the british museum, the great general collections of the past, including those of terrart, phibrick, worthington, breitfuss, have all been dispersed; the plilatclic magnates of to-day possess serics of specialised collec- tions, often covering a wide range of countries, but not compiled on the comprehensive lines ef the great pioneers; some sect a period to their collections, thus climinating the proific issues of recent times; r890 may be taken as the close of the most inter- esting epoch of stamp issues for the connoisseur, but the close of the toth century, coinciding with the end of the reign of queen victoria, is a convenient period (1840-1901) chosen by many collectors. there is also a modern school collecting stamps of the 20th century. specialised collecting —the royal philatelic society (lon- don), under the cuidance of the 26th earl of crawford until bis death in tan. ro13, led the modern trend to historical and tech- nical study of stamps in specialised fields. the philatelist of io-day traces the economic origins of the issue of stamps, the artistic sources of their designs, and the most exact and minute lctails of their manufacture. the ariicles “ postage slamops in ihe making? in gibbons’ stamp weekly and gibbons’ afoutily- journal (xgto-4), revised in book form in 1916, provider! a basis fer technical research into the formation and use of dics, plates, stones, etc., the details of paper, watermark and devices to en- sure security from forgery or the ulicit re-use of stamps. vhe effect of this specialism on the market has been remark- able. while rare stamps remain rare, their values have increased e at ‘largely owing to the number of wealthy patrons who rezard rare stamps as a good and protected investment. comparatively common stamps, especially of the early issues prior to the intro- duction of perforation, have risen in value owing to the quanti- ties which the specialist requires in order to pursue his technical studies. the original rd. black (great britain) stamp of 1840 is not rare; twopence would buy a good copy at the beginning of this century, and they were abundant on the market for some years later. intensive study of this one stamp has led to the identification of 240 units from each of the 11 plates, some in two distinct states, used for printing the stamps; the collector, secking to reconstruct the plates of the penny black, needs not fewer than 2,880 different specimens, to find which he would search through many times that number. there are other fea- tures of the study of this stamp, with its curious and mieresting postmarks, which cause the specialist to drain the market of it and similar classes. although common, an ordinary used copy of the rd. black is worth 5s. (1926), but a copy identified as coming from plate 11 is worth about £5. similar conditions have ele- vated the prices of nearly all “ first issues’ and early imperfo- stancioff—standardisa tion rate stamps, notably the beautiful carly stamps of the united states. the ferrari sale—the last great general collection to be dis- persed, that of philippe la renotiere von ferrari, who died at lausanne in 1917, was sequestrated by the french govt. and sold by auction 1922-5. its owner had bequeathed it to the berlin postal museum, which already houses a collection of great historical interest and value. in 14 sales, covering 39 days, the portions sold at the hetel drouot, paris, realised 26,482, 964 francs, or £402,963, calculated at the rate of exehance prevailing at the different periods of the sales. this did not represent the entire store of feryari’s stamp treasures. among the notable prices recorded at these sales were: the unigue 1 cent british guiana, 1856, £7,343; pair of 2 cent british guiana, 1850, £5,250; tawaltian islands, 2 cents, 1851, £3,900; mauritius, 1847, 2d. £2,338, 1d. £2,090; baden, 9 kreuzer on green paper (error) £1,816; france, 1849, 15 cents, tete-beche, pair £837; 1 franc (verveile) dte-beche in a block of four, £2,706. some of the little known united states postmaster’s stamps also recorded high prices, e.g., boscawen, 1846, 5 cent, £2,625; lock- port, 1546, 5 cent, £1,875. the price paid for the 1 cent british guiana, 1856 (£7,343) is the highest price evcr paid for a single stamp; the prices quoted for the rd. and 2d. mauritius have been exceeded at other sales, and one original apes bearing the two denominations used together to prepay a 3d. postage rate, was sold in 1922 for £11,000. war time developments —during the world war, philately, instead of declining as many thought it would, became ecnor- mously more popular; those who suspended their collecting soon found the strain of war conditions called for a mental relaxation, and returned to their stamps. others, especially those brought into contact with the historic circumstances of the issue of stamps in the war zones and captured colonies, took up collecting with eagerness. outstanding events of the war were marked for collectors by stamp issues of great interest, ike the british and other war issucs for samoa, new britain, baghdad, bushire and togo. on the enemy side stamps were issued by the ger- man and austrian armies as they pushed through belgium, france, russia, italy and the balkans, and the public interest in these issues attracted numbers of new collectors, many of whom have maintained their enthusiasm, and some passed on to the advanced plilatelic staze. the period following the collapse of austria and the armistice was not less interesting or prolific. new stamps brought records of the independence of finland, poland and the baltic states of estonia, latvia and lithuania, the much divided empires of austria and turkey, the incidents of the plebiscites, and the mandated territories, and even the league of nations had a set of swiss stamps overprinted in 1922. acrophilautely—another phase of the pursuit which has at- tracted large numbers of new collectors is acrophilately, or, as some wish to call it, “‘ aerophilosemy,’—the gathering together of air-post stamps, in which particular regard is paid to envelopes (‘* covers *’) which have been carried on air mails. scarce stamps on envclopes or cards carried on historic flights like the trans- atlantic flights by mr. hawker (april 1919) and sir j. alcock (june 1919) command high prices. elaborate catalogues have been published in britain, france and germany for the guidance of collectors in this branch of the pursuit. torgery remains a menace to the collector, but the advance of scientific knowledge of the old stamps places experts in a strong position with regard to the classic issues. the modern excess of surcharged or overprinted stamps, many of which were of a provisional and short-lived character, and consequently scarce, are the chicf temptations to the counterfeiter where the overprints can be fairly closcly imitated by modern photo-me- chanical processes on the basis of genuine stamps. the expert committee of the royal philatelic society decided in 1925 to discontinue undertaking to pass opinions on stamps issued sub- sequent to 1gr3. organisation —dhilatelic organisations are to be found in most countries. the royal philatelic society celebrated its 639 jubilee (tor9) by a scheme for acquiring a permanent home, possession of which was obtained in 1925. the junior philatelic society, founded 1899, inaugurated a widespread movement which has extended throughout the dominions and foreign countries, assisting the beginner and medium collector; it has organised the international philatelic exhibitions in london 1912 and 1923. between 70 and 8o societies in britain and the colonies are affiliated in the philatelic congress of great britain, which meets annually. america has its similar institutions headed by the collectors’ club (new york) and flourishing societies in citics from boston to san francisco; in addition there is the american philatelic socicty, a national body holding an annual convention, and the association for stamp exhibitions, inc., which organised the international exhipilions in new york 1013 and 1926. governments now take a new regard for the requirements of stamp collectors. the “ philatelic agency ” was started by the united states as a department of its post office at washington (1921) to supply current and such stamps of older kinds as may be available to collectors and dealers at face value; similar agencies were set up in canada at ottawa (1923) and at balboa heights, canal zone (1924). some countries still produce stamp issues more frequently than is necessary for their postal require- ments, looking to the revenue obtained from the sales, without postal service, to collectors. in many cases, commemorative issues of stamps are now issued on notable occasions in lieu of the ancient custom of strixing of special coins, and in the main such issues adil to the fascinating varicty of histerical and other sub- jects brought pictorially into association with stamp-ccllecting. bibliograpity.—the bibhiograp! 1y of philately is very extensive. ee. d. bacon, catalegue of the philatelic library of “the earl of crawford, k.t., publishes { by the philatelic literature soc icty inigil, with supple mont in preparation (1926) lists all separate works known to 19038 and periodicals to 1906; this, the most complete library extant is in the british museum, hequeathed by the late earl. short selected bibliographies will be ‘found ia f, j. melville, chats on postage stamps (19t8) and the complete philatelist (1924), the philatelic index (1925), issued by the ‘philatelic congress of great britain, is a tentative index to the contents of the principal british stamp journals. see also s. c. johnson, the stamp collector (1920); james f. handshaw, looking backward (1923); the caniplete stand- ard cutulogue of the postage stuntps of the world, c. hw. meclweel, ed. in 3 p: arts, st. l quis, (1804- -~5) and the standard postage stantp cal- alogue : issued by scott stamp and coin co., ltd., n.y. say ee stancioff, dimitri (1854- ), bulgarian diplematist, was born at sistov, bulgaria, in may 1864, and studied at the theresianum college, vienna. in 1887 he entered the toreign oliice, sofia, and was a member of the delegation entrusted with electing a ruler for bulgaria. after the choice had fallen on prince ferdinand of coburg, stancioff became head of the new king’s political cabinet. afterwards he was successively appointed bulgarian representative at bucharest, vienna and st. petersburg where he received the title of maiater pleni- potentiary and remained 10 years, succeeding in re-establishing friendly relations between russia and bulgaria. he became minister of foreign affairs in 1906 and was for a time prime minister after the murder of petkoff. in 1908 he resigned and became minister in paris where he remained until rots when he was sent to rome. during the world war, against which he had vainly protested, he organised red cross and ambulance work. after the armistice, he was again called to the foreign office to resume relations with the allies. he wasa member of the bulga- rian delegation to the paris peace conference, and in 1920 was appointed bulgaria’s representative to the court of st. james. stancioff was bulgaria’s chicf delegate to the first international peace conference at the hague in 1899 and was a permanent member of the international court of arbitration at the hague. after the world war he attended the genoa, hague and lau- sanne conferences. in 1889, he married the countess anna de grenaud, lady-in-waiting to the princess clementine of orleans, the mother of the ex-king ferdinand. standardisation may be defined as the art or process of securing or observing conformity to any measure whether of extent, quantity, quality or value, which has been established 640 by law, general usage or consent. these established measures are called standards. examples are standard weights and measures (usually fixed by law); standard screw threads in the mechanical field; standard voltages in the electrical field; stand- ard commercial forms, such as cheques, notes, contracts, in- voices, etc., in business practice; standard track gauge in steam railway construction, and standard specifications for steel and other structural materials. standards usually represent the final conclusions obtained through extensive experimentation and research and serve as a basis for comparison of one product with another, or of actual performance with ideal or desired performance. standardisation has long been recognised as the foundation of mass production, and has been extensively applied in industries where volume output is the main purpose. motor car manufacture——in toto the society of automotive engineers in new york appointed a committee to set up stand- ards which would simplify motor car manufacturing. this committee succeeded in establishing many standards for the automotive industry, and its work proved of great importance in the rapid growth of motor car production in america. s.a.e. standards include specifications as to sizes and dimensions of machined parts and fittings used in motor car construction, also to the materials of their composition, and to the tests by which the performance, durability and strength of such parts are determined. the widespread use of, or adherence to, these standards has made possible economies in designing, producing, operating and maintaining motor cars. these economies have helped to reduce the price to the consumer, and thus to make possible their wide distribution. impetus during the war—up to the time the united states entered the world war (april 1917) standardisation had been applied more extensively in the american motor car industry than in any other field of manufactured commodities. the great demand for munitions, rifles, machine guns, railway cars, ships and the thousands of other materials of modern war- fare required the production of all these on a far greater scale than ever before attempted. it became necessary to divide the huge orders among many factories, and arrangements were made for one to furnish one part, another factory another, and so on. these units were then sent to centralising depets for assembling and final delivery to the point of use or consumption. it was imperative that parts from several sources should be assembled with a minimum of labour. consequently, standard gauges were made and distributed to the various shops for them to use in checking the accuracy of the parts made by them. it thus became possible to build motor-trucks, tractors, railway cars and locomotives, ships, big guns, shells and innumerable other essential products in enormous quantities. the impetus given to standardisation by war-time conditions has led to a rapid acceleration in the adoption of standards. ‘there is scarcely a single american industry, operating on a large scale, that does not apply standardisation to its products, its processes, its plant equipment, its tools, jigs, dies, fixtures, even to its purchases of the materials used directly or indirectly in the fabrication of its products. machine tools and shipbuilding —in 1921 the national machine tool builders association appointed a committee to co-operate with the american society of mechanical engineers in establishing stand- ards for various parts or features of machine tools. consideration is being given to t-slots, spindle ends, angle blocks, tool holders, length of ways, bolts and nuts, and so on. further study is being directed to the establishment of standard names for components now given a wide variety of names. it is being demonstrated that such stand- ardisation is of great convenience to the manufacturer who uses many machine tools, in enabling him to interchange parts, reduce time lost by breakdowns, and thus expedite his own production. in 1922 the american marine standards committee was formed to promote the simplification and standardisation of practice in the building, operation and maintenance of ships and in the allied in- dustries. this committee is composed of representatives of american shipbuilders, owners, operators, managers, as well as of enginecring societies and government departments. among the components of ship construction for which the committee is developing standards are air ports, fixed lights, bitts, cleats, chocks, hawse pipes, marine hardware, life-boat fittings and equipment, fire buckets, propeller standardisation | hubs, piping, gauges, hose couplings, care and operation of boilers, superheaters, engine-room auxiliaries. the adopting of these stand- ards and their incorporation in vessels now building, or to be built, is expected appreciably to reduce the cost of designing, construction, operation and maintenance. mutual standards in industyy.—the trend toward standardisation in various industries led to the consideration of mutual or common standards, z.e., those which might be usefully applied in two or more industries. groups which hitherto had acted more or less inde- pendently of one another in standardisation realised the need for co-operative action and for a centralising agency or clearing-house to co-ordinate and correlate their work. consequently, the american engineering standards committee was formed in oct. 1918. in 1925 this organisation had 24 member bodies representing 35 national organisations. the main committee had approved, to jan. 31 1925, 68 standards of a national character; 12 more were then awaiting approval, and 79 morc projects were under way. trade, technical or governmental bodies co-operating through representatives on special or sectional committees numbered 352, and there were 1,371 individuals on sectional committees. projects covered by the a.e.s.c. programme are divided as follows:— projects projects group a group p- ap- total groved total cee d civil engineering non-ferrous and building metallurgy . 14 6 trades : 32 16 chemical . ve 9 mechanical 26 io | textile. 2 i electrical . 17 5 mining ; 16 1 automotive —. 4 i wood 5 2 transportation 9 6 | pulp and paper i oo shipbuilding i o miscellaneous . ii 4 ferrous metal- lurgy 9 vi total [59 68 the american engineering standards committee co-operates with the federal specifications board, an organisation representing government departments, in the preparation of specifications relat- ing to government purchases of matcrials and supplies. it also co- operates with the standards committees of other nations in the pro- motion of international standards applying to manufactured goods. a further development in international] standardisation occurred in the organisation of the pan-american standardisation conference at lima, peru, in dec. 1924. the general idea for this conferenc originated with the latin-american countries. government :acttion.—nation-wide interest in standardisation has been greatly quickened by the activities of the u.s. depart- ment of commerce. in 1921 the secretary of commerce, her- bert hoover, established the division of simplified practice to assist commercial organisations, chiefly trade associations, in the reduction of the variety in sizes and dimensions of the prod- ucts in which their members were offering those products to the trade. it has been previously determined by a committee of eminent industrial engineers that the preventable waste in american industry was unduly high, and that much of this waste of material, labour, time and human energy came from the unwarranted fabrication of many non-essential varieties in the same class or type of goods. as an example, manufacturers of paving bricks were making 66 different types and styles of these articles. they found that 70% of their business came from 11 of the 66 varietics. they decided to eliminate the odd 55 and con- centrate production, sale and use thereafter on the 11 staple varieties. this was done in nov. 1921. in march 1922, the variety was cut to 7; a year later to 6; in march 1924 to 5; and in march 1925 to 4. this was accomplished through the mutual adoption by manufacturers, distributors and consumers of the reduced line of types and sizes as the basis of future business. the department of commerce acted solely as an intermediary in bringing about this result. the action was initiated, sponsored and carried through to completion by the industry. simplification.—this process of curtailing variety 1s called simplification to distinguish it from standardisation. the former is a commercial policy or procedure; the latter a technical process, often involving scientific research and investigation. obviously, there is a relation between simplification and stand- ardisation in that simplification, or the elimination of super- fluous and unnecessary varieties in a common product, expedites stanford—star-contra propeller or facilitates standardisation. the varieties retained as the simphfhed line become the accepted standards of the industry, and may remain as “ standards” until more adequate and ac- ceptable standards are derived through scientific methods. simplification is being applied in scores of industries with marked results. it is reducing inventories and idle investments, decreasing manufacturing and sclling costs and likewise stimu- lating turnover, sales and volume production. examples of simplification effected are given in the following tables :— table i. number of sizes number per cent commodity or vari- | elimi- number} reduc- eties in | nated [retained] tion use tron, steel, and their prod- ! ae ‘a ucts metal lath ; , 125 io 4 81 files and rasps , 1,351 855 lee 63 woven wire fencing woven wire fencing jae ages ; ‘ range boilers hot water storage tanks steel barrels and drums . 66 42 forged tools . : plough bolts. . 1,500 steel reinforcing bars 40 29 sheet steel : steel lockers. , 65 48 tacks and nails (sizes) shovels, spades and scoops hospital beds, lengths widths ] al 44 43 beds, metal. ; 7% e bed springs , ; | deed pormgs. swe | 8 jt 6e table. il, a as fes tr a bn as number ; number per cent of sizes or] "7-4... | number | commodity varieties e aa retained 1 ke in use nate duction | stone, clay, glass, and | mineral products | | vitrified paving brick. 66 62 4 94 | face brick (smocth) 35 36 1 97 face brick (rough) 38 37 i 93 common brick . ; 44 43 i 98 hollow building tile 36 17 19 ap | roofing slate . .. 98 50 48 5k i blackboard slates 251 226 26 90 concrete building units . 115 qi 24 80 sand, lime brick .. 4 ii 3 79 | hotel chinaware 700 540 160 77 | hospital chinaware . 700 537 113 84 dining car chinaware 700 587 1 te 84 milk bottles. 49 40 9 82 asphalt (grades) 88 79 9 go asbestos (paper) . . 14 6 8 43 asbestos mill board , 10 5 5 50 grinding wheels 715,200 | 459,400 | 255,800 64 wood, paper, etc. box board : 244 184 60 2 milk-bottle caps 29 28 i 97 tissue paper: = “rou issue. 4. xe 13 10 3 77 : shoe tissue 21 15 6 72 ' grocers’ paper bags 6,280| 1,580] 4,700 25 wood beds 78! 74 4 95 bibliography. york, 1924); waste in industry, mcgraw- hill book co. york, 1921); year book for 1925, american engineering standards committee (new york); simplified practice, what it is and what it management handbook, ronald press co. (new inc. (new offers, u.s, dept. of commerce (nov. 1924). (r.a. t1.*) stanford, sir charles villiers (1852-1924), british musical composer (see 25.773), died in london march 29 1924. stanislavsky, stage name of constantine sergeevich alexeev (1863- ), russian theatrical producer, was born in 641 moscow. his father was a rich mill owner and his grandmother a french actress; he studied at the imperial school of dramatic art and in 1888 began work as an actor and producer in the soci- ety of art and literature and after ro years of training founded in 1898 together with the playwright v. n, danchenko the mos- cow art theatre. his productions were extremely varied, rang- ing from the historical czar fedor to the extreme naturalism of chekhov’s plays. ile was also an actor of great force and subtlety, taking the leading parts in chekhov’s and gorky’s plays. stanis- — lavsky revolutionised the art of producing and is the acknowl- edged father of the modern russian theatre. see stanislavsky, my life in art (eng. trans. 1924). star-contra propeller.—the most efficient screw pro- peller is still far from perfect, owing to the fact that its action on the water is not wholly confined to thrust work in an axial direction, but is accompanied by a certain amount of power lost in giving the jet of water a rotary motion. the rotary or tangential force represents wasted energy, and the device about to be described has been evolved with a view of utilising that force in useful thrust work. construction.—the star is fitted in the propeller aperture, either on the fore or on the after side of the propeller proper, as circumstances allow. ii consists of a solid casting secured firmly to the rudder post or ship’s stern frame. if the device is fitted on the after side of the main propeller it is provided with two blades or fins projecting each side and of special shape. if on the forward side of the propeller proper, the star may consist of two fins rigidly secured to the ship’s structure and which may or may not be fitted with outboard or side blades. principle and action.—a ship’s propeller causes the propeller stream to move in two directions. the axial movement is that which drives the ship; the tangential movement, that which ~ causes the propeller stream to twist, is loss of power. the con- tra propeller has been designed to eliminate this loss, and the results certainly show an increase of efficiency and economy. the water leaving the main propeller blades does so in a direc- tion more or less perpendicular to the blade, but, when a star is provided behind the main propeller, the water flowing between its blades has its direction of flow changed until it is flowing astern in the line of the ship’s course. if, however, the device is fitted forward of the main propeller, the water flowing through iis blades has its direction changed before it reaches the main propeller. the star blades are so curved that just sufficient change of direction is given to prepare for and to counteract the rotary motion ordinarily given to the water by the main pro- peller. since the one change of direction is just neutralised by the other, the water is thrown off the main propeller blades in a direct parallel to the course of the ship. ddvuntages of the star-contra propelicry —when fitted with side blades the device is a distinct protection for the main pro- peller, against other craft, floating or partially submerged ob- jects, and when manoeuvring near dock walls. this particularly applies when working amongst floating ice. a vessel fitted with this device will develop the same speed, but will absorb from 7-10 % less power, with consequent saving in bunkers and bunker space, and increase of deadweight cargo capacity. manoeuvring is distinctly improved, as the increased solidity of the water after leaving the propeller area improves the efiiciency of the rudder. the rudder bias is also largely reduced, consequently there is a saving in wear and tear on rudder gear, steering engine, chains, etc. the stcering of the ship is improved; and in types having side blades the pitching and rolling is much less. as is well known the reduction of rolling and pitching in rough seas means an increase of speed. ‘the vibration is reduced to a con- siderable extent as the water is less broken. even with the most efficient propeller there still remains a considerable percentage of loss through slip, cavitation and other causes, which involves either reduced specd, or unnecessarily large oil or coal consump- tion. the device is suitable for every type of vessel, from ocean- going liners to small coasters and tugs, and even launches, either with single, twin, triple or quadruple screws driven by recipro- cating, turbine, internal combustion. or electrical drive. as 642 regards wooden vessels, the star is equally suitable. pilot-boats, fishing and sailing craft with auxiliary machinery, should find the device of considerable assistance, as pitching and rolling can be considerably reduced by its installation. finally, it must be borne in mind that after the initial cost there are no main- tenance charges. see walter pollock, ‘“‘ a suggested mcthod of increasing the efficiency of the screw propeller,” trans. hist, naval architects, vol. 67, 1925. (read at spring meeting, april 1925). (f. j. d.) stark, johannes (1874- ), german physicist, was born april 15 1874 at schichenhof in bavaria and studied at the university of munich. in 1g00 he became an assistant at the university of gettingen. he went as professor in 1907 to the technische hochschule at aix-la-chapelle, in ror7 to greifswald and in 1920 to wirzburg. stark devoted himself principally to the study of the modern theory of radiation and the atomic theory. he discovered the doppler effect in parallel rays, for which the vienna academy awarded him the baum- gartner prize. later he discovered the stark effect, named after him, and in 1919 was awarded the nobel prize for physics. he wrote numerous essays on physical problems, including the prinsipien der atomdynamik in 3 parts (1910-5); die elek- frischen ouanten, die elcktrische strahlung, and die elektrisitat in gasen (1902). he was the founder of the jahrbuch der radio- aktivitet und elektronik (1904). stars: see astronomy. statistics and graphs (sce 25.806 }.—two classes of problems are presented in the examination and interpretation of groups of statistical data. the first is to determine the relation to one another of two series of quantities, the measurements of which have been recorded. the second is concerned with the comparison of the relations of «different pairs of series. a simple illustration of the first is the quantity of rain falling at a given observing station during a determined interval of time. if the amounts of the rainfall be set out for each week in a year, the table showing these amounts will indicate the fluctuations in rainfall with the seasons. similar tables for other years, when compared with the first and with one another, will show that there is no precise uniform- ity in the recurrence of wet and dry periods, but if the records for each week in the year are averaged over a series of years, the contrasts between the wetter and drier seasons of the year will become clearer than in the record for a single year. correspond- ing records for different places will serve to compare the relative wetness of their climates more accurately than can be done by a simple comparison of the annual rainfall. observations for the same locality for different periods of time may show changes either in the amount of the annual rainfall or in its distribution through the year. as an illustration of a series of observations in which time is not one of the primary elements, variations with which are the subject of record, we may have a serics of measurements of the heights and weights of men between dcter- mined limits of age. the average weight of all those whose height is within one-eighth of an inch of, say, 5 ft. 6 in. may be determined, and similarly for heights of 5 ft. 5} in., 5 ft. 6} in., and each quarter inch less or more. a table setting out these results will summarise the relation of weight to height among the persons measured. the study of the variation in magnitude of one of two observed quantities as the other changes naturally leads to the comparison of such variations determined for different phenomena. thus, the comparison of the seasonal variation of rainfall or of temper- ature, and the seasonal variation of the death-rate, either in general or that consequent on a particular disease or group of diseases, suggests the question whether the variations of the two phenomena are similar, and similar in a degree which justifies the conclusion that there is a causal connection between them. corresponding problems arise from comparisons between the tables showing the relations to one another of other pairs of observed quantities. a large part of the work of recent years in the application of mathematical methods to statistics has been concerned with stark—statistics and graphs devising appropriate methods of measuring and testing the degree of association between different serics of variable quantities. among the simpler tests cf the closeness of association is the co-efficient of correlation. for the theory of correlation reference must be made to standard works on statistics. it will be suffi- cient here to indicate generally the mode of calculation of the co-efficient in the case of two variables. taking two serics of values for two quantities examined, xi, xa, wi, v2_ vspereccessccenceesceccesecanassenccesscccccsenes yo the x’s and y’s being measured in terms of units suitable to their nuture, and denoting xivi-+-- xe + x3¥3+ kk xe +x, by = (3°) yoty2+ 72 te +yn by bf ive} the value of r, the co-efficient of correlation between the x’s and “xnva~ dy 2 (xy) y’s, is given by r= (xy) v2 (x). 2 (y*). the values of r may range between +1 and —1, these extreme values corresponding to a linear relation between each x and the corresponding y of the form ax+by+c=o. for intermediate values of r such a lincar relation does not connect the corresponding values of ene ye looking at the matter graphically, if x=f, (u) and y=fz (v), the variations of x and y asu and v are given different values and may be represented in the usual way by tracing lines, of one of which the ordinates and abscissae have the series of values given to u and x, and of the other those of v and y. by a suitable choice of scales, the values of x corresponding to values a, 2a, 3a... for u may be made to fall vertically over or under those of y, which correspond to values b, 2b, 3b. . . for v. if the variations of x and y are associated, this graphic presentation of them may render the association visible. such comparisons of the series of corresponding values of two quantities appear sometimes more convincing than the value of the co-efficient of correlation be- tween them. value of graphs —the graphic method of presenting statis- tical data has advantages over the tabular statement of the same data, though it is necessary to remember that the facts represented cannot be more exactly represented by a diagram than by the data from which the diagram is constructed. the diagram may, indeed, on account of the limitations ordin- arily governing the size of the shects on which it is drawn and the accuracy of the draughtsman, fall short in accuracy of the statistical tables which it represents. ‘the graphical presenta- tion of such tables has, however, the important advantage that it presents lengthy series of data in a form in which the majority of users of them find it easier to grasp their sequence and their relations than when presented in tabular shape. thus such a fact, or scrics of facts, as the variation of the rate of mortality with age appears as a mass of detail very difficult to grasp as a whole when presented in a table of figures; while many find a diagram, in which the rates are shown by the variations in the height of a line above a defined level, shown by a straight line crossing the page horizontally, not at all difficult to appreciate. as a series of observations may thus be represented and grasped with ease, two or more series may be compared with correspond- ing facility. tor useful and effective comparisons attention needs to be paid to the scales on which the different series of numbers are represented. an illustration is given by the late professor a. marshall, in the jubilee volume of the royal statistical society,! in compari- sons of the quantities of tea and sugar consumed per head of the population of the united kingdom in a series of years. when both quantities are represented in pounds, the growing use of sugar is clearly manifest, while the consumption of tea appears to have varied little. when the unit of measurement of tea is taken as an ounce, however, the fact that the relative expansion of tea consumed per head was comparable with that of sugar ts made clear. fig. 1 is constructed from data for the 50 years preceding the war similar to those used by marshall. 1 loc. cit., p. 257 (fig. 2). statistics and graphs ae ae ee 885 = 1880 year fic. 1.—graph showing consumption per head of tea and sugar in the united kingdom in each vear 1864-1913. (quantilics in stock at the end of cach year are not taken into account.) when, of two (or more) curves compared, one represents quantities which increase from left to right of the diagram, though at varying rates, while another shows fluctuations about a line which is, on the whole, horizontal or falling, a correspond- ence between the two curves may not be easily recognised, even if it be real and close. to bring out the association it may be necessary to adopt a procedure which separates the general trend of the line and the deviations of individual points on the line from that trend. one such method is to calculate the aver- ages of the ordinates of several consecutive points. the line which shows the position of such a series of averages, and the line which shows the deviation of any point from the average of the series to which it corresponds-——say, the series which ex- tends equally the right and left of the selected point—may show movements well worthy of separate attention. it may appear, for example, that even if the ines showing the general trends are far from similar in their variations, the lines 206 0 ts suen ter ee eas * ae 1864 1870 =: 1875 180 1895 i900 = 1s€5 i919 1413 oo =- i | & per head o wm oo =—_ wn marriages per 1000 fiving 1860 1865 1870 1875 - 1880 643 which show the deviations from the trends manifest variations having marked features of resemblance for different curves. the marriage rate and the value of foreign trade per head for the united kingdom furnish an example where the deviations from nine-year averages appear much more clearly similar in their fluctuations than the single-year figures. fig. 2 shows the deviations for each year 1859-1909 from the averages of the nine-year periods 1855-63 to 1905-13, the marriage rates being those of great britain and the foreign trade being represented by the sum of the retained imports and the exports of domestic produce, further, the comparison of such deviations suggests that, whatever the causes which underlie the apparent similarity of the variability, they do not produce their effect simultaneously on the two phenomena measured. the maxima and minima of the marriage rate, when examined more closely, occur some months later than those of trade.! the association can be tested by the calculation of co-efficients of correlation for different intervals between the points on one curve and the corresponding points on the other; thus the interval for which the co-efficient has highest value may be determined with some precision. in examining two relations, such as those represented above by x=f, (u)inand y=f. (v), the nature of the phenomena miay be rendered clearer in some cases by the adoption of apprepriate transformations before bringing together the various data to be compared. thus, if p=fi (x) and q=f» (u), the relation x=f (u) may be represented by a relation between p and q, say, p=f (q). similarly, if r= tp, (v) and s= fs (v), the relation y= fe (v), expressed as a relation between rand s, may become r= f (s). we can thus obtain, for comparison, graphs*of the variations of p and ras q ands vary, and, if the transformations have been suitably chosen with reference to the data to be examined, the new scries may reveal relations not clearly manifest from the examination of those from which they were derived. it is not, however, necessary to devote much space to such means of an- alyzing results in special cases, the general principle underlying them being sufficiently obvious. as shown in the article propanitity (22.376) the measure- ments of many phenomena, physical or social, are found to be 1r, hy hooker, “ correlation of the marriage rate with trade,” cf. journal of tiie royal statistical society (sept. 1g0i). 1885 1890 1895 1300 1905 1909 year fic, 2.—deviations from nine-year averages, upper graph: value of foreign trade (net imports and british exports) of the united kingdom per head of population. lower graph: marriage rate in great britain 1859-1909 (averages of 1855-63 to 1905-13). 644 distributed about their average in close accordance with the theoretic distribution of events dependent on pure chance, sub- ject to the qualification that, in social phenomena, the normal evenly balanced distribution of events on either side of their mean is frequently replaced by a distribution leaning more or less markedly to one side or the other. in the actual process of taking observations of a series of phenomena, we may fail to secure measurements of that representative character possessed by the mean of a large number of observations repeated under conditions as nearly as possible identical in all respects. most commonly we have to be satisfied with a single observation or a limited series of observations. if we could obtain the true means as the values of the x’s and y’s whose fluctuations it is proposed to compare, we might either find that a marked resemblance of the two curves would replace a vague similarity, or that an ap- parent similarity would be replaced by a definite independence. further, the actual statistics obtained to represent a series of observations may be either a random or a biased selection from the varied possible measurements. it is a serious weakness of many social statistics that the data available are commonly based on a limited series of observations of the consequences resulting from the operation of specified forces, and that limited series is too often affected by conditions which prejudice the representative character of the statistics. if this defect be serious, it may be of doubtful advantage to apply to such data those methods of analysis which might be wholly appropriate to data derived from the repetition of carefully controlled observations of physical or mechanical phenomena. as shown in a paper by mr. udny yule, there may arise, from random sampling of pos- sible data, series which appear to show, between phenomena wholly unrelated, a comparatively high degree of correlation as measured in the usual manner.! the improvement of the data available for statistical analysis is thus of an importance not less than that of the improvement of the methods of analysis and comparison of the data obtained. considerable advances have been made in this direction in re- cent years. in comparing two sets, one distant, one recent, of statistical data it is necessary to guard against conclusions which may be invalidated by the inferior reliability, for the particular purpose in hand, of the older data. one great advantage of much of the later statistical material is that the conditions of its preparation, conditions which permit of a judgment as to its reliability or its applicability in particular arguments, are more usually set out with care than was formerly the practice. in many cases it has been necessary to commence a statistical series with imperfect data, the improvement of the data being only possible as the value of data of that character became recognised. utility in commerce and industry the value of statistics for business purposes has been appre- ciated to an increasing degree, and thus an increasing flow of statistical data, which yet leaves much to be desired, has become available for the study of commercial, industrial and other social problems. the movements of prices in great britain as reflected in index numbers, for example, are made the subject of regular compilations, not only by the economist and the statist, but by the times and the financial times. while the three first of these adhere to the formally more simple method of averaging the items by the addition and division of their sum by the num- ber of items, the last, like the index of the board of trade, which has a wider range of sources of data than any of the others, makes use of the geometric means of the items, as was done 1n the index by jevons for the period 1782-1869 (cf. w. stanley jevons, investigations in currency and finance, ed. 2, pp. 112-50). in the united states an even greater variety of compilations of general price indices is available than in england, while in both countries there are a number of compilations limited to the prices of specified groups of commodities. the use of index num- bers of prices has extended, since the war, to a much wider 1 jour. roy, stat. soc. (jan. 1926), presidential address by g. udny yule, “ why do we sometimes get nonsense correlations between time-series?” stead—steam engine range of countries than formerly, partly under the influence of the statistical work of the league of nations.? in the analysis of statistics related to the variations of business activity and prosperity, it appears to have been established that the ebb and flow of different phases of that activity are not simultaneous but follow one another with more or less regularity. considerable attention is being devoted to the selection of data which may represent most satisfactorily the fluctuations in these different features of the ebb and flow of business, with a view to the establishment of a species of economic meteorology. work of international organisations —graphical presentations of the variations of such trade indicators are regularly prepared and circulated by, among others, the organisations known as the harvard economic service’ in the united states, and the london and cambridge economic service in great britain, the former having the longer record of work, and in france, italy and germany the carrying out of a similar pro- gramme has been taken in hand. the work of the international statistical institute in promoting comparability between the official statistics of different countries was interrupted after the meeting held at vienna in 1013, except in so far as the establishment of a permanent office at the hague, finally ap- proved at that meeting, led to the collection of certain statisti- cal material from many countries for publication under the auspices of the institute in the bulletin of the new office. by the time that serious activities of that office had become possible, the new organisation for international co-operation, the league of nations, was becoming active in the field of sta- tistics. ‘the league and the institute have worked in co-opera- tion through a preparatory committee jointly appointed by the two organisations to survey various portions of the field of com- mercial and industrial statistics. the reports prepared by this joint committee have furnished a large part of the material pre- sented for discussion at the first meeting of the institute held after the war, namely, that at brussels in 1923, and also at the meeting of 1925 at rome.’ the regular scrics of biennial meet- ings of the institute is now definitely re-established, and the vacancies in its membership which occurred in the ten years of suspended activity are in large measure filled. binliograapphy.—g. udny yule, an introduction to the theory of statistics, part th]. and the references there given; arthur l. bowley, elements of statistics, part i1., section vi. (a. w. ef.) stead, william thomas (1849-1912), british journalist (see 25.817), was drowned on the “ titanic’? april 15 1912.