SAXONY

a free state and territory (treistaat sachsen) of the german reich. the arca is 5,787 sq. m.; the population (1926) 4,970,300. conflict over the constitution.—in the years immediately pre- ceding the world war political life in the german kingdom of saxony was dominated by a conflict about the constitution. the left had for years demanded a reform of the first chamber, the upper house, by which the predominance of the agrarians in that house should be broken, and commerce, industry and handicrafts should obtain greater influence. in jan. 1910 the national liberals, liberals and social democrats once more introduced resolutions with this object in the lower house, but these met with keen opposition from the government. not- withstanding the majority in the lower house for the reform, it was thrown out by the upper house. in dec. 1917 the government introduced a bill for the reform of the upper house, which again led to fierce conflicts in parliament, which only ended with the advent of the german revolution. simul- 473 taneously controversy concerning a new electoral law for the lower house had been raging since 1910. war conditions.—saxony, which is chiefly industrial, suffered more under war conditions than most other german states. the problems of supplying the population with food were ex- tremely difficult. there was a widespread dearth of the most important foodstuffs, such as corn and potatoes, so that the population was frequently obliged to use substitutes. the revolution.—in 1917 the extreme left in the saxon diet had begun an agitation, which never abated, for the early con- clusion of peace. on oct. 26 1918 the cabinet gave place to a more liberal government under dr. heinze. on nov. 9 1918 the revolution broke out, on nov. 10 the republic was pro- claimed, and king frederick augustus abdicated on nov. 13. a cabinet of commissaries of the people (volksbeauftragte), composed exclusively of independent socialists, was formed. revolutionary conflicts in jan. 1919, which entailed sanguinary street fighting in leipzig, dresden and elsewhere, led to the resignation of the cabinet, which was succeeded by a govern- ment of majority socialists. the extreme left instituted dem- onstrations throughout the country, and there were serious excesses, especially in plauen and leipzig. in april 1919 a soviet republic was proclaimed in leipzig, which was dissolved by troops of the reichswehr under gen. marker on may 12. serious disturbance followed in the vogtland and in chemnitz in june and august. on oct. 2 1919 the democratic party joined the ministry, which kept in power till april 25 1920. it was replaced by a coalition of majority and independent socialists, which was vigorously combated by the non-socialist parties. in the spring of 1920 formidable unrest recurred, especially in west saxony. in leipzig sanguinary fighting continued for several days. in the vogtland the communist helz formed a band of several hundred men, with which he conducted a reign of terror in the towns and villages. the government long hesitated to take action against him; finally, however, haelz’s force was surrounded and dispersed by reichswehr troops. helz fled to czechoslovakia. in march 1921 he returned and took command of the communist insurgents in central ger- many. after the collapse of the insurrection he fled to berlin, where he was ultimately arrested, and condemned to penal servitude for life with the loss of civic rights (june 1921). the new constitution—on nov. 1 1920 the definitive new con- stitution was adopted unanimously by all partics. the supreme organ is the diet (landtag), consisting of one chamber. its rights are only limited by those of the people, which can dissolve it, and themselves initiate legislation by means of a popular initiative (volksbegehren) or give a referendum on measures passed by the |.andtag. the landtag elects the minister president, who then nominates the rest of the ministry, which, like himself, must enjoy the confidence of the landtag. the minister president also deter- mines the general lines of the policy and the ministry; his position entails real authority, but he is not the titular head of the state. in 1923 the zeigner ministry, which was not able_to control the communist agitation, came into conflict with the government of the reich, which sent a commission and troops to saxony to restore order. zeigner’s ministry was replaced by a ministry composed of german people’s party democrats and social democrats. zeigner was prosecuted for corruption (see germany). (w. v. b.) sazonov, serghei dmitrievich (1866- ), russian statesman, was born in the province of ryazan july 29 1866 the son of a landed proprietor, and educated at the alexandrov- sky lyceum, st. petersburg (leningrad), a high school for the sons of noblemen destined mainly for the civil service. having occupied various diplomatic posts in rome and served six years in the russian embassy in london he was promoted, in 1906, to be minister-resident at the vatican, where his engaging man- ners, frankness and taste for ecclesiastical affairs enabled him to make great headway. in 1909 he entered the ministry of for- eign affairs as coadjutor to izvolsky, and in 1910 succeeded the latter as minister and thus became one of the international group of statesmen into whose hands chance rather than per- sonal ambition or specific fitness placed the destinies of their respective countries. this appointment, ascribed to the influence 474 of his brother-in-law, the dictator stolypin, was so agreeable to nicholas ii., whom sazonov attracted by his great charm of manner, that when the minister fell ill and seemed unlikely to recover, the tsar steadfastly refused to name a successor. sazonov’s line of action was definitely traced for him by the european situation on the one hand and by the limitation of his rele to that of confidential secretary to the emperor on the other. his chief functions were to parry austria’s fitful thrusts at serbia, to curb serbia’s explosive impatience, buoying her up with hopes of a vast legacy to fall due on the death of the em- peror francis joseph, and to bespeak the help of england, italy, rumania and bulgaria in the coming struggle. these tasks exceeded his powers, and his abortive near-eastern policy did not prevent russia’s ruinous collapse during the world war, a momentous event for her allies. although the principal governments were making ready for the ‘‘ unavoidable conflict ” none was rash enough to provoke it deliberately, and only one was sufficiently purblind to fancy that a ruthless campaign against serbia might be opened without bringing on a general struggle. in this delusion, harboured by the austrian minister, count berchtold, lurked the most redoubtable danger which sazonov and europe had to encounter. berchtold strove to catch serbia on the horns of the dilemma: friendship or enmity. turkey, the oppressor of the slavs, he argued, having been elimi- nated in the balkan war, serbia no longer had a motive for main- taining a standing army unless meant for use against austria. if, therefore, a friend, she must disband her army and cultivate close amity with her powerful neighbour; and if an enemy, she could not complain of being dealt with as such—neither could her protectress, russia. in this lay the crux of the situation. this peril might perhaps have been exorcised had germany in- sisted on having a say in austria’s balkan plans. but dreading to forfeit the support of her “last sure ally ” she eschewed all preliminary conditions and felt bound withal to uphold the most extravagant sallies of her austrian partner. this obligation proved fatal at last owing to berchtold’s resolve at the close of the balkan war to reduce serbia to the status of a protectorate. by way of thwarting this design sazonov frankly announced that any attempt to force upon the slav kingdom terms incompatible with its sovereignty would compel russia to make the quarrel her own. but neither in austria nor in germany was the tsar- dom credited with military strength enough to enable it to carry out this threat. down to the 11th hour sazonov, eager to gain time for stoly- pin’s far-reaching domestic reforms, worked for peace with a fer- vour which won general recognition but scant success. the arrangements come to during the tsar’s visit to potsdam (nov. 4-5 1910) and the kaiser’s return visit to wolfsgarten (nov. 11) respecting the baghdad railway, north persia and the mainte- nance of turkey, eased the strain without dispelling the atmos- phere of mistrust. sazonov was suspected of a lack of a straight- forwardness by the kaiser. russia’s diplomatic representatives abroad were largely to blame for this, and in particular the rash- ness or awkwardness of ambassador charykov in constanti- nople who secretly proposed to guarantee that city to turkey and protect her from all attacks by the balkan states in return for the freedom of the straits. other covert moves also lent colour to the charges of underhand dealing. for example, tur- key’s prostration during the conflict with italy suggested to her enemies, the balkan states, a defensive alliance under russia’s patronage; and this was secretly arranged first (march 13 1912) between serbia and bulgaria and then (may 29) between bulgaria and greece. but the difficulty of limiting the alliance to legitimate defence and the imminence of a balkan war became forthwith se obvious that russia alone felt incapable of dealing with the situation. sazonov decided to seek germany’s help in overawing the balkan states without disclosing to her the secret cause of their combative mood. he accordingly arranged an interview between the tsar and the kaiser at baltischport on july 4-5 1912, which was fol- lowed by a three days’ exchange of views between the german chancellor and the members of the russian govt. in st. peters- sazonov burg. on this occasion sazonov’s advocacy of close co-operation between germany and russia was approved by bethmann hollweg, but doubts were again awakened concerning the rus- sian minister’s straightforwardness owing to his concealment from germany of the existence of the balkan alliance. sazonov next repaired to london, paris and berlin and the great powers authorised him and berchtold to announce their determination to uphold the status gue, so that if the balkan states broke the peace their victory would be fruitless. but this, like most vetoes of the powers, was ignored by the restive kingdoms and the se- quel justified their disregard. by nov. europe was on the verge of a general war. during the crisis the kaiser oscillated from one extreme to another; archduke franz ferdinand gave proof of surprisingly sound views and sir edward grey success- fully discouraged the would-be belligerents. sazonov, keeping a tight hand on serbia, obliged her to content herself with a rail- way harbour on the albanian coast, a railway connection and the secret assurance that her ‘‘ promised land ” lay within the dual monarchy. turkey’s future now became one of the main cares of the great powers, and sazonov, in collaboration with bethmann hollweg, drafted a liberal scheme of reforms for armenia (nov. § 1913). immediately afterwards germany sent military instructors to reorganise the turkish army and a german general, liman von sanders, to wield extensive powers and virtually to garrison con- stantinople. sazonov endeavoured to move the allies to get liman recalled or transferred to asia minor, but sir edward grey held that a reassuring statement by the porte would answer all reasonable requirements. sazonov, however, gave vent to his dissatisfaction in unusually strong terms, but on the kaiser or- dering liman to lay down the command of the first turkish army corps, while retaining his other functions, nicholas ii. let the matter drop. sazonov then drafted a memorandum to the tsar on russia’s claim to the freedom of the straits (nov. 1913) and three months later (feb. 21 1914) convened a council of political and military experts to discuss the ways and means of realising the scheme in case of a european war. but the military experts announced that in the plans of campaign no such side-problems could be included. the murder of archduke franz ferdinand on june 28 1014 changed the political outlook radically and supplied austria with an opening which she utilised to the fullest extent. berch- told was for an immediate invasion of serbia. count tisza was success{ul in his demand that an ultimatum should first be sent, but it was in vain that he opposed the terms of the document which were obviously intended to provoke rejection. after hav- ing lost much precious time sazonov proposed modifications which berchtold declined to accept. he fancied that by under- taking to abstain from annexing serbian territory he could insure the tsar’s neutrality. russia meanwhile adopted the military measures known as “‘ pre-mobilisation ” {july 25) and the plan of a merely partial mobilisation to follow was entertained by the tsar and sazonov in case serbia should be attacked. but the general staff objected that it had no plan ready for a transition from partial to general mobilisation, and that as war seemed unavoidable the latter was impcrative. sazonov, however, still insisted on waiting. meanwhile, berchtold declared war against serbia despite her acceptance of most of the humiliating condi- tions of the ultimatum (july 28), whereupon sazonov’s views underwent a complete change and (in the night of july 28-209) nicholas signed the fatal edict. a belated telegram, however, from the kaiser adjuring him to preserve peace for the sake of the monarchic principle moved the tsar to withdraw the order for general, and substitute that for partial, mobilisation. this command was obeyed in words but the military experts having convinced sazonov that it would be suicidal, the minister next morning (july 30) presented himself to the tsar and obtained his consent to the radical measure advocated by the general staff. on the following morning this order was posted up in st. petersburg and the catastrophe broke loose. during the war sazonov countered all influences tending to the abandonment of the struggle by russia but he followed the sca lds—scepticism tsar’s lead in demanding first the opening of the straits and the internationalisation of constantinople and later on the annexa- tion of the turkish capital. the hostility of turkey and bul- garia deprived russia of aid from the allies, whereupon sazonov made a bid for the help of the poles in the shape of a home rule scheme, but the proposal was scouted in court circles and he was dismissed from his post. thus ended his career. his fall was gently broken by his appointment as ambassador to great britain, but before he reached his destination the revolution of march 1917 had deposed the tsar. sazonov, however, was willing to represent the government that had thrust aside his imperial master but it too was suddenly swept away. he was next appointed minister for forcign affairs by admiral kol- chak but played no further part in the destinies of his country. (e. j. dt.) scalds: see burns and scalds. scapa flow, an expanse of sea, in the south of the orkneys, bounded by pomona on the north, burray and south ronaldshay on the east and southeast, and hoy on the west and southwest. the area contains seven small islands and is about 15 m. in length from north to south, and about 8 m. in mean breadth. there are two chief exits—one, 7 m. in length and 2 m. in mean breadth, into the atlantic ocean by hoy sound, and the other, 3% m. in length by 2 m. in mean breadth, into the north sea by holm sound. admiral jellicoe chose scapa flow in preference to the cro- marty firth as his chief naval base, but in aug. 1914 no prepara- tions had been made and everything had to be improvised, guns being landed from the ships to strengthen the defences. by the middle of oct. 1914 ‘‘ u”’ boats were active in the neighbour- hood, and on oct. 16 an enemy submarine was reported to be in the flow. it was recognised that the base would be unsafe until anti-submarine defences were installed, and by the end of 1914 the entrances had been adequately protected, facilities for carry- ing out all but the most serious repairs were installed, and scapa flow gradually assumed the aspect of a great naval station, which it retained to the end of the war. as a precaution against espionage, navigation in the adjacent waters was very severely regulated, and an everwidening region of the mainland (ulti- mately extending as far south as the caledonian canal) was proclaimed as a prohibited area. the german ships which were surrendered in nov. 1918 were interned in scapa flow, where on june 21 1919 all the battleships and battle cruisers, with the exception of the battleship ‘ baden ”’ and five light cruisers, were scuttled. three light cruisers and some smaller vessels were beached. scarborough, england (see 24.301), had an area of 2,727 ac. (increased from 2,562 ac. in 1913) and a population of 46,179 in 1921. the town was bombarded by german cruisers in 1914 and by submarines in 1917. the castle (since repaired), the lighthouse, two churches and many other buildings in the town were damaged. the residential districts on the north and south cliffs have increased considerably, and large sums have been spent on buying and laying out the undercliff in the north and south bays, on a park with an artificial lake and on acquiring open spaces. the floral hall in alexandra gardens was opened in 1910; londesborough lodge has been purchased by the cor- poration to house the trophies given by colonel harrison; and the people’s palace, used as a store during the war, and subse- quently closed, has also been acquired. the remains of a roman signalling station, excavated on castle hill, were opened to the public in 1925, and a war memorial has been erected on oliver’s mount. the herring fisheries have been successful, and seven firms were engaged in packing and curing in 1924. a scheme for the improvement of the harbour to meet the growing demand has been drawn up. a special excursion station, half a mile from the main railway station, has been built to provide for the large numbers of summer visitors. scarfoglio, edoardo (1860-1917), italian journalist, was born at paganico (aquila). he was one of the most vigorous and ablest journalists of his time and an excellent newspaper manager as well as editor, although some of his journalistic 475 methods were much criticised. he founded the corriere di roma, the corriere di napoli, the ora of palermo and the afattino of naples. it is with the latter paper, which he owned and edited for many years, that his name is chiefly associated. he was the husband of the novelist matilde serao (see 24.661) from whom, however, he had been separated for many years. te died at naples oct. 6 1917. scarlet fever: see infectious fevers. scepticism (see 24.306) mcans in greek philosophical (oxemrouat) usage to hesitate, reflect, examine, consider pros and cons, unable to arrive at a decision; to surmise rather than assert. like certain general terms it conveys one meaning to the technical philosopher, another to the average man. strictly defined, it is denial of capacity to know reality; that is to say, the human mind, by its very constitution, can never comprehend the ultimate nature of things. for ancient sceptics, the senses deceive, therefore what seems to him to be is true for each indi- vidual, rendering fundamental agreement out of the question. for modern sceptics, the senses alone merit reliance, and, being what they are, confine one to appearances, if not to illusion. but this meaning belongs to the rarefied region of pure theory; so much so that all-round denial has been the exception even among professional thinkers. hence the historical importance of the less stringent, even popular usage. for, in general acceptation, scepticism commonly suggests denial of current or customary beliefs, pertaining to a definite system usually, and this, in turn, often theological. | transitional periods -—taken thus as a repudiation of tra- ditional or authoritative views, it so far tallies with the stricter philosophical definition in that scepticism has as matter of his- tory flourished most during periods of transition when attacks upon previous systematic (or even common sense) constructions were rife. obvious examples are furnished by the assaults of the sophists upon the greek cosmologists; of pyrrho and his pupils upon the followers of plato and aristotle; of the middle and new academies upon chrysippus and the stoics; of sextus empiricus upon all the principles of graeco-roman thought; of montaigne upon scholasticism; of glanvil upon the crusted aristotelians of the oxford schools; of locke upon certain aspects of cartesianism; of hume upon locke and the doctrine of rep- resentative perception; of kant upon natural theology; of l. feuerbach upon hegel; of agnostics upon the spiritual interpre- tation of nature and man; of nietzsche upon the practical pos- tulates of european christendom. all agree in repudiation of what they hold to be “ overpast standpoints,” and, on the whole, with the exception of the thor- oughgoing greeks and hume, they strike at a definite group of doctrines rather than at the validity of experience itself. thus, in the light of history, scepticism generally implies dissent from dominant judgments. it may, although it commonly does not, assert human incapacity to grasp ultimate reality, but this remains the precise philosophical implication. and, when recent movements came in question, the more general meaning is also the more apposite, thanks to the variety, not to say confusion, of “modern ” thought. compromise and instability—hume aside, scepticism was restrained during the 17th and 18th centuries by a silent com- promise which had profoundest statement from leibniz, most popular from paley. rationalism and its theological aly, deism, agreed to extend “ mechanical explanation ” to the known uni- verse, always on the understanding, however, that the physical order was secondary because dependent upon a deity whose ex- istence could be demonstrated by abstract proofs. quite apart from its intellectualism, against which rousseau revolted, this compromise was inherently unstable. for, as kant was to indi- cate, on such premises objective validity attached only to the objects of mathematico-physical science. the euthanasia of deism, hume’s work, put the agreement out of court. positivism and new types—further, during the same cen- turies, the methods of measurement and enumeration achieved extraordinary success, so that, by 1850, a new scepticism, in the shape of positivism unaware of its own dogmas, acquired vogue. 476 this was the heyday of materialism. the natural universe, with ‘matter ’? as substratum, came to be viewed as a given change- less system wherein everything followed from an irreversible cosmic order. the spiritual must be accounted merely a side-issue, devoid of intrinsic reality. on this scheme gravitation, electric- ity, magnetism and other forces were paraded as properties of matter—all else betrayed the taint of illusion or, to be plain, superstition. the hidden postulate—that nothing is valid save sense perception—inevitably led to dogmatism. hence new types of scepticism arose successively, agnosticism the earlicst while, very gradually during the final quarter of the 19th cen- tury, more rapidly during the first quarter of the 2oth, the theo- logical aspect of the issue fell in shadow, thanks to unprecedented extension of natural knowledge and profound socio-economic changes. the reign of law.—the mechanical conception of nature ruled between 1850 and 1870. the atomic theory, reverting to implications as old as democritus, the theorem of the conserva- tion of energy when energy was accounted a purely mechanical principle, the early hypotheses of physiology after the enuncia- tion of the cell-theory, and the doctrine of evolution thrust into physical categories, lent seeming authority to the uniformity of ‘“matter ” as the whole import of the uniformity of nature. the “ reign of law,” reducing all phenomena to motion, appeared to warrant an ultimate philosophy bound to oust ‘‘ romantic ”’ sentimentalism. experiential test had established calculable truths, therefore it alone can guarantee the truth. in short, hume’s view, that nothing is valid save sense-perception, came to be identified with the system of actual science. huxley, to select the most notable name from many, did not catch the theoretical contradiction. nevertheless, he was among the first to divine the practical difficulty. in evolution and ethics (1889), he serves notice that, whatever we may say of nature, we dare not treat it as the source of ethical judgments. accordingly, the universe is two; experience confronts us with incommensurables, which compel agnosticism; for, as concerns the good and the beautiful, the stark unmorality of nature forces us to fall back upon principles incapable of demonstration. be- set by inner strife, experience could not rest here. push the human factor, and, as aliotta points out, a sensorial mvihology is substituted for a mechanical. exact science ceases to be a description of the course of things; its office is reduced to that of a valuable guide through the maze of events, leading to an economical adjustment of ideas. agnosticism was quietly dis- pelling the notion that “force” is “ rate of change in momen- tum;” it was casting doubt upon the grim ultimate which had taken the place vacated by the supreme being central to the powerful tradition of natural theology. naturalism.— meanwhile, other influences were leaving their mark, and this agnosticism lost point. the conjoint results of the historical and biological sciences, all presupposing the frame- work of evolution, served to create a fresh positivism—natural- ism. but this type of scepticism maintained itself intermit- tently. its silent dogma proved too vulnerable. the doctrine that the terminology of evolution is in every way preferable, because it connects man and his creations with the other phe- nomena of the universe, obviously implies a plan already elab- orated or informed by reason of some sort; and this order reduces to the principle that, if any event can be traced to its origins, explanation then and thereby supervenes. one kind of causality (causality itself remaining unexamined) must bear the entire burden of the possibility of the situation. like the mechanical theory before it, predeterminate evolution, unable to abide its own simplicity, loosed fresh doubts. current forms of scepticism bear intimate relation to dis- coverics in the natural sciences and psychology, to the perspec- tive induced by the historical outlook, and to social displacements accompanied by the development of anti-intellectualism. a summary (and therefore partial) statement follows:— physiologism.—things are external to us in space. ii so, the physiological conditions antecedent to perception interpose a veil between us and objects; direct knowledge is ruled out. scepticism again, the cerebrospinal states on which perception depends may as well be effects of disturbances within the organism as of stimuli from without. evidently, this view assumes the exist- ence of objects out of relation to consciousness; also that one part of knowledge is valid, disclosing, as it does, pertinent rea- sons for the dubiety of perception. psychologism.—granted that the mind is merely a “ natural object,”’ it occurs under the condition of time no less than of space. but reference to past time presupposes memory, and to future time anticipation. psychologically, both are untrust- worthy, therefore man is confined to the specious present. jn any case, whatever may be said for knowledge derived from the past, the future baffles penetration; even “ laws of nature ” may alter or lapse. it would seem to follow that all experiential con- junctions are casual. scepticism of this kind involves the dogma that hypotheses as to uniformity are inadmissible, and that ob- jective “‘ fact,” other minds included, is at best a perilous infer- ence. it may be added that behaviourism is dogmatic rather than sceptical, being a subtle recrudescence of materialism. historicism.—this is sometimes treated as if it were identical with naturalism; that is, given an evolving series, discovery of origins suffices for ‘ explanation,” not merely of ‘ species,” but also of ‘‘ values ” in the spiritual and social life. the underlying assumptions are too plain to require comment. thus, in its sceptical drift historicism rather implies that, on review of the past, all opinions and, equally, their practical consequences, in institutions, etc., can be shown to have been bemused by hope- less diversity of judgment. in particular, thinkers, who profess to decide fundamentals, exhibit irremediable contradiction. it is absurd, then, to claim that ultimates are capable of settlement. this view involves a negative dogma, by denying the possibility of progressive insight—hypothesis can never rise to theory. the process of phenomena, each member its own witness, hides aught that may lie behind. pragmatism.—in so far as it embodies a mere protest against certain types of philosophy, pragmatism cannot be identified with scepticism off-hand. but, being a species of geneticism, it favours sceptical tendencies. ‘‘ logical forms and structures are distinctions within the process of reflective and experimental enquiry.” if so, all “‘laws’”’ must be judged evanescent. on this score, pragmatic geneticism and futurism are anti-intellec- tual. notwithstanding, they embrace belief in the creative func- tion of an evolutionary process (bergson), and justify the voluntaristic creed of modernism (blondel). even so, the reason for the validity of the hypothesis is made secondary to other considerations. consequences are geod, because subserving happiness, etc., not frue, because in agreement with a ratio essendi. hence the sceptical thrust truth is relative to individual activity, which, frankly, happens to be in continuous process of transmutation. thus, truth can never be more than the best relevant, temporary adjustment; hence, all questions about the truth must be reckoned artificial. coming in at the death, intellect can but offer bad reasons for manifest effects. mean- time, it were prudent, perhaps, to regard pragmatism rather as a search for a technique by a gencration eager to formulate new values than as bare scepticism. taken thus, it employs dogmas of its own—reality on the make in linear progress, for example. nevertheless, it is the symptomatic philosophy of a period of disintegration, often doubtful whether the ‘‘ world-spirit ”’ be for it or against it, and seeking a criterion in “ social utility.” the achievements of knowledge in modern times have rendered precise scepticism unfashionable. moreover, the doctrine basal to scepticism is now well understood to imply a dogmatic refer- ence. the deepest doubt has already gone beyond doubt. for the rest, temporary scepticisms would seem to oscillate between attempts to recover the irrecoverable, which necessarily land in mysticism, and protests against ‘‘ conventional thinking,” which, as recent movements show, run the gamut between suggestive criticism at. the upper and indefensible goujaterie at the lower level. being what it is, ra‘ional experience has some basis (even if we cannot as yet fathom it fully), or we must account it a miracle. schacht—schleswig bibliography.—george santayana, scepticism: and animal faith (1923); w. pepperell montagu, the ways of knowing and the methods of philosophy (1925). (r. m. w.*) schacht, hjalmar (1877- ), german financier, was born at tingleff, near flensburg, jan. 22 1877. after studying political economy, he became secretary of the handelsver- tragsverein (trade agreements league) 1901-3, and was then deputy director of the dresden bank until 1916. from 1916 to 1923 he was a member of the board of the nationalbank fiir deutschland, afterwards the darmstadter und nationalbank. he was appointed president of the german reichsbank in dec. 1923. in 1924 he collaborated in the conference of london and the deliberations of the dawes committee. dr. schacht also established the gold bank of issue (goldnofenbank). scheer, reinhard (1863— ), german sailor, was born at oberkirchen, hesse-nassau, sept. 30 1863. after serving in cameroon and east africa, in 1903 he was given command of the 1st torpedo division. in 1910 he became chief-of-staff of the high sea fleet under von holtzendorf and in 1913 became com- mander of a battle squadron. at the outbreak of the world war he was stationed at kiel with his squadron. in jan. 1916 he was placed in command of the german high sea fleet, which he led at the battle of jutland. on july 2 1918 he succeeded von holtzendorf as chief of the admiralty staff, but on nov. 14 1918 he was placed on the retired list, and took up residence in weimar. scheer’s account of the battle of jutland appears in his book deutsch'ands hochseeflotte im weltkricge (1920). (see germany: naval poticy.) scheidemann, philipp (1865- ), german politician, was born at kassel july 26 1865. in 1903 he entered the reichs- tag as deputy for kassel, and in the course of the world war became leader of the majority socialists. he voted for the gov- ernm>>t’s he wis as;ociated with erzberger in the ‘‘ peace resolution ” of july 19 1917, which demanded ‘ * peace without annexation orind «itdes.”’ he was already exercising influence in german internal politics and was frequently consulted by bethmann hollweg. in june 1918 he became vice-president of the reichs- tag, and on oct. 3 secretary of state without portfolio in prince max of baden’s cabinet. on nov. g schetdemann proclaimed the german republic from the buildings of the reichstag. on nov. 10 he was one of the three majority socialists who formed the first provisional govt. of the republic. although violently attacked by the spartacists and minority socialists as a“ counter revolutionary,” he undoubtedly helped to save his country from bloodshed and anarchy, and on feb. 8 1919 was elected president of the first republican ministry of the reich by the constituent assembly at weimar. on june 20 rgrg he vehe- mently opposed signing the treaty of versailles and resigned when a majority of the government decided to sign. he then resumed the leadership of the majority socialists in the national as- sembly and subsequently in the republican reichstag. in jan. 1920 he was elected first burgomaster of kassel. his reminis- cences der zusammenbruch published in 1921 form a valuable historical document. (see also germany: pelitical history.) schelde.—the dispute between belgium and the netherlands over the control of the schelde estuary is dealt with in the articles belgium; netherlands. schenectady, n.y., u.s.a. (see 24.319)—the population increased 21-8% in the decade after 1910, reaching 88,723 in 1920 (of whom 20,564 were foreign born),and was estimated by the census bureau at 102,161 in 1925. additions of territory by 1925 had brought the area up to 10-34 square miles. in the year 1924 when the population reached 100,000 a “‘ prog- ress exposition ” was held specially to celebrate the following achievements: the construction of the fine, broad erie boulevard, along the abandoned bed of the erie canal; the construction of the great western gateway bridge across the mohawk river, connecting the highway systems of the east and south with those of the north and west; the building of the hotel van curler at the eastern bridgehead, commanding a wide view of the mohawk valley; the installation of “ intensive ” street lighting; the com- war credits and supported its policy up to 1917, when. 477 pletion of the union college memorial chapel, built by public subscription; the establishment of a community chest for financ- ing philanthropic agencies; and the expansion of the two leading industrial establishments, the general electric co. and the american locomotive company. the two latter dominating industries employed (1925) 23,000 and 5,000 persons respectively. the schenectady establishment of the general electric co. is not only the largest of the company’s manufacturing concerns, but it includes also the general offices and research laboratories for the entire company, and the broadcasting studio of wgy. the value of all factory products in the city was $38,165,000 in 1909, and $106,531,000 in i9qt9. there were in 1925 31 public schools, with a roll of 17,840 pupils, including 1,031 in the continuation schools. the city has five parks, of a total area of 280 ac., with tennis courts, lakes for swimming and boating and four golf courses. there are 37 play- grounds for children, and a health centre, conducted by the health dept. which includes various specialised clinics. schiff, jacob henry (1847-1020), american banker and philanthropist, was born at frankfurt-on-main, germany, jan. 10 1847. he was educated in the schools of frankfurt and for a time worked ina bank. in 1865 he went to new york city and organised the brokerage firm of budge, schiff & co. in 1875 he married a daughter of solomon loeb, head of the banking firm of kuhn, loeb & co., was taken into the firm and, on loeb’s retirement in 1885, took his place. largely due to schiil’s energy, the firm greatly expanded its business and became known throughout the financial world. in 1897 his house assisted e. h. harriman in reorganising the union pacific railway. in 901 a struggle took place between the schiff and harriman interests on the one side and james j. hill and j. p. morgan on the other for possession of the northern pacific railway. the resulting compromise was the formation of the northern securi- tics co. as a holding company for their joint interests (see 27.733). in his later years he gave much personal attention to charities, especially for the jewish people. he was a founder and president of the montefiore home for chronic invalids, new york city. in 10903 he presented a semitic museum building to harvard university. he dicd in new york city sept. 25 1920. his estate was estimated at about $50,000,000. he bequeathed $1,350,000 to various institutions, most of which had received benefactions during his hfe. schimmel, hen-erik jan (1825-1906), dutch poet and novelist (see 24.326), spent his last years in work on spiritualistic research, and died at bussum in 1906. schistosomiasis: see bilharziasis. schleswig or slesvic (see 24.334), a asie: now divided between denmark and germany. north schleswig (danish) has an areca of 1,938 sq. m. and a population of 166,895; south schleswig (german) forms part of the prussian province of schleswig-holstein, with a total area of 5,802 sq. m. and a population (1925) of 1,534,817. during the years immediately preceding the world war, german officials and private socictics continued their efforts to force germanisation on the danish inhabitants of schleswig by colonisation of the land with germans and discouraging the use of the danish language. but their efforts only s rengthened danish national consciousness, so much so that in aug. ror4 the possible effects of this spirit were so feared in germany that a number of prominent dances were arrested and imprisoned. among. .them was h. p. hanssen, a member of the reichstag, who, however, was released very quickly. during the war the expression of desire for union with denmark was silenced, both owing to the german censorship and the schleswig danes’ anxi- ety not to let denmark abandon her neutrality. yet the hope of ultimate union with denmark was not abandoned; in aug. 1915 hanssen indicated on a map to a german colleague a frontier very similar to that now established. on oct. 23 1918 hanssen raised the demand for reunion in the german reichstag; on the same day the danish rigsdag unani- mously passed a resolution in favour of a readjustment of the frontier on the principles of nationality. on nov. 28 the danish 478 govt. communicated its wishes to the allies, and when the peace conference in feb. 1919 reached the discussion of the schleswig problem, a united danish north schleswig delegation was sent to paris to present the danish point of view: a plebiscite en bloc in north schleswig (zone 1); a community ballot in central schleswig and flensburg (zone 2) and voting rights to all those born in the voting district. the peace treaty, presented may 7, further provided for a plebiscite in a third zone, but this was later dropped. on the peace treaty coming into force (jan. 10 1920) an in- ternational commission took charge of the plebiscite district. zone i gave 75,431 votes for denmark, 25,329 for germany (feb. 10); zone 2, 48,148 votes for germany, 13,029 for den- mark (march 14). the frontier established by the treaty of july 5 1920 gave effect to this verdict, and restored to denmark that part of schleswig which lies north of the flensburg fjord, and of a line drawn approximately west from it. on july 7 the international commission handed over the executive power in zone 1 to denmark. the results of subsequent elections have shown the line to be fairly drawn. the highest danish vote polled in germany has been 7,700 (1924)—insufficient to return a danish representa- tive. the german votes for the rigsdag in 1921 and 1924 to- talled 7,500, returning one member under the system of propor- tional representation prevailing in denmark. in each country some social democrats do not vote nationally. the treaty of versailles imposed no special obligations upon denmark with regard to her german minority, considering the danish consti- tution to offer adequate safeguards; on the same grounds the danish govt. has declined the proposal for a special treaty with germany for reciprocal protection of the minorities, a measure which might easily lead to undesirable interference by the government of one country in the affairs of another. the danish govt. has, however, offered the german minority every facility to maintain and develop its culture on a german basis. the entire school system of north schleswig has been reorganised with this view; parents are allowed to decide whether they will have their children educated in german or danish at primary schools, while the german private schools receive grants from the state on the same condition as the danish private schools. (g. m. g.-h.) schlich, sir william (1840-1925), british forestry expert, was born at darmstadt, germany, feb. 28 1840, and educated there and at the university of giessen. in 1866 he entered the indian forests department, became conservator of forests in 1871, and 10 years later inspector-general of forests to the govt. of india. in 1886 he became a naturalised british subject. he was one of the pioneers of the study of forestry in eng- land, organising in 1885 the first school at cooper’s hill, which was transferred to oxford in 1905. he was appointed professor of forestry at oxford the same year and retained the post until 1919. among his books on the subject are: a afanual of forestry (1889-95; new ed., 5 vol., 1925) and forestry tn the united kingdom (1904). in 1rgor he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in 1909 he was created k.c.i.e. he died at oxford sept. 28 1925. schlieffen, alfred, count von (1833-1913), prussian soldier, was born on feb. 28 1833 in berlin, where his father, an officer, lived. the schlieffen family 1s of pomeranian origin and is now found chiefly in mecklenburg. schliefien came from the same nobility and the same province as two other great field marshals, bliicher and moltke. in his youth he studied for a short time at berlin university before he became an officer. he attended the military academy (kriegsckademie) and served in the war of 1866 against austria and in that of 1870-1 against france as a general staff officer. in 1891, after following the usual career of a general staff officer, he was appointed chief of the general staff of the army. he held this position for 15 years, during which period he exercised an extraordinary influence on the development of the german gen- eral staff and the whole german army. there was ever present with him the problem of a war on two fronts which would have schlich—schlieffen to be waged with a single army, far superior in numbers and material to any that had been employed in previous wars. he energetically promoted the training of general staff officers in the leading of huge armies and urged on the development of the german army’s technical equipment to the end that rapid transfer and sure handling of the troops might be ensured. finally he threw the whole weight of his position and authority into the endeavour to equip the army with mobile heavy artil- lery. he retired in 1907. on his retirement he proceeded to pronounce his views on war in literary form and he is indeed far better known in his capacity of author than as chief of the general staff of the army. in military science schlieffen was a disciple of clausewitz, the prussian philosopher of war, who in his turn had deduced his doctrine of strategy from napoleon. field-marshal von moltke, whose successor and disciple schlieffen was, had also based his ideas on clausewitz, and it was the napoleon-moltke strategy that schlieffen sought to carry on. the essence of their doctrine is that the enemy forces should be not merely defeated but destroyed. to this end it seemed to them necessary that not only the front but the flanks and if possible the rear should be attacked, so that the enemy should be forced to give battle on a reversed front. schlieffen pushed this system to its logical conclusion. he saw germany surrounded on all sides by enemies who, together, were far more powerful than herself. it seemed to him that the only salvation lay in opposing one of the enemies with a superior force, inflicting on him a decisive defeat, and then, using a well-developed network of railways and manoeu- vring on inner lines, turning upon the other enemy against whom until then a defensive attitude would have been maintained. for this end rapidly decisive blows were needed and his writings aimed at proving such blows to be possible and showing how troops could be handled for that purpose. with a marked singleness of purpose schlieffen sought out the appropriate examples in military history and presented them in a new guise. his works are not military history in the accepted sense; they do not purport to describe objectively the course of campaigns and battles. he used military history as a source from which to draw instances which corroborated the doctrines with which he sought to imbue his pupils and his readers. his books are in fact definitely instructional. he points sarcastically to the errors made by commanders and subordinate commanders and dismisses with cutting irony those opinions which opposed his own. it is plain from his writings how anxiously he watched the military-political situation of his own country and how apprehensive he was lest the grave hour should find, in the posi- tion he had had to leave, a man unequal to the overwhelming task. ‘‘ a commander-in-chief must be inspired by something superhuman, something supernatural, call it genius or what you will.” . schlieffen died in berlin on jan. 4 1913, but in 1914—-seven years after his retirement—he still played his part in the world’s history; for on retiring, he had bequeathed to his successor, general moltke the younger, the plan for deployment against france. this plan embodies his strategic convictions. it is at once immensely bold and also simple. only the bare minimum was to remain facing the russians; in the west the left flank was to be held back and the troops in alsace were to withdraw behind the rhine and face attack on the line metz-stras- bourg. the bulk of the army was to deploy on the right flank and, pivoting on metz, to drive forward against the line dun- kirk-verdun. in this way the strongly fortified east front of france would be turned and the french army forced to give battle with a reversed front. schlieffen intended not to give a recipe for victory, but to indicate the operative idea which, if logically carried out, would make possible the swift decision which alone could save germany from her doom. the german army commander of 1914 considerably diluted the schlieffen plan and, particularly in its execution, followed other courses than those pointed to by the dead strategist. and so it was that the inspired scheme of schlieffen did not bear the fruits which were expected. schmidt—schools how armies are to be handled in the schlieffen spirit the war on the eastern front showed. the battle of tannenberg has very justly been called a super-cannae, and the campaign of lodz, the german attack against the warsaw-thorn line—the best-conceived operation of the whole war, which was directed solely against the right flank of the russians—rests upon schlief- fen’s ideas. it was not granted to the field marshal to test his strategic thoughts in the fire of battle, but his influence on the german leadership is incontestable and his lifework cannot be ignored by anyone who intends to study the history of the world war. for schheffen’s writings, see graf schlicfien, ge- sammelte schriften (berlin, 1913); cannae, selection from the above (berlin, 1925). brs_iography.—general freiherr von freytag-loringhoven, generalfeldmarschali graf von schlieffen (leipzig, 1920); elugo rochs, schiteffen (berlin, 1921); wolfgang fogrster, graf schiieffen und der weltkrieg (2nd edition, berlin, 1925). (k. von qo.) schmidt, wilhelm (1868— ), austrian philologist and roman catholic priest, was born at ilerde, westphalia. he held the chair of primitive language and culture in the university of vienna and devoted himself to the isolation and classification of the austric family of languages (see philology). his works include:—die sprachlichen verhdlinisse ozeaniens (1900); grund- ziige einer lautlehre der khasi-sprache (1905); grundziige einer lautlehre der mon-khmer-s prache (1906); die sprachlaute (1907); die stellung der pygmdenvilker in der entwicklungsgeschichte des menschen (1910); der ursprung der gottesidee (1912); ethnolo- gische bemerkungen zur theologischen opfertheologie (1912); with w. koppers, velker und kulturen (1924); die sprachfamilien und sprachenkreise der erde (1925). schmoller, gustav (1838-1917), german political econo- mist (see 24.344), died in bad harzburg june 26 1917. schnitzler, arthur (1862- ), austrian playwright and novelist, was born in vienna may 15 1862. he took a medical degree, and practised fora time as a physician. in 1908 he won the grillparzer prize. schnitzler first began to write plays and fiction in the ’nineties, and from that time onward his narrative powers steadily increased, while his dramatic powers hardly diminished. his style is informed by a kind of tempered realism, never quite losing sight of beauty. his province is chiefly the intellectual circles of pre-war vienna; his problems those of love, life, death and art. his distinction is piquant and graceful dialogue. in modern costume his characters move confidently across his stage; in historical, more uncertainly; nor did his verse attain the inimitable charm of his prose. the most remarkable of his plays are: the anatol cycle (1898); liebelet (1896); der griine kakadu (1899); der einsame weg (1904); der junge medardus (1910); professor bernhardt (1912); die schwe- stern (1919); and the much-disputed reigen (printed privately in 1903, produced in 1920). conspicuous among his tales are the great novel der weg ins freie (1908); and the short stories, lieutenant gusti (1901), casanovas heimfahrt (1918), eng. trans. casaneva’s homecoming (1922); and frdeulein else (1924, eng. trans. 1925). see monographs by j. kapp, arthur schnitaler (1912); and r. specht, arthur schnitzler (1922). schober, johann (1874- ), austrian politician, was born and educated in upper austria, entering the imperial austrian police service as a young man, and became the austrian president of police in 1918, some months before the revolution. on the proclamation of the austrian republic (nov. 12 1918), schober immediately placed his force at the disposal of the new government, and by this action and by his moderate conduct in general did much to ensure a peaceful and bloodless change of regime. at the same time, he succeeded in securing the safety of the ex-imperial family, whose departure from vienna he supervised. during the two years of social democratic government which followed, schober’s force was reproached by extremists with being reactionary, quite unjustly, as he aimed at strict impartiality. his administrative ability, and above all, his conspicuous honesty, gained him the confidence of all moderate opinion in austria, and especially of the inter- allied missions and advisers. largely because he was known to enjoy this confidence it was 479 expected that if he were chancellor, the allied and associate powers would be willing to grant the large loan necessary to restore austria’s chaotic finances, and he was selected to form a non-party ministry in june 1921. his term of office was not so successful as all friends of austria had hoped, since the req- uisite loan was still delayed and schober, more honest than brilliant, saw that his administration, minus loan, did not satisfy austrian public opinion. nevertheless, he really took the first step towards establishing friendly relations between austria and her neighbours when he concluded the pact of lana with czechoslovakia dec. 16 1921 (see austria). ‘this move aroused the hostility of the pan-germans, who formed a part of the government coalition, and who resented any pact with czechoslovakia as putting difficulties in the way of the ultimate anschluss with germany. they withdrew from the government coalition. the christian socialists were not strong enough to govern alone against the opposition of the social democrats. on may 24 1922 schober resigned the chancellorship and re- turned to the post of president of police. scholl, aurelien (1833-1902), french author (see 24.356), died in paris april 16 1902. schonberg, arnold (1874- ), austrian composer, was born in vienna sept. 13 1874. at an early age he began to study violin and cello and also to compose chamber music. in musical theory he was sclf-taught. after writing a number of songs he composed in 1899 the string sextet verklarte nacht; and in the following year he commenced work upon gurrelieder, a ballad cycle in three parts for chorus and full orchestra, which was even- tually produced in vienna, 1912-3. in 1903 he began his career as a teacher of theory in vienna; meanwhile (1902-3) he had composed the symphonic poem pelleus and melisande. further songs and ballads followed and the years 1907-10 saw the devel- opment of schenberg’s art from the classical to the new period. he was largely inspired by the painting of kokoschka and others who inaugurated a new artistic movement at that time. his new style was revealed in a number of piano pieces and the mono- drama erwartung. in 1911 he moved to berlin and in the follow- ing year had performed one of his most famous works pierrot lunaire, a cycle of 21 poems for recitation with a piano, flute, clarinet, violin and cello. in 1915-7 he was working upon an oratorio, jakobsleiter, and in 1918 he founded in vienna the society for private musical performances. a revised edition of his manual harmonielehre (1911) was issued in 1922. see e. wellesz arnold schenberg (1924). schonherr, karl (1869- ), austrian dramatist, was born at axams in the tyrol, feb. 24 1869. he took his degree in medicine, but soon began to devote himself to literature. he began with dialect poems of an unassuming nature and with short stories, but in 1897 he turned his attention to drama and the stage with the unpublished judas von tirol. schoinherr stood midway between realism and symbolism, and expressed himself in a vigourous and original style. his accomplished technique, applied frequently to peasant or medical life, enabled him to evolve a successful drama with a very limited number of characters. in his pieces, quite elementary and simp!e emotions, and the problems and crises arising out of them, are presented with inexorable consistency. his treatment was less sure in the realm of fancy or of history: his most famous drama, glaube und heimat (1910), dealing with the time of the counter-reforma- tion, and also der weibsteufel (1915), have a strong roman catholic bias. schenherr’s other important works include die bildschnitzer (1900); erde (1908); volk in not (1915); frau suitner (1916); vivat academia (1922); es (1923); hungerbloc- kade (1925). most of his dramas were first produced in the burgtheater and in the deutschen volkstheater in vienna. schenherr’s other works include caritas and aus meinem merkbuch, which express the same trend of thought and motif as his dramas. he won the schiller prize in 1908 and the grill- parzer prize in 1911, 1917 and 1920. see monographs by sedlmaier (1920) and lederer (1925). schools: scee education; public schools; schools. secondary 480 schouler, james (1839-192c), american lawyer and his- torian (see 24.377), published in 1913 a seventh volume of his history of the united states of america under the constitution, covering the period of reconstruction (1865-71). the original plan of his work had been enlarged by the publication in 1899 of a sixth volume, covering the period 1861-5. he died at inter- vale, n. h., april 16 1920. schreiner, olive (1862-1920), pen name of mrs. cron- wright schreiner, was born in basutoland, the daughter of a german missionary. in 1882 she brought to england the ms of her first novel the story of an african farm and submitted it to george meredith, then reader for chapman and hall. it was published in 1883 by this firm over the pseudonym “ ralph iron,” and proved an immediate success, entirely surpassing any of her subsequent writings in literary merit. her later work includes dreams (18091); trooper peter halketi of mash- onaland (1897), a much-criticised attack on the first settlers in rhodesia; an english south african’s view of the situation (1899); and woman and labour (1911), a fragment of an earlier ms which had been burnt during the south african war. she died at cape town, dec. 12 1920. she had married in 1894 s. c. cronwright, a member of the cape parliament, who afterwards took the name of s. c. cronwright-schreiner. he wrote the life of olive schreiner, which appeared in 1923. her brother wittiamm philip schreiner (1857-1910), was born in the district of herschel, cape colony. after studying law at cape town, and at cambridge and london universities, he was called to the bar (inner temple) in 1882 and on return- ing to south africa in the same year was admitted as an advo- cate of the cape supreme court. he was for many years leader of the cape bar; in 1887 he entered cape politics as attorney-general in the second rhodes ministry. he was prime minister on the outbreak of the south african war, (1899). in 1914 he was appointed high commissioner for the union in london, and he died at llandrindod wells, wales, june 28 ro109. schroeder, eduard (1858- }, german philologist, was born may 18 1858 in witzenhausen. he was a high school teacher in gottingen (1883), berlin (1887) and marburg (1889), and in 1902 was appointed professor of german language and literature at the university of g6ttingen. his publications comprise works on old german literature, modern german philology and the history of german literature. from 18go, in conjunction with gustav roethe of berlin, he published the zeitschrift fiir deutsches alteritum und deutsche literatur. schucking, walter (187s— —_—+), german jurist, was born jan. 6 1875 at munster in westphalia. he taught at the univer- sities of breslau and marburg 1900-21, and in 1921 was appointed a professor at the berlin commercial high school. in 1919 he was appointed a member of the national assembly and chief german delegate to the peace conference at versailles. in 1920 and again in 1924 he was elected to the reichstag and became one of the leaders of the german democratic party. his works include: das ktistenmeer im internationalen recht (1897), ‘‘ die verwendung von minem im seekrieg ” (in niemeyer’s zeitschrift, vol. 16), die organisation der welt (2nd ed. 1909), der staatenverband der flaager conferenzen (1912) (eng. trans. 1918), neue ziele der staatlichen entwicklung (3rd ed. 1913), internationale rechtsgarantien (1918), die satzung des volkerbundes (2nd ed. 1924), garantiepaki und riistungsbeschrankung (1924), das genfer prote- roll (1924). schultz, hermann (1836-1903), german theologian (see 24.382), died in 1903. schurman, jacob gould (1854- ), american educa- tionalist and publicist (see 24.386), was appointed in 1912 u.s. minister to greece and montenegro, serving one year. in 1915 he was first vice-president of the n. y. state constitutional convention. in oct. 1917 he was appointed a member of the n. y. state food commission. he was opposed to many of president wilson’s policies, especially in connection with mexico, and also to article x. of the covenant of the league of nations, believing that it would involve the united states in war. he resigned the presidency of cornell university in 1920, schouler —scientific management giving as his reason that every great institution was entitled to a new chief executive at least once in a4 quarter of a century. appointed minister to china in 1921, he returned to the united states on leave of absence in aug. 1924, and was appointed ambassador to germany, march 17 1925. among his later works are the balkan wars, 1912-1913; lectures at princeton (1914); why america is in the war (1017). . schwab, charles michael (1862- ), american cap- italist, was born at williamsburg, pa., april 18 1862. he was educated in the public schools and at st. francis college, loretto, pa., where he gained an elementary knowledge of enginecring. from 1878 to 1880 he ewas a clerk in a store at braddock, pa., and then became a stake driver in the engineer- ing corps of the edgar thomson steel works of carnegie bros. & co. his ability brought him rapid promotion and in 1881 he was made chief engineer and assistant manager. six years later he was appointed superintendent of the homestead steel works. in 1889, on the recommendation of henry frick, he was made general superintendent of the edgar thomson steel works, and in 1892, after the formation of the carnegie steel co., he was made also general superintendent of the homestcad works. in 1897 he was elected president of the carnegie steel co., and when this was merged in 1901 in the u.s. steel corp. he was made president of the latter. he resigned in 1903. he then turned his attention to shipbuilding and a few years later with other capitalists secured control of the bethlehem steel corp., which owned the bethlehem steel co., and several other corpo- rations engaged in the iron, steel and shipbuilding business. he was made chairman of the board of directors. after the outbreak of the world war in 1914 and before the united states entered it, these companies filled orders for the allies aggregating between 400 and 500 million dollars. it was generally understood that german interests made attempts to secure control of the bethlehem works in order to shut off muni- tions from the allies, and a report that mr. schwab was offered $100,000,000 for his interest was never denied by him. the divi- sion of the stock of the bethlehem steel corp. in 1917 into two classes, a and b, the latter being publicly owned and non-voting, an arrangement designed to prevent german money from ob- taining a voice in the company’s control, set a precedent for later issues of this type in the financial world. after america’s entrance into the war, at the urgent request of president wilson mr. schwab became in april 1918 director-general of the ship- building board of the emergency fleet corporation. his power of rousing enthusiasm among workers by personal contact im- mediately produced results. the resulting output for 1918 was 410 steel vessels, 106 wooden ships and 10 composite ships, a total of 526 vessels. after the signing of the armistice in nov. 1918, he resigned from the emergency flect corp. and returned to his position as chairman of the board of directors of the bethlehem steel corporation. his benefactions include a catholic church at loretto, as well as buildings and endowment for st. francis college; a church at braddock, pa., a school at weatherly, pa., and a country home on staten island, n. y., for children of the new york foundling hospital. schweinfurth, georg august (1836-1925), german traveller and ethnologist (see 24.392) in 1918 brought out a revised edition of his principal work the heart of africa. he died in berlin sept. 20 1925. his botanical and geological col- lections were given to the prussian state. scientific management.—originally this doctrine had reference particularly to the management of shop operations in industrial establishments, but it has been given broader signifi- cance. it holds that the accurate investigative methods of science may be utilised to discover the objective facts and laws which govern effective accomplishment of purposive effort, and that such facts and laws, expressed in standards of purpose, instru- ments and methods, permit control which effects accomplish- ment with the most economical expenditure of human and material energies. ae. origins and history—scientific management did not originate as an argument a priori; it was the generalisation of an engineer scientific management executive, frederick w. taylor (g.v.), derived from analysis of controlled experiments in management of shop operations which had been stimulated by problems arising out of particular industrial conditions. the last three decades of the roth century in the united states were characterised by a second industrial revolution. there was rapid expansion of transportation facili- ties, which consolidated local markets into a national market, increase of available raw materials and of machinery for their fabri- cation, increase of population through immigration which en- larged both production and consumption capacity, and a con- sequent rapid development of large organisations to secure the advantages of large scale production and distribution. ‘this development brought with it serious problems of manage- ment, particularly the problem of supervising and co-ordinating the work of men no longer under the immediate supervision of owner-managers. the “ management movement,” expressing social consciousness of these problems, was generated by these circumstances. this movement became vocal among mechanical enzineers because they who were designing and installing the new machines were called upon to devise methods of control in their operation. - moreover, the mechanical engineers, organised into a profes- sional body (1880), had available the only forum for discussion of managerial problems. their first attack on the problem sought a solution along the line of differential wage systems, for it was believed these would create an incentive which would accomplish indirectly the results of direct supervision. from wage incentives their attention turned to such mechanisms as cost systems, or- ganisation and systematisation. these contributions in the early stages of the management movement were of importance, but they related to isolated phases of the management problem and did not offer any general doctrine expressing an integrated system of management. the work or f. w. taytlor taylor’s initiative —such a doctrine came from frederick w. taylor in a piece rate svsiem (1895), shop munagement (1903) and the principles of scientific alanagement (1911). it has served as a focal point around which have gathered the various other contrioutions to the management movement. taylor as a young man had been appointed gang boss in 1880 or 1881 in a machine shop of the midvale steel co., philadelphia. eager to secure better produ:tion, he began his supervision of workers with the driving methods of foremanship then prevalent. controversy with the workers resul.ed, so distasteful that his highly imagina- tive and inventive faculties were challenged. believing that a prime cause of low production was destruction of workers’ good will by such autocratic actions as arbitrarily changed wage rates resulting from management’s lack of precise knowledge of what constitutes a proper day’s work on each operation, he began a series of investigations and experiments lasting more than 17 years an1 having no equal outsi:le the field of pure science. fortunately, within the first few months these experiments led to positive and important results. he discovered facts and laws pertaining to elements of machine operation—to shafting, belt- ing, machine adjustments, materials and methods of manipula- tion—which when analysed suggested devices and procedures to increase the output per machine at lowered unit costs without additional human effort. the combination of these best ele- mental conditions of each operation he set up as a standard for that operation, established iclentical standard conditions and methods for all machines in the shop, planned and directed more carefully the flow of work under these standardised conditions, and increased the total production of the shop to a revolutionary degree. subsequent investigations and experiments, at the midvale steel co., the bethlehem steel co. and other plants, served not so much to add new fundamental data to these early basic discoveries as to enlarge their significance and prove their adaption to more complicated conditions. taylor’s doctrine-—during the early years of these experi- ments, taylor formulated no theories; he was simply first a gang boss, and later foreman and engineer, concentrated upon solving 481 practical problems of management as they came to him. later, stimulated by contacts at the meetings of the american society of mechanical engineers, he formulated as generalisations from his observations and experiments the doctrine of scientific management. the doctrine in the final form stated by taylor consisted of four propositions: (1) ‘the development of a '‘ true science’ for each operation to replace traditional, rule-of-thumb methods. this “true science ’’ and a corresponding art for a given operation on a given machine are determined by ascertaining experimentally the combination of conditions which will yield a unit of product with least cost of human and mechanical energy, cost betng chiefly a function of time consumed in the production of a unit as measured by stop-watch observations. (2) the selection of workmen and their assignment to operations in accordance with scientific analysis of their natural capacities and acquired skill. (3) continuous instruc- tion of workmen in the science and the art of each operation. (4) recognition of qualitative differences, as to capacities required and the conditions of routine performance, between the function of execution in manipulating machine or tool and the function of planning and preparing work; and the grouping of operatives into two major divisions responsible respectively for these qualitatively different groups of functions. | the management.—the group of workers concerned with planning and preparation taylor conceived as the ‘‘ manage- ment.” given a true science and art for each opcration, and conditions surrounding an operation meeting the requirements of its art, the planning group is enabled to make calculations which will so co-ordinate operations and govern the flow of work as practically to eliminate delays, idle machine time and un- balanced production, to reduce investment in raw and worked materials, and to permit individual equitable wage payments in accordance with that increased productivity which inevitably results from the more perfect technical conditions and trantpula- tion at each machine, and from the more precisely calculated con- trol of work and co-ordination of specialised eforts uncer civision of labour. | the taylor system.—these propositions were the staterrent of a doctrine. ‘the “ taylor system ” is another matter; it is that system of practices which taylor had built up as gang boss, fore- man and engineer, from which the conclusions in the doctrines were drawn. he believed the doctrine presented truths of per- manent validity, but that the details of his system would be modified by later experience. the framework of his system was as follows:— 1. a planning department in which specialist foreman and work- ers should (4) make the investigations from which are derived the science and art of each operation, formulate the art of each opera- tion for the benefit of operatives in the form of an “ instructicn card,” and establish and maintain standard conditions and stand- ards of performance-time and wage rates; (6) plan the sequence of operations, prepare materials and equipments, and in general direct the flow of work; (c) check performance against plans as an aid to maintenance of standards. 2. specification, to aid in selection and assignment of workers, indicating the physical, mental and tem- peramental characteristics required in workers on any particular operation or group of operations. 3. functional foremen, @.e., specialists in the different elements of execution, who should train the workers in the various operations. functional foremanship is essentially instructional as opposed to driving foremanship. governing the mechanisms of the system here outlined was a policy of human relations which embraced such ideals as the fcl- lowing: arbitrary authority must give way to the reign of law in management as determined by investigation and experiment; managers and workers are each subject to the respective func- tional requirements of the same law; high wages are more impor- tant than big profits; high wages make low labour costs. taylor’s doctrine restated. —taylor was not a skilled publicist, and his statement of scientific management was not as scientific as had been his conduct and analysis of the experiments from which the doctrine was derived; yet it constituted an analysis so inclusive and logical that it has provided the dominant ele- ment in all subsequent expositions of management theory. from the point of view especially of later knowledge of social organisa- tion and of psychological science, the significance of the doctrine becomes more impressive. it may be restated as follows:— 482 in modern large-scale organisation with its large investments specialisation of capital in fixed forms and division of labour, man- agement must meet five important technical problems: 1. con- servation of the investment by greater accuracy in calculating the demands of industrial society. 2. economy in the expenditure of productive energies by more precise specialisation of efforts. 3. more precise co-ordination of specialised efforts. 4. economy inthe expenditure of productive energies by more perfect understanding by each specialist operative of the related part he is to perform. 5. the establishment of good will among the workers to assure effective voluntary application of intelligent effort in the absence of detail supervision. referring to these problems in inverse order, the base for the establishment of workers’ good will are: removal of the dread of intermittent employment, by more accurate determination of social demand; equitable sharing of the results of joint produc- tive effort, by more accurate measurement of individual efforts and results in terms of standard objectives, instruments and methods; and provision for the opportunity for individual self- expression without violation of co-operative technical responsi- bility, by formulation of the laws of the technical situation and substitution of voluntary obedience to such laws for involuntary obedience to unstable and inconsistent individual authority. more perfect understanding on the part of workers may be established by accurate analysis and formulation of functional relationships and of the conditions for most productive results in each elemental operation. more precise specialisation and co-ordination of specialised efforts may be accomplished by a simi- lar analysis of functional relationships and conditions, by accu- rate calculations of productive capacity in terms of present and future availability, by accurate calculations of the flow of de- mand in terms of orders or jobs, and by understandable com- munications to technical co-operators informing each of his task demanded by the law of the situation. greater accuracy in calculating the demands of industrial society is to be had by applying to the pertinent field of observation and experiment the same order of scientific method which is applied to determination of the adherent requirements of any detail operation. practically every one of these suggested methods of solving the five basic managerial problems enumerated above were anticipated in the specific system of management which carries taylor’s name. dominance of a sellers’ market.—for the emphasis on shop management in the early statements of scientific management there is an historical reason. it was conceived, formulated, pub- lished and discussed during a period when industry in the united states was enjoying a “‘ sellers’ market ” (1880-1914), when the problem of management was chiefly one of production to meet a rapidly growing consumer demand. in these circumstances the applicability of the doctrine to other aspects of management did not receive especial consideration. development of a buyers’ market-—however, beginning about 1921, as a result of economic maladjustments following the world war, industry in the united states experienced a “buy- ers’ market ” in which ascertainment of consumer demand and selling replaced production as the dominant problem of manage- ment. this stimulated consideration of scientific management as a doctrine pertinent to all phases of management. utilising the methods of quantitative measurement made available by a rapidly developing statistical science, industry began to analyse consumer demand (market analysis) as it had already analysed conditions of individual machine operations, and this made possible the formulation of tasks for an enterprise as a whole and for departmental major functional units. these tasks took the form of master and departmental budgets and quotas. market analysis and the formulation of budgets, schedules and quotas express, for the business as a whole and for its larger functional units, the major principles of scientific management—scientific method in investigation, the establishment of standards, plan- ning and the control of operations in accordance with standards and plans. scientific management in the united states scientific management has profoundly influenced the attitude and practice of management in the united states. this influence scientific management has been due chiefly to the fact that in a time of necessity scien- tific management has offered the only consistent and inclusive doctrine concerning management, and also in some measure to the increase in the number of executives in industry who have had college or university training and are accustomed to the ideas and practices of scientific method. however, the particular system of management developed by taylor as an expression of the doctrine is to be found in reasonable entirety in but few en- terprises, although many of the elements of the system, such as segregation of planning, have been widely adopted. the conserv- atism in adopting the particular system has been due to fear of the practical difficulty of modifying fixed habit of conduct within the personnel of large organisations, particularly the difficulty of making such modifications with a provision which effects changes without disorganising current operations, and to uncertainty con- cerning the reactions of workers to the doctrine as understood by them and to specific modifications of habit involved. relations with labour.—the reaction of labour, especially organised labour, to scientific management has had interesting phases. generally where individual plants have undertaken to modify their managerial methods in accordance with the doc- trine, the workers concerned have been at first indifferent, later satisfied, in many instances strongly approving. however, follow- ing the eastern rate case hearings in ror1o, the administrative headquarters of the american federation of labor declared strongly against the doctrine as well as against elements of taylor’s system. the political influence of organised labour led to federal legislation prohibiting stop-watch time study and the use of standards of performance and of remuneration, derived by lime study, in arsenals and other government enterprises. this attitude of organised labour was caused by a many-sided fear of scientific management; that intensive investigation and stand- ardisation of operating conditions and methods would break down whatever monopoly there might be in labour’s special knowledge oi craft skill, that wage payments in accordance with measured individual performance would break down uniform craft rates of remuneration established by labour organisations, that con- trol of work through planning and the assignment of tasks would permit such a speeding up of operations as to impair the workers’ health, and in general that these and other elements would put management in a stronger position to resist the increasing influence of organised labour. the opposition of organised labour has gradually diminished, because labour is conscious of greater strength and security since the world war; because its observations have established the fundamental facts that scientific management’s investigations include the problem of human relations in industry and disclose the technical necessity of workers’ good will; and because there- fore proponents of scientific management are by circumstances led toward sympathetic understanding of labour’s problems. influence outside the united states.—notwithstanding the translation of taylor’s principles of scientific managemeni into 10 languages, the influence of scientific management outside the united states has been moderate. this is due in large measure to inhibitive mental attitudes derived from experience under different physical and social conditions of industry, and in no small measure to the fact that the meagre translated literature has not been supplemented by concrete illustrations in practice. in the united states concrete illustrations were in existence be- fore the doctrine was formulated and published; in other coun- tries the doctrine has been published without illustrations in practice. this has resulted in a marked difference in understand- ing and in influence. in western europe the literature of discus- sion gives evidence of understanding of the mechanical aspects of the essential technique, but not, with certain noteworthy ex- ceptions, particularly in france, of scientific management’s ad- vanced views concerning human relations. the literature of discussion in eastern europe gives evidence of the fundamental misconception that scientific management connotes merely the utilisation of the various sciences in industry, and not, what is its outstanding characteristic, the development of a science of managing the elements brought together in enterprise. scopolamine—scotland brs_iography.—frank b. copley, frederick w. taylor, father of scientific management, 2 vol. (1923); frederick w. taylor, the principles of scientific management (1913) and shop management (american society of mechanical engincers, new york, 1903); henry l. gantt, work, wages and profits (1913); frank b. gilbreth, motion study (1911); conference on scientific management (hanover, n.h., 1912); c. bertrand thompson, scientific afanagement (cambridge, mass., 1914); and the theory and practice of scientific management (boston, 1917); dwight v. merrick, time sfudies as a basis for rate setting (1919); robert f. hoxie, scientific manage- ment and labour (1915); edward fe. hunt, scientific managemeni since taylor (1924); bulletins of the taylor society (new as i a ua cgissad scopolamine.—scopolamine or hyoscine is a complex alkaloid closely related to atropine and having the chemical formula cy);hano,. it is laevorotary to polarised light but in iis commercial form may be mixed with its dextrorotary isomer. scopolamine occurs in varying proportions and is extracted from deadly nightshade, henbane, thornapple and a few other less- known plants. hyoscine hydrobromide, the official preparation of the british pharmacopocia, consists of transparent colourless crystals which have a bitter taste, are soluble in water and have the formula c,;h2no,hbr3h:0. the therapeutic dose is a3 to igs bain. action.—the chief action of scopolamine is hypnotic, a condi- tion very similar to natural sleep being induced. this usually lasts for about six hours and the patient wakes up with an un- clouded mind but may complain of thirst and dryness of the mouth and throat. in some cases a stage of excitement, gid«liness and incoherent speech may precede that of sleep, and it is this uncertainty of action which renders the drug somewhat unrelia- ble. a certain degree of tolerance is produced after prolonged exhibition of scopolamine so that the dose has to be increased to have the same effect. administration —scopolamine by itself does not relicve pain, so that for anaesthetic purposes it is usually combined with morphia. some such mixture as:—morphine gr. 1%, scopola- mine gr. zg, is injected hypodermically, the scopolamine being repeated as necessary in doses of gr.z. this “ twilight sleep ” method does not produce surgical anaesthesia, but has the double action of dulling pain and producing loss of memory. it is thus useful in labour, especially when the process is likely to be pro- longed, as in primiparae. in these cases the initial dose should be given when the first stage is well established. the patient should then fall into a somnolent condition from which she is partially roused when each pain occurs. to obtain the best effect, the patient’s ears should be plugged with cotton wool, her eyes bandaged, and the room kept perfectly quiet. the chief dis- advantage in the “ twilight sleep ’”’ method in jabour is that the child may be born in an apnoeic condition and a considerable time may elapse before regular respiration is established. if skilled attention is available, however, it is rare for the baby to suffer any ill effects. the action of the drug upon the foetal heart appears to be negligible. if forceps have to be applied or any other form of instrumental delivery is necessary, an inhala- tion anaesthesia will have to be administered in addition. “twilight sleep ” can also be used as a preliminary to the various types of regional analgesia. for instance, a severe opera- tion can be performed under preliminary morphine-scopolamine injection and subsequent spinal analgesia without the patient being aware that he has been moved out of bed. some anaesthetists also use the drugs as a preliminary to general anaesthesia, such as nitrous oxide-oxygen. this method undoubtedly lessens the apprehension of a nervous patient and has the advantage that less general anaesthetic is necessary, but it tends to depress respiration so that cyanosis and a difficult administration may ensue. the breathing may in fact become so shallow that the requisite depth of anaesthesia may be im- possible to attain. the blood pressure also tends to fall, while the eye and other reflex signs which are useful in estimating the depth of anaesthesia can no longer be trusted. again, scopolamine-morphine is definitely contra-indicated in children, in severe abdominal operations and in cases of intestinal obstruction, as the drugs may tend to increase the paralysis of 483 the gut. furthermore, it should not. be given to patients who are known to have an idiosyncrasy for either of its constituents. for these reasons, scopolamine-morphine should not be used as a routine preliminary injection but should be reserved for selected cases. | birliography.—munro kerr and others, a combined textbook of obstetrics and gynaecology (1923); a. r. cushny, pharmacology and therapeutics (1924); h. e. boyle and c. l. hewer, practical anaesthetics (1923). (oe: ore 5 scotland (sce 24.412).—the history of scotland from 1910 to 1925, apart from an important ecclesiastical movement, to which reference will be made later, resolves itself largely into the effect of the world war, and of the conclusion of peace, upon social, industrial and political conditions. for matters that affect scotland as a part of great britain, the article great britain should be consulted. by the military operations of the war scotland was affected only to a small extent; zeppelins attacked edinburgh and did considerable damage on april 2 1916, and there were further raids upon scotland in may and in aug., but on both occasions the airships lost their way and dropped their bombs in rural areas. on the other hand, for the first time in the history of great britain as a seapower, the main activities of the fleet were conducted in scottish waters, from aug. 1914 to the surrender of the german fleet on nov. 21 1918. it was in scapa flow that the crews of 70 german men-of-war scuttled their ships on june 211920. anincident of the naval warfare was the bombardment of the remote island of st. kilda on may 15 1918, when damage was done to the church and some other buildings. the part played by scotland in supplying man-power, and in providing munitions of war, was worthy of the national tradition; the clyde, naturally, took the chief part in naval construction and repairs, but all over scotland munition factories came into existence—the largest was built at gretna in rors. politics —since the conclusion of the war a great change has occurred in the political complexion of the country. the repre- sentation of the people act (1918) increased the number of voters from 800,448 at the general election of dec. 1910 to 2,211,178 at the general election of dec. 1918. it also sev- ered the last link with the old tradition of scottish parlia- mentary representation by its redistribution of constituencies; the shire ceased to be the unit of county representation, and the old scottish system of the separate representation of groups of burghs was almost entirely abandoned. with the change in the electorate came a break in the traditional fidelity of the scottish constituencies to the liberal party. in dec. 1910, scotland returned 58 liberal, 11 conservative and three la- bour members; in 1918, when a proportion of liberals sup- ported the coalition govt., there were 58 coalition, seven labour, seven liberal and two independent members. after the break-up of the coalition, in the autumn of 1922, the liberal representation was 28, against 29 labour and 15 unionist mem- bers. in 1923 the liberals were reduced to 22, and in 1924 to nine; the labour members were increased to 35 in 1923 but fell to 24 in 1924; the conservatives held 16 seats in 1923 and 40 in 1924. one independent, with a leaning to labour, was returned at each election, and in 1922 an avowed communist was elected for the motherwell division of lanarkshire. land and temperance legislation.—the social life of the country was affected by a number of important legislative enactments, most of which were passed immediately after the war. with regard to land tenure, a considerable change has been made by the small landholders (scotland) act of 1911, by which the scottish land court (which among other duties decides upon applications for small holdings and fixes fair rents) was constituted, the earlier crofters acts were extended and amended, and a scottish board of agriculture was created. further provision for the acquisition of land for small holdings was made by the land settlement (scotland) act of 1919, which widened the range of activities of the board of agriculture. a pre-war measure which came into operation in 1920 was the temperance (scotland) act of 1913, which provided that 484 local authorities, on the receipt of signed requisitions from electors in their areas, should take a poll on three alternative resolutions dealing with the number of licences in an area, viz., (1) that there should be no change in the system of licensing, (2) that the licensing court should grant not more than 75% of the licences previously in existence and (3) that all licences in the area should be withdrawn, except, in special circumstances, to bona. fide hotel and restaurant keepers, who might be allowed to sell drink to residents in hotels or to persons taking meals at restau- rants. the areas were defined as burghs of a population not ex- ceeding 25,000; separate wards in larger burghs; and parishes in the counties and the voters as electors to town councils in burghs and to parish councils in the counties. a no-licence resolution requires 55% of the recorded votes in a poll of not less than 35% of the electors in order to be carried; a limitation of licences requires only a bare majority vote in a similar poll, and where a no-licence resolution is not carried the votes given for no-licence are added to those given for limitation. polls were held in nov. and dec. 1920, in 580 out of 1,221 polling areas; in about 300 of the remaining areas no licence existed. five hundred and nine areas voted for no change, 35 for limitation of licence and 40 for no licence. the contest of 1920 was fought by the temperance party upon a prohibition programme, and the result was rather a repudiation of prohibition than an indication of satisfaction with existing licensing conditions. subsequent polls, taken on requisitions made in accordance with the act of 1913, have not seriously modified the results ascer- tained in 1920, and it has been generally felt that the act re- quires amendment, especially in the definition of an “‘ area ” as a single ward in the larger burghs, which must be treated as a whole in order to render possible a more equal distribution in any reduction of licences; in glasgow the withdrawals of licences after the polls of 1920 were chiefly in middle-class residential districts. education.—just after the close of the war the machinery of the system of education was reorganised, with a large increase of expenditure, both national and local. the english education act of 1918 marks an era in state provision for education, and the education (scotland) act which accompanied it swept away the system of parochial or burghal school boards created in 1872. five large burghs, edinburgh, glasgow, aberdeen, dundee and leith, remained separate educational areas (the number was reduced to four by the amalgamation of leith with edinburgh in 1920); elsewhere the area is the county, including the burghs within its bounds. electors to the administrative bodies (known as education authorities) are persons registered as local govern- ment electors, and voting is conducted on the principle of pro- portional representation. education authorities are empowered to expend money on the provision of food and books for the children, and also to give assistance to qualified persons attending a university or training college. the maintenance of a limited number of fee-paying schools is permitted. nearly all the pre- existing voluntary or denominational schools have been trans- ferred to education authorities in accordance with a provision of the act; the teachers in such schools are appointed by the local authority after being approved, as regards character and religious belief, by the denomination concerned. the act contemplated an extension of the school age to 15 years and the provision of an elaborate system of continuation schools, but its provisions have only been partially carried out. contemporaneously with these developments in elementary and secondary eclucation, the treasury grant to the universities was largely increased, and, since the end of the war, private benefactions have greatly improved the teaching equipment of all four universities, and especially glasgow and fidinburgh. housing —the depression in trade and commerce which followed the unproductive activity of the war period and the short post-war ‘‘ boom ”’ has deeply affected scotland, and the ‘““heavy ”’ industries in the clyde valley, and in the glasgow area generally, have suffered very severely. it is in this area that difficulties in regard to housing have been most severely felt, and the housing problem and the operation of the various rent scotland restriction acts, have been complicated by a series of unfortu- nate incidents. a decision in the scottish law courts, in the case of kerr v. bryde, upheld on appeal to the house of lords in nov. 1922, invalidated notices of increase of rent under the rent restriction act of 1920, unless actual notice to quit had been given to the tenant for the date on which the increase was to operate. this decision, interpreting a carelessly drafted statute, placed many owners of houses, chiefly among the poorer classes, in a very difficult position, and also affected the collection of local rates which had been levied on the increased valuation. in jan. 1924 the eviction of the defender in this case from a tenement in the burgh of clydebank was followed by a “ rent- strike,” which produced considerable embarrassment not only to landlords and factors but also to the municipal authorities and the scottish office. an intervention by mr. adamson, the secretary for scotland in the labour govt., was unsuccessful, and the struggle, in the course of which eviction scenes caused great local excitement, was not terminated until 1925. an effect of the controversy was to check any private building, and the housing schemes of local authorities have been hampered by trade union disputes and by a scarcity of bricklayers, masons and plasterers. the royal commission on housing estimated the shortage of houses in scotland in 1g17 at over 121,000; official figures show that up to oct. 1925, only 34,639 houses had been built, and 12,791 were in process of construction, in scotland, under the housing acts of 1919, 1923 and 1924. the failure of scottish local authorities to solve the housing problem led to government intervention at the end of 1925. a reflection on the condition of trade, and possibly of housing, is to be found in the report of the registrar-general for scotland for 1923, which estimated the population in the middle of that year at 4,901,100, a decrease of 3,356 upon the estimate of the previous year, though an increase of 18,603 over the figures of the ro2t census. this decrease, a novel feature in statistics of the population of scotland, is attributed to emigration, the number of emigrants in 1923 showing an excess of 52,345 over the number of immigrants. presbyterian reunion—a main feature of national interest since the war has been the development of negotiations for a union of the church of scotland with the united free church; the latter is itself the result of a union between the free church and the united presbyterian church in 1900. with a view to the reunion of the two great branches of scottish presbyterian- ism, the church of scotland obtained in 1921 an act of parlia- ment the effect of which was to transform the relations of the church with the state, and to give the church liberty both ‘ to adjudicate finally in all matters of doctrine, worship, govern- ment and discipline,’’ and to interpret and modify (within the limits of trinitarian protestantism) the articles of the con- stitution, which were scheduled in the act. this legislation re- moved the difficulties, of historical origin, that led to the dis- ruption of 1843, but it was felt that the system of endowment also required a readjustment, after the lapse of nearly three centuries since the settlement made in the reign of charles i. in april 1922 a departmental committee was appointed by the secretary for scotland, with viscount haldane as chairman, and it made recommendations most of which were embodied in the church of scotland (property and endowments) act, 1925. by that measure the system of endowment has been altered, subject to a reservation of the life interests of existing ministers. each parochial stipend, which had hitherto been paid by the heritors or proprietors to the minister of a parish, the amount varying with the prices of agricultural produce each year, will become a fixed charge upon the land, payable not to the minister of a parish, but to the general trustees of the church of scotland, and the trustees may arrange for the redemption of the charge by the heritor. redemption, by payment either of one capital sum or of instalments spread over eighteen years, will be com- pulsory upon all heritors liable to an annual charge exceeding one shilling and not exceeding one pound; liability for an annual payment of one shilling or less will be extinguished. in the past it has been customary in parishes (numbering about 360 out of scott.{g:.p. 884) in which the whole teind had never been assigned in pay- ment of stipend, for ministers to make from time to time ap- plications for augmentation of stipend from the “ free” or sur- plus teinds, and such applications were heard and decided by judges of the court of session sitting in the court of teinds. this process will now come to an end, but one final application, within eleven years of the passing of the act, may be made in the case of each parish, and, if it is upheld by the court, the re- sulting augmentation will follow a scale laid down in the act. a further important change is effected by the act in regard to upkeep of parish churches and manses, a burden which has hitherto been borne by the heritors. they will now be required to put churches and manses into a reasonable state of repair (if necessarv), and to hand them over to the general trustees of the church, who will be responsible for all future repairs. glebes will also become the property of the trustees, but churchyards will be transferred to the parish councils. after the extinction of existing vested rights, the revenue received by the general trustees as representing any particular parish will be applied in the first place to meeting the requirements of that parish, but the general assembly of the church will have power to decide upon such requirements and to transfer any surplus to a fund which will be at the disposal of the assembly. a body of scottish ecclesiastical commissioners has been appointed under the act to give effect to a number of its provisions, including the transfer of endowments to the general trustees of the church. the two acts of 1921 and 1925 were promoted by the church of scotland for the purpose of removing ‘‘ the main causes keep- ing the two churches apart,” and while the act of 1925 was passing through its last stages in parliament the general assem- bly of the united free church passed, by a majority, a resolution recognising the progress achieved in this direction, and ordered its presbyteries and congregations to send to the assembly of 1926 indications of their opinions upon the desirability of union. an ecclesiastical event of minor importance which aroused widespread interest both in england and scotland was the ap- pointment, on the recommendation of the labour govt., of mr. james brown, m.p., as lord high commissioner to the general assembly of the church’ of scotland in 1924, the first instance of the selection of a commoner for this post since 1643. the king and queen themselves visited edinburgh in oct. 1922, when they unveiled the memorial to king edward at holyrood, and again in july 1923, when they gave a reception and a garden party in the palace. scottish national library y.—the year 1925 witnessed the institu- tion of the national library of scotland. the library of the faculty of advocates, founded in edinburgh in the reign of charles ii., was given the copyright privilege by the copyright act of queen anne, and it became one of the great hbraries of the united kingdom. it was the property of the faculty of advocates, which, though its library was open to the public, bore the whole responsibility for maintenance and upkeep. even before the war this burden was too heavy for a small body of professional men, and the rise in prices after the armistice rendered it impossible for the faculty to maintain the library on the old scale and to continue the facilities given to the public. in 1922 the faculty offered to transfer the library, with the exception of the collection of legal books, to the nation. the government replied that in the existing state of the national finances it was not possible to accept the proflered gift agd to undertake the financial responsibility for the nbrary, but made an annual grant of {2,000 as a contribution towards the cost of upkeep and use. a small endowment trust was formed to raise an endowment suflicient to meet the requirements of the govern- ment with a view to the transfer, and in june 1923, within a few days of the announcement of the creation of the trust, mr. alexander grant (afterwards sir alexander grant, bart.), intimated a gift of £100,000, the sum stipulated by the treasury. negotiations were at once resumed with the government, whose acceptance of the offer of the library was announced in the house of commons on june 28. arrangements for the transfer, and two changes of government, delayed the passage of a bill which 485 became in 1925 the national library of scotland act. the library is now administered by a body of trustees, some of whom are ex officie, and others are appointed by the crown or by administra- tive and educational authorities or are co-opted by the trustees. the books continue meanwhile to be housed in the premises belonging to the faculty of advocates, which retains in its own possession its collection of professional law-books, but has in- cluded in its gift to the nation such part of its existing premises as is not needed for its own administrative purposes. afiscellaneous.—the most important municipal developments have been the inclusion of the burghs of govan, partick, pollok- shaws, and some suburban districts within the city of glasgow by an act of 1912, and a further extension of the municipal boundaries of glasgow by an act of 1925; the amalgamation of edinburgh with leith, and the absorption of the suburban dis- tricts of liberton, colinton, corstorphine and cramond by the city of edinburgh in 1920; and the amalgamation of motherwell with wishaw in 1920. among miscellaneous matters of interest may be mentioned a series of gifts of historical buildings to the nation—dryburgh abbey by the late lord glenconner, and melrose abbey by the duke of buccleuch in 1918, the farm of ellisland, in dumfriesshire (occupied by robert burns from 1788 to 1791) and duddingston loch, near edinburgh, in 1923. kelso abbey, restenneth priory (forfarshire) and inchcolm abbey have also been placed under national custody. on the other hand, by an outrage attributed to women suffragists, scotland lost, on feb. 26 1914, the church of whitekirk (east lothian), one of the few beautiful pre-reformation churches. a feature of the period has been the increased number of state visits paid to scotland. an accession court was held at holyrood in 1ot1, and, except during the war, courts have been held periodically in edinburgh and visits have been paid to other towns. an awakening interest in scottish history has been shown by anumber of celebrations—the quincentenary of the university of st. andrews in 1911, the sexcentenary of bannockburn in 1014, the septcentenary of the burgh of dumbarton in 1922 and the septcentenaries of the foundation of the cathedrals of elgin and dornoch in 1925. an announcement, made by the prime minister in dec. 1925, that the government intends to restore the office of secretary for scotland to the dignity of a secretaryship of state was a recognition of a scottish demand which had been persistent for years. bibliography.—sir h. craik, a century of scottish history, 2 vol. (1g01); p. ilume brown, fzistery of scofland to the present time (1911); w. &. kermack, historical geography ef scotland (1913); n. hill, the story of the scottish church from the earliest times (glasgow, 1919); p. hume brown, surveys of scottish history (1920); j. mackinnon, social and industrial iistory of scotland (1920); the constitutional ilistory of scotland to the reformation (1924); a. mitchell, the story of the church in scotland ore (cr. oo. r. scott, charles prestwich (1846- ), british editor and journalist, born at bath, somersetshire, on oct. 26 1846, was the youngest son of russell scott. he was educated privately and at corpus christi college, oxford, where he graduated with a first class in 1869. after training under alexander russell] of the scotsman, he, in 1871, began a long connection with the manchester guardian, of which his brother-in-law, j. e. taylor, was proprietor. he himself became editor in 1872, and, after the death of taylor in 1905, also chief proprietor. he enlisted the services of w. t. arnold and many of the leading critics of literature, art and music of two generations, so that the paper became one of the foremost journals of the day. gradually developing from whiggism to advanced liberalism, 7’e man- chester guardian, as directed by mr. scott, was always sober in tone and scrupulous in policy. it lost nothing by its opposition to the boer war or its reluctant acceptance of the breach with germany, and able articles on the strategy of the world war appeared in its columns, the policy of irish home rule was zealously advocated, as well as women’s suffrage and propor- tional representation. after the war a weekly edition and a commercial supplement were instituted. the centenary (1921) of the foundation of the paper was celebrated, not only by the 486 issue of a special number to which foreign and dominion states- men contributed, but by a dinner to the editor attended by eminent men of all political parties. always active in local politics, after three unsuccessful contests for the representation of north-east manchester, mr. scott was elected liberal m.p. for the leigh division of lancashire in 1895 and sat till 1906. scott, sir giles gilbert (1880-— ), british architect, born nov. g 1880, was the son of george gilbert scott and grandson of sir george gilbert scott, r.a. educated at beaumont college, old windsor, he began to practice in london in 1902. in the following year his designs for the projected cathedral at liverpool were accepted, but, in con- sideration of his youth, g. f. bodley, r.a. was associated with him as joint architect. in july r904 the foundation was laid by king edward, the corner stone of the chapter-house by the duke of connaught in 1906, and the lady chapel was completed in 1910. after some delay occasioned by the world war, the consecration took place on july 19 1924, in the presence of king george v. and queen mary. designed in gothic style it was the first anglican cathedral built in the northern provinces since the reformation, and when completed, will be the largest church in great britain. the exterior is of red sandstone and the building is specially adapted for lighting by electricity. chief among the other works of the architect are the church of the annunciation, bournemouth; st. manghold’s church and presbytery, ramsey, isle of man; the chapel of the visitation convent, harrow; and new buildings at clare college cam- bridge. scott also did restoration work on chester cathedral. he was elected a.r.a. in 1918, r.a. in 1922, and was president of the architectural association in 1920-1. he was knighted after the consecration of liverpool cathedral in 1924. (see architecture.) scott, sir percy moreton (1853-1924), british sailor, was born july 10 1853. he entered the navy in 1866 and served in the ashantee war 1873-4, the congo expedition 1875 and in the egyptian campaign of 1882. in 1893 he was promoted cap- tain and in the following year became a member of the ordnance committee. in 1806 he took command of the cruiser ‘* scylla ” and came into prominence as the inventor of the “ dotter ” and “ deflection teacher ” devices, which signified an important ad- vance in the evolution of naval gunnery. he served with the naval brigade in the south african war, when he got the naval 6-in. guns up to ladysmith and in 1900 assisted the international brigade in china during the boxer rebellion. in 1903 he took command of the gunnery school ship “ excellent,” in 1905 be- came rear-admiral and inspector of target practice and in 1908 was promoted vice-admiral. created k.c.b. in 1910 in recog- nition of his services, he was made a baronet in 1913 and retired in march of the same year with the rank of admiral. on the out- break of the world war he returned to the service and was for some time in charge of the air force defences of london. sir percy scott later became an advocateof the submarine, and was strongly opposed to the building of battleships. he died oct. 18 1924. he wrote fifty years in the royal navy (1910). scott, robert falcon (1868-10912), british sailor and explorer, was born at devonport june 6 1868. entering the navy in 1882, he became a commander in 1goo, and led the national antarctic expedition in 1901-4 (see 21.966). on his return he was promoted captain, and commanded successively the “ vic- torious,” the ‘‘ essex” and the “ bulwark.” in rg10 he set out in command of another expedition to the antarctic (see polar exploration). a party of five under scott reached the pole on jan. 18 1912, but on the return journey the severity of the weather prevented them from reaching supplies at one ‘ton depet with the result that they perished on or about march 27 1912. on nov. 12 1912 a search party found scott’s tent, containing the bodies of scott, dr. e. a. wilson and lt. h. r. bowers, as well as scott’s records and diaries, in which was given a full account of the journey and the deaths of captain oates and petty officer edgar evans, the other two members of the party. on feb. 14 1913 a memorial service was held in st. paul’s cathedral, lon.lon, an:1a mansion house fund was subsequently scott, sir g. g.—scottish-gaelic literature raised to make provision for the surviving relatives of the lost explorers. the rank and precedence of the wife of a k.c.b. were by royal warrant conferred on captain scott's widow. scottish-gaelic literature (sce 5.635).—in the period igto0-25 the literary use of scottish gaelic probably increased. a greater respect for the language, greater desire to become proficient in it and to use it both in speech and in writing were apparent. among the reasons for this were the continuous activity of an comunn gaidhealach, the posifion which gaelic now occupies in the universities and in the leaving certificate examination for secondary schools, and above all the clause in the education act of 1918, which enjoins that gaelic shall be taught in all schools throughout the area in which the language is spoken. two new forms were attempted with considerable success, the novel and the play. examples of the former are john maccormick’s clearly written tale of dan aluinn (1912), angus robertson’s antogha afer (1913), episodical but vigorous, and james macleod’s cailin sgiathanach (1923), a thoughtful and well-constructed romance. the authors are islesmen. the most notable of the plays are perhaps afairead by archibald macculloch, and rath-innis by john maccormick. the macdonald collection of gaelic poetry (1911), edited by rev. archibald macdonald and rev. angus macdonald, contains many pieces hitherto unpublished, some of which are of great merit. a volume of contemporary poetry, entitled bardachd leedhais (1916) by natives of lewis was edited by ian n. macleod; another lewisman, murdo morrison, produced his work under the title of fear siubhal nan gleann (1924). in 1688 and following years duncan macrae of jnverinyate in kintail made a ms. collection of poetry, some of it by himself, known as the fernaig manuscript, written on a phonetic system of his own. most of it has been dealt with by various scholars from time to time, and in 1923 malcolm macfarlane published a complete revised text together with a fairly successful rendering into ordinary spelling. fifteen poems addressed to gaelic nobles from the phonetically spelled book of the dean of lismore (c. 1530) appeared in an gdidheal, restored by prof. w. j. watson, who also edited specimens of gaelic poetry, 1550 to 1900 (1918) and specimens of gaelic prose, c. tooo to t9i0 (1915). during the world war 19 booklets for the use of british gaelic-speaking soldiers were issued by the scottish churches under the editorship of rev. malcolm maclennan and prof. donald maclean, and were much sought after and appreciated. among new editions may be named the songs of duncan mac- intyre (1912), edited with translation by g. calder, the spiritual songs of dugald buchanan (1913), edited by prof. donald maclean, and the poems of alexander macdonald (1924), edited with translation by the editors of the macdonald collection. mrs. k. w. grant’s aig tigh na beinne (1911) is a collection of short stories and sketches. the eon. r. erskine edited three volumes of an rosarnach (1917, 1918, 1921) consisting of poems and essays by living writers. lain moffatt-pender’s afo nighean donn bhoidheach (1924) 1s a collection of sketches, including an account of a walking tour on the west coast, remarkable as being written by a man who has learned to speak and write gaelic within recent years. messrs. blackie & son published, under the general editorship of prof. w. j. watson, a finely produced series of school readers, six in all, of which the prose parteis specially written. an gdidheal, formerly an deo-greine, the monthly maga- zine of an comunn gaidhealach, included many gaelic articles and essays which obtained prizes at the annual mod. the monthly magazines of the presbyterian churches have gaelic supplements, and while all are good, the supplement to life and work, edited and written by rev. donald lamont, is of quite outstanding literary merit. gaelic articles form part of the transactions of the gaelic society of inverness, which in 1925 had produced 30 volumes of valuable matter. it is unfortunate for scholarship that the celtic review ceased during the world war and was not revived. its 10 volumes included, among much else of value, the text and translation by prof. mackinnon of the scranton—sculpture glenmasan manuscript and of the gaelic version of the thebaid of stattus. miss frances tolmie gave to the journal of the folk-song society (no. 16) 105 songs of occupation from the western isles, forming a most important contribution towards the preservation of our traditional music and poetry. mrs. kennedy-fraser and rev. kenneth macleod published three volumes of songs of the hebrides. alexander macbain’s studies in place names, highlands and islands of scotland (1922) were collected in one volume edited by prof. w. j. watson. a. r. forbes’s place names of skye and adjacent isles, though of far less authority, contains much useful information. a most useful dictionary in three volumes, con- taining the gist of all previous dictionaries, together with new material, was completed in 191 by e. macdonald (e. dwelly), who not only compiled the book but also printed it with his own hands. in 1925 a serviceable pronouncing and etymological dictionary, containing gaelic-english and english-gaclic, was produced by rev. malcolm maclennan. a list of books printed in the gaelic of scotland, entitled typographia scoto-gadclica, appeared in 1915, compiled by rev. donald maclean, a. o. anderson’s two volumes of early sources of scottish history a. d. 500 to 1286 (1922) is a learned and indeed monumental work of over 1,450 pp. of text and 105 pp. of index, a work which, though not in gaelic, was possible only for a competent gaelic scholar. (wj. ww). scranton, pa., u.s.a. (see 24.476), “the anthracite cap- ital,” had a population of 137,783 in 1920, of whom 28,568 were foreign born; and 142,266 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). russians and lithuanians, italians and poles had become more numerous in the mines and in the general population than the germans, welsh and english who predominated in earlier days; and diversified industries had developed until the number of wage-earners in factories was larger than the number of coal- miners. the leading manufactures of the district were silk, lace, lace curtains, buttons (3,000,000 a day), phonograph records, hydraulic machinery, cotton and woollen fabrics, mining machinery and heavy hardware. the output of the establish- ments within the city was valued at $26,365,000 in 1909; $54,630,000 in 1919; $64,169,077 in 1923. anthracite mining, however, was still the dominating industry: coal-mine opera- tives were a fifth of all persons engaged in gainful occupations in 1920; breakers, culm piles and surface subsidence were visible evidence of the work underground; and whenever a long suspension or strike occurred, as in 1912, 1922 and 1925 it affected seriously the whole economic fabric of the city. scriabin, alexander nicholaevich (1871-1915), rus- sian composer, was born at moscow on christmas day 1871 (o.s.). his father was a lawyer; his mother, a good pianist and pupil of leschetitsky, died when he was one year of age. his schooling was received in the moscow gadet corps, but he never showed any liking for the military career for which he was in- tended, and at 18 entered the moscow conservatory of music where he was a pupil of safanov and tanier. on leaving the conservatory scriabin was greatly helped by the patriotic music publisher belayev, who brought out his earlier works and ar- ranged a european piano recital tour for him. at 20 he returned to moscow and joined the conservatory staff. later he again travelled, this time for six years, visiting the united states amongst other countries. he then settled in brussels for some time, and in 1910 returned to moscow. in 1914 scriabin visited england, giving two piano recitals, playing his own concerto and appearing as pianist in his prometheus. he was then suller- ing from a tumour of the lip, from which, soon after’ his return, he died, april 14 1915. as a composer scriabin represents what may be called the classical school carried forward to its most advanced point. the form of his sonata and symphony movements he derives from mozart, through beethoven; however bewildering these may at first sound, they will be found, on a second or third hearing, to be laid out on essentially the mozart-beethoven lines. in his pianistic idiom and general pianistic qualities of style, scriabin derives largely from chopin, of whose work he was a great admirer. all this then indicates a conservative side to his composition, but he was more radical in his 487 harmonies, and it was, probably, largely the novelty of these that retarded appreciation of his later works. gradually he evolved what may be called a new scale or, from another point of view, a new chord. it consists of the upper partials of the fourth octave from the fundamental note, jess two (taking c as the fundamental note— c, db, e, f#, a, b> or, arranged as a superposition of fourths, as scriabin most frequently uses them, c, f#, bp, e, a, d). the hint of this new harmonic scheme may be seen in the earliest compositions, and its development was fairly regular and consistent, until it came to dominate his later output. in his later works he discards entirely the old key signatures. in his orchestration scriabin calls for a large force, and uses it very freely: his scores are excessively contra- puntal in texture, the various instruments moving very independ- ently and weaving together their respective themes: muted brass plays a large part in his orchestral colour scheme. in the first symphony a chorus is used in the finale; the ‘‘ poem of fire” also uses a chorus, but in an orchestral way, no words being supplied. for the last-named work the composer also wrote an optional part for a “tastiera per luce,” or keyboard of light, the intention being that varying colours should play upon a screen as the work was being performed. the composer was greatly interested in theories as to a correspondence between the musical scale and the scale of calours. in his great afystery (left unfinished at his death) music, dance, speech, perfume and colour were to be combined; this work was to be rather a work of ritual than of art, and was to express its author’s idealistic mysticism through the medium of 2,000 participants. it is usual to look upon scriabin’s musical work as largely the expression of theosophical views, and undoubtedly much of his in- spiration was drawn from the works of blavatsky and others. he was not, however, a close reader, or a careful thinker. seizing the main idea of a book or a creed, he would negicct the details, and the imagination would quickly develop a huge scheme of thought having little relation to what he had read. the titles of many of his works and of their separate parts, and the marks of expression affixed to particular passages, indicate plainly the existence of a spiritual ‘ programme.” the emancipation 7 the human soul through cease- less striving, and its achievement of self-expression, may be said, very roughly, to represent the general sense of the spiritual basis of scriabin’s musical works, the works of scriabin have been variously classed into periods. a logical classification is into four periods as follows: ist period, with a strong chopin influence; the dividing line between this and the 2nd period runs through the first symphony, and the 2nd period shows some wagner and liszt influences; the dividing line between this and the 3rd period runs through the fifth sonata, and a qth period begins with the ‘' poem of fire.” works.—orchestral: revery (op 24); symph. i. (26); symph. il. (29); symph. [ii., or divine poem (43); symph. iv. (54): prometheus, or ‘‘ poem of fire ’’ (60). piano: sonatas i. (ep. 6); il. (19): iit. (23); tv. go); v. (53); vi. (62)3 vil. (64); viii. (66); ix. (68); x. (70). a very jarge number of precludes, etudes, impromptus, mazurkas, poems, etc., including the great “ vers la flamme” poem and the much-discussed last work, the five pre- ludes (op. 74). piano and orchestra: concerto (ep. 20). no songs or chamber music are included in scriabin’s output. cp. as) scripps, edward wyllis (1854-1926), american news- paper publisher, was born at rushville, ill., june 18 1854. he was brought up on a farm in winchester co., o., and in 1872 joined the staff of the detroit evening news, of which he became city editor in 1875. three years later he founded the cleveland penny press, which under his direction achieved immediate success. he gradually acquired other journals in ohio and else- where, which later became known as the scripps-howard group. in 1896 he, in conjunction with m. a. mcrae, formed the scripps- mcrae press assn. for the purpose of providing his various papers with cable news. he also, in 1901, organised the news- paper enterprise assn., with the object of supplying features to local papers. in 1908 the scripps-mcrae assn. was merged with the publishers’ press assn. and the pacific coast press assn. under ithe name of the united press assn., mr. scripps hold- ing a controlling interest. in 1917 his health broke down under the strain of war work and in 1920 he retired from business activity. in 1924 he transferred control of his various interests to his son robert p. scripps. he died on board his yacht in monrovia bay, liberia, w. africa, march 12 1926, having spent the last four years of his life in cruising around the world. sculpture (see 24.488)—in the years immediately pre- ceding the world war rodin remained the dominant influence in all schools of sculpture, although by then all his most vital works had been created. however posterity may judge him, it must at least see in him the beginnings of the spirit of revolt against academic art, which is the distinguishing feature of this 488 period and which had made the rebirth of the craft possible. rodin himself was not free from the curse which was to a great extent responsible for the decline of sculpture—the use of the full-scale model from which skilled masons or bronze founders produced the finished work. but the passionate emotions of his figures prepared the world for a type in which the presenta- tion of beauty is not necessarily the aim of the artist; and the controversies which centred around the “ age of bronze’ and the “ balzac ” showed that sculpture was becoming an art to be reckoned with and not one concerned chiefly with official monu- ments and the graveyard. the revolt became partly a matter of technique, and. the younger artists recognised that only by working in their material themselves could they hope to ap- proach the living art of the great periods of sculpture. these earlier years were the period of the vorticists in eng- land, the post-impressionists in france and the futurists in ttaly-—societies which stated their views with exaggeration—a form of propaganda now generally recognised. their members were neither madmen nor inefticient artists, but searchers after an art the secret of which had been lost. their experiments led them into all manner of odd by-ways, but they remained true sculptors, if at times their intentions are difficult to understand, and they have originated a type of sculpture which may ulti- mately be of considerable importance in the history of art. i. great britain epstein and gandicer-brseska-—developments in sculpture in great britain since 1910 begin with the work of two for- eign artists, the american-born epstein and the frenchman gaudier-brzeska. jacob epstein (g¢.v.) came into general notice in 1908 with his masterly series of figures on the british medical assn. building in the strand. these figures, with their close affinity to archaic greek art and their essentially sculptural qualities, were followed by a number of expcriments in abstract art conceived under the influence of the vorticist movement, such as the marble group ‘‘ two doves” (1913) and the marble figure of venus (1914) with its broad planes and monu- mental structure—one of the most important pieces of sculpture of recent times. the bronze “ christ ” (1917-9) foreshadows in its rugged surfaces and intense power of characterisation the long series of bronze portraits of his later period, of which the bust of lord fisher in the imperial war museum is typical. the much-discussed panel of rima in the hudson memorial in hyde park is a fine example of the sculptor’s direct stone-cutting and extraordinary feeling for form. henri gaudier-brzeska (b. 1891, killed in france rors), worked almost exclusively in this country. from his intimate connections with the vorticists he may be considered as an -english artist. among his expressionist works are “ the dancer,” a crouching figure in brown varnished stone, “‘ the singer ” in stone, ‘“‘ the embracers ” (1912-3) in marble and the marble ‘ seated figure” (1914)—almost his last work. three of his more naturalistic figures are in the victoria and albert museum. eric gill studied at the chichester school of art. his early works were exhibited at the chenil galleries in ro11, and others have been shown at the goupil and other galleries in london. his most important commissions have been the low relief ‘‘ stations of the cross ” (1914-8) in westminster cathedral and a second series in the cathedral at bradford (1921). the majority of his works, of which the “ boxers” (1913) is typical, are examples of direct stone-cutting. he has also made war memorials for bryantspiddle in dorset, chirk in north wales (1920) and leeds university (‘the money changers ’’)—the latter an example of his unequalled skill as a designer of beautiful lettering. frank dobson (q.2.) owes a great deal of his unusual technical skill and knowledge to his work with the sculptor reynolds- stephens and the cornish granite cutters. his first works, of _ which “‘ the concertina man ” (1919) and “‘ the man child ”’ - (1921) are perhaps the most typical, are definitely cubist in their inspiration. inhis later sculpture, such as the figure of “ cambria” and the “ susannah ” he has freed himself irom the conscious sculpture restraint of these earlier figures and has evolved a stvle of great charm and real sculptural feeling. the figures of laurence atkinson are of a more advanced type, reaching at times the region of pure abstraction. alan l. durst worked at first almost entirely in ivory. since 1921 he has carved a number of important works—excellent examples of direct cutting—which include a wood statue of ‘‘ the virgin and child ” (1922) for the dominican priory, haverstock hill, london. another “ direct ” worker is professor ernest cole, who has made groups for the london county council buildings. war afemorials—among the many war memorials scattered over the country, the group comprising the memorial to the 24th div. in battersea park (1924) by eric if. kennington is of interest. the majority, however, are of a more academic type, and most of the well-known sculptors have contributed typical examples of their art. very accomplished works, if at times a little tedious, they give a fair idea of sculpture of the official class—no better and no worse that that of other countries. the younger sculptors who have executed memorials are john angel, the scottish artists thomas j. clapperton and w. reid dick, thomas mewburn crook, richard reginald goulden, charles sargent jagger, leonard jennings, leonard stanford merrifield, louis frederick roslyn, newbury a. trent, f. j. wilcoxson and alan g. wyon. in the durban memorial, phoebe and harold stabler have made a new departure by the use of glazed terra-cotta applied to a huge granite cenotaph. il. the united states the united states, with its mixed population, has not yet developed a national school of sculpture, and the constant influx of foreign artists, bringing with them their own typical art, makes such a development more difficult. george grey barnard, who was strongly influenced by rodin, may be considered as the first sculptor whose conception of form and feeling for mate- rial are in keeping with modernist tendencies. he is chieily known in england by his massive figure of abraham lincoln, which was refused by london in favour of the more florid statue by saint-gaudens, but accepted by manchester. the most ambitious of his works is the series of groups commissioned by his native state of pennsylvania for the capitol of harrisburg. his later work is well shown in the group “ adam and eve.” paul manship.—to a later generation belongs paul manship (b. 1885), although his work, modernist at frst sight, is strongly infused with classicism. his figures and groups have a super- ficial charm which it is difficult to criticise, but they have little feeling for sculptural form. his bronze statuette “ little broth- er” (1912), his portrait of his infant daughter pauline (1914) and his “ dancer and gazelles”’ (1916) in the luxembourg, paris, are most representative of his eclectic style. the same characteristics are to be 8een in the work of several other ameri- can sculptors, for example albert henry atkins, leo friedlander and carl paul jennewein. gaston lachaise received his training in paris and went to america in 1905, working for a time with manship. in his earlier figures and animal subjects he shows a vivid power of sculptural simplification, although his later model for a heroic figure for the telephone and telegraph building in new york misses some of this quality. the work of alfco faggi is at times strongly reminiscent of that of the serbian mestrovie, especially in a figure of st. francis of assisi. he has made a number of other statues in which there is the same mystic quality, and his portraits point to consider- able powers of characterisation. the russian painter maurice sterne also excels in portrait busts. among the more advanced american sculptors john mowbray-clarke has attained a cer- tain sculptural quality by means of the flattening of his planes and cecil de b. howard in such works as his group “ afternoon of a faun ” and other figures shows a definite experiment in the search for a new means of expression. the work of the more conservative sculptors was well illus- trated in the exhibition held in new york by the national sculp- ture society in 1923. in the mass it is not essentially different from that produced in england, and the figures of chester beach, scul pture plate i. | | as + re i = os ro ,* & . j —— ae . _ ~ _——_- - —$_$_——— —— _ —— ———— —— —<—= soe se — te — — een > fic. 1. ‘the boxers”; relief, eric gill. fic. 2. “susannah”; frank dobson. fic. 3. portrait of the artist’s mother; i. mestrovie. fic. 4. ‘‘ two natures of man ’”’; george g. barnard. (8b , erm 73 _ -, fe) 1 1 f j l i. > gi ri 2 § if a g. au 73 f 4 n y + plate ii. scul pture se ee —$—l—_——_—_—__—_—_—_——_—_——_ a) ee | “ ie fic. 5. lord fisher; j. epstein. fic. 6. ‘‘ head of a woman ”’; a. maillol. fic. 7. ‘‘ little brother’; p. manship (detroit museum of art). fic. 8. “ the kneeling woman”; w. lehmbriick, (by permission of: fig. 5. imperial war museum, london. copyright of the sculptor. fig. 7. the sculplor. fig. 8. photo, p. casstrer, berlin sculpture jo davidson, arthur lee, malvinia hoffmann and two artists of english origin, leonard craske and john gregory, fulfil all the canons of academic art. a foreign temperament is discernible in the vigorous work of the czechoslovak, albin pol4sek. among the many sculptors of animals are hunt diederich, heinz war- neke (who has carved some admirable figures in brass), laura gardin fraser, edith barretto parsons and herbert heseltine (who exhibited in london in 1925). grace mott johnson has made reliefs of animals which have some of the charm of primi- tive sculpture. ill. france although rodin did not die until 1917, his work is eminently that of the 19th century in its treatment of plastic forms. a man of immense genius, he made the rejuvenation of sculpture possible and yet at the same time the very facility of his art rendered this rejuvenation more difficult. in the large collection of his works which he gave to the british nation in 1914, and which is now in the victoria and albert museum the two main aspects of his sculpture are clearly visible. the ‘‘age of bronze” has the quality of cubical content and repose common to all great work; the “ prodigal son,” in its restlessness and broken outline, is of a type only too frequent in modern art. much recent sculpture on both sides of the channel has been influenced by this easier, ephemeral side of rodin’s art—helped by the skilled bronze founders of france. maillol and bourdelle—aristide maillol (b. 1861) studied painting at the ecole des beaux arts, coming later under the in- fluence of gauguin and the post-impressionists. by the produc- tion of numberless figures of women in various materials he has arrived at a type of static beauty combined with an architectural unity of structure which gives him a foremost place among living sculptors. rodin’s figures are shown at a moment of critical in- tensity, maillol’s have a restfulness and dignity devoid of all passion. rodin with his enormous technical skill overstrains his material to capture some fleeting aspect of the emotions; with maillol the figure and the material grow together and result in an architectural beauty and intelligibility of form closely akin to the monuments of the egyptians. among his larger figures the “‘pomona”’ in the morosoff museum at moscow and the dainty ‘‘ flora ” are typical of the static quality of his art, and even in the works in which movement is involved—such as the well-known relief of ‘‘ two lovers ” and his large bronze figure ‘* action bound ’—the repose and monumental quality are not sacrificed. a few of maullol’s works were shown in the matisse exhibition at the leicester galleries in 1919; among them was his first terra-cotta sketch of a reclining woman for the memorial to cezanne to be placed in the garden of the tulleries. his later works include a war memorial at banyuls-sur-mer and a bronze torso exhibited in 1923. a third artist whose works have had a great influence on mod- ern french sculpture is emile antoine bourdelle (b. 1861 at montauban). as a young man he became attracted by rodin, with whom he remained for a number of years. his early work was strongly influenced by his master, but gradually he evolved a more monumental and less emotional style, reminiscent rather of the work of dalou. his reliefs for perret’s theatre des champs elysees (1912-3), with their extraordinary fertility of invention and power of design, were a new step in the direction of archi- tectural decoration, paralleled only by epstein in england and metzner in germany. his more recent works are the monument to the polish poet mickiewicz (1917), the figure of ‘‘ the virgin and child ” (1920-2) erected on the vosges and the colossal monument to the argentine general alvear (1923). charles despiau and joseph bernard, in their search for sculp- tural harmony, may be regarded as followers of maillol. despiau has made a number of heads which have at times the quality of roman portraits or the charm of the florentine renaissance. bernard is chiefly known by a number of statuettes and groups, such as his “‘ girl with a pitcher ” (1912) in the luxembourg and his ‘ woman and child dancing.” among his sculpture en fuille directe the marble “ singer ” in the grenoble museum is a 489 good example. his larger works include a half-length granite figure ‘* the praycr,”’ ‘‘ the voice,” also in granite, in the lyons museum, and a monument to michel servet. the expressionisis.—with the works of archipenko, lipschitz and brancousi we approach a type af sculpture utterly different from all that had preceded it. it has little or no relation to nature, and must be judged purely from the emotional! or aesthetic effect which it has on the spectator. alexander archipenko, a russian, is the greatest exponent of this ‘‘ expressionist ’’ school. his earlier works, such as the bronze torso of 1909 and his plaster group “ two women ” (1912), have qualities which identify his aims with those of gaudier-brzeska in england. his ‘‘sculpture- paintings ’’—uniting form with colour in the manner of egyptian bas-reliefs, and his “ non-being ” sculpture, are experiments in purely abstract art which have a strange aesthetic appeal. other important figures are the marble torso of a woman (1913) in the national gallery of berlin and a bronze figure of a woman (1921) in the rotterdam museum. archipenko has had schools in paris and berlin and is now settled in new york. with him may be grouped the russian, jacques lipschitz (b. 1891) and henri laurens. a typical work by lipschitz is his panel of “ musical instruments ” (19109). it is an axiom of modern sculpture that form should be in- fluenced by the material. but many of the most advanced sculp- tors consider that materials have their own forms and individual characters, and should therefore not be given a resemblance to something that nature has created in another material. this is exemplified in the art of constantin brancousi, 2 rumanian working in paris. three works which were shown at the chenil galleries, chelsea, london, in 1925 were especially noteworthy for their beautiful technical qualities. iv. other countries germany.—although in the roth century german sculpture had become involved in the morass which had engulfed the art in all european countries, yet the tradition of craftsmanship which had always been the distinguishing feature of german art enabled it to develop, more quickly than in any other country, a modernist style of its own. the earlier lead given by hildebrand (d. 1921) was eagerly followed by numbers of young artists encouraged by the foundation of the berlin sezession in 1899. the colossal ‘battle of the nations ” monument at leipzig, which was completed by the bohemian, franz metzner (1870-19109), in 1912, is a typical development of hildebrand’s theories of archi- tectural sculpture. the influence of rodin is evident in the early figures of george kolbe—for example, the ‘‘ dancer” (1912) and the heine monument (1913) at frankfort-on-the-main. his style becomes more formal in his later work, two examples of which, the “ water nymph ” (1920) and the “ portrait of a russian girl ”’ (1925), were shown at the 29th exhibition of the jnter- national society held at the royal academy in 1925. maillel, rather than rodin, is the inspiration in the work of the swiss hermann haller, ernesto de fiori (b. 1881, the son of an italian fatherand a german mother) and, toa lesser degree, karl] albiker. the ‘ kneeling man ” (1921) in the berlin national gallery is typical of haller’s work. in the sculpture of de fiori can be seen the struggle between the southern and northern elements of his mixed parentage. the bronze figures of a ‘‘ standing man ”’ (1917-8) at hamburg and a “ woman ” (1919) at bremen have a vivid sense of surface modelling superimposed on a construction almost primitive in its starkness. in the ‘‘ walking man ” he attacks again the same problem of action so successfully over- come by rodin in his “‘ st. john the baptist ” 40 years earlier. although in point of date a contemporary of these artists, wilhelm lehmbruck (1881-1919) shows yet another stage on the road towards the ‘‘ absolute ” sculpture of the present day. in his large “ kneeling woman ” at berlin (1911), mannheim and elsewhere, in spite of the elongated and attenuated figures, he has attained great rhythmic beauty of form; in ‘ the thinker ” at berlin the function of thought has become spiritualised. among his last works are a monument to the fallen (1915-6) and a seated figure of a naked man now placed on the ehrenfriedhof 490 at duisburg, the sculptor’s birthplace. fritz huf (b. 1888 at lucerne), who owes much to his early training as a goldsmith, may be regarded as a follower of ernesto de fiori and lehm- bruck. the influence of maillol is again to be seen in the earlier figure of bernhard hoetger (b. 1875), but his later work has many of the characteristics of negro art. the modernist movement is carried further by his pupil emy roeder in her series of figures of women— puberty ” (1918), ‘‘ the moorlander ” (1919), “‘ preg- nancy ”’ (1919) and her group of “ two horses ” (1919)—and by milly steger in her graceful dancing figure “ jephtha’s daughter.” the later works of ilerbert garbe, such as his two groups of “ death ” (1919) and his “* eros ”’ (1920), show little of the spirit of maillol which imbued his earlier figures, and in his naked man ‘“ upward ” the emancipation from classical art is complete. ernest barlach works almost entirely in wood, and has carved a number of reliefs and figures of russian peasants and beggars, which show strong characterisation combined with extraordinary sense of movement. kurt edzard has executed many female figures in terra-cotta and bronze showing the influence both of rodin and maillol. ‘‘ the bather ” and the life-sized figure ‘“ nuna,” both of 1923, have a strange individual sense of plastic beauty. among the modern experimenters in the principles of abstract art are hermann obrist, karl hermann, oswald herzog, william wauer and rudolf belling. yugoslavia.—ivan mestrovie (q.v.) studied in vienna, and the influence of the secession and metzner is obvious in his work. he obtained universal recognition at the rome international exhibi- tion in rg11, and later at the war-time exhibition held at the vic- toria and albert museum in rors, and his large scrics of figures in connection with a projected temple at kosovo seemed to indi- cate a new force in european sculpture. in all these works, of which the portrait of the artist’s mother is a typical example, there is the fecling of seriousness, even depression, so common to the slav temperament; but the technical skill, depth of religious sentiment and patriotism—which are the keynote of his early work—are undeniable. with the proclamation of yugoslav unity in 1918 the religious and patriotic influences have become less insistent, and his later works seem to point towards the develop- ment of a freer plastic conception. toma rosandie was born at split (spalato) in 1878, the son of a marble mason. he studied for two years in venice, and later worked at vienna with mestrovi¢, who exercised a great iniluence on his art. he exhibited at zagreb in 1910 and at rome in ror1, and became known to the british public by his exhibitions at the grafton galleries in 1917-8, edinburgh in 1918 and brighton in 1g1g. the majority of his early works were destroyed at belgrade during the war. an important feature of his later work is the series of large figures cut in wood, in which he shows great tech- nical powers, and a certain charm and sculptural feeling which is at times absent in the work of his more famous compatriot. italy —up to within comparatively recent years the influence of classical art and its derivative, the sculpture of the renaissance, was paramount in italy, as may be seen from the groups con- nected with the colossal victor emanuel if. monument (tors) at rome. the work of the younger men, which js little known in this country, shows the divergent intluences of rodin and the viennese school, but there arc few exponents in “‘ expressionist ”’ sculpture. among the more important sculptors of religious subjects are ermenegildo luppi (whose “ pieta ” was one of the most im- pressive works in the rome exhibition of 1921), corrado vigni, guido calori, nino galizzi, giovanni manzoni and libero an- dreotti. andreotti also excels as a portraitist. amleto cataldi exhibited a number of works in paris in 1923, from which his figure “‘ girl combing her hair ” was acquired for the luxem- bourg. adolfo wildt has made portrait busts with strongly sim- plified planes, of which that of mussolini is characteristic; by him is a charming symbolic marble relief of “ the virgin with three children.”” the animal sculptors include sirio tofanarl, rem- brandt bugatti and renato brozzi. important works have also been produced by antonio maraini and giuseppe graziosi (both of whom exhibited extensively in the venice exhibition of 1924), sculpture nicola d’antino, michele de benedetti, attilio selva, claudio botta and l. de stefanis. belgium.—joris minne (b. 1866 at ghent) was trained at the ghent academy, at brussels under van der stappen and at paris. his early works—such as “ the fountain with five kneeling youths,” the “‘ bricklayer ”’ and the volders monument—had a mystic idealism and a sculptural feeling which was rare in a world accustomed to the florid realism of meunier. in his more recent figure of a “‘ young man holding a shell ” and various figures of “‘ the virgin and child,” the starkness and tendency to abstraction shown in his first works has been modified, with a resultant rhythm which is reminiscent of the figures of maillol. a complete contrast to minne’s severe sculpture is that of rik wouters (1886-1916), whose early death, one of the tragedies of the war, was a great loss to belgian art. his work is essentially modern, and is marked by a bold and vigorous execution. among his portraits, those of the painter james ensor, “ m. h. elslander ” and “ madame g.,” are important. other young sculptors whose work is worthy of mention include ernest wynants, who worked with wouters, josef cantre, oscar jespers, dolf ledel, schirren, de kat and gustave fontaine. the netherlands —an important feature of modern sculpture in the netherlands is the success with which it has been utilised in architectural decoration and the strongly nationalist art which has been evolved. j. mendes da costa and hendrik albert van den eijnde may be regarded as the originators of this style—the latter being more especially concerned with architectural sculp- ture. tjipke visser, j. c. altorf and l. bolle—followers of men- des da costa—have macle some interesting animal studies. visser has also executed a large number of statuettes and has exhibited at all the european art centres. in his work for the scheep- vaarthuis at amsterdam (1915-6), for which he made nine granite figures, van den eijnde was assisted by theo van reijn, who decorated the polytechnic high school (1921) and other buildings at delit. hildo krop—whose work approaches that of gaudier- brzeska more nearly than that of any other dutch sculptor—and jan van lunteren have done important work on public buildings at the hague and rotterdam. by the former sculptor are the albert hahn monument at amsterdam (1919) and the marble clock for the rotterdam town hall (1920). lambertus zijl also shows in his architectural sculpture the features to be found in the best modern dutch work—a strong feeling for decorative forms combined with a treatment almost cubist in the simplicity of its planes. among other sculptors are johan raedecker, herman frederik bieling, bernard richters, gijs jacobs van den hof, adrianus remiens and johan polet. denmark.—foremost among the younger sculptors of den- mark is einar utzon-frank, professor of sculpture at the royal academy at copenhagen. some of his works were included in the exhibition of danish art held at brighton in 1912, and a larger selection was shown at the leicester galleries in 1924. most typical of his art are the small bronze figures of women, which re- call the work of joseph bernard, as also do those of johannes bjerg, mrs. old wagner and willie wulff. kai nielsen has made a number of large groups for copenhagen. the figures by svend rathsack are more academic, and in his figure, “ adam ” (1914) he shows considerable sculptural ability. j. p. dahl- jensen has modelled a number of animal groups. bibliograpiy.—general w. radenberg, afoderne plastik (1912); r. bosselt, probleme plastischer kunst und des kunstunterrichts (1919); 1. taft, afedern tendencies in sculpiure (1921); a. kuhn, die neuere plastik von achtzehnhundert bis zur gegenwart (1922); k. parkes, sculpture of to-day, 2 vol. (1921); c. r. post, history of enropean and american sculpture (1921); modern british sculpture, an olficial record of some of the works by members of the royal society of british sculptors (1922); f. m. huebner, nieuwe lol- landsche beeldhouwkunst (1922); c. laurin, e. hannover and j. thiis, scandinavian art (1922); a. adams, the spirit of american sculpture (1923); catalogue of exhibition of american sculpture held by the natural sculpture society (1923); p. westheim, architek- tonik des plastischen (1923); s. cheney, a primer of modern a rt (1924); e. gill, sculpture, an essay on stone-ceutting (19621) <)5 nv mcspadden, famous sculptors of america, with bibliography (1924); m. sauerlandt, deutsche bildhauer um 1900 von hildebrand bis lehmbruck (1925). seaplanes plate i. ia i. fic. 1. fairey ‘titania’ seaplane. fic. 2. blackburn “ velos” torpedo-carrying seaplane. fic. 3. fairey iii d seaplane. fic. 4. curtiss seaplane (winner of 1925 schneider cup). courtesy of fairey aviation co. (figs. 1 and 3); blackburn aeroplane & motor co. (fig. 2); ‘‘aero digest” (fig. 4). plate ii. seaplanes ni jlaterior lighting lamp | a nt . instrumerrt board | 38). 7 x iy * i : ; i € oe f | _— ajleron correro! wh “= f ) toageron ft ndi f ; * ¥ {- p j apilot’s gckpith. wae ee \ with seats , control cofumn yd wireless % receiver \ removed | pe 5 fetrol gauge : ea _ ] a housing vor window~4, ; controls ; : pul’. * - = : we cable cross-bracing\ | : of fuselage £ | oly petrol pumps” (hand operated ) holder tor signalling larne lower. #4 : | diagonal bracing , longeron | te * x. struts we ba. auxiliary petrol tank ee, lelow floor ae fic. 5. fairey “ fremantle’ seaplane. this machine is fitted with a650 h. p. rolls-royce ‘‘ condor”’ engine, and was built for the british air ministry. in order that the entire fuselage should be free for other purposes, most of the petrol is carried in tanks inside the floats. fic. 6. interior of same machine. (by courtesy of the fairey aviation co., ltd.) sealing machine—seaplanke works on particular artists include e. pound, gasdier-brzeska (1916); g. coquiot, rodin 4 i’hetel biron (1917); a. e. gallatin, paul manship (1917); [van mestrevie, a monograph (1919); kosta strajni¢, ivan mestrovie (1919); a. ujevite, rosandie (1920); b. van dieren, epstein (1920); a. f. j. delen, rik wouters (1922); c. roger- marx, charles despiau (1922); a. matejctek, jan stursa (1923); m. denis, 4. afaillol (1925); h. wellington, jacob epstein (1925). (r. p. be.) sealing machine: see office appliances. seaplane.—seaplanes are types of aircraft capable of arising from or alighting on the water. they may be subdivided into the following classes:— 1. float seaplanes, in which the landing gear consists of one or more floats or pontoons. 2. boat seaplanes, in which the central portion consists of a boat providing flotation. 3. amphibians, which may be of either of the above types but with the addition of a landing gear enabling the aircraft to arise from or alight on the land as well as from the water. the float seaplane in practically every case consists of a normal land type of aeroplane, in which the landing wheels have been replaced by one or more floats. in many aircraft this has actu- ally been done; for example, in the american flight round the world in 1924 the land chassis was removed and substituted by two floats during the long over-sea flights. in the smaller types of aircraft up to approximately 10,000 ib. total weight, the float seaplane shows advantages over the boat seaplane, the body, wings, airscrew, etc., may be well clear of the water, a high positive metacentric height can be obtained by suitably spacing two floats, and clean external lines, giving a minimum head resistance, can easily be obtained. the latter point is demonstrated by the fact that the last two “ schneider ” cup races in 1925 and 1923 were both won by seaplanes of the float type. in larger types of aircraft, the boat seaplane improves on the float type. as the dimensions of the central hull increase so the seaworthiness of the aircraft is improved beyond that of the twin float type. again, in the larger types, the hull replacing both the fuselage and landing gear of the float seaplane, there is a considerable saving in weight. this saving in weight in the largest flying boats is sufficient to enable them to compare favour- ably with land aeroplanes of equal dimensions in regard to structural weight. in normal sized boat or float seaplanes, how- ever, the ratio of structural weight to load carried compares unfavourably with that of land aeroplanes. the float or hull forms employed are designed to act as hydro- planes when the aircraft is leaving the surface of the water, 7.e., that as the speed over the water increases the hydrodynamic forces acting upon the float tend to raise the float, thus reducing its displacement and consequently its resistance. the reduction in water resistance is also enhanced by the use of one or more lateral ‘ steps ” on the bottom of the float. resistance.—as resistance is caused by the water film drawn along by the passage of the float through the water, the step tends to break this water film and replace it by a vortex layer of water and air. these hull and float forms are usually tested by means of small scale models towed in a tank such as the william froude national tank at teddington (london). the forces acting on the model are converted to full scale by multiplying the square of the scale by the square of the corresponding specds, 1.¢., by the cube of the scale. as the speed of the hull or float is increased from zero, its resistance at first increases rapidly and then decreases with further increase of speed. the speed at which this maximum resistance occurs is known as the “ hump ” speed. this hump speed is of the greatest importance in sea- plane design. when taking off from the water this speed must be passed through, and, as the air resistance of the wings, body, etc., must be added to the water resistance, the total resistance may be very high. airscrew design.—the airscrew must be capable of exerting a thrust at an air speed corresponding to this speed, which is greater than the total resistance of the aircraft at its hump speed, otherwise the speed of the aircraft on the water will never exceed this speed, and the aircraft will be incapable of taking off the 491 water. to obtain this required thrust, it is often necessary to employ an airscrew which is inferior in efficiency to one designed for flight performance only. stability preblems.—longitudinal dynamic stability in boat seaplane hulls is usually obtained by using one main step slightly abaft the centre of gravity of the aircraft and by the addition of a smaller step further aft. this small step is usually only operative when the hull is running at fairly large positive angles, and is intended to neutralise any tendency to pitch or “ porpoise ”’ when taking off or alighting. float seaplanes may be of the “‘ two- float’ or “ three-float ”’ type. in the two-float type the floats are made long enough to give longitudinal stability when at rest on the water, and when leaving the water the attitude of this aircraft is determined almost entirely by the dynamic character- istics of the floats. in the three-float type, static stability on the water is obtained by the addition of a small float below the tail. in taking off the water the fore and aft inclination of the aircraft is controlled entirely by the pilot by means of the elevating machinery. lateral stability at rest in twin-float seaplancs may be ob- tained by placing the floats sufficiently far apart, but these are usually supplemented by “wing tip” floats, i.e., small iloats on the under sides of the lower planes. these wing tip floats only come into operation under exceptional conditions, such as turn- ing on the water in a strong wind. the single-float seaplane, hav- ing one large central float assisted by wing-tip tloats has very poor lateral stability unless the wing-tip floats are made very large, and this type is now practically extinct. in boat seaplanes the metacentric height ts usually either very small or even negative, and in this case the lateral stability at rest is dependent largely on the wing-tip floats. certain designers have modified this method of obtaining lateral stability. dornier, forexample, employs two small, rudimentary wings of symmetrical section, projecting from the sides of the hull at the water line, while in the rohrbach boat seaplane two fairly large floats similar to those of a two-float seaplane are mounted one on either side of the hull. aerodynamically, the seaplane varies little from the aeroplane. in boat seaplanes the engines and airscrews are situated high above the hull in order that they may be clear of water and spray, the result being that the centre of thrust is above the centre of gravity of the aircraft. this high position of the centre of thrust above the centre of gravity forms a negative couple, tending to drop the nose of the aircraft when the engines are running, and a boat seaplane in trim for level flight under these conditions would tend to increase its angle of incidence should the engines be stopped. to coun- teract this change of trim, a negative angle of incidence is given to the tail plane which is often of cambered aerofoil section in- verted, t.e., with its convex surface downwards. this tail plane being in the slip stream of the airscrews causes a large negative moment with the engines running, the moment decreasing when the engines are stopped, thus counteracting the change in thrust and centre of gravity couple. m odes of consiruction.—constructionally, hulls and floats have followed wood boat building construction, though in the method of obtaining the necessary strength boat seaplane hulls have de- veloped on two lines. firstly, the rigid hull, in which the hull is itself strong enough to withstand the impact of striking the water when taking off in a rough sea or alighting; and secondly, the flexible type of hull. in the flexible hull, the impact stresses are absorbed by the elasticity of the hull structure. these hulls are usually of circular section with the “ steps ’? added by form- ing “double bottoms ” for certain longitudinal sections only. use of afctal—tlately, the construction of hulls of metal has advanced considerably, duralumin or other aluminium alloy being employed. steel has not yet been successfully employed for hull construction, as plates of the requisite thickness for lightness and strength yet light enough to complete with the aluminium alloys, would be too thin to withstand any effects of corrosion from salt water or smalllocalimpacts. in very large seaplanes of the future it is quite possible that steel hulls may be employed (see aero- nautics). ce bs) 492 sea power (sce 24.548).—historical lessons could be drawn about sea power from several wars subsequent to those men- tioned in the previous article, as, for instance, from the war between italy and turkey in 1912, in which, for lack of sea power, turkey was unable to hold her islands in the aegean or her territory in north africa; also from wars in the balkans. these were all overshadowed by the world war of 1914-8, which afforded examples not only of the great advantages con- ferred by sea power, but also of its limitations, and of the difficulties in applying it, now that all nations, whether bel- ligerent or neutral, have become so dependent upon each other for economic prosperity, and even for their very existence. the lessons about sea power that can be learned from a study of the great conflict can best be considered in four main aspects: (1) the facility which it offers or refuses for transport of troops over a worldwide theatre of war; (2) the supply to armies of the sustenance and munitions necessary to their success in land operations; (3) the protection of merchandise, of raw materials, and of food supplies crossing the seas; and, conversely, (4) the power which it confers of exerting economic pressure, especially against industrial nations, and through them upon the fighting forces which they may employ, by sea, land and air, to force matters ta an issue. sea power in the worlpd war central powers’ disadvantages.—it will be convenient to deal with the application of sea power in the world war under those four headings. in the first place, however, it must be borne in mind that the central european powers (germany and austria-hungary), though favourably situated, on “interior lines,” for the most effective use of armies against their oppo- nents, were severely handicapped by geographical conditions in making use of their sea forces in the oceanic theatre of war. although they possessed strongly defended naval bases, any forces issuing from those bases were confronted with the problem of running the gauntlet, through comparatively narrow waters, past the territory of strong and hostile sea powers. of the german outlying war vessels the fast battle cruiser ** goeben,”’ which had been refitting at pola in july ro14, passed northward through the straits of mcssina on aug. 3, and after bombarding algerian ports early on aug. 4 (before great britain was at war with germany), turned eastward, coaled at messina on aug. 5 and succeeded in reaching the dardanelles on aug. 10, evading the strong british and french forces in the mediterranean. she ultimately furnished an object lesson in the influence of local sea power upon political issues by bom- barding, under the turkish flag, russian black sea ports. ‘the participation of turkey in the war on the side of the central powers put a new complexion upon the conilict, and caused the dispersion of allied forces, especially british, both by sea and by land. in more distant stations, the most formidable german vessels were the fast armoured cruisers ‘ scharnhorst ’”’ and “ gneise- nau,” which, with some light cruisers, were in the pacific, under count von spee. these, for some time unlocated, met and sank off coronel in chile on nov. 4 1914 an inferior and slower force under sir christopher cradock, thus illustrating the need for superior speed in weak sea forces detached upon missions remote from support by the main fleets, a lesson that was put on record by kempenfelt in the 18th century, when he pointed out that “ faster sailers ’”’ were the only vessels competent to perform such missions (g. g. aston, sea, land and -lir strategy, pp. 132-4). von spee’s squadron, in its turn, was destroyed by a superior force of battle cruisers under sir doveton sturdee off the falkland islands on dec. 8, thus affording another illustration of the same principle. besides the vessels mentioned above, there were also some german light cruisers and armed merchant vessels in distant seas. these were all rounded up by april 1915. some of these showed much enterprise and resource, and attained spectacular results, but better perspective will be maintained about the general operations of surface craft in the world theatre of war sha power by quoting the summary from the official british history: ‘‘ so (in april rors) ended the first phase of the german attack upon our sea-borne trade. never in the long story of our wars had the seas been so quickly and so effectively cleaned of com- merce destroyers, and, in comparison with what had been anticipated, the whole campaign had been singularly ineffective.” let us here take note of the point that the want of suitable naval bases ‘ suitably spaced from each other ” (a. it. mahan) added to the difficulties experienced by the central powers in conducting operations by sea, a point to be borne in mind when considering the historical precedents afforded by the world war. another point to be noted is the revolution in facilities, both for protection of merchant ships and transports and for attacks upon them, that were afforded for the passing of information and arrangement of movements by new and more rapid means of communication, especially telegraph cables and radio-teleg- raphy and telephony, introduced in the years that preceded the world war. respective aims of allies and central powers.—it is desirable also to note that on the one side were belligerents whose interest it was to stop all sea traffic while the issue was being determined by land battles; on the other side, belligerents to whom sea trafic was of vita] importance for treop movements, for the supply and equipment of their armies, and for the economic needs of their civil population. the central powers accordingly employed without scruple every resource, in the shape of surface vessels, submarines, aircraft and submarine mines sown broad- cast on the high seas, in order to make the risks of sea transport prohibitive; whilst the allies made it their business to keep the seaways open by devising counter-measures to sink, damage, blockade or otherwise render ineffective all these forms of menace. within about eight months of the outbreak of war all serious risk from the depredations of surface craft in distant seas had, as we have seen, been averted, while the main danger, from the german high seas flect, no longer existed after the battle of jutland on may 31 1016. the greatest risk from submarines and from submarine mines in the highways of sea traflic (new features in sea warfare) continued until the con- clusion of the war, and at one period the victory of the allied and associated powers was in consequence seriously jeopardised. another matter to be considered is the effect of modern local defence weapons, especially forts and mines, upon the applica- tion of sea power in seas to which access can be obtained only through narrow defended channels. this can best be illustrated by a reference to the part taken by the british navy, aided by the french, in the dardanelles campaign for access to constantinople and the black sea. these operations were not directed against any purely naval objective. they were initiated by a decision by the british war council, in jan. rors, that the “ admiralty should prepare to bombard and take the gallipoli peninsula with constantinople as the objective.’ in order to pass bevond the dardanelles, the war vessels would have had to go through minefields (‘ paravanes ” had not then been invented) against a rapid current, through narrow chan- nels under the close fire of formidable forts, exposed to torpedo attack both from the shore and from hidden torpedo craft, as well as to plunging fire from concealed mobile howitzers. even had the warships themselves succeeded in running the gauntlet, it would not have been possible for their unarmed fuel and store ships to follow them into the sea of azov unless the defences of the narrows could first be destroyed. the task proved to be beyond the powers of purely naval forces, and lessons taught by historical experience about the limitations of sca power under such conditions were once again confirmed. transport of troops.—taking now the several headings under which we have grouped the advantages of sea power, we observe, first, that the facility which sea power offered for the transport of hostile troops over a worldwide theatre of war was the domi- nating factor in the failure of the central powers to achieve a victory on land, their plan for so doing having been first to crush the french army, violating the neutrality of belgium in | order to increase the frontage of advance (and so envelop the sea power french left flank) and then to turn their attention to the russian army. it was sea power that enabled the small british expeditionary force to cross the channel to stand in the path of von kluck’s enveloping army at mons and at le cateau, and, when the british were cut off by kluck from their base at havre, it was through sea power that the base of operations was changed go the loire. using a new line of supply, the british were able to cross the marne to the northward, in the gap between kluck’s and biilow’s armies, and thus to exercise a decisive influence on the most critical day of joffre’s great battle which caused the failure of the german plan of campaign. in the later stages of the war, sea power enabled the allied and associated powers to transport their newly raised armies to the decisive theatre of operations against the german army, and to take part in various campaigns elsewhere. the completeness of control over sea communications for this purpose can be gathered from the fact that during the course of the war the sea movements of troops included about 23,000,000 individual voyages of british empire soldiers to take part in operations overseas, and that, amongst the first 1,000,000 trans- ported, there was not a single casualty, either from enemy action or from marine risks. this immunity continued during the war between surface craft. subsequent losses of troops at sea, always a very small percentage of the whole, were caused mainly by submarine attack, but this new menace did not prevent the american army from crossing the atlantic in 1917-8 to bear its part in the final and most critical stage of the conflict on land. tre four main aspects or sea powerr supply of food and munitfions.—a point not fully realised before the world war, but emphasised by experience therein, was the extent to which modern armies, after their transport to a destination beyond the sea, are constantly and continuously dependent upon sea communication for reinforcements in per- sonnel, and for supplics, stores and equipment, to enable them to carry out their operations. this takes us to (2) the facilities which sea power confers for the supply of the necessary muni- tions and sustenance to armies. while the central powers were more self-contained, their opponents’ armies would have been unable to continue the conilict on land without the sea power which placed worldwide resources at their disposal. a condition to be noted in connection therewith (and with the movement of the troops themselves considered under the previous heading), was the strain upon a country’s resources in merchant shipping caused by the employment of armies in oversea operations. the more distant the operations the greater the strain, because the voyages take longer, and more ship tonnage has therefore to be employed in proportion to the loads to be trans- ported. some idea of this strain upon resources in merchant ships can be gathered from these figures: nearly 45,000,000 tons of british military stores were transported by sea during the course of the war. towards its close, about 520 british vessels, of about 1,750,000 total gross tonnage, were employed in british military services. excepting in the carliest stages, this may be taken approximately as the average so employed, in addition to the british vessels placed at the disposal of allied powers, including the vessels that were employed during the last few months in carrying about 250,000 tons dead-weight per month to the american army in france. these statistics bring out the need for powers, which depend upon sea communications for the sustenance of their populations, to consider the needs of those populations, when contemplating the scale upon which operations involving the use of armies overseas can be conducted. this opens up the wide question in the exercise of sea power which we have grouped under the heading (3), the protection of merchandise, raw materials and food supplies crossing the high seas, and, conversely, (4) the amount of economic pressure which can in these days be exerted upon industrial nations, and through them upon the armies which they employ to force matters to an issue. here again we shall be well advised to bear constantly in mind the special and unusual conditions 493 which applied to the great conflict. these are clearly brought out in c. e. fayle’s british “ official”? history of seaborne trade, in which he points out that, for al] the belligerents alike, dependence upon overseas supplies was greatly accentuated by the character of the war itself. the development of naval and military material, and the direct demands of the fighting forces upon the products of industry, exceeded everything that had been known or anticipated, and those demands increased directly and indirectly the importance of maritime communications, upon which they threw a heavy strain. the blockage of the passage of supplies inevitably meant widespread interference with neutral trade, and, apart altogether from the legal aspect of the matter, it soon became evident that the dependence of the belligerents themselves on supplies from neutral countries made it impossible to ride roughshod over neutral interests. owing to the strength of the allies at sea rendering evasion very difficult, neutral merchants and ship-owners were ready to make large concessions rather than incur delay and incon- venience arising from the exercise by the allies of their un- doubted right of visit and search (q.v.), and the allies also possessed almost a monopoly of certain supplies necessary to the neutral powers who were in a position to assist in main- taining german trade. for such reasons it is necessary to be cautious in drawing from the world war deductions about the effect, in future wars, of the application of sea power under the headings which we are now considering. protection of mferchandise.—taking these now in detail, the protection by the allies of their food, merchandise and muni- tions crossing the high seas furnished them with a new problem of great dilhiculty when submarines were employed by the central powers as commerce destroyers, which disregarded all previous agreements amongst civilised nations for the protection of the lives of neutrals and of noncombatants at sea in time of war. it was clear that the safety of the sea communications, upon which the success of the allied cause depended, would be of no avail if so much of the world’s shipping, belligerent and neutral, could be destroyed that the residue did not suffice to maintain the traffic. nearly 13,000,000 gross tons in all (about two-thirds british) of merchant shipping was destroyed by enemy action alone, in addition to the normal wastage. great britain lost most heavily, having most to lose, but the net result was thus summarised by mr. fayle as official historian :— at no time was the reduction of supplies sufficient to inflict vital injury upon the life of the country ... . had losses continued at the same rate as in the spring of 1917, had the time occupied by the round voyage tn the atlantic continued to be what it was in the autumn of that year, there would have been a different tale to tell, and the gravity of the danger should not be forgotten because it was surmounted; but in the events which happened the strain was never so great as to be intolerable. such were the definite results. looking to the future possibility of the application of sea power being revolutionised by similar depredations of subma- rines, note should be taken of the fact that at washington, in feb. 1922, representatives of the united states, the british empire, france, italy and japan (the principal sea powers) bound themselves not to use submarines in this manner, and to treat as pirates all who did so, under whatever flag (vush- ington conference report, cmd. 1,627, 1922). economic pressure.-—there remains the experience gained in the years 1914~8-in exerting economic pressure by recognised methods. owing to differences of opinion about such recogni- tion, it was necessary for belligerents to proceed by negotiation and agreement as well as by decree, and at one time it seemed that the exercise of sca power might be stultified by new con- ditions (c. e. favyle, seaborue trade, vol. 3, p. 456), but if the belligerents were economically dependent upon the neutrals, so were the neutrals upon the belligerents, and there gradually arose around the central powers a network of agreements and undertakings, enforced by brisker regulations, embargoes on supplies and financial restrictions, as well as by naval force, which, though no technical blockade was instituted, amounted to a more effective and drastic stoppage of enemy trade than 494 naval force alone had ever secured.”” the methods adopted blocked the passages through ports in neutral countries, a result which could not have been achieved by blockading the sea coasts of the continental belligerents. the final result, as affect- ing germany, has thus been summarised (ibid): ‘‘ though germany’s balance of agricultural and industrial strength fitted her to endure a prolonged period of isolation better than any other european power, she was able to hold out for four and a half years only at the cost of a complete economic and social collapse, which was indeed precipitated by military defeat, but had already become inevitable.” nevertheless germany was never completely isolated, having had access to swedish ore to the end, and having twice, by the invasion of rumania and by the collapse of russia, replenished her food supplies at periods of acute crisis. germany’s allies were in a still more pitiful plight, and speaking generally, experience in the world war of 1914-8 emphasised, beyond all precedent and beyond all expectation, the importance of maritime communications, and therefore of sea power. looking back at the great conflict, we note not only the effect, amounting to complete collapse, of the sea power of the defeated states, but also the redistribution of relative strength at sea between the victors, owing largely to the relative burden borne by them in achieving success. full details of the economic and financial burden borne by great britain in the allied cause will be found in the concluding chapters of seaborne trade, vol. 3, from which it suffices to quote the statement that “ far more serious in its permanent results than any direct effect of the constriction of supplies was the financial situation produced by the reduction of the export, and the redirection of both the export and the import trade. for these the submarine campaign was, in large measure, responsible.”” the new conditions affect especially the application of sea power to the pacific ocean. brbliography.—a. t. mahan, influence of sea power on history (1889); sir g. g. aston, sea, land and air strategy (1914), war lessons new and ojd (1919) and hamley’s operations of war, 7th ed. (1922); j. r. smith, influence of the great war upon shipping (1919); sir j. s. corbett, zzzstory of the great war, naval operations (1921); a. s. hurd, the merchant navy (1921); c. e. fayle, sea- borne trade (1913-4); h. c. bywater, sea power 1n the pacific (1921) and the great pacific war (1925); g. a. ballard, the influence of the sea on the political ih1story of japan (1921), and america and the atlantic (1923); m. parmelee, blockade and the sea power i9i4-q9 (1925). (g. g. a.) seattle, wash., u.s.a. (see 24.563), increased in population from 237,194 in 1910 to 315,312 in 1920 (113°§ males to roo females), of whom 80,976 were foreign born, including 6,016 japanese; in 1925 (estimate based on school census), 355,000. the land area in 1925 was 68-5 square miles. bank clearings in- creased 245 °% between 1910 and 1924 (to $2,039 million); bank deposits, 125% (to $176,608,338). the output of the factories within the city limits was valued at $50,814,000 in 1900; $274,- 431,000 in 1919; $115,046,908 in 1921; $155,780,967 in 1923, when there were 836 establishments, employing 17,842 wage- earners. during the war shipbuilding employed 30,000 to 40,000 workers, directly and indirectly. waterborne commerce reached its peak (measured by value) in 1918 and rg19, but after the post-war drop again increased, until in 1924 its value ($664,- 567,049) was seven times that of 1910. the greatest increase was in foreign imports (1,112°), with domestic imports next (624%), followed by foreign exports (490%) ‘and domestic ex- ports (280%). in 1924 seattle was a port of call for 65 steam- ship lines; it received 70% of the raw silk entering u-s. ports. under the public corporation known as the port of seattle, organised in rg11, harbour facilities were developed to a valua- tion of $15,000,000 by 1924, including terminal wharves (two of them half a mile long), transit sheds, waterside warehouses and cold-storage plants, grain elevators and tanks for vegetable and fuel oils. in rorz the city took its first step towards munici- pal ownership and operation of the street railways; by 1925 it owned and operated 235 m. of the total of 265. the municipal light and power plant, in the face of determined opposition from the private power companies operating in the city, built up its sea ttle—secondary schools patronage until in 1924 it had 83,000 of the total 108,000 cus- tomers in the city. in 1924 the first unit was completed of a development on the skagit river which will reach ultimately 550,000 to 600,000 horsepower. a large amount of building of all kinds (including a 42-storey building) was done immediately after the war, the permits for 1919-25 (through oct.) represent- ing a value of $140,286,145. a zoning ordinance was adopted in 1923. a civic centre was developed. parks and playgrounds were increased until the area amounted to 1,900 acres. scenic boulevards were constructed to the extent of 35 miles. secondary schools.—this term is used, both in great britain and america, for schools in which education beyond the elementary or first stages is given to both boys and girls. i. in great britain before the outbreak of the world war in 1914, there was a steady growth in the number and the efficiency of secondary schools in great britain. local education authorities, under the powers conferred upon them by the act of 1902, took over or made annual grants to existing schools and created new schools; and the board of education’s regulations for 1907—providing for increased and uniform grants, subject to conclitions, of which the most important was the provision of free places for ex-public elementary school children—both stimulated and guided fresh developments. these developments reacted upon the schools which remained independent of state or local control, and pro- vided them with a powerful incentive to efficiency. _ in the 10 years ending 1914-5 the number of schools on the grant list in england and wales rose from 575 to 1,047, and the number of pupils per 1,000 of the population from 2-9 to 5-5; moreover, the average size of the schools has shown a remarkable increase, which has naturally made for efficiency. in 1908-9, 64 out of 912 schools had less than 50 pupils while at the present time, not more than 8 °4 of the total have less than 100. the free place system, working in with the provision of scholarships both by the schools and by local education authorities, and also with the provisions made for the education of teachers, helped the efficiency of the schools; it was largely responsible, especially through the provision of intermediate scholarships at 15-16, for raising the standard of work up to and beyond the matriculation stage, and through the fixing of age limits for scholarships and free places it helped to bring about a general standardisation of the age of entry to secondary schools; and this again affected both the leaving age and the length of school life. the number of schools in which a considerable amount of stxth form work is done has increased steadily, and though the economic conditions which tend to the premature withdrawal of boys and girls from school are slow to change, there has been a steady improvement; the average school life of boys rose from two years and seven months in 1908-9 to three years and five months in 1922-3, and that of girls in the same period from two years and seven months to three years and six months, while the average leaving age rose in the case of boys from 15-5 to 15-11, and in the case of girls from 1§-ii to 16-2, most of this development, however, belongs to the period beginning in 1914. within a few months after the beginning of the war, it became evident that there was an astonishing increase in the demand for secondary education. this demand persisted all through the war, and although the economic difficulties of the last few years have had their effect upon it, and the diminu- tion in the birth rate during the war is bound for some time to lessen the number of children available, this new desire for education is still, and will surely continue to be, alive and active. that desire has shown itself not merely in the increase in the numbers applying for admission to secondary schools but even more in the support given to the important educational measures introduced during this period. as to the schools, the numbers on the grant list for england and wales in 1924-5 were 1,281 (471 boys’, 462 girls’ and 348 mixed schools), containing 188,268 boys and 171,176 girls; the number of pupils per 1,000 of the population, which in 1904-5 had been no more than 2-9 (1-9 boys, 1-0 girls), was now 9-5 (5-0 boys, 4-5 girls); between 1908 and 1920 the number of boys proceeding to universities increased from 695 to 1,674, and the number of girls from 361 to 1,214. besides the schools on the grant list, the board of education has now recognised as efficient after inspection about 270 public and private secondary schools and about 100 private preparatory schools. the average size of the schools on the grant list rose from 190 in 1914-5 to 281 in 1924-5; the number of free place pupils rose from 65,799 (33-1% of the total numbers) in 1914-5 to 130,188 (36-2 °% of the total numbers) in 1924-5. secondary schools financial aspects —so great an expansion would have been impossible without a great increase in expenditure from both rates and taxes over anything that was contemplated in 1902, or even on the introduction o} the free place system in 1907. though few authorities as yet maintain free secondary schools, and fees have been generally raised by about 50%, there are few schools on the grant list in which any pupil’s fees cover as much as half the cost of his education. the increase in the board’s grant from £5 per pupil over 12 to £7 in 1917, together with special grants for advanced courses, brought some relief, but it was not until the act of 1918 repealed the 2d. limit on rate aid to higher education, and also provided that the state contribution should be not less than one-half of the local education authority’s ap- proved expenditure, that the necessary progress could be faced. status of teachers —one of the earliest consequences of this provision was an improvement in the salaries of teachers, brought about for the first time on a national basis in 1920, by the stand- ing joint committce of representatives of local educational authorities and teachers, constituted under the chairmanship of lord burnham, at the suggestion of mr. fisher. the teacher’s superannuation act of 1918 had established a pension system modelled on the civil service scheme; and though financial stress led before long to the requirement of contributions from the teachers to the cost of pensions, and again in 1925 to a modifica- tion of the salary agreement, the position of the teachers has been substantially improved and the work of the schools has benefited. examination reforms —two valuable reforms were initiated by the board of education in 1917. the secondary schools had long suffered from the number and variety of external examina- tions, many of which had originally served a useful purpose in stimulating a tradition of organised work, but had become op- pressive and confusing. the consultative committee of the board had issued a report on the subject in 1911; in 1914 the board, which had already abolished in schools under its control the use of external examinations for lower and middle forms, issued proposals for the recognition of two grades of examination —roughly speaking a fifth form examination for pupils of 16-17 anda sixth form examination for pupils of 18-19— to be conducted by university examining bodics. in 1917, the secondary schools examinations council, representative of the examining bodies, the local education authorities and the teaching profession, was established as a co-ordinating authority, and since then the first and second school examinations of one or other of cight university examining bodies have gradually become a useful element in the organisation, not only of schools under the board’s control but of secondary schools ef every kind. in grant-aided schools the board pays the examination charges for each pupil up to a maximum of £2. in 1923-4, 39,973 pupils in grant-aided schools took a first examination and 5,342 a second. advanced courses —the second reform was the encourage- ment of sixth form work by the provision of special grants for recognised advanced courses in certain groups of subjects; the grouping of subjects, at first conceived on a rather rigid formula, has been greatly modified, and almost any kind of advanced work likely to be done in a secondary school may now be recog- nised; but the special grant, except for schools taking no aid from local education authorities, has now been merged in the general provision made by the act of 1918. in 1924-5, 469 ad- vanced courses were recognised (235 in science and mathematics, 37 in classics, 188 in modern studies, 6 in classical with modern studies, 3 in geography). connection with universities —with the increase in the numbers of secondary school pupils, the relation of the schools both to the universities and other places of university rank and to employment, has become increasingly important. the first and second school examinations are of real value in both con- nections, and are gradually simplifying the conditions of entrance to the universities and the professions, and even to some extent commerce and industry. most local education authorities inter- est themselves systematically in finding suitable spenings for the pupils in their schools. in london, two joint committees of 495 heads of schools and employers find employment for a very large number of boys and girls, and this work grows rapidly. in 1920, the board instituted a scheme for the award of 200 state scholarships to universities for pupils in grant-aided secondary schools; the scheme was dropped in 1922 and 1923, but revived in 1924. the award is based on the second school examination; the amount varies with circumstances but is cal- culated to finance the whole of the scholar’s university course. but the various provisions by which poor students may be aided so as to enable them to pursue university and other higher courses are still in urgent need of revision and co-ordination; this is per- haps the weakest spot in the educational system. (r. f. c.) il. in the united states the high schools of the united states have shown phenomenal expansion in pupil attendance. in 1900 there were 519,251 pupils registered in public high schools. in r910 the number had in- creased to 915,061; in 1920, to 1,857,155; in 1922, to 2,229,407. the ratio of registrants to the total population of high- school age is approximately 1 to 3. nowhere else is there any approach to this ratio. it is estimated that in england and germany the ratio never was icss than 1 to 12 or 20. these statistics make it clear that the most striking fact, with regard to the american democratic school system, is the opportunity which it affords to young people of all social and economic con- ditions to secure an education beyond the elementary level. especially striking is the development of a great many small high schools in rural and town communities which a generation ago were satisfied with elementary schooling. when rural com- munities cannot establish high schools they have very commonly induced the legislatures of their states to provide gencrously for the payment of tuition of pupils in the neighbouring districts where there are such schools. curriculum changes —with the increase in pupil population has come an expansion in the curriculum. changes in the curriculum are due in part to the demands made by the new type of pupils coming into the high-schools, and in part to a recognition on the part of educators that new subjects are necessary to pre- pare young people for modern life. chief among the additions to the curriculum are commercial courses (see commercial epucattion) and industrial courses (see industrial education). correspondingly there has been a falling off in the percentage of the high school population which takes the classical courses. the details of this change in so far as it affects latin and greek and certain other subjects are shown in the following table:— percentage of the total pupil registration in high school taking various subjects 1900 | 1905 mr fe erie eet latin re er ff es | lt greek . a | fe | s| | alec ss french english literature. reer | es fr tr ts | et rhetoric rere — ence | re er cf fe | home economics trends of expansion.—there is a strong tendency for the high school to expand downward and upward, so as to include within the scope of secondary education the later years of the traditional elementary curriculum and the carly years of the college. the two special names which have been employed to designate the expansions downward and upward are junior high school and junior college. the growth of the junior high school has been very rapid during the years 1910-25. it was first established in such centres as berkeley, cal.; columbus, o.; and concord, new hampshire. it has taken on a great variety of forms. in some cases it has been a pre-vocational school; in others it has ad- ministered a curriculum very like the curriculum formerly given in the first year of the high school. in a great many cases it has been a high school only in administrative treatment of the pupils, 496 retaining the curriculum which belonged to the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary school. the junior college has developed in about 75 cities of the united states as an extension of the public high school. in ap- proximately an equal number of centres the junior college has developed independently of other higher institutions. there seems to be a tendency to provide very generally for the training of pupils beyond the present high school age by organising college courses in local high schools where they will be readily and econom- ically accessible. there is also an academic reason for this develop- ment in the fact that the courses now commonly taken by college freshmen and sophomores are much more closely related in methods of instruction and in content to high-school courses than thev are to senior college courses. teachers.—the standards for the training of secondary teach- ers in the united states are steadily rising. college graduation and professional courses in general school administration and in methods of teaching are generally required. standardising and accrediting associations have been organised in all sections of the country. there were in 1926 more than 14,000 accredited high schools in the united states. (c. h. j.) second (socialist) international.—the first meetings of the second international, reconstituted in 1889, had been de- voted mainly to discussion of the tactics and methods of the affiliated national parties, but from 19r1t onward another ques- tion occupied a constantly increasing attention—the question of war and peace. it had already been discussed at the congress of amsterdam in 1903, and from that date jaures began the study of the question which inspired his book, l’ armee nouvelle. at the congress of stuttgart in 1903 the question was again dis- cussed, at greater length, and herve’s outburst on this occasion led bebel and volmar to declare roundly that the social demo- crats would instantly rise as ohe man to defend germany if ever she were attacked. conditions before the war—but the european horizon steadily darkened, especially after 1911. the agadir incident, the italo-turkish war and the balkan wars, in succession, made the menace of a general conflagration appear imminent, and the efforts of the socialist parties to avert the catastrophe became more urgent and strenuous from that time. their efforts cul- minated in the extraordinary congress (1912) at basle, called to consider the international! situation and the action to be taken by social democrats to prevent war. a manifesto was issued, exhorting all workers to unite to secure from their governments a pacific foreign policy. this problem of peace—now practically the sole problem, for everything depended on the turn that events would take—was put on the agenda for the roth congress of the international which was to have been held in vienna two years later, in aug. 1914. the congress would have coincided with the s5oth anniversary of the founding of the international in london in 1864. for this occasion austrian socialists had prepared an illustrated commemorative album in which kautsky, victor adler and others had related the history of the socialist move- ment during the last half century. this document, which appeared in print at the moment when the world war broke out, was distributed 10 years alter as a souvenir among members of the executive committee of the international when they met in the former capital of the habsburgs in june 1924. the album contains, among other things, a series of medallion portraits of 66 members of the b.s.i. (international socialist bureau), which had its headquarters before the war in the maison du peuple at brussels. lenin’s portrait is not among them, although he was a member of the bureau for many years; but there are rosa luxemburg and c. g. rakovsky, together with jaures, ebert (the future president), also stauning, branting and macdonald, who later became premiers of denmark, sweden and creat britain respectively. there are delegates of trade unions too, but these are few and far between. this assembly, representing all the live forces of socialism, met for the last time at the maison du peuple, brussels, on july 29 and 30 ror4. even at that moment, when the world already lay under the second (socialist) international shadow of war, optimism still prevailed. adler regarded a war between germany and france as a moral impossibility; haase, chairman of the social democratic group in the reichstag, relied at this eleventh hour, not on humanity, but on the pusillanimity of the kaiser. jaures, speaking on the evening of july 30 for the last time, still affirmed his confidence in a pacific solution, but prophesied in a flash of inspiration that if, in spite of all, war were let loose on the world by its masters, then, at the close, each nation would turn upon those responsible for the disasters of the war and say: “ go, and seek pardon from god and man.” the next day he was assassinated in paris, and a state of war had been declared in germany. the bursting of the storm put an abrupt end to all international activities (see socialism). while the war lasted no single meet- ing of the executive committee took place, but some tentative efforts were made to revive international action. the most important of these were an attempt by the dutch-scandinavian committee (vigorously supported by camille huysmans, secretary of the second international) to convene an interna- tional congress at stockholm in 1917, and that of the italian so- cialist morgari to convoke conferences at zimmerwald (sept. 1915) and at kienthal (april 1916). the first of these efforts (the projected stockholm conference) proved abortive because of the refusal of the allied powers to grant passports to the delegates; at the zimmerwald and kienthal conferences only certain groups of the international proletariat were represented, and from these elements there was presently to emerge the communist international known as the third international. activity after the armistice —on the morrow of the armistice the need for international unification was brought home with renewed force. conferences were summoned successively at berne (feb. 1919), lucerne (aug. 1919) and geneva (aug. 1920) with a view to re-establishing the second international. meanwhile, however, the so-called third international had been formed at moscow, and for some time parties or groups! who were unwilling to be affiliated to either the second or the third grouped themselves in a workers’ international union of the so- cialist parties with vienna as its centre—hence the name “ vien- na international.” in the beginning of 1920 this organisation tricd to bring about the unification of all proletarian organisa- tions, and succeeded in calling together in berlin a reunion of the executive of the three groups in april 1922. but this effort at reconciliation ended in complete failure. since then the communist international has steadily accentu- ated its violent opposition to social democracy. on the other hand the points of dispute between vienna and london be- came progressively less. in 1g21-2 the french, english, ger- man, italian and belgian socialists who were adherents either of the vienna international or the second international met first in paris, then in frankfort, and of one accord adopted the resolutions which have since become famous as the “ frankfort resolutions.”’ anticipating the jlawes scheme, these demanded the reduction of the german debt to a reasonable figure, and, further, demanded the end of military occupations and the annulment of inter-allied debts. congress at hamburg —by december of the same year vienna and london had agreed to call a socialist international congress at hamburg. this took place on may 27 1923, when the inter- national was reconstituted—the communists being excluded— and the conditions on which parties or groups could be admitted were defined. agreement was reached with difficulty on a franco-german text which, drawing on the marxian vocabulary for its somewhat heavy terminology, appealed to ‘ those who acknowledged the aim of the working-class to be the replacement of the capitalist mode of production by the socialist mode of production and who sce in the cluss struggle (lutte des classes) which manifests itself in political and economic action the means of emancipating the working-class.” but when it came to translating this text into english the _1the principal groups concerned were the british i.l.p., the german independent socialists and the austrian social demo- crats. (ep, fe. b.) secret societies, chinese british delegates raised a discussion, arguing that the words “‘ lutte des classes ”’—the touchstone of socialism on the con- tinent—were not in current use in england; that the extremists, who alone used the expression, spoke not of “ class struggle ”’ but of “ class war ”’ and that it would be better in these conditions to retain the idea but to paraphrase it in some way as this: “independent political and industrial action of ‘the workers’ organisations.” and so it was arranged. the franco-german text was retained, for it could only have been altered at the cost of emasculation; but for british consumption a free translation was allowed. the present writer has thought it necessary to report this little incident, as it cannot fail to be instructive, showing as it does that, in spite of community of words and, on the whole, unity of tactics, english labour men and continental socialists do not speak quite the same language. now, these differences of terminology are the outward expression of other more decp- rooted differences arising out of the widely differing environment in which contemporary socialism is formed and developed. on reading such pre-war books, for instance,as the etudes socialistes of jean jaures, ramsay macdonald’s socialism and society or rakovsky’s das erfurter program, we see how widcly the socialism of jaures, instinct with the spirit of the french revolu- tion, and still more the socialism of ramsay macdonald, who draws inspiration from the pacific and fraternal idealism of christianity, is to be differentiated from the more “ materialist ”’ and more “ economic ”’ socialism of the german marxians. since the war, however, these differences have become less acute, even from the theoretical point of view. a sort of amalgam has been established between the various national parties: german socialism has become less doctrinaire; french socialism has drawn nearer to marxianism under guesdist influence; the socialism of the i.l.p. has almost completely captured english working-class movement. between those parties which recognise social democracy as their basis, there exists not only interna- tional unity of organisation, but unity of programme. this emerges clearly from the two first congresses of the new international. the hamburg congress of 1923 succeeded beyond all expectations. there were present 630 delegates from 30 countries, representing 7,000,000 afliliated members, during the debates, which lasted five days, the following points were discussed: international-action against international reaction, working-class policy on an imperialist peace, the eight-hour day, and the reform of international social legislation. but the most important achievement of the congress was the fusion of the london and vienna groups and the adoption of the statutes of the new workers’ and socialists’ international. in the three years preceding the second congress of the new second international (aug. 1925) that organisation was finally consolidated, and began to make itself more and more felt in international politics. there is no gainsaying the fact that direct action by the workers and the existence in all western countries of a powerful socialist party (either working within the government or using its influence from outside) have to a very large extent determined the new policy which eventually pro- duced the london agreement on reparations (1924) and the locarno pact of mutual guarantee. to be convinced of this we have only to look for a comparison at the resolutions passed at hamburg on the reparations problem and those at marseilles on security. there can be no better instance of the influence which socialism has acquired over the various governments and of its emergence as the decisive factor in matters of international policy. for bibliography sce the article sociarism. (e. va.) secret societies, chinese (sce 9.870).—most are merely trade guilds or friendly societies, but the hung, or triad, society is in an entirely different category. it has the largest membership of any secret society in the world, and has existed since a.d. 386, in close association with the white lotus. contemporary with the ancient mysteries, it is itself a great mystery rite over 1,500 years old. a few secular references to it must suffice. in a.d. 386 it was founded, or perhaps reorganised, by the buddhist patriarch eon 497 or hwui-yin at rozan, to spread the cult of amitabha buddha. in a.p. 630 zendo joined it to gain instruction, and in 1344 it rebelled against the mongolian or yiien dynasty. in 1662 it fell under the ban of khang hsi, who in his sacred edict instituted a persecution of the buddhists and taoists, and ordered the suppression of five religious societies, among which the white lotus and the hung were specifically named. the exact relation between these societies is still obscure, but, if they were not al- ternative titles for the same organisation, they were probably the names of different degrees of one common rite. it is just possible, however, that they were similar, but separate, mystical socicties. partly as a result of this persecution, the hung society became political and anti-dynastic, and has raised numerous insurrec- tions against the manchus, one of the most famous being the taiping revolt in 1851, and it is more than suspected of being behind the anti-foreign agitation of 1925. the rituals were pe- culiarly suitable for conversion from religious to political aims, since the slogan of the brotherhood is ‘‘ overthrow tsing and restore ming.” ming means light, and especially the perfected spirit in man; while tsing means the vital force or, as we should say, the soul immersed in matter. by shghtly changing the way in which the character for tsing is written, it becomes the name of the manchu dynasty, while the last chinese dynasty was the ming. hence it will be seen that the change from a buddhist-taoist mystical initiatory rite to a dangerous political society was easy. the rituals show a blending of taoist-buddhist ideas, having curious analogies with the egyptian book of the dead, and with certain “ higher degrees ” in western speculative freemasonry. the ceremony symbolises the journey of the soul through the underworld and paradise to the holy city of the gods, here called the city of willows, and interwoven with this is an allegory of the experiences of the mystic in his quest for union with the supreme being. as regards its analogies with masonry, practi- cally every important incident is found in certain “ higher de- grees ” in england and america, while most of the hand signs are known to many freemasons. the ceremony falls into four sections. first comes the tradi- tional history, which is given to the candidates in the anteroom before they enter the lodge. it is a moving story, wherein a body of monks who had helped the emperor are requited by him with the foulest treachery, all being murdered, save five who became the founders of the order. there are three villains, and for political purposes one is a manchu emperor, either khang hsi in some versions, his son, but originally the story was allegorical. after this the candidates are “‘ prepared ” in the anteroom. the most notable incidents are (a) ceremonial washing and changing into white robes to symbolise not only mourning but that they themselves are dead; (#) the right arm, shoulder and breast, and also the left knee, are made bare; (c) the substitution of grass slippers for ordinary boots. meanwhile the master opens and consecrates the lodge and invests his officers. the third section deals with the actual admission of the can- didates, who have to pass through three gates inside the lodge, and take the cath of blood brotherhood by mingling their blood with that of all members present in a cup of wine, from which each person present drinks. (women as well as men are eligible.) the last section consists of a catechism, wherein the master asks a series of questions, which the conductor answers for the candidates. from these we learn that they have been on a long and mysterious journey, first by land and then by boat, till they reached the city of willows. throughout the whole of this part of the ceremony great stress is laid on numbers which have a definite mystical significance. the triangle also plays an im- portant part in the ritual, hence the name “ triad ” society. the brotherhood has many aliases, the most famous being “ the society of heaven and earth.” the significance of the ceremony is revealed by the opening questions:— master: whence come you? vanguard: from the east. master: at what time? vanguard: at sunrise, when the east was light. 498 bibliography.— there are only three really important books on the subject, and the two earlier have not the complete ritual: g. schlegel, thian ti hwui, the hung-league (batavia, 1866), out of print; w. stanton, the triad society; or, ileaven and farth associa- tion of hong-kong (1900); j. £. m. ward and w. g. stirling, the iiung society (3 vol., 1925-6), published by the bookerville press, ltd., london. ch. sne wd security.—the problem of security confronted the allies immediately after the armistice of nov. 11 1918. germany’s military capitulation put an end to hostilities and permitted the victors to impose their conditions of peace on the vanquished. the sum of these conditions was to constitute a guarantee of the new european status and of the peace of the world. but it inevitably involved painful readjustments and burdensome ob- ligations for the conquered party. it was, therefore, necessary to find a system to guard against wars of revenge. the league of nations was formed for this purpose. unfortunately, the covenant of june 28 rorg, while laying down tutelary rules, did not establish sufficiently rapid, precise and energetic practical sanctions against a possible aggressor. clemenceau and marshal foch would have wished france’s se- curity to be guaranteed by fixing the western frontier of germany on the rhine, and by forminz the german territories on the left bank of the rhine into an independent buffer state. they set out this point of view in a series of notes or memoranda dated feb. 27 1918, jan. 10, feb. 25, march 12 and 31, april 28and may 6 ro1g. having failed to convince the representatives of great britain and the united states, clemenceau ended by accepting the offers of lloyd george and president wilson, which sub- stituted for the political and military rhine frontiers two treaties stipulating that if articles 42, 43 and 44 of the treaty of ver- sailles relative to the demilitarisation of the left bank of the rhine “ may not at first provide adequate security and protec- tion to france,’’ great britain (or the united states as the case might be) pledges herself ‘‘ to come immediatcly to her assistance in the event of any unprovoked movement of aggression against her being made by germany.” the two treatics hung together, and were not to take effect until they had been approved by the british parliament and the senate of the united states of ameri- ca. the latter having refused its ratification in 1920, the two treaties became null and void. , the project of a franco-british pact the british govt. admitted none the less a moral obligation to give france equivalent guarantees of security. in 1921 briand held negotiations on this subject with lloyd george and lord curzon. at the conference of cannes (dec. 1921-jan. 1922)! concrete proposals were considered. on jan. 4 1922 lloyd george laid a detailed memorandum before briand, in which he declared that the conclusion of a new pact of non-aggression must be dependent on the following conditions: complete under- standing between the two countries; no naval rivalry; non- execution of the french protramme of submarine construction; whole-hearted co-operation by france with great britain in the economic and financial reconstruction of europe; an immediate summoning of an economic conference at which all european powers, including russia, should be represented; a complete agreement between the two countries on the policy to be pursued in the east; the adoption of a broad plan of international co- operation to ensure the peace of europe as a whole. briand re- plied on jan. 8 by demanding that the engagements be bilateral, and that a military convention be concluded between the two general staffs. he added: ‘‘ whatever may be the guarantees offered by the league of nations, it will be well that the powers between which, as a result of the peace settlement, causes of dis- pute are most likely to arise should show, by some means even more precise than the covenant, the sincerity of their desire for peace.” briand thought fit te accept the summoning of a practi- cally universal conference in genoa before these broad ques- tions were properly explained, and without having consulted his own government; he was, therefore, obliged to retire. at the end of jan. poincare resumed the negotiations, insisting 1 the conference formally opened on jan. 6 1922, informal con-. versations having been held previously. security on the necessity for france to be protected against german ag- gression, an! on the necessity of a military convention between france and great britain. but the conversations and memoranda revealed little unity. especially they showed that, as lord curzon put it, the general responsibility of great britain re- sulling from the stipulations of the covenant was “‘ attenuated in the collective responsibilities of the other powers,” ? and that these stipulations, to be effective, should be complemented either by particular agreements or by a new convention complementary to the covenant. simultaneously with the franco-british proj- ect, the projected pact between great britain and belgium, which was being negotiated, fell through. furthermore, the cabinet of london refused to conclude a defensive military agreement with belgium analogous to that which that power had signed with france in 1920. the problem of security thus passed from the franco-belgian-british sphere of action to that of the league of nations. tue plan of the treaty of mutual assistance the third assembly, which met at geneva in the month of sept., passed a resolution (no. 14) by the terms of which the states which were members of the league of nations should pledge themselves mutually to military assistance against aggres- sion. but the end of 1922 and the early part of 923 were devoted to preliminary negotiations on the means of giving this resolution practical form. on the initiative of lord robert cecil and col. requin, two special commissions succeeded in drawing up a draft treaty of mutual assistance which was presented to the assembly of 1923. this plan was based on the following ideas:— (1) a pre-arranged plan of defence; (2) a pledge binding all members of the league of nations to come to the assistance of the state attacked; (3) liberty for members of the league of nations to conclude local defensive agreements complementary to their general obligations; (4) the obligation of assistance to be limited to countries situated in the same part of the globe; the globe to be divided into several regions by which this obligation should be defined; (5) control by the league of nations of the whole operation of the treaty of mutual assistance. after a detailed discussion, the fourth assembly unanimously passed a resolution on sept. 29 asking the council to submit the project of a treaty of mutual assistance to the scrutiny of the governments and to ask them to give their opinions on it. in accordance with this resolution, the general secretary had only communicated the plan to the states which were members of the league of nations. but at its session in dec. the council deter- mined to approach the other states as well, notably germany, » the united states of america and russia. the answers arrived slowly. the majority were unfavourable. russia sneered at the eflorts of the powers to ensure universal order. germany took the opportunity to protest against the status of a suspect assigned to her by the treaty of versailles and demanded compulsory and universal disarmament. on july 5 1924 ramsay macdonald declared that the league of nations ought not to take the responsibility of recommending a plan to its members unless this plan was “ in all respects reliable and effectual,” and that this was not the case with the document submitted to the governments. ile rejected the principle of special local treaties, demanded that they should be replaced by a general pact, and recommended arbitration as the solution of conllicts. in the face of this opposition, the projected treaty of mutual assistance could not take form: it was abandoned. tue prorocolt of geneva _ at the fifth assembly, herriot gave the outlines of a new pro- gramme founded on the three principles of arbitration, security and disarmament. after confidential conversations, macdonald and herriot agreed on a scheme which several commissions and subcommissions were appointed to transform into precise ar- rangements. thus the protocol of geneva was worked out, being 2french yellow book, 1129. security voted enthusiastically and unanimously on oct. 2. as regards security, articles 10 and 16 of the covenant were complemented by a series of arrangements (articles 7 to 15) defining the word ‘“‘ aggressor,” instituting enquiries into complaints of violation of the obligations of states; fixing the mechanism for the repres- sion of acts of aggression, pronouncing sanctions against aggres- sors and giving the states authority to undertake engagements among themselves, “ each determining in advance the military, naval and air forces which they would be able to bring into action immediately to assure the fulfilment of the obligations in regard to sanctions which result from the covenant and the protocol. two detailed reports handed in by dr. benes and m. nicolas politis contained most interesting commentaries. article 17 of the protocol arranged for the meeting at geneva of an international disarmament conference for june 15 1025. consequently on oct. 3 1924 the council appointed a committee to co-ordinate the preparatory work. this was to meet on nov. 17. but, in the interval, lord parmoor informed the council that, in consequence of the dissolution of the british parliament, it was desirable to adjourn the meeting. on nov. 15 the new british govt. demanded its adjournment to an indefinite date in the future. at the session of march 1925 sir austen chamber- lain read out to the council a declaration which affirmed the rejection of the protocol by the british empire on the ground that the obligations involved in it were too great, in view of the extent of the british empire, and that the cabinet of london could not undertake to maintain peace in several sectors, for example, in eastern europe. without the adherence of great britain, the protocol could not be applied. accordingly, the council determined to refer for the consideration of the sixth assembly the declaration of the representative of the british empire, with all other declarations which might be addressed to it on the same subject by the governments of members of the league. a solution of the problem of security by a general pact failed in its turn after it had been found impossible to arrange a franco-belgian-british guarantee pact. there remained the intermediary solution of a partial pact including several leading powers and one or more ex-enemy powers, including germany. the locarno negotiations this was a combination which was realised in the course of 1925. its point of departure was a german memorandum dated feb. 9, in which stresemann suggested the conclusion of a guar- antee pact for germany’s western frontiers and treaties ‘of arbi- tration with all her neighbours. he let it be understood at the same time that the logical sequence of this pact should be the evacuation of the rhineland. the memorandum was long kept secret, at least in its exact phrasing, and it was several months before it received a direct answer. first france and great brit- ain, then belgium, italy, poland and czechoslovakia agreed in the course of the spring and the summer to lay down the follow- ing essential principles in the notes which they delivered on june 16 and aug. 24:— (i) germany and france must engage to respect the present territorial status quo of the treaty of versailles, as well as the agreements whose object is to assure their application, and to repudiate any recourse to force of arms or to war against each other. (ii) the engagements undertaken by these two parties must rest on the demilitarisation of the rhine frontier and its inviolability. the exceptional cases in which it would be permissible for military forces to cross this frontier must be fixed in precise terms. (iit) great britain, and if necessary italy, must be guar- antor of the execution of the engagements undertaken. (iv) germany must enter the league of nations and assume the rights and obligations of the states which are members of this league. | (v) germany must conclude treaties of arbitration with her neighbours: the treatics with czechoslovakia and poland must be such that they can be guaranteed by france. at the beginning of sept. the allies invited the legal experts 499 of the principal states interested to meet in london and there to work out a plan in conformity with the above principles. the experts finished their task while the sixth assembly of the league of nations was sitting. the statesmen then united at geneva having considered the results of the work of the experts, the i'rench ambassador at berlin handed to stresemann, on sept. i5, a note proposing that a conference should be held in swit- zerland at the end of sept. or the beginning of october. on sept. 26 stresemann accepted the offer for oct. 5. at the same time he again made the reservation that the entry of germany into the league of nations must not be interpreted as recogni- tion of the responsibility with which the german people were charged by article 231 of the treaty of versailles, and he de- manded that the cologne zone be first evacuated. belgium, france and great britain took cognisance of germany’s accept- ance, except of the clause containing the reservation relative to article 231 of the treaty of versailles, while they pointed out that it depended on germany herself to accelerate the evacua- tion of the cologne zone by executing her obligations of disarma- ment. under these conditions the delegates of the interested powers met at locarno on oct. 5. as the basis of their deliberations, they took the draft of the experts, several articles of which were adopted as they stood, and others maintained with slight modifications. the question of the responsibility for the war and of the evacuation of the rhenish zone was left aside. the chicf difficulties were those concerning the guarantee of the treaties of arbitration, the formulation of these treaties, the interpretation of article 16 of the covenant and the authorisation for france to cross the demili- tarised rhine zone to come to the assistance of her allies in the east if attacked. after ten days of wearisome negotiations an agreement was reached on the disputed points. germany aban- doned her opposition to the mutual guarantee of the i'ranco- polish and czechoslovak treaties of arbitration. the allies, on the other hand, consented that this guarantee should be worded in the rhine pact in the general form which would be more acceptable to germany without changing anything of its nature or the effectiveness of the guarantee. in the second place, ger- many consented that the czechoslovak and polish conventions of arbitration should be identical with those of france and belgium, and that they should be intezral, that is to say, that the pacific settlement of international diffcrences should be extended to all these questions. finally, germany and the allies arrived at a compromise relating to article 16 of the pact of the league of nations, without infringing in any way on the essential principles of this article, by means of a collective note. | it was thus possible to sign the final protocol on oct. 16 con- taining what is called the locarno pact, which consists of the following diplomatic documents:— (a) treaty between germany, belgium, france, great britain and italy, called the rhine guarantee pact; (6) four treaties or conventions between germany on the one hand, and france, belgium, poland and czechoslovakia on the other; (c) treaties of guarantee between czechoslovakia and poland and france; (¢d) a collective note of the states which participated in the conference of locarno regarding article 16 of the cove- nant of the league of nations in case germany should enter the league of nations. tue ruine pact the rhine pact solved the problem of security in the following fashion:— (a) germany, france and belgium undertook to respect the inviolability of the german-franco-belgian frontiers. (6) germany, france and belgium mutually undertook in no case to attack or invade each other or resort to war against each other; that is to say, they pledge themselves never again to make war. (c) the obligation not to make war in the future does not apply in the case of legitimate self-defence, of resistance to 500 a violation of the treaty of versailles relative to the demili- tarised zone, nor to the case of the execution of obligations arising out of membership of the league of nations and the application of articles 15, paragraphs 7 and 16 of the cove- nant. armed intervention can take place without the pre- vious decision of the council of the league of nations in cases of legitimate self-defence, of flagrant violation of the demilitarised zone and of attack or flagrant violence. (7) germany, france and belgium, having resolved never more to make war on one another, pledge themselves at the same time by particular treaties of arbitration to regulate all their differences by pacific methods, submitting them elther to judges or to a commission of conciliation. (ec) great britain and italy guarantee the execution of these obligations by the states concerned. (f) allrights and obligations arising for the contracting parties out of the covenant of the league of nations remain intact, that is to say, all these conventions are included within the framework of the league of nations and are, strictly speak- ing, only applications of certain principles and definite articles of the covenant. these engagements will come into force with germany’s entry into the league of nations. these arrangements do not certainly procure complete security for the signatory powers. but between them they take practi- cally all the precautions which it is humanly possible to take. the only reproach that can be levelled against them is that they interlace the rights derived from the rhineland pact and the applications prescribed by the covenant of the league of nations to such an extent that it will be sometimes difficult to reconcile the former with the latter. for example, under article 2 of the treaty of guarantee analysed above, france would have the right of invading the territory of germany immediately if the latter violated articles 42 and 43 of the treaty or attacked one of the signatory states, especially poland or czechoslovakia. it has been expressly stated in the public speeches of the allied ministers that the demilitarised rhineland zone could not be a ‘“ wall ” sheltered behind which germany could commit aggres- sion against states other than france. nevertheless, by the terms of articles 3 and 4, any signatory state which considers that a violation of article 2 or a contravention of articles 42 and 43 of the treaty has been committed, ought to bring the ques- tion immediately before the council of the league of nations. one may wonder whether, in case of a military occupation by germany or of an unexpected case of aggression by germany against poland, france should await the decisions of the council of the league of nations before invading german territory. on this question the declarations of the allied ministers seem to agree that this would not be the case. but the german press appears to take the view that france would be bound to wait. further, according to article 8, the treaty ‘‘ will remain in force until the council acting on the request of one or another of the high contracting parties notified to the other signatory powers three months in advance, and voting at least by a two- thirds majority, decides that the league of nations ensures sufficient protection to the high contracting parties the treaty shall cease to have effect on the expiration of a period of one year from such decision.” it would then be possible for a two- thirds majority of the council to declare the treaty void and to return to the general guarantees of security stipulated in the covenant. finally, the treaty imposes no obligation on any of the british dominions nor on india. this is why the present complementary agreements are maintained and it is permitted to conclude fresh ones, provided they be communicated to the league of nations and registered by it. as for the interpretation of article 16 of the covenant, it is defined as follows in the letter addressed to the german delega- tion: ‘‘ the obligations resulting from the said article on the members of the league must be understood to mean that each state member of the league is bound to collaborate loyally and effectively, in support of the covenant and in resistance to any act of aggression to an extent which is compatible with its mili- tary situation, and takes its geographical position into account.” security tne treaties of guarantee besides the arbitration agreements, two treaties of guarantee signed by france with poland and czechoslovakia, and com- municated at locarno to the other states represented at the conference, complete the system of security. their essential arrangements, which are identical in the two treaties, are as follows :— article 1.—in the event of czechoslovakia (or poland as the case may be) or france suffering from a failure to observe the undertakings arrived at this day between them and germany with a view to the maintenance of general peace, france and reciprocally czechoslovakia (poland) acting in application of article 16 of the covenant of the league of nations, undertake to lend each other immediately aid and assistance, if such a failure is accompanied by an unprovoked recourse to arms. in the event of the council of the league of nations, when dealing with a question brought before it in accordance with the said undertakings, being unable to succeed in making its report accepted by all its members, other than the representatives of the parties to the dispute, and in the event of czechoslovakia (poland) or france being attacked without provocation, france or reciprocally czechoslovakia (poland) acting in application of article 15, paragraph 7, of the covenant of the league of na- tions, will immediately lend aid and assistance. dr. benesh, in the expose made on oct. 30 to the permanent commission of the czechoslovak parliament, declared ‘ we must emphasise that the assistance in question would take effect automatically. this means that the (3) contracting states have the full and only right to judge themselves whether they are confronted with a casus foederis (that is to say, whether the cases in which article 15, paragraph 7, and article 16 of the pact of the league of nations are applicable) and that they are not pledged to wait for the result of any negotiations. our former treaty with france thus acquires an entirely new character with- out losing anything of its effectiveness.” ratification of the agreements—the principal speeches made in 1925 by the ministers responsible are as follows:— mr. baldwin, oct. 8, at bristol, before the annual congress of the conservative party; sir austen chamberlain, nov. 18, in the house of commons; count skrzinski, nov. 26, before the committee for foreign affairs of the polish chamber; herr luther, oct. 28, at essen, and nov. 23 in the reichstag. after the two latter speeches, the german parliament con- sented to the agreements which, in consequence, were solemnly signed in london on dec. 1, at a special meeting presided over by sir austen chamberlain. on dec. 14, in the course of the 37th session of the council, sir austen chamberlain and m. paul-boncour deposited the agreements in the archives of the league of nations. speeches were made on this occasion by all members of the council recording warm approval of the great results obtained at locarno. at the beginning of 1926 what was cilled the ‘ spirit of locarno ” animated all governments: but certain mistrust and even opposition were apparent in important sections of public opinion of several countries. this opposition was early voiced. in the french chamber of deputies, at the end of feb. and beginning of march, the plan of ratification of the locarno treaties encountered vigorous criticism. then irreconcilable differences of opinion were mani- fested in the intentions of the various governments respecting the enlargement of the council of the league necessitated by germany’s entry. the assembly was convoked on march 8 1926, to pronounce on germany’s request for admission and sat till march 17, without the council's being able to reach an agreement (the council’s decisions must be unanimous); spain and brazil demanded that their temporary seats be made perma- nent, and poland also demanded a permanent seat. germany, again, wished no one but herself io receive a new _ per- manent seat. after various agitating moves, brazil (march 16) maintained her opposition to any combination which did not invest her with a permanent seat. in consequence, the representatives of the signatory states of the treaties of oct. 16 sedgwick—seipel issued a special declaration in which they declared their adher- ence to the peace work of locarno, and the assembly postponed further examination of the question till the sept. session. a special commission was appointed to study the whole question of the enlargement of the council by that date. bibliography .—treaty of versailles, treaty between great britain and france; agreement between u.s.a. and france, both signed on june 23 1919, but not ratified, printed as annexes to the treaty of versailles; british blue book, papers respecting negotiations to an anglo-french pact (cmd. 2169 of 1924); french yellow book, documents relatifs aux negotiations concernant les garanties de securite contre une aggression de i’allemagne (10 jan. 1019-7 dec. 1923); league of nations, documents a. 35, 1924 ix; a. 35a, 1924 lx; a. 350, 1924 ix; a. 135 (2) 1924 1x; annexe (2) a a. 135, 1924 ix; british white book, final protocol of the locarno conference, 1925 (cmd. 2525 of 1925); league of nations, journal officiel (1921, etc.); a. j. toynbee, survey of international affairs for 1924, pp. 1 to 64 (oxford univ. press, 1926). (a. gn.) sedg wick, ellery (1872- ), american editor and pub- lisher, was born in new york city feb. 27 1872. he graduated at harvard university (a.b.1894) and taught at groton school, mass., 1895-6. he was on the editorial staff of the worcester gazette, 1806, assistant editor of the youth’s companion, 1896-1900, and from 1900 to 1905 was editor of lesite’s monthly, which under his editorship became the american magazine. after a brief connection with afcclure’s magazine and with d. appleton and co., he became editor of the atantic afonthty and president of the company in 1909. under his manage- ment the circulation was greatly increased and the high char- acter of the magazine maintained. he had published a life of thomas paine in 1899. seeckt, hans von (1866- }, german soldier, was born in. schleswig april’22 1866. he entered the kaiser alexander trenadier regiment as ensign (fahnenjunker). in 1897 he was appointed to the general staff, becoming chief of staff of the itt. army corps (berlin) in 1913, in which capacity he went on active service in aug. 1914, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. on jan. 27 1915 he was promoted colonel, and soon after became chief of staff to mackensen’s army group. he had a large share in conducting the break-through of the central powers at gorlice-tarnow, may rors, and the subsequent invasion of serbia. after the collapse of the monarchy he became adjutant- general (chef des truppenanites) in the reichswehrministerium (nov. rgtg). after the kapp “ putsch ” of march 1920 he was appointed chief of the german army command. in jan. 1926 he was again promoted to the rank of general by president von hindenburg. seely, john edward bernard (1868— ), british poli- tician, born may 31 1868, was the third son of sir charles seely, bart., a nottinghamshire coal owner. educated at harrow and trinity college, cambridge, he became a barrister. in 1900-1 he served with the imperial yeomanry in south africa, winning the d.s.o., and during his absence was returned to parliament as conservative m.p. for the isle of wight. his later career as a politician was somewhat varied. forsaking the conservative party when mr. chamberlain introduced his tariff reform pro- posals, seely was returned to parliament after the general elec- tion of 1906 as liberal m.p. for a liverpool division, and in 1908 he took office as under-secretary for the colonies. in ror1 he was appointed to a similar position at the war office and in 1912 he succeeded lord haldane as secretary of state for war. iie held this position until the curragh incident in 1914, when, having initialled a demand by certain officers that they should not be asked to serve against ulster, he was compelled to resign (sce encuisn history). during the world war he served on the staff and later commanded a brigade of canadian cavalry. in 1918-9, having been m.p. for the ilkeston division of derby- shire since 1910, he was under-secretary at the ministry of muni- tions, and then under-secretary of state for air in the coalition ministry. in 1923 he again became m.p. for the isle of w ight, but he lost his seat in 1924. his elder brother, sir charles hilton seely, died in 1926. segur, pierre marie maurice henri, marquis de (1853-1916), french author (see 24. 384), died at poissy aug. 13 1910. 501 seignobos, charles (1854- ), french historian, was born sept. 10 1854 at lamastre (ardeche). educated at the lycee de tournon, he passed to the ecole normale superieure. entrusted with an independent course of historical instruction in 1879 at dijon, he was appointed to the sorbonne, first as unattached professor in 1883 and later as special lecturer in 1890, in 1897 appeared his [istoire politigquede?p europe contemporaine, which was crowned by the academie francaise. his work is distinguished by a broad-minded and often democratic tone, and a grasp of social science which place him in the forefront of modern historical writers. his other published works include: jzistoire de la civilisation (1886); flistorve des anciens penples de l’'orient (1890); la methode historique appliguee aux sciences sociales (1901); and in l’histerre de france contemporaine of fe. lavisse, la revolution de 1848 (1921); le second empire (1921); le declin del empire et ’ ftablissement de la iii", republique (1921). seipel, ignaz (1876- ), austrian statesman and roman catholic priest, was born in vienna july 19 1876. he did not enter politics until the end of the world war, although he pub- lished several books on subjects on the border line between his own subject, moral theology, and political science, social science and economics, viz.: the economic teaching of the fathers (1907), nation and state (1916); and in 1917 a pamphlet on the keform of the austrian constitution, as professor at salzburg (1909-1 2) he saw much of the retired economist, heinrich lammasch, with whom he worked until 1917 in the preparation of an edition of the writings of hugo grotius on international law. seipel was appointed to vienna university in 1917 and his work, nalion and state, dealing with the supernational state, such as the austro-ilungarian monarchy, as a higher type of state compared with the national state, and thus viewing austria- hungarv’s future optimistically, at the same time favouring a reasonable pacificism, caused the emperor charles to include him in the circle of those men who were to prepare the way for peace through unofiicial negotiations abroad. at the same time, the german parties in the austrian parliament summoned him as scientific expert to the consultations on the reform of the con- stitution now recognised as overdue, and in these seipel sup- ported moderate federalism on a national basis. but the down- fall of the austro-hungarian monarchy could not be prevented either by reform of the constitution or by the peace policy of the lammasch ministry, which took office at the eleventh hour, in oct. 1918, and which included joseph redlich and seipel as exponents of the peace policy. after the collapse, seipel succeeded in preventing the threat- ened split of the strongest conservative party in the country, the christian socialist, into a monarchist and a republican party. this and the necessity of getting new men into parliament under the new conditions caused his election in 1919 to the national constituent assembly by the electoral] division for central vienna, and later to the national council. as long as the social demo- crats were the strongest party, the christian socialists joined it in forming a government coalition. during this time scipel worked against too close an alliance of the christian socialists with the social democrats; in particular he prevented the execu- tion of far-reaching schemes for the socialisation of means of production. alter the elections of 1920, which returned the christian socialists at the head of the poll, seipel was undisputed leader of his party. under his influence austrian policy gradually vecred to the right. in the spring of 1920 he succeeded in creating a firm governmental majority, which included all non-marxist parties, and remained in power after the clections of 1923. as soon as the anti-socialist united front had been formed, seipel took over the administration as chancellor may 31 1922. at that time the universal misery had reached its climax owing to the policy of inflation. seipel, together with his ministers of finance, august segur and victor kienbeck, put an end to inflation by the creation of a new note bank independent of the government and prepared for his negotiations with the league of nations in the autumn of 1922 by his political journeys to prague, berlin and verona, by which he obtained the guarantee of a foreign loan by a number of states and eventually the loan 502 itself. this loan, by covering the deficits which were at first unavoidable, gave time and stimulus for the carrying out of the economics and reforms, necessary to balance the budget. seipel succeeded by hard fighting in carrying through parliament the acceptance of the geneva protocol and of the foreign controller of austrian finances appointed by the league of nations, and ied austrian policy to the re-establishment of almost complete finan- cial equilibrium. in the autumn of 1924, when he had hardly recovered from a wound inflicted in an attempt on his life, he en- countered strong opposition in the provinces, 7.e., from the mem- bers of the austrian federation, to his endeavours to introduce a few necessary reforms into the constitution and administration. he then resigned his chancellorship. after that he carried on active propaganda fora lasting peace through his numerous lecture tours in austria and abroad. he believed that peace would be secured by recreating the economic unity in central europe, which had been destroyed by the war and the inadequate peace treaties. his object was a european confederation, which would neither coerce nations for economic reasons nor would violate economics for the sake of national aspirations. (a. f. pr.) seismology: sce earthquakes. seitz, karl (1869- ), austrian politician, was born at vienna on sept. 4 1869, the son of a wood merchant. although apprenticed to the tailoring trade, he subsequently entered the teachers’ seminary at st. pelten, through the medium of patrons. in this way he became an elementary school teacher. orisinally inclined to the german national party, he joined in 1888 the social democratic party. he organised the social democratic teachers of vienna, and in the diet of lower austria waged a fierce fight against burgomaster lueger and the dominant christian socialist party. elected to the austrian reichsrat in 1901 he became after the death of pernerstorfer, its vice-presi- dent down to its dissolution. after the revolution of 1918 he was president of the german-austrian national assembly, and sub- sequently of the national parliament (nationalrat) until the new elections in oct. 1920, and acting federal president until nov. 1920. he was in ro2t chairman of the committee of the social democratic party and of the parliamentary party, and vice-president of the natzonalrat. selborne, william waldegrave palmer, 2np eart of (1850- ), british politician (see 24.599), on his return from south africa resumed his prominent position among the con- servative leaders in the house of lords. ile took an active share in defending the house against liberal attack, and was one of the leading ‘‘ diehards ’’ who maintained an uncompromising resistance to the parliament bill. when the world war came he was largely occupied with his military duties with the ard battalion of the hampshire regiment; but he joined the first coalition ministry in may rors, as minister of agriculture. as minister he appointed an expert agricultural committee under the chairmanship of lord milner, to report on the means of main- taining and increasing food production in england and wales; but he and the government rejected their recommendation to guarantee farmers a minimum price of 45s. a quarter for four years. in june 1916 he resigned his office because he disap- proved of the irish policy of compromise accepted by mr. as- quith’s government. he did not join mr. lloyd gcorge’s min- istry, and after the war was largely conspicuous in ecclesiastical matters; he was forward in promoting the movement of self- government in the church which culminated in the church en- abling act of 1919. he also identified himself strongly with the policy of reforming the house of lords and reconsidering the re- lations between the two houses under the parliament act. his elder son, viscount wolmer (b. 1887) entered parliament in rgro, and proved an active member of the conservative party, as well as a leading member of the church assembly. he was made assistant postmaster-general in 1924. selenium (see 24.601'.—the unrivalled efficiency of sele- nium as a detector of light has been utilised in several new types of apparatus. the use of selenium as a trigger for actuating a relay, the most striking example of which was the steering of an unmanned boat by a searchlight on shore in 1916, has not seismology—selenium yet been very fruitful in practice. such problems as the auto- matic lighting of electric street lamps at dusk have not been solved, on account of the prohibitive cost of the apparatus as compared with human labour. cox’s cable relay, a light relay worked with selenium, and producing a more than thousandtfold amplification of submarine signals, may, however, be cited as a successful application of a selenium relay. it works by throwing a beam of light from the galvanometer recording the signals alternately upon two opposed networks of a selenium grating. detectors—among laboratory applications one of the most important is the selenium detector attached to a number of hilger spectroscopes and monochromatic illuminators. this detector contains a “ line-element ” of selenium, 2 cm. long and | o-3 mm. wide, made by ruling a shallow groove in a ceramic surface coated with graphite and filling it up with sensitised sclenium. small holes are drilled along the line-element to allow of simultaneous visual observations. the line-element has a resistance of approximately a megohm in the dark. a 30-v. battery is used to produce a deflection in a sersitive galvanom- eter connected in serics with the detector and battery, andthe effect of illuminating the line-element is an immediate increase of the deflection. this increase reaches a maximum after a few seconds, and is proportional to the square root of the intensity of illumination. the detector responds to all visible light and also to ultra-violet light down to the limit of the spectrum in air. at the less refrangible end, however, the response of the detector falls off at 6,500 angstrem units and ceases entirely at 15,000 units, after covering about an octave of infra-red wave-ler gths. compared with the thermopile, the selenium detector is slightly more efficient in the first region of the infra-red, ard very much more efficient in the visible and the ultra-violet regions, where its superiority can be expresscd as a factor of several thousand. photomeiry.—another application concerns photometry, where the limit of accuracy of visual comparisons is approximately 1%. this accuracy has now been greatly exceeded even by the photoelectric cell, with which differences as low as 35° can be registered. in the case of sclenium the limit of accuracy is 739% or even less. here, again the superiority of selecium is more marked in feeble light than in strong light, since strong illum- ination brings the conductivity near a point of “ saturation.” am plifiers—several methods have been devised for amplify- ing the photoelectric action of selenium by means of the ther- mionic valve. selenium being capable of responding measurably to a light-stimulus less than ; 959 of a sec. in duration, it is worth while to amplify the effect into a practically useful cur- rent impulse. this can be done by making it alter the potential of the grid of a valve. g. g. blake has devised a number of cir- cuits in which this is done. in some of these circuits the effect of light on selenium is made to change the pitch of a circuit in audio-[requency oscillation, thus producing an audible effect of light on a principle diferent from that of the optophone. another method of utilising sclenium has been developed by e. o. sy- monds, who uses a five-valve amplificr for recording the passage of fabry-perot interference fringes by means of a selenium detector and a creed relay and undulator. this device was first shown in action at the optical conven- tion in april 1926, where it recorded i'abry-perot frizges at the rate of three per sec., working continuously for several hours. a -rays.—these x-rays lacrease the conductivity of ser sitised selenium. a well-known apparatus for utilising this action for the dosage of x-rays is that of piirstenau, but it is orly suitable for the less penetrating.tays, as rays of the shorter wave-lengths are insufficiently absorbed to produce a measurable effect. this may be remedied by using thicker layers of selenium capable of absorbing the most penetrating rays and indicating the distri- bution of their intensity along the spectrum. researches in this direction have been undertaken at the london cancer ilospital. bre_iocrapny.—e. e. fournier d’albe, the moon element, 1923: g. g. blake. ‘‘ communication on wave-lengths other than those in general use, "wrreless engineer (june 1925); e. e. fournier d’albe and ek. o. symonds, ‘some new applications of selenium,” journal of the optical convention (1926). (e. e, f. d’a,) self-determination—senussi self-determination is a term which, since the world war has been commonly used to denote the right of every people to determine and to direct its political and spiritual destinies; that is, to choose freely such form of government and of political and cultural institutions as it thinks will best correspond to its needs and express its distinctive national genius. in the past it had been applied to a variety of political and other causes. after 1914 it became a war-time slogan, chiefly used by allied propagandists who represented it as part of the allied programme to liberate certain subject nationalitics of eastern, central, southeastern europe and of the middle east, from the control of the races there dominant. in particular the term was asso- ciated with the baltic nations and the subject nationalities of central and southeastern europe. after the russian revo- lution of march 1917, kerensky proclaimed it as one of his cardinal principles. president wilson was one of its chief advo- cates, and included it in his famous fourteen points enunciated in r918. the effect which it has had in practice on international affairs in the period 1914-26 must be gauged by a study of war-time and post-war diplomacy. (see europe; plebiscite; those on the various european countrics e.g. poland; rumania.) selfridge, harry gordon (1864- ), american business man, was born at ripon, wisconsin, u.s.a., on jan. ir 1864. educated at the public school, jackson, mich., u.s.a., he afterwards entered the firm of marshall field and co., of chicago, from which he retired in t904.. in 1906 he went to london and organised the firm of selfridge and co., ltd., wholesale and retail merchants, which opened in 1909 with extensive premises in oxford street. these became known throughout the country, and the firm developed into one of the most successful business enterprises of its kind in the world. mr. selfridge wrote a book, the romance of commerce (1918) in which he attempted to record the growth of commerce from the earliest times until the present day. selous, frederick courtney (1851-10917), british explorer (see 24.614), during the world war served in the east african campaign in the legion of frontiersmen (25th fusiliers). he was promoted captain and in sept. 1916 was awarded the d.s.o. he was killed in action at beho beho jan. 4 1017. his private collection of trophies was given by his widow to the natural history museum, london, where in june 1920 a national memorial to him was unveiled. a se!ous scholarship was also founded at his old school, rugby. see j. g. millais, life ef frederick courtney selous (1918), and geog. jour., vol. 49 (1917). sembat, marcel (1862~1922), french politician, was born oct. 19 1862, at bonnieres (seine-et-oise), and educated at the college stanislas. in 1893 he became socialist deputy for the 18th arrondissement of paris, and attached himself to the blan- quist fraction of the party headed by edouard vaillant. on the constitution of the united socialist party, however, in 1905, un- der jaures, the factions previously opposed to him under the banners of blanqui and jules guesde were merged in it, and sem- bat became one of a brilliant body of extremist debaters which for many years made the radical-socialist party the strongest political force in france. he sat for many years on the budget and foreign affairs committees of the chamber. he gained a reputation not only as a caustic and alert debater, but as a jour- nalist; previous to the formation of the united socialist party, he contributed to the petite republique and la lanterne and when jaures founded l’ humzanite in 1904, became one of its best-known correspondents. on the outbreak of the world war, sembat, who had originally been opposed to socialists taking ministerial office, was one of many members of his party who sank their party grievances in the union sacree, and himself became minister of public works in the ministry of national defence in aug. 19or4. after the war, sembat stood out in his resistance to the insidious doctrines of communism, and saw the united socialist party broken up by disputes such as those at the tours conference of 1920 on the question of adherence to the third international. but though he had always kept up relations with certain bourgeois elements of the left, he had not, up to the time of his death at chamonix on 993 sept. 5 1922, seen fit to modify his opinions except in a sense even more favourable to pure socialism. among his published works are matisse et son oeuvre (1920) and lu victoire en deroute (eng. tr. 1925). senegal, a colony and protectorate of french west africa (see 24.640). the area is 74,000 sq. m. and the population (1925) about 1,500,000. the capital is sit. louis, with a population (1921) of 18,117. in dakar (32,440) senegal possesses the largest town, and the only first-class port in french west africa. a railway (682 m. long) from thies, on the dakar-st. louis line, was completed to kayes, on the senegal niver, in 1923. at kayes, this line joins the railway to kulikono on the navigable niger. immense quantities of ground nuts are grown by the natives and form the bulk of the country’s trade. the amount exportcd annually, over the period rg10—24, being from 250,000 to 300,c00 tons. the colony of upper senegal and niger was renamed french sudan in 1920. senussi (sce 24.640).—by 1914 the dominating influence which the senussi brotherhood had formerly possessed in the region between lake chad and darfur had been lost by the conquest by the french of wadai and the other states of the central sudan. while members of the sect were to be found from morocco to afghanistan, and there had been an increase of its adherents in egypt and arabia, the temporal authority of the senussi was then confined to cyrenaica and the oases of the libyan des- ert—kufara, jalo, jaghbub, etc. the senussi sheikh, sayed (sidi) aimed esh sherif, had been won over some years previously to pan-islamism and he had aided the turks in 1911-2 in their campaign against the italian invaders of cyrenaica. after the treaty of lausanne sayed ahmed continued the war with italy. terms of accommodation might have been reached but the sheikh refused to accept the position of a ‘* protected bey.’ he had effective control of the greater part of cyrenaica when the world war began. in 1915, partly as the result of heavy bribes and gross flattery, sayed ahmed was induced by turkish and german agents to break the friendly relations which had hitherto existed between the senussi and egypt, and at the end of that year he invaded western egypt. (lor the military operations see senussi, opera- tions against tie.) the war with egypt had not the approval of all the senussi chiefs. notably it was opposed by sayed mohammed el idris the eldest son of the sheikh el mahdi, the second head of the senussi fraternity. when senussi el mahdi died in 1902 his sons were minors and the chieftainship had gone to his nephew ahmed. with sayed idris the italian and british governments entered into an agreement in 1917; the senussi chiefs acknowledged sayed idris as ‘‘ grand senussi ”’ and in aug. 1918 the defeated and discredited sayed ahmed found it convenient to quit cyrenaica. he was conveyed by a german submarine from misurata to pola, whence he went to turkey, still claiming to be head of the brotherhood. by the accord of regima, nov. 1920, sayed idris acknowledged italian suzerainty. he was given the hereditary title of emir (prince) with jurisdiction over the oases of kufara, jaghbub, jalo, aujela and jedabia. italian occupation of jaghbub.—peaceful relations continued for some time, but italy under fascist rule found the situation irksome. there was also evidence that sayed idris was encour- aging the insurgents in tripolitania, who in july 1922 had invited him to become their leader and prince. ‘‘ in the beginning of 1923, it being considered that the terms of these agreements [with the senussi| and the manner in which they were interpreted on the native side were incompatible with the national dignity fof italy] they were denounced, and since that date the tableland lof cyrenaica] has been the site of desultory political brigandage and occasional raids on cattle and crops by groups of tribes.”’ this quotation from a report by mr. l. h. hurst, british consul at benghazi, summed up the situation in sept. 1925. six months later armed opposition to the italians was confined to the jebel el akhdar, to the east of benghazi. sayed idris himself had in jan. 1923 withdrawn to egypt, where he had formerly resided as senussi envoy. seemingly he suffered no loss of spiritual pres- tize, upon which his friends declared he set more store than on 504 temporal authority. in the libyan oases his leutenants con- tinued to rule. the italians, however, were placed in an advantageous posi- tion to control senussi activity by an agreement made with egypt on dec. 6 1925. this agreement gave them the sovereignty over the oases of jaghbub, while south of that place the fronticr was drawn along the 25th degree of e. longitude, thus including kufara in cyrenaica. jaghbub was occupied by italian troops in feb. 1926, without opposition. it is important as containing the tomb-mosque of the founder of the senussi sect and a sawia (monastery) for the training of the tk#waz (brethren). it is also on the route from kufara to egypt and has some strategic value. the italians agreed to respect the holy places at jaghbub and to allow moslems free access to them. with the senussi as a religious order they declared that they had no quarrel. during 1920-3 mrs. rosita forbes, hassanein bey and m. de laborie all penetrated to kufara and each drew a pleasing picture of senussi culture and senussi rule in the libyan oases. (sce africa.) bibliography.—j. tilho, ‘‘ the exploration of tibesti, erdi, borkou, and ennedi in 1912-17,” geog. journal, vol. lvi. (london, 1920); rosita forbes, the secret of the sahara- kufara (1921); bruneau de laborie, ° ‘du cameroun au caire par le tchad et le desert de libye,’’ in la geographie (paris, may 1 1924); a. m. hassanein bey, the lest oases (1925); f ilippo la bello, a6 es pre- miers dix ans de 1’occupation italienne en cyrenaique,” in l' afrique frangaise (april 1925); la frontiere occidentale de egypte, an egyptian green book giving the text of the aeeceinent of dec. 1925, with maps (cairo, 1926). (pf. r,c.) senussi, operations against the.—the military activity of the senussi from 1900 to 1910 had been directed against the french in the regions between lake chad and the nile basin. there was evidence of an increase of adherents to the sect in egypt and arabia; in n.w. africa and the sudan it had made practically no headway. during ror1r the senussi sheikh, sidi ahmed, aided the turks in their campaign against italy in cyrenaica. after the treaty of lausanne, in oct. 1912, by which turkey agreed to evacuate tripoli and cyrenaica, sidi ahmed continued the war against the italians, who were power- less to penetrate into the interior. outbreak of war.—in 1914, the germans and turks saw in the senussi a powerful instrument for attacking the british position in egypt and the sudan, for long sidi ahmed resisted the efforts to embroil him with egypt, with which he had always maintained good relations. but the adherence of his enemy, italy, to the allied cause in may rors gave his turkish advisers a powerful lever and finally the influence of nuri bey, a half brother of en- ver, prevailed. the plan instigated by the turks and germans was for simultaneous advances on egypt along the coastal strip and by the oases leading from siwa to the nile. at the same time the sultan of darfur was to rise, invade kordofan and advance on khartoum. the danger to the british in egypt and the sudan was not so much in the military force actually at the command of sidi ahmed and his allies as in the spiritual authority he exer- cised and the possibility of a religious rising. hostilities began on nov. 15 1915. the small garrisons of es sollum and other advanced posts were withdrawn, and mersa matruh was made the base for the british operations. the difficulty was to collect a sufficient force, for during the gallipoli operations egypt had been practically denuded of troops. the force assembled under maj.-gen. a. wallace consisted of yeomanry, territorials, australians, new zealanders, indians and egyptians. the senussi leader had a few turkish troops with him, about 5,000 of his own regular forces and a varying number of irregular tribesmen. a decisive engagement.—gen. wallace succeeded ‘in strik- ing a severe blow at the enemy on christmas day rors, but the rainy season and a lack of troops and transport prevented any further attempt to bring the enemy to battle till feb. 1916. on feb. 20, maj.-gen. w. e. peyton, who had succeeded gen. wallace, began an advance to reoccupy es sollum. on feb. 26 at agagya, about half way to es sollum, a decisive en- gagement was fought. the infantry, which included two south senussi, operations against the—serbia african battalions, captured the senussites’ position. in the pursuit the dorset yeomanry, by a fine charge, broke the enemy and captured jafar pasha, an able baghdadi arab who com- manded the senussites. there was little further fighting. es sollum was reoccupied on march 14, the enemy retiring into cyrenaica. during feb. and april 1916, the senussites, under sidi ahmed himself, occupied the bahariya, farafra, dakhla and kharga oases, but made no further advance. the british had at the time no forces available for re-occupation, but kept the oases under observation by aeroplane. meanwhile the rebellious sultan of darfur, ali dinar, in may 1916, was attacked and defeated by a force from the sudan under lieut.-col. p. v. kelly. the sultan himself was killed in november. by oct. 1916 the british had organised a camel corps and light car patrols, and proceeded to re-occupy the oases. sidi ahmed retired to siwa, where he was attacked and defeated at the beginning of feb. 1917 by a force of armoured cars from “s sollum under brig.-gen. h. w. hodgson. this action at siwa discredited the senussi and removed the danger to egypt. during r9t7 and 1918 turkish and german influence amongst the senussites declined and sidi ahmed’s own position was dis- credited. in the summer of 1918 he found it advisable to leave cyrenaica for turkey and was succeeded by sicti mohammed el! idris, the son of senussi-el-mahdi. the new grand senussi concluded agreements with great britain and italy, recognising italian sovereignty. in 1925 a rectification of frontier was made between egypt and italy, jaghbub being transferred to the italian sphere. brs_rography.—r. hermes, england und egypten (1916); r. g. williams, j# the itands of the senussit (1916); w. y. army te the rf desert campaigns (1918); p. g. elgood, egypt and the ne: ae see also worlb war: bisliography, serbia (see servia, 24.686), until 1918 an ae ae dom of southeastern europe. since that date it has formed part of the serb-croat-slovene kingdom (yugoslavia). for its present area, population and economic and financial history and for its political history after 19148, sce yugoslavia, i. the balkan league the annexation of bosnia (oct. 13 1908) marked a turning- point in the history of serbia. henceforth public opinion, sup- ported by prominent statesmen in every party, was practically unanimous in regarding a conflict with austria-hungary as sooner or later inevitable. this belief had at once a national and an economic basis; for count aehrenthal not merely supported the hungarian policy of repressing yugoslav national aspira- tions inside the dual monarchy, but obstructed serbia's com- mercial development by tariff and frontier restrictions, by a veto upon either direct access to the sea or a common frontier with montenegro and by opposition to all idea of balkan co-operation. aehrenthal’s policy inevitably strengthened the tendencies towards the creation of a balkan league, and these were accel- crated by the political unrest evoked throughout the balkan peninsula by the young turk revolution. at first the inclusion of turkey in such a league was openly advocated by izvolsky, the russian foreign minister, and was actively favoured by milo- vanovie and veniselos. but in view of the increasingly chauvin- istic attitude of the young turk regime in macedonia and al- bania, veniselos found it advisable to discuss with bulgaria meas- ures of common defence against a possible turkish attack; and this was followed in the winter of 1912 by negotiations between sofia and belgrade. on march 13 1912 a secret treaty of alli- ance was concluded between serbia and bulgaria, and was sup- plemented on may 12 by a military convention. on may 29 a similar treaty was concluded between bulgaria and grecce. there was no actual treaty binding serbia and greece, while the serbo-montenegrin treaty, concluded as late as sept. 1912, was less political than military, and provided for separate though parallel action. by the first of these each state was bound to assist the other with all its forces in the event of an attack, and in particular in the event of any great power trying to annex any portion of serbia turkey’s balkan possessions. if internal troubles should arise in turkey, either ally might initiate proposals for military action, and any point upon which agreement was not reached should then be referred to russia for decision. special provision was made for possible conquests, serbia recognising bulgaria’s rights over the territory lying east of the rhodope mountains and the struma river, and bulgaria similarly recognising serbia’s rights north and west of the sar mountains. the districts lying between these limits, the aegean and the lake of okhrida were to form ‘a distinct autonomous province,’’ but should their partition prove inevitable, then serbia undertook to make no claim be- yond a line drawn from the lake of okhrida to near kriva palan- ka on the old turco-bulgarian frontier and including skoplje, but not monastir, prilep or veles. in the event of a dispute the tsar was to act as arbitrator, and bulgaria undertook to accept the more southerly line as its new frontier with serbia if the tsar should decide in its favour. in the event of war bulgaria under- took to place at least 200,000, serbia at least 150,000 men in the field against turkey. if cither turkey or rumania attacked bulgaria, serbia was to send 100,000 men to her aid, while she on her part must provide 200,000 men in support of serbia in the event of an attack by austria-hungary. internal disorder spread rapidly throughout turkey-in-europe in the vear following italy’s invasion of tripoli; and the fero- cious policy of suppression adopted by the committee of union and progress towards all the non-turkish nationalities culmi- nated in & reign of terror at the parliamentary elections of 1912, in a recrudescence of komitadji activities and in a fresh albanian rising. the premature death of milovanovie on july 1 not merely deprived serbia of her ablest modern statesman, but removed one of the few restraining influences in any balkan capital. he was succeeded as premier by trifkovie and in the conduct of foreign affairs by the old radical leader pasie (pashitch), who placed almost unreserved reliance on russian support and worked in the closest accord with hartwig. on sept. 12 pasie became premier at the head of a purely old radical cabinet. by this time not even the most pacific statesmanship could have arrested the growing anarchy in turkey. public opinion in belgrade and sofia was roused by a massacre of bulgarians at kogeana on aug. 1, and by the report of similar outrages in the sanjak. by the middle of the month uskiib, and the entire dis- trict recognised by the secret treaty as serbian, were in the hands of the insurgent albanians; and the concessions granted by the porte while failing to arrest the movement only served as an incentive to swift action on the part of the neighbouring states. the somewhat vague proposals for decentralisation and ad- ministrative reform put forward by count berchtold on aug. 20 prompted the balkan allies to hasten their preparations. while the slow-moving concert of europe was discussing alternative proposals for turkish reform, the porte suddenly held up serbian war material at salonika and began to mass troops round adri- anople. before any collective step had been taken by the powers, the situation was gravely compromised by the almost simultane- ous mobilisation of the four balkan allies (oct. 1). at the last moment the porte announced its intention to enforce the vilayet law of 1880, which had been allowed to remain on paper for a whole generation. but this was very naturally regarded by the balkan allies merely as a fresh attempt at evasion, and the pow- ers still further alarmed them by addressing a conciliatory note to constantinople and by simultaneously warning the allies that even in the event of their victory no change in the terri- torial status guo would be tolerated. the further announcement of the powers’ intention after a lapse of 34 years to enforce the treaty of berlin decided the four allies to precipitate events, and before the impending note could be formally communicated the king of montenegro, by an act of undoubted collusion, declared war upon turkey. on oct. 13 the other three balkan governments presented to the porte a series of far-reaching demands, culminat- ing in racial autonomy for all the nationalities of the ottoman empire; and four days later the turks, without even deigning to answer the note, declared war on serbia and bulgaria (sce balkan wars). 995 il. the balkan wars the first war.—all the great powers, though for quite diver- gent reasons, genuinely attempted to prevent war. that, having failed to do so, they adopted a passive attitude during its early stages, was due to the almost universal assumption in official circles that the turks would be victorious, and that the refrac- tory balkan states would soon be only too glad to accept a set- tlement dictated from without. the rapicl and overwhelming success of the allies radically transformed the situation. by the end of nov. turkish rule in europe was restricted to the chatalja lines, the gallipoli penin- sula and the three fortresses of adrianople, janina and scutari. the serbs in particular, after the victories of kumanovo and monastir, were in actual occupation of all macedonia west of the vardar and had reached the adriatic at durazzo and medua. they were thus able to go far beyond their obligations under the military convention by sending a force of 47,000 men and heavy siege guns to the assistance of the bulgarian army investing adrianople. kumanovo was much more than an ordinary victory. it restored to serbia that self-confidence which had been so gravely shaken by the rebuffs and scandals of the previous 30 years; and throughout the yugoslav provinces of austria-hungary it was hailed as an atonement for serbia’s downfall on the field of ko- sovo and as a pledge of her new mission as the southern slav piedmont. | austria-hungary at first adopted a waiting attitude, but as the serbs approached the adriatic she suddenly ordered a gen- eral mobilisation, and suppressed all public expressions of feeling, while the official press of vienna and budapest adopted a menac- ing tone towards serbia. great prominence was given to the alleged insults offered to prochaska, austro-hungarian consul at prizren, and for some weeks public opinion was allowed to be- lieve that he had been shamefully mutilated by serbian officers. it only transpired at a much later date that prochaska, known to be in touch with the open enemies of serbia in the sanjak, had been entirely unmolested by the invaders, but that on the other hand he had received definite instructions from vienna to create an “ incident ’’ such as might provide a pretext for action. the austro-hungarian chief of staff and war minister, generals conrad and auffenberg, are known to have favoured a radical solution of the southern slav question by immediate war with serbia; and similar views were held by the leading ballplatz officials, macchio, kanya and the notorious count forgacs. but both the emperor and francis ferdinand were averse to war, and germany, finding italy restive as to any change in the balkan status quo, exercised a moderating influence over vienna in connection with the fourth renewal of the triple alliance (dec.7). meanwhile, the success of the balkan allies, and the general relief with which public opinion hailed the downfall of turkish rule in europe, led the powers to accept the accomplished fact and consent to a remaking of the map of eastern europe. for the moment all that berchtold could do was to encourage bul- garian designs on constantinople and attempt to sow dissensions among the allies. the turks, seeing themselves isolated in eu- rope, made overtures of peace as early as the 11th to king ferdi- nand, who was not willing to consider them until his troops had ~been checked before chatalja. the conference of london.—on the 23th, however, negotia- tions were opened, and resulted, not in peace, but in an armistice (dec. 3) pending a general peace conference. when this opened in london on dec. 16, serbia was represented by the ex-premicr and historian novakovie, the president of the skupstina nikolie, and the minister in paris vesnie. at london turkey pursued a policy of dilatory diplomatic intrigue, and only receded inch by inch before the very drastic demands of the allies. after a month of fruitless negotiations, complicated by a revolution in constan- tinople, the balkan delegates broke off the negotiations on jan. 28. the council of ambassadors initiated by sir edward grey continued to sit in london, and devoted especial attention to the albanian problem and to the friction produced between albanians and serbs by the latter’s presence on the adriatic. 506 the commandant of scutari, hassan riza, having declined to recognise the armistice, hostilities before the town had continued throughout dec. and jan., and serbia sent repeated reinforce- ments to the aid of the montenegrins. when war was resumed on feb. 3 the brunt fell upon bulgaria, and the serbs, being complete masters of macedonia, were free to contribute 47,000 men and a siege train of 38 guns to the opera- tions against adrianople, which held out until march 26. the dispute which arose as to whether shiikri pasha had surrendered to the bulgarians or to the serbs was in itself quite unprofitable but was a symptom of the friction which was daily increasing between the two allies. the final phase of the war concentrated round scutari, which montenegro and serbia made desperate efforts to reduce. even the announcement that the council of ambassadors, in fixing the frontiers of the new albanian state, had definitely included scutari (while leaving dibra, priz- ren, pee and djakovica to the two serb kingdoms) only served as an incentive to create if possible a fresh fait accomph. but austria-hungary upheld her veto, and on march 20 addressed a severe note to montenegro, reproaching her with the murder of a bosnian franciscan and other incidents, and dispatched a strong naval squadron to the southern adriatic. realising the danger of austro-hungarian intervention, the powers on march 31 joined vienna in ordering montenegro to cease hostilities, and on her refusal established a naval blockade of her strip of coast. this seemingly illusory measure at least had the effect of restrain- ing austria-hungary, who could not act separately so long as the powers held together. it was, however, simply defied by king nicholas, who gained time by consenting to the withdrawal of the serbian troops, and meanwhile closed the frontier and conducted secret negotiations with essad pasha, commandant of the town since the assassination of hassan riza on march 30. on april 23 scutari surrendered to the montenegrins, but the powers, after a crisis of some weeks, eventually compelled the montenegrins to surrender scutari to admiral burney, as com- mander of the international fleet. negotiations could now be resumed in london for a general peace may 20, and the powers found it easier to take a strong line. before the delegates could be brought to business, it was necessary for sir e. grey to inform them, with quite undiplo- matic bluntness, that unless they were prepared to conclude peace without further delay they had better leave london alto- gether. by the treaty of london (may 30 1913) turkey ceded to the four allies conjointly the island of crete and all territory lying to the west of the enos-midia line, while the settlement of albania and the aegean islands was referred to the great powers. the dispute between the allies —the balkan allies were now faced by the thorny problem of dividing the spoils. macedonian autonomy, which the treaty had laid down as the ideal solution, was from the first abandoned by all parties. their success, as it had far exceeded their expectations, also increased their appe- tites:and encouraged them to extend their claims. the four governments seemed each bent upon annexing a maximum of territory, and thus too often became the tools of powers whose ambitious plans of political and military equilibrium they had unconsciously upset. above all, the long delays in restoring peace stabilised the various regimes of occupation and proved fatal to mutual understanding. between bulgaria and greece there was no territorial bargain, and no obvious means of reach- ing one, while serbia as early as jan. 23 formally raised the ques- tion of a revision of the serbo-bulgarian treaty. this rested on the argument that serbia was entitled to compensation for four reasons: (1) that she had furnished her ally with military support far in excess of her bargain; (2) that she had absolved bulgaria from her military obligations in macedonia; (3) that she had loyally continued the war three months after her own work was done; and (4) that the acquisition of adrianople by bulgaria radically modified the basis upon which the bargain rested. but if serbia’s attitude is to be justified, it must be on the broader ground that events had transformed the situation still further to her disadvantage in another direction. her two paral- lel aims in the war had been the political liberation of her kins- serbia men under turkish rule, and her own economic emancipation by means of free access to the sea; and from the practical rather than the sentimental standpoint the second was much the more vital. her whole calculation centred upon securing the san- jak and kosovo and a link with montenegro, and a port in north- ern albania: and when austria-hungary imposed her veto upon the latter, the vardar valley became serbia’s only possible al- ternative outlet, and this involved her retention of veles, prilep, monastir and okhrida as well as the ‘‘ disputed zone.” bulgaria on her side, insisted on the literal interpretation of the treaty, and showed herself indifferent to serbia’s difficulties on the west. meanwhile russia strained every effort to avert a conflict, sazonov going so far as to express regret at the serbo-greek negotiations (april 17), while warning bulgaria of possible dan- ger from rumania, in the event of aggression against serbia (april 28). on april 30 the russian ministers tn sofia and bel- grade simultaneously reminded the two allies of their obligation to submit disputes to russian arbitration. but sazonov’s suc- cess in settling the bulgaro-rumanian frontier dispute had only served to render sofia more unyielding, and on may 109 the bul- garian commander-in-chief wrote to the premier assuming war with serbia and greece to be inevitable, and urging concentra- tion against the former. the pressuie very rightly brought to bear by sir edward grey upon the peace delegates in favour of the treaty of london was misinterpreted by the bulgarians (who alone had any motive for haste) as a guarantee of that treaty against turkey, and as dispensing them from the need of guard- ing their eastern frontier. they were still further encouraged by the openly serbophobe tone which was taken by the official press in vienna and buda- pest; and king ferdinand had already ordered general savov to hasten the transference of the army from the thracian to the macedonian front, when on may 27 pasi¢, under pressure from the serbian opposition, publicly committed his govern- ment to the demand for treaty revision. this hastened the resig- nation of the pacific gueschoff, behind whose back king ferdinand was already concerting aggressive action. his successor danev opposed the suggestion that the premiers should mect at peters- burg, contended that russia had already prejudged the case by even considering revision, and relied increasingly upon austria- hungary. serbia and greece on their part were fully alive to the danger; and concluded first a military convention, and then a definite treaty of alliance for ten years (june r). while the first of these provided for mutual military support in case of a bul- garian attack upon either ally; the second extended the casus foederis to an attack by a third power, “ in circumstances en- visaged by the treaty of alliance between greece and serbia.” both the wording and the events of the moment make it clear that the intention was to guard against an austro-hungarian attack upon serbia. in 1913 king constantine took this risk, in 1915 he was to deny its application. on june 8 the tsar addressed a personal appeal to the kings of serbia and bulgaria, which closed with the warning that ‘the first to make war would be responsible before the slav cause.” king peter’s courteous though somewhat ambiguous answer was never published; but that of king ferdinand, which threw the entire blame upon serbia and argued that the bulgarian claim had long been admitted by russia, was a fresh blow to the cause of peace. on june 13 bulgaria rejected the proposal of the powers in favour of parallel demobilisation, and her attitude stiffened still further after the speech of the new hungarian pre- mier, count tisza, who emphasised the right of the balkan states to settle differences in their own way—even by war—and de- clared that austria-hungary could not allow any other power to acquire special prerogatives in the peninsula (june 10). danev, rejecting russia’s fresh proposals for a compromise, reiterated the demand for the joint occupation of macedonia, and added a virtual ultimatum giving russia a week in which to pronounce anarbiter and 48 hours to announce compliance with the request. with sazonov’s sharp reply bidding bulgaria to expect nothing more from russia, st. petersburg’s influence over sofia may be said to have ended. count tarnowski, the austro- serbia hungarian minister in sofia, was supreme in the counsels of king ferdinand during the critical fortnight that followed. the deadlock was complete, when on june 22 the serbian cabinet was driven to resign, owing to the resentment of the military party at its alleged moderation. the most it could do was to place itself unreservedly in russia’s hands, and when this was endorsed by the skupstina, after a stormy secret session, pasie resumed office (june 26). but russia was by this time powerless to avert the catastrophe. the second war.—on the night of june 29, without previous declaration of war, the bulgarian armies made an almost simul- taneous attack upon the serbs and greeks, hoping by a sudden shock to drive a wedge between the two, scize the coveted dis- tricts of macedonia and then hold them until the foreign inter- vention which king ferdinand believed to be imminent settled the dispute on a basis of beati possidentes. this is borne out, not merely by captured dispatches, but by the amazing fact that when putnik’s forces everywhere held their own, savov on july 1 telegraphed the order to stop hostilities. but the war so lightly begun could no longer be stopped. that afternoon the serbian counter-offensive opened, and a proclamation of king peter, prepared some wecks previously in belgrade, with a blank space for insertion of the date, was issued to the troops. after a des- perate struggle of nine days on the bregalnica front (july 1-9), the bulgarians found themselves cut into two by the inaccessible plaskovica planina, and were obliged not merely to relax their hold upon the vardar valley at krivolak, but to abandon the whole oveepolje, the strategic key to central macedonia. it appears certain that the original attack took place without the knowledge of the danev cabinet and contrary to its unani- mous decision.! but that the premier was contemplating war at an early date is shown by his request that vienna should ascer- tain whether the turtucaia-baltic line would buy rumania’s neutrality (june 28), and by his warning to the rumanian min- ister that serbian resistance would be over before rumania could complete her mobilisation (july 1). the treaty of bucharest.—by july 17 the serbs had forced back the bulgarians at all points to the frontier of 1912, and could henceforth adopt a mainly defensive attitude; but on july to rumania declared war and began to throw troops across the danube, while on july 15 the porte repudiated the provisions of the treaty of london and ordered enver pasha to advance upon adrianople. the frantic appeals of sofia to the powers to enforce upon turkey respect for a treaty concluded under their auspices were disregarded; and western public opinion was not inclined to save bulgaria from the consequences of her own act. at the same time the entry of the two new combatants greatly complicated austria-hungary’s designs of intervention. she was held back by both her allies—italy, who viewed with alarm the balkan activities of any outside power and was determined to insist upon compensation, and germany, who feared the loss of rumania for the triple alliance and the consequent derange- ment of the military balance in europe. william ii. was further influenced by a triple personal motive—the appeal of his brother- in-law king constantine, old friendship for king charles and active dislike for king ferdinand. this momentary divergence of view between vienna and berlin sealed bulgaria’s fate; though vienna and st. petersburg united to hold back rumania from occupying sofia or claiming the ruschuk-varna line. bulgaria had no course left but to sign an armistice on july 31 and to open peace negotiations at bucharest with her four christian neigh- bours. this apparent emancipation of the smaller powers from the european concert’s control decided austria-hungary in favour of belated action against serbia. but on aug. 9 the italian govt. made it clear to vienna that it would not recognise the casus foederis of the triple alliance as applicable to such a case;? and the combined pressure of rome and berlin, coupled with the certainty of russian aid to serbia, again averted war at the last moment. 1 gueschoff, the balkan league, p. 92. 2 the essential facts were first revealed by signor giolitti in the italian parliament in dec. 1914. 507 the treaty of bucharest, signed on aug. 10, assigned to ru- mania the turtucaia-baleic line, deprived bulgaria of almost all her conquests in macedonia and left her to settle the fate of thrace as best she could with turkey. serbia acquired all mace- donia to the west of the vardar, and to the east the districts of stip (istib) and koeana; but at the last moment bulgaria was left in possession of a dangerous salient at strumnica, which enabled her to threaten serbia’s only railway connection with the aegean. the new serbo-greck frontier had already been fixed by mutual agreement, and ran from gjevgijeli (30 m. north of salonika) to the s.e. corner of the lake of okhri- da, leaving florina and most of the monastir-salonika railway to the greeks. the treaty of constantinople, which was con- cluded between bulgaria and turkey sept. 29 and deprived the former of the greater part of thrace, did not directly concern serbia; but the indifference shown by her and her new allies, and still more by britain and russia, to turkey’s violation of a treaty which was their joint work, and indeed was morally bind- ing upon them, was to be dearly paid for by bulgaria’s attitude in the world war. the treatics mark a new orientation in the near east. slav co-operation is replaced by mutual hatred, which promptly throws defeated bulgaria into the arms of tur- key and predisposes both for an alliance with berlin; rumania’s ties with the triple alliance are sensibly loosened, while greece is drawn in two directions by dynastic attractions and party rancours. the military balance had undoubtedly been altered to the disadvantage of the triple alliance, yet it was to william ii. that king charles addressed a cordial telegram on the con- clusion of peace, ‘‘ which, thanks to you, remains definitive,” and it was to the joint efforts of france and germany that greece owed kavalla. ill. approach of the world war the albanian conflicts —austria-hungary now concentrated her attention upon albania, and thereby rendered still more acute the relations between serbs and albanians. in the past three decades the latter had been rapidly ousting the former from the historic territories of kosovo, prizren and deeani, and now tried to justify present possession by a claim as autochthonous owners of the soil. the mountainous and inaccessible character of these borderlands and the extreme backwardness of their population made a guerilla warfare almost inevitable; and the summons addressed to belgrade by the great powers for the withdrawal of the serbian troops (aug. 19) was a signal for further trouble. late in sept. there was a formidable albanian rising, and the insurgents, aided by numerous bands from beyond the frontier and armed with foreign rifles, seized dibra and even okhrida, and forced serbia to remobilise the morava division and many of her reserves. in order to prevent fresh raids, the serbs occu- pied certain strategic points in albania, and this gave austria- hungary excuse for a sharp warning. thus for the first fortnight of oct. there was once more acute friction between vienna and belgrade. at last serbia accepted the inevitable and with- drew her troops, but covered her retreat by a note to the great powers, begging them to enjoin upon their albanian proteges a respect for the frontiers created for their benefit. even after this crisis was over, count berchtold made further trouble for serbia by steadily opposing her government’s very natural de- sire to take over, so far as serbian territory was concerned, the shares of the orient railway hitherto owned by austrian sub- jects. vienna’s permanent ill-will was further revealed by at- tempts to block the conclusion of a concordat between serbia and the vatican. by christmas 1913 the situation in old serbia? was rapidly becoming normal, but the administration in the new territory left much to be desired, and the closing of bulgarian schools, the expulsion of exarchist clergy and occasional excesses against the moslem population caused serious unrest and discontent. the pasi¢ administration became absorbed in defending itself against the increasingly violent onslaughts of the opposition. * since 1912 this name was transferred to the original kingdom and the “qld serbia” of turkish times came to be called '‘ new serbia.” 508 in dec. 1913, and again on june 2 1914, it resigned, but even- tually remained in office. on march 4 the opposition had with- drawn from the chamber as a protest against alleged uncon- stitutional action of the government in budget matters. but though the tension was increased by the activities of a powerful military clique known as “‘ the black hand,” and by the sudden and arbitrary seizure of its club premises by the masterful min- ister of the interior, protie, the government was still in office inthesummer. the visit of crown prince alexander and pasie to st. petersburg early in feb. had given rise to rumours of a new balkan league under russian auspices; but the return of raco- slavov to power in sofia had really made any such plan imprac- ticable, and king charles of rumania, though bent upon co- operation with serbia and receiving the tsar with special hon- ours at constanta, had no idea of breaking his connection with the triple alliance. murder of the archduke—on june 24 king peter, incapaci- tated by ill-health, appointed prince alexander as regent, and simultaneously dissolved parliament, pasie having in april pledged himself to the elections for a ‘‘ great skupstina ” for constitutional changes. only four days later the assassination of the archduke francis ferdinand and his wife at sarajevo re- vived the latent austro-serbian conflict in an acuter form than ever. the authors of the crime, princip and cabrinovie, belonged to a group of bosnian serb students, mostly under the age of 20, who gave terrorist expression co the universal discontent aroused by austro-hungarian repression throughout her yugoslav prov- inces. the victories of serbia during the balkan wars and the openly hostile policy pursued towards her by vienna and buda- pest had assured to her in the eyes of public opinion the position of a yugoslav piedmont. though the initiative unquestionably rested with the bosnians themselves, it was proved that the assassins had been in belgrade and had been secretly smuggled across the drina into bosnia, after receiving hand grenades and revolvers from the serbian komitadjis major tankosie and ciganovie. on these facts the ballplatz sought to establish the complicity , or at least the foreknowledge, of the serbian govt.; yet despite the compromising admissions of mr. ljuba jovanovie! the theory is improbable. the country was ex- hausted by two wars; the albanian campaign in the previous autumn had shown the reluctance of the peasant solliers to return to the colours, and it was now the eve of harvest. miuli- tary stocks were alarmingly low, as the next winter was to show. the young prince had only just assumed the reins of govern- ment: the position of the cabinet was shaky, and a fierce elec- toral campaign was opening. delicate negotiations with mon- tenegro for a customs and military union, and perhaps even a dynastic arrangement, were still pending. serbia had every con- ceivable motive for avoiding aggressive action. after the trag- edy, it is difficult to see what other course her government could have pursued; its one grave omission was to offer a thorough inquiry, without waiting for any suggestion from vienna.’ ullimatum to serbia.—the secret of the ultimatum was jeal- ously guarded, and the long delay created, as was intended, a false sense of security in some quarters. its delivery at belgrade, which took place at 6 p.m. on july 23, was carefully timed for the moment after president poincare’s departure from st. peters- burg after his state visit, the object being to disorganise the diplo- macy of the allics. the ultimatum, after reminding the ser- bian govt. of its formal undertakings of march 31 1909, charged it with “ culpable tolerance ” of terrorist propaganda directed against austria-hungary, and accused serbian officers and func- tionarics of planning the sarajevo murders. it therefore demanded that the narodna odbrana and any similar society guilty of anti-austrian propaganda should be dissolved, that objection- able passages should be expunged from serbian educational works, that all officers or officials whom austria-llungary might ‘see the murder of sarajevo (reprint from the journal of british institute of international a ffairs, 1925). 2 for a full account, both of the question of responsibility for the murder and of the subsequent diplomatic negotiations, see sarajevo: a study in the origins of the great war (1926), by r. w. seton- watson. serbia name as guilty of propaganda should be dismissed, and that the belgrade govt. should not merely arrest certain specified persons charged with complicity, but should order the trial of others, allow austro-hungarian delegates to take part in the inquiry and accept the collaboration of austro-hungarian officials “ in the suppression of the subversive movement.” the general impression produced by this document upon euro- pean opinion is best summarised in the words of sir e. grey, who telegraphed the next day to sir m. de bunsen that he “ had never before seen one state address to another independent state a document of so formidable a character.”” the fifth de- mand in particular, that of collaboration, he pointed out “ would be hardly consistent with the maintenance of serbia’s independ- ent sovereignty.’ none the less, serbia in her reply actually consented to “‘such collaboration as agrees with the principle of international law, with criminal procedure and with good neighbourly relations.”” only on one point did she reply defi- nitely in the negative—the share of austro-hungarian officials in the actual inquiry would, it was argued, be a violation of the constitution and the criminal code; but even this could be met by “ communications in concrete cases.”’ on all other points there was unqualified submission, or only such reservations as were capable of easy adjustment: as a final proof of sincerity, serbia offered to submit any outstanding points to the decision of the hague tribunal or even to the great powers which had imposed upon her the declaration of march 31 1909. thus serbia is found for the third time in six years offering to submit herself to the verdict of the hague (the two previous occasions being the bosnian crisis and the friedjung trial), and each time it is austria-hungary who rejects the pro- posal. three days later, as a last resort, the serbian govt. informed the italian foreign minister that it was even prepared to swallow the whole note, ‘if only some explanation were given regarding the mode in which austrian agents would require to intervene,” and went so far as to offer to accept these explana- tions from a third party, if austria-flungary were not disposed to give them to serbia direct.® austria-hungary had demanded an answer to her note by 6 p.m. on july 25, thus leaving a period of 48 hours for either reply or mediation. the official documents published in berlin and vienna since the war make it abundantly clear that the ball- platz deliberately couched the note in such terms as to be unac- ceptable: but even in 1914 this was obvious from its tenor, and from the significant fact that baron giesl, who received the ser- bian answer from pasi¢ a quarter of an hour before the expiry of the time limit, did not even open it, but handed him a fresh note announcing the rupture of diplomatic relations and the immedi- ate departure of himself ancl his staff. moreover, the text of the answer was kept secret in vienna for several days, until a sar- castic commentary could be added; and belgrade, presumably owing to the confusion which prevailed there, appears to have taken no steps to bring it promptly to the notice of the other powers.® this is the more regrettable, since even william ii, (to judge from his marginal notes on diplomatic documents, as published since the revolution) was impressed by the modera- tion of the serbs, regarded vienna’s essential wishes as fulfilled and expressed the view that gicsl ought to have remained in belgrade! ihlis ministers, however, had failed to support sir ef. grey’s proposal for a prolongation of the time limit, and were thus responsible for bringing russta into action. on july 27 the tsar replied to a despairing appeal of the prince regent for assistance to serbia by a telegram strongly urging him to “ neg- lect no step which might lead to a settlement,” but conveying the assurance that “ russia will in no case disinterest herself in the fate of serbia.”"? on july 28 austria-hungary formally declared war upon serbia. henceforward the austro-serbian 3 british diplom. corresp., no. 5. * british diplom. corresp., no. 39. 5 thid., no. 64. 6 e.g., it was communicated to sir e. grey by the serbian minister on the same day on which it reached london through the austrian embassy with count berchtold's comments. " serbian blue books, nos. 37 and 43. serbia quarrel is merged in the larger diplomatic conflict between alli- ance and entente; and the reader may be referred to the special articles dealing with that subject. iv. the war period when baron giesl presented the ultimatum, pasie had been absent clectioneering in the provinces; but he at once returned to belgrade, and on july 25 mobilisation was ordered, and the seat of government and the archives were hastily transferred to nish. in view of so grave a crisis elections became impossible, and as parliamentary sanction was more than ever necessary, the government had no other course than to ignore the fact of dissolution and to call the previous skupstina once more into existence. at its first meeting in nish on aug. 1, the entire opposition endorsed the government’s action, and for the mo- ment party life was in abeyance. parliament also ratified the concordat with the vatican and a law ensuring to catholicism full freedom of worship in serbia. there was an unexpected de- lay in the invasion of serbia, and it was not till aug. 12 that the first austro-iiungarian troops crossed the drina and the save. after 12 days of desperate fighting (known as the battle of the jader) the invaders were thrown back across the frontier, this being the first definite allied victory in the world war. unduly elated by this success and by the news of russia’s rapid advance in galicia, the serbs were now led to underestimate austria- iiungary’s resources, and, encouraged by the allies, passed to the offensive early in september. their rash invasion of syrmia —a necessary preliminary to any successful penetration of bos- nia from the east—soon proved beyond their strength and had to be abandoned by sept. 13; and the joyous welcome everywhere accorded to them by the population merely brought down a cruel vengeance on its head when the austro-hungarian army returned. a further mistake was made in attempting to hold the rich but strategically indefensible maeva district, doubtless owing to the severe excesses committed there by the enemy during its first inroad. none the less the serbs were able to check a second aus- trian advance across the drina in mid-september. but on nov. 6 general potiorek began a third invasion in great force, and during the next month steadily forced back the serbian forces into the heart of their country. the danger was aggravated by shortage of ammunition, and when at last the necessary supplies began to arrive, a large force of bulgarians raided the vardar railway from the strumnica salient and destroyed an important bridge on the only line by which the new guns could be moved up to the front. the enforced evacuation of belgrade on nov. 29 revealed the extremity of the danger, and brought the latent political crisis to a head. on dec. 13 the purely radical cabinet was succeeded by a coalition govt., in which pasi¢ remained premier, but the leaders of all parties save the liberals received portfolios. it was, however, in this blackest week that the skup- stina unanimously endorsed the government’s declaration that its foremost war aim was “ the liberation and union of all our serb, croat and slovene brethren not yet set free.’’ this was the first public step of serbia in favour of yugoslav unity. serbia after the austrian rout.—with the arrival of muni- tions from the west the army’s flagging spirits revived, and the brilliant offensive initiated on dec. 2 by general misie and the i. army resulted in the complete rout of potiorek. by dec. 14 serbian soil was for the third time entircly free from invaders, and an enormous booty was captured. but the enemy left deadly infection behind him, and by the early spring of 1915 exhausted serbia was immobilised by a typhus epidemic which js estimated to have caused about 300,000 cleaths among the civil population. a notable part in checking its ravages was played by lady paget as head of the serbian relief fund units in skoplje, and by colonel hunter and a r.a.m.c. detachment, who organised a scheme of disinfection on the whole serbian railway system. the latter step appears to have been taken in view of the possi- bility of allied troops being employed upon the danube, an idea which receded from the general design in proportion as the austro-german recovery in galicia became more marked. ser- bia’s negative rele during 1915 was due not only to exhaustion 099 but to considerations of high policy. the attitude of bulgaria was from the first extremely equivocal, and serbia, had she lis- tened to certain ill-considered pleas for a fresh offensive into hungary, would have been at any moment hable to an attack from the rear, unless she could rely upon greece or the allies to hold bulgaria in check. meanwhile the entente was eagerly working for the inter- vention of italy and of bulgaria, neither of whom could receive adequate satisfaction save at the expense of serbian aspirations. during the winter pressure was repeatedly brought to bear upon nish to make territorial concessions to bulgaria in macedonia; but the one and only condition upon which serbia could safely have considered this—namely, that the allies should guarantee yugoslav unity in the event of victory—was precluded by their parallel negotiations with italy, whose official policy it was to prevent, not to further yugoslav unity, and to whom by the treaty of london, concluded on april 26 tors, no less than 700,- ooo yugoslavs were assigned. the fact that the concealment of this treaty from serbia was made an absolute condition by rome did not tend to diminish the reserve of belgrade which almost immediately learned the essential facts through supilo’s discoveries in official circles at st. petersburg. the serbs, who were not formally recognised as allies by the western powers, were more conscious than ever of the value to them of the vardar valley, which would form part of any serious conces- sions to bulgaria; and they were from the first sceptical as to the possibility of winning over bulgaria, whom they believed to be tied to vienna and berlin by a secret compact. they were further handicapped by the attitude of greece, who in the au- tumn of 1914 exercised her right of veto, under the serbo-greek treaty, upon any cession of territory to bulgaria and was pre- pared to demand monastir as compensation. this attitude could not be ignored at a period when greece was still ready to inter- vene on the side of the allies, and when even king constantine had firmly rejected william itl.’s suggestion that he should fall upon serbia and tear up the treaty of bucharest. what changed the views of both athens and sofia was simply the unfavourable turn in the military fortunes of the allies. as long as the bulgarians thought that the dardanelles would be forced, they could probably have been secured in return for the promise of macedonia and the guarantee of an allied occupa- tion; what was lacking was the corresponding pledge to serbia. the conclusion of a bulgarian loan in berlin in feb. was the first sign of a change, and after march neutrality was the best that the allies could hope for from bulgaria, though she showed great skill in furthering bulgarophil illusions in the west. thus the concrete proposals addressed to sofia by the entente on may 28, over serbia’s head, came two months too late. the conquest of serbia.—during the summer the radoslavov cabinet continued to negotiate with the entente, but it was merely playing for time, and on sept. 6 concluded a secret alli- ance with the central powers. meanwhile the serbian govt. was unduly optimistic as to greek and rumanian intervention, and its disbelief in a german invasion was encouraged by allied military opinion. only three weeks before mackensen crossed the danube, lord kitchener, in conversation with a serbian representative, gave his opinion that any action from the north was mere bluff. even after the opening of the austro-german bombardment along the river front, and the mobilisation of bul- garia, allied opinion clung to the illusion that bulgaria might enter on the entente side, and therefore a veto was imposed upon the serbian general stafi’s plan for an immediate attack upon sofia before the bulgarian army was ready (sept. 27). next day sir edward grey in the house of commons announced that in the event of bulgaria’s aggression “we are prepared io give to our friends in the balkans all the support in our power, 1n the manner that would be most weclome to them, in concert with our allies, without reserve and without qualification.”’ relying on the fulfilment of this pledge, the serbs devoted their main effort to checking the austro-german advance and remained on the defensive towards bulgaria. the danger was increased by king constantine’s repudiation of greece’s treaty obligations 510 towards serbia and the overthrow of veniselos. that statesman, however, had inquired of the allies as early as sept. 23 whether, if bulgaria declared war on serbia, and if greece asked serbia to supply the 150,000 men stipulated by the serbo-greek treaty for such a contingency, france and britain would assume serbia’s obligation for her; and an affirmative answer was received within 48 hours. on oct. 6 the rupture with bulgaria was complete. the fatal delays in sending the promised troops, coupled with allied in- sistence that the serbs should hold back mackensen to the last moment, belong to military history; but their results were eminently political. at the critical moment of the bulgarian menace to the nish-salonika railway there were at salonika not 150,000 allied troops ready for action, but 35,000 french and 13,000 british, the latter under strict injunctions from lon- don not to cross the frontier into serbia.! nish was decorated to welcome allies who never came. the whole serbian plan of campaign collapsed, and the armies, losing control of the railway southwards, retired precipitately through the passes leading to the plain of kosovo. general sarrail, informed that he must not expect reinforcements, was forced to arrest his belated offensive northwards (nov. 12) and soon to withdraw to the west of the vardar. the serbs were thus cut off from allied help, lost skoplje and only just escaped being cut off between the converging austro-german and bulgarian armies. the final retreat of the serbian army and govt. took place in the dead of winter across the inhospitable snow moyntains of albania and montenegro to scutari, medua and durazzo, a smaller section escaping southwards from prizren and augment- ing the serbian forces south of monastir. fortunately the gen- eral exoclus of the civilian population was checked before it had gone too far; but the retreat stands out as one of the great trage- dies of the war. after dreadful sufferings the fugitives were con- veyed by allied transports to corfu, which for the remainder of the war became the seat of the serbian govt. and a base for the convalescence and reorganisation of the army. notable assis- tance was rendered by british voluntary units, and some idea of the generous response of the british public to serbia’s need may be gathered from the fact that the serbian relief fund from first to last collected over £1,000,000, in money and material, and employed over 700 workers in serbia, albania, corfu, salonika, corsica, biserta and france; while the scottish women’s hos- pitals, under dr. elsie inglis, performed notable services for the serbs both on the balkan and the russian fronts. the deaths of mrs. dearmer, mrs. harley (lord french’s sister), mrs. haverfield, dr. inglis herself and many others set a seal on the new-found friendship of the two nations. conquered serbia was divided for administrative purposes between austria-hungary and bulgaria, the latter holding the timok, nish, skoplje and macedonia; all that remained to the serbs was a fragment of territory south of monastir. bulgaria now threw off the mask and officially declared the serbian state to have ceased to exist. it therefore enrolled all men of military age throughout the occupied territory, and in feb. 1917 extended this to include the whole male population. it refused to recognise the serbian red cross and took possession of the serbian lega- tion in sofia. all ownerless land was confiscated, all serbian schools, law courts and inscriptions were bulgarised, libraries and collections were either destroyed or removed to bulgaria, the serbian clergy were evicted and there were wholesale depor- tations. a formidable rising in the mountains behind kursumlje was brutally repressed, with over 2,000 executions (march 1917). the war aims now repeatedly avowed by sofia were the annexation not only of macedonia, but of kosovo and prizren, and the whole upper morava and timok valleys; a common fron- tier with hungary; the prevention of yugoslav unity and of russia’s acquisition of constantinople; and (after rumania’s entry) the retention of the whole dobruja. radoslavovy more than once proclaimed bulgaria’s resolve to keep all her con- quests,” and his official organs declared that serbia’s reconstitu- 1 see general sarrail, mon commandement en orient, p, 27. 2e¢.2., in vossische zeitung, oct. 10 1916. serbia tion, “no matter under what form, would be a perpetual menace to balkan peace’ and would never be permitted.’ austria- hungary showed much greater reserve, airing from time to time various alternative schemes for a vassal southern slav state under the habsburgs, keeping prince mirko of montenegro as a possible candidate for its throne and employing agents in switzer- land to sow dissension among the exiles. the serbs in exule-—soon after the establishment of the ser- bian govt. at corfu party rivalries began to revive. the deputies were scattered, living mostly on the riviera, an independent press was impossible, and regular allied subsidies made the gov- ernment virtually immune from serious democratic control. the supersession of the voivode putnik and almost all his staff caused great indignation; and though the whole serbian coalition must bear the responsibility, it was known to be the work of pasie and his masterful colleague in the radical party, protie, then still out of office. in aug. 1916 an attempt is alleged to have been made upon the life of the prince regent at the front, and the government, after vainly urging the skupstina to institute a new form of courts-martial, proceeded in the winter—while the joint advance under sarrail was crowned by the capture of mon- astir from the bulgarians—to order numcrous arrests on a charge of conspiracy and murder. among those implicated were the late governor of macedonia, general popovie, the ex-war minister general bojanovie and several distinguished staff officers; and many line officers known for their gallantry were placed on the retired list or confined to the island of corfu. the conspiracy trial which opened in salonika in jan. 1917, and was conducted behind the shelter of a strict military censor- ship, resulted in a death sentence upon nine serbian officers, and notably of colonel dimitrijevie, head of the secret society known as “‘ union or death,” or more colloquially as “ the black hand,” whose chief aim had been to fan nationalist sentiments in the army. there is no doubt that “ apis,” as dimitrijevie was called throughout the slavonic south, interfered unwarrantably in politics, and that he had his hand in the sarajevo murder; but the evidence for a plot against prince alexander was clearly inadequate, and he was the victim of rival military and political cliques. this trial revived all the old party dissensions: the reac- tionaries had triumphed on the very eve of the collapse of their chief support, the tsarist government. pasie found himself between two fires—the need for a more democratic restatement of foreign policy, and the demand of the young radical and pro- gressive partics for a revision of the salonika trial. refusal led to their withdrawal from the cabinct, and its reconstruction on a purely old radical basis under pasie and protie. the last occasion when all parties co-operated was on july 20 1917, when the declaration of corfu, drawn up between trum- bie for the yugoslav committee and pasie for the serbian govt., met with unanimous approval. it affirms that the serbs, croats and slovenes constitute a single nation, and demands complete national unity under the karagjorgjevie dynasty, a constitutional democratic and parliamentary monarchy and the reference of all details to a constituent assembly after the war. pasi¢, having strengthened his position abroad by a visit to paris and london, declined to convoke parliament for four months after the legal period had expired. at last, as the result of a direct appeal of its president to the crown, it met in corfu‘on feb. 12 1918 and the government resigned, but after weeks of fruitless negotiation for a coalition ministry was allowed to re- sume oftice. the opposition, which numbcred 60 as against 64 old radicals, still insisted on the revision of the trial and the transference of foreign affairs from pasi¢e to their own candi- date draskovi¢; and in april, when the budget was introduced, they withdrew in a body from the chamber, thus leaving the government without the quorum of 84 required by the serbian constitution. serbian public opinion was too scattered and disorganised to be effective, and the corfu govt. tried to discredit its opponents’ action before the uninformed west as defeatist or even austro- phil. thus throughout the spring and summer of 1918 there was seg, narodni prava, may 19; kambana, oct. 9 1916. serbia acute and growing tension among the rival serbian groups, and the real initiative in the yugoslav question and in the political campaign against austria-hungary had passed to trumbie, benes, lansing and the allies and to the leaders of the move- ment inside the dual monarchy. on april 8 1918 a “‘ congress of the oppressed nationalities of austria-hungary ” was opened on the roman capitol, at which the agreement reached a month earlier in london between trumbic, on behalf of the yugoslav committee, and andrea torre, as representing an iniluential committee of italian deputies and senators, was publicly pro- claimed as the basis of common action. the result was immediate in two directions. the propaganda organised on the italian front by delegates of all the national committees (yugoslav, czech, polish, rumanian) led to wholesale defections from the austro-hungarian army, and contributed materially, according to the high command’s own admission, to the failure of the last piave offensive in june. meanwhile the roman congress was deliberately imitated inside the dual monarchy by an imposing congress at prague, attended by czech, polish, rumanian, slovak and yugoslav delegates—among the latter radie and pribieevie. their resolutions, though necessarily vague, amounted to a pledge of mutual support in the cause of unity and independence. during 1018 the initiative among the yugoslavs of the mon- archy fell more and more into the hands of the slovenes, led by father korosec since the premature death of monsignor krek. the official recognition accorded to the pact of rome by lansing in the name of america (may 31) was a fresh encouragement; and korosec, after constituting a yugoslav national council for the furtherance of unity, convoked a new slav congress at ljubljana on aug. 18. one of its most significant features was the demonstrative share taken by the catholic hierarchy and leading clergy. in the early autumn, at the emperor charles’s instance, count tisza visited zagreb, sarajevo and dalmatia with the object of promoting a hungarian solution of the south- ern slav question, but met everywhere with a blank refusal. the surrender of bulgaria (sept. 30) naturally rendered the nationalities indisposed to concession, and the austrian pre- mier’s admission that national autonomy was now inevitable was icily received. the czech and yugoslav spokesmen in the reichsrat now insisted on separate representation at the peace negotiations and the absolute right to decide their own future state allegiance. the collapse of ausivia-h ungary.—events now followed each other with lightning speed. on oct. 4 austria-hungary in a note to america accepted president wilson’s speeches as a basis of discussion, and on the 8th baron hussarek admitted that the monarchy’s internal structure must be modified and “ full- grown nations ” determine their own future. this only precipi- tated the collapse, and while count tisza voiced hungarian public opinion in declaring the basis of the dual system to be shattered, the yugoslav national council was transplanted from ljubljana to zagreb and strengthened by the inclusion of repre- sentatives of all parties (oct. ro). on the 16th the hungarian govt. declared in favour of personal union, and next day hus- sarek published an imperial proclamation, dated oct. 16, divid- ing austria (not austria-hungary) into four federal units (ger- man, czech, yugoslav and ukrainian), and leaving the poles to make their own decision. this project was stillborn and pleased no one. korosec in the name of the czech and yugoslav clubs unreservedly rejected it, and claimed that the future of both nations was an international problem which only the future peace conference could solve. henceforth the yugoslavs acted independently of both vienna and budapest; and when on oct. 21 the news of president wil- son’s answer to count burian’s. final peace note (refusing to negotiate save on the basis of a recognition of czechoslovak and yugoslav national claims) became generally known, the old regime vanished almost as if by magic. extraordinary scenes took place in many towns, the troops tearing off their military badges with the habsburg arms and trampling them underfoot. national councils were speedily formed in dalmatia and bosnia, 511 which arranged for the disarmament of the troops pouring north- wards from the broken albanian and macedonian fronts. as early as the 23rd a croat regiment stationed in fiume disarmed the magyar militia and took possession of the town. on the 24th count andrassy was appointed joint foreign minister, but the machinery of state had ceased to work, and both the austrian and hungarian cabinets were in stat demtssionts. on the 28th (the same day on which the czechoslovak republic was born in prague) the military command in zagreb handed over its authority to the national council, and next day the diet proclaimed the independence of croatia from hungary and as- sumed control of fiume. the arsenals of pola and cattaro were already in the hands of the insurgents; and the emperor charles, in the hope either of winning the favour of the new regime in zagreb or throwing an apple of discord between it and the en- tente, signed a decree on oct. 31 making over the whole austro- hungarian ileet to the yugoslav state. this was not unnaturally interpreted by the italian nationalists as a proof of collusion between zagreb and vienna; nor was it generally known that as early as oct. 4 m. m. stepanek and giunio, as delegates of the > czech and yugoslav revolutionary committee, reached italy in a fishing boat, to concert with the allies a general rising alorg the coast, but were closely imprisoned in rome ard not allowed to communicate with benes and trumbie till nearly three weeks had been lost. but for this delay the fleet might have been in the entente’s hands a fortnight before the final italian offersive opened on the piave. unhappily, every step led to a fresh mis- understanding. the action of the supreme council in paris in prescribing the frontier line of the secret treaty of london as the line of occupation under the austro-hungarian armistice was keenly resented by the yugoslavs as a breach with wilsorian principles. the allies very properly insisted that the fleet must be surrendered into their hands, but before this could take place a deplorable incident occurred in pola harbour, the “ viribus unitis ” being blown up by an italian mine, with a yugoslav admiral and crew on board. in italy baron sonnino’s frankly anti-slav attitude threw signor orlando and the pact of rome into the shade; and the consulta worked hard to prevent yugo- slavia’s recognition by the allies. v. the union rival programmes.—that this recognition had not already been accorded before the collapse of the central powers began was due to disunion among the yugoslavs themselves. during the summer america gave a lead to the allies by accepting the yugoslav programme, and after austria’s failure on the piave there was a growing disposilion on the part of the western powers to [all into line with lansing’s very clear pronouncements. but pasie, free from the restraints of a coalition and from all parliamentary control, had reverted to his original pan-serb standpoint, and steadily declined to reconstruct his cabinet on a wider yugoslav basis. trumbie on his part could not enter a purely serbian cabinet without prejudicing that freedom of choice of his compatriots in the dual monarchy upon which the moral case of the yugoslavs depended. a series of incidents proved the difference of outlook to be not merely personal but fundamental. in july mihajlovie, the serbian minister at wash- ington, was summarily dismissed by pasi¢, the reason being his refusal as a good yugoslav to transmit to the american govt. a project assigning bosnia to serbia as “ compensation ” in the event of a patched-up peace. on july 25 at the mansion house, london, balfour publicly endorsed the full yugoslav programme, as formulated by the serbian minister, j. m. jovanovie; but the latter’s full report to his home government was answered by a severe snub, and during the winter he too was dismisscd for his yugoslav sentiments. when on aug. 9 balfour officially recognised the czechoslovak national council as ‘* trustees of the future czechoslovak govt.” he was ready to extend a similar recognition to the yugoslav cause, but as a preliminary condition he very reasonably insisted upon unanimity between those who claimed to represent the groups of yugoslavs. pasi¢ adhered to his standpoint, and even ae the efforts of veniselos and take jonescu to bring him and trum- bi€e together were unavailing. when in the last week of oct. the rival statesmen moved from london to [aris, all hope of yugoslav recognition before the peace conference had vanished, owing to the stiffening in the attitude of italy. one of the first steps of the new zagreb govt. was to recognise trumbie and his committee as its representatives abroad, and to send delegates to switzerland to discuss the measures for consummating national unity. on nov. 9 the declaration of geneva was signed by pa3ie as serbian premier, korogec, cin- grija (mayor and deputy of ragusa) and zerjav (a slovene pro- gressive) for the zagreb council, trumbie and four others for the yugoslav committee, and trifkovie, draskovie and marin- kovi€ as chiefs of the serbian opposition parties. “ by this act,” it was laid down, “ the new state appears and stands from to-day as an indivisible state-unit and as a member of the society of free nations. the former frontiers no longer exist.”? the gov- ernments of belgrade and zagreb were to retain their former spheres until a constituent assembly, elected by universal suf- -frage, could draw up a new constitution. yielding to the unanimous desire of the other delegates, padi¢ officially requested the entente to recognise the zagreb council as the supreme authority in the ex-austro-hungarian provinces, and trumbie as its accredited representative in the west, until unification could be completed. the repeated efforts made by pasie to avert so distasteful a decision were held to disqualify him from the leadership of the new united cabinet, but in order to secure his renunciation it was found necessary to exclude the other party chiefs. this arrangement, however, never really came into force, for the simple reason that telegraphic communi- cations between the west and serbia were hopelessly irregular, and that events continued to move, with the advance of the serbian army and civil authorities from the south, and of the italian army beyond the armistice line, in the direction of ljubljana. to meet the impending danger, the zagreb govt. urgently in- vited the assistance of the serbian army, which during the final advance contained a large proportion of yugoslav volunteers. the first serbian troops entered fiume on nov. 18, and a most dangerous situation arose between them and the italians in istria and dalmatia, which was only very partially mitigated by the dispatch of american military and naval forces to trieste and fiume. much of the blame falls upon the supreme council, which shrank from the only effective means of allaying friction —immediate allied occupation of the disputed zone, pending the decision of the peace conference. the council’s occasional outbursts against italy only rendered baron sonnino still more intractable, and irritated italian public opinion. no satisfac- tory solution was possible unless the treaty of london was abro- gated, and this involved the abandonment of other secret treaties to which paris and london clung. america pointedly defined the adriatic problem as a test case, but amid the pressure of other affairs it was allowed to drift. the union.—the equivocal attitude of the entente towards the new state naturally hastened the process of union. on nov. 23 the zagreb national council proclaimed the union of the ter- ritories under its control with the kingdoms of serbia and mon- tenegro, and invited the prince regent of serbia to assume the regency of the new state. this decision (passed with only one dissentient voice, but that unhappily stephen radi¢, the peasant leader) took formal effect on dec. 1, when prince alexander, at the formal request of 24 delegates from zagreb, proclaimed the union and repeated their cry, ‘‘ long live free and united yugo- slavia.’? meanwhile on nov. 26 a hurriedly convoked national assembly at podgorica had proclaimed the deposition of king nicholas and his dynasty and the union of montenegro with serbia in the new united state. the first yugoslav cabinet was constituted under protie as premier and korosec as vice-premier; trumbie became foreign minister;-other portfolios were divided more or less equally between serbia and the new territories. bibliography.—general: c, jirecek, geschichte der serben {to 1537, 2 vol. 1913 and 1917), and siuat und geselischaft 1m amfiitelal- serbian campaigns terlichen serbien; s. novakovie, die wwiedergeburt des serbischen staates (1912-3); g. yakshitch, z’ europe et ha resurrection de la serbte (2nd ed., 1919); h. w. v. temperley, iistery of serbia (1917); jovan cviji¢, la peninsule balkanique (1919); slobodan jovanovie, defenders of the constitution, the second reign of mito’ and michael (1923),2he reign of prince milan (1925); z. zivanovi¢e, political history of serbia (4 vol., 1923-5) (the four latter in serbian). on the balkan’ wars, see diplomaticus, nutionalism and war in the near fast (1915); r. w. seton-watson, the rise of nationality in ihe balkans (1917); immanuel, der bulkankrieg (1913); h. barby, les vietoires serbes (1913) and bregafnitsa (1913). on economics, see vuk primorac, la question yougoslave (1918); wosta steyanovitch, economic problems of serbia (1919). for serbia’s relation to the questions of war origins, see a. f. pribram, the secret treaties of austria-hungary 18709-1914 (2 vol., harvard); the post-war collections of austrian and german diplo- matic documents; r. w. seton-watson, sarajevo (1926); h. kanner, kaiserliche katastrebhenpolitik (1922); m. bogitevic, kriegstursachen (1919); f. stieve, iswolski im weltkriege (1925). see also history of the peace conference (ed. i]. w. v. temper- ley, vol. 4.) cr. w. s.-w.) serbian campaigns.—overshadowed by the scale of oper- ations on the western and eastern fronts, the importance of events which took place on the southern front is not always realised. in the balkans, where the world war started, there were never less than 1,000,000 men of varied nationalities fight- ing each other in this theatre, and here the crushing defeat of the bulgarian army in sept. 1918 first knocked one of the cen- tral powers out of the war. the 1914 operations and the con- quest of serbia in ro15 are described in separate sections below, while an account is given of the allied operations in macedonia, tots—8, and of the reconquest of serbia, under the heading salonika campaigns. i. operations in 1914 the austro-hungarian problem in starting a campaign against serbia was complicated by the prospect of russian intervention in galicia; the austrian staff had, accordingly, drawn up two plans of concentration. alternative austro-hungarian plans.—the first plan, in case of war against serbia and montenegro, called concentration b (balkan), involved the employment of seven corps and two cavalry divisions. the second plan, in case of war with russia and serbia, called concentration r (russia), involved the employment against russia of nine corps and five cavalry divi- sions; against serbia and mentenegro of a minimum group of three corps and some independent civisions and brigades and the formation of a reserve (four corps, two cav. divs.) which could be directed as required towards the russian frontier or those of serbia and montenegro. convinced at first that they would have to deal only with the southern slavs, austria-hungary ordered, on july 26, the partial mobilisation required for concentration b; but, owing to com- plications with russia, general mobilisation was proclaimed on july 31. to avoid confusion, the austro-hungarian staff decided to allow concentration b to be completed before withdrawing the reserve provided for in plan r. the concentration of the austro-hungarian armies, therefore, took place in three phases. eable. t, 1. july 27—aug. 16. balkan front (potiorek), i]. army (boehm- ermolli); 1v., vii., in. corps (131 bns.); danube-sava front. v. army (frank); viie., xii. corps (79 bns.); lower drina up to ljubovija. vi. army (potiorek); xv. nvi. corps (74 mountain bus.), visegrad—foea area. 2. aug. 4-24. russian front. garian forces. 3. «aug. 14-sept. 8. ii. army transferred to galicia. remainder of the austro-hun- serbian mobilisation.—the serbian general mobilisation, ordered on july 25, yielded 490,000 men at the outset, and some 43,000 more between aug. and september. montenegro declared war on austria-hungary on aug. 5 1914. iler forces amounted to about 50,000 militia with very little artillery, and were of no direct assistance to serbia, though they occupied the attention of three austrian mountain brigades. circumstances compelled serbia to adopt a purely defensive strategy. her army, com- | serbian campaigns 513 the campaigns in serbia scale enelish miles —— 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 kilometres ; 01020 40 #80 80 main raifwags ... fop costs % o rogers ange ty, raw m09, 2. - aoe terns rn tera sy rma ovica yep i ay, : e ns a 7 > off oe, £ ha? bele, my, g o be i s b . ~ a sh te ny a ac np ap = zam, ny, is e qe" obrenovacy semendria' ra i a sp ma tat, * 4 en 2 ¢ oe me fd . ; 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(iit bns.) .. other frontier . ; troops (25 bns.) after the withdrawal of the austrian ii. army, the serbs had a superiority not only in numbers but also in quality, 90% of them having fought in the 1912-3 wars, and three-quarters of their guns being better than the austrians’. on the other hand, austria’s equipment and resources in ammunition were far superior. jadar operations, and cer battle: aug. 16-24.—north serbia is a mountainous country, devoid of good communications, par- ticularly in the northwest, whilst the actual frontier was formed on the north by the formidable obstacle of the danube and sava, on the west by the drina, a river not very broad but swift and difficult to bridge. the plan for the invasion of serbia, drawn up by conrad von hotzendorff and moltke in consulta- tion, involved a concentric advance from all fronts, but was vitiated by the withdrawal of the ii. army. potiorek, however, who feared an advance of the serbs over the drina to excite insurrection among their kinsmen in bosnia, launched, on his own responsibility, a preventive offensive. on the night of aug. 11-12, the austrians (viit., xiii. and elements of iv. and [x. corps) began to cross on a wide front from drenovac on the sava to ljubovija on the middle drina, successfully driving back the serbian frontier detachments. the serbian army moved to oppose the enemy, and by the evening of the rsth the ii. army occupied positions on a line south of sabac, across the cer and iverak ridges and the jadar valley, connecting with the iii. army who had moved forward from valjevo to zavlaka and krupanj. the i. army had taken over the whole northern front as far as obrenovac. on the 16th, after severe fighting, the austrian xiii. corps drove back the left and centre of the serbian iii. army, cap- turing krupanj and threatening the valjevo-ose¢ina road be- hind the serbian positions. on the right of the iz. army the serbs were also forced to give way, but in the centre a local counter-attack secured for the serbs the important position of kosaningrad (aug. 18). this enabled general stepanovie to launch on the roth a counter-stroke along the cer and iverak ridges, which swept the austrian viii. corps down in the ut- most confusion into the ljesnica and jadar valleys and over the drina. the austrian right wing, less hard pressed, and better organised for mountain warfare, retired in good order, but by the 22nd the whole river front was again occupied by the serbs. the austrian ii. army fared no better, losing prisoners and guns in their retreat over the sava. by the 24th the first invasion of serbia was ended, with a loss of about 50,000 men to the austrians. the austrian commander- in-chief had greatly underestimated the military value of the forces opposed to him, while, on the serbian side, putnik’s management of his forces and his choice of the moment and place of counter-attack were masterly. serbian campaigns syrmian operation, and drina battle —meanwhile, no events had taken place on the northern front east of obrenovac other than the evident withdrawal of the austrian ii. army. putnik decided to throw his i. army across the sava into syrmia in order to secure the line mitrovica-fruska range—danube to semlin and belgrade. this would thrust back the line of deploy- ment of any future attack from the north and enable the serbs to invade bosnia without fear of a sudden attack in the flank and rear. after making good crossings on the night of sept. 5-6, the i. army occupied semlin and was progressing towards its objec- tive when the situation on the drina front caused its recall. it was safely withdrawn across the sava by the 14th and hurried off to the new battle of the drina. on the austrian side potiorek was reorganising his forces for a new thrust across the drina. his viii., xiil., xv. and the major part of his xvi. corps bordered the drina from the sava to ljubovija, where the ser- bian il. and iii. armies were also deployed in strength. potiorek’s second offensive opened on the right of sept. 7-8. in the north the viii. corps only succeeded in securing a bridge- head at parasnica, but in the south the xv. and the right of the xiii. corps crossed in force between zvornik and ljubovija, driving back the serbian left to the gueevo-boranja-jagodnja ridge. by the 11th, the situation was serious enough to compel serbian g.h.q. to order the transfer of the i. army from syrmia to valjevo-pecka. on the 13th, the xiii. corps, having suc- cessfully crossed the drina at kurtovi¢a, threatened not only to cut the serbian line in two but to roll up the whole gueevo- jagodnja position. after severe fighting, on sept. 16, a strong counter-attack was launched by the i. army against the austrian right. by the 18th the nv. corps had been driven off the jag- odnja ridge to the line kara¢ica-ljubovija, where trench war- fare set in. on the maeva front the advance of the viii. corps from parasnica was resumed in combination with a crossing at jarak by krauss’s corps. here also trench warfare set in on the line of the two bridgeheads; north of sabac-glu&ci and ravynje- serbian rata. the serbs barely succeeded in holding up the invaders, whom they failed to drive back over the rivers. mean- while the uzice army and the montenegrins had successfully undertaken a series of operations designed to prepare the way for the offensive over the drina, but, being forestalled by the austrian attack, they had no practical results. kolubara and rudntk operations.—the serbs suffered severely from the unfamiliar conditions of trench warfare and a shortage of ammunition, and potiorek decided to make a third attack, although winter was near at hand. the new offensive opened with an attack in the maeva by krauss’s and the viii. corps, which drove back the serbs to the line dobrava-cer ridge. the main austrian attack, however, again took place on the right, where the xiii. corps on nov. 6 and the xv. and xvi. corps on the 7th drove the serbs off the entire gueevo-jagodnja ridge. on the 8th the serbian centre had to be withdrawn. putnik, after attempting to cover valjevo, decided to try and hold up the austrian advance on the so-called ‘‘ kolubara line.”? this line, which ran from obrenovac in the north along the rivers kolubara and ljig to the maljen ridge, was occupied by. the 16th by the obrenovac group, ii., ii]. and i. armies, whilst the uzice army still covered uzice. the weather was terrible, but the austrian xvi. corps, pushing along the maljen ridge, attacked on the 17th, and drove the serbs off that ridge. on the austrian left the advance of the v. army to the kolubara made good the passage of the lower kolubara by the 2sth. putnik now resolved to give up belgrade and to fight for time so as to last out until the arrival of ammunition enabled him to launch a counter-offensive. he therefore withdrew his forces during the night of nov. 29-30 to a line with its flanks resting on the danube at obrenovac and on the lower morava, its centre on the heights at kosmaj and bukulja and the rudnik massif. the austrians entered belgrade on dec. 1. on the arrival of munitions putnik undertook a counter- offensive; 1t opened on dec. 3 with an attack of the i. army serbo-croat literature under misic, which drove a deep wedge in the enemy lines. further north the ii. and iii. armies made little progress at first, the serbian right being seriously threatened by a counter- attack (dec. 6-9) effected by krauss’s and viii. corps. in the south, however, misic’s army swept the austrians back towards v aljevo and uzice with such success that, on the oth, potiorek ordered a general retreat on belgrade, sabac and loznica. all the serbian armies then took up the pursuit, but mud and ex- haustion prevented them from turning the austrian retreat into a rout. there was, however, heavy local fighting, many pris- oners and much booty being ‘taken. by dec. 16, belgrade had been re-occupied, while sabac, loznica and bajina basta had been retaken by the pursuing i. and uzice armies. putnik’s decisive victory gave serbia peace for a few months, but her losses had been very heavy d or died of sickness, 18,000 wounded and some 15,000 prisoners. ii. the conquest of serbia the third expedition having ended in failure, potiorek was relieved cf his command, a portion of his troops transferred to other fronts, and general tersztianski left with a rruch weakened force. the latter, however, were incapable of taking the oflen- sive, their sorely depleted ranks being further devastated by an epidemic of typhus. mackensen takes command.—meanwhile falkenhayn had become convinced of the necessity of opening up direct railway communications with turkey, and, the active support of bul- garia having been secured, a new combined offensive was pre- pared for the autumn under a german commander, marshal mackensen. his forces consisted of :— table iii. ts com- unit incor area austrian ill. army (2 austrian, i german corps) : . | kevess = | syrmia german xt. army (3 corps) gallwitz | banat bulgarian i. army (4 divs.*) bojadiev | vidin-kula- belogradchik- a. tsariboa bulgarian it, army tokorov | kyustendil- strumitoa 17 bulgarian div. equals 2 normal divs. - the serbian dispositions were influenced by the threat from the east which the western powers had forbidden serbia to meet by a preventive offensive, and by the hope of assistance from salonika. serbian fighting strength was not more than 200,000; but the help of greece was invoked under the 1913 treaty, and that of the western powers promised. putnik deployed three-fifths of his forces facing north and guarded the route to salonika with the rest: table iv. unit area iit. army drina to kolubara belgrade g noun belgrade to grocka i. army lower morava reserve palanka iv. army jazevac front il. army . pirot—v ranje, covering nish east of skoplje (uskiib), on southern routes from bulgaria bojovic group mackensen’s attack.—mackensen assembled a mass of heavy artillery and modern appliances, and a heavy preliminary bom- bardment opened on oct. 5, the 6th being fixed as the day of attack for kevess and gallwitz and the 11th for the bulgars. koevess’s main crossing, undertaken by two corps with the sup- port of an intense bombardment, took place at belgrade. after three days’ fierce fighting, bridgeheads were secured and the serbs forced to evacuate their capital (oct. 9-10). his third corps, who crossed the lower drina and sava, were held up in the maeva. simultaneously after a demonstration at orsova ofd and a bulgarian threat towards negotin, two of gallwitz’s corps secured crossings at ram, and over temessziget (ostrovo) is- land, but his third corps was held up between semendria and grocka. on the rith putnik began a steady policy of fighting succes- sive delaying actions on the northern front, keeping back the bulgars on the right and rear in order to gain time for the arrival of french and british aid, the first elements of which (british roth, french rs6th div.') had started to land at salonika ‘on oct. 3. whilst heavy fighting was going on in the morava valley and the mountains to the west, the bulgarian advance began to threaten pirot and the salonika railway. vranje was occupied on oct. 16, whilst further south todorov occupied skoplje (usktib) on oct. 21, thus cutting the salonika line, and driving a deep wedge between the serbs and the advancing angto- french force under gen. sarrail. austro-german successes —until then the austro-german armies from the north had made but slow progress, but the lulgarian successes on his right forced putnik to withdraw his left and centre concentrically towards kraljevo-krusevac. zajecar was evacuated on the 25th, knjazevac on the 27th, and after repeated counter-attacks from pirot, stepanovie retired on bela palanka on the 29th. from nov. 1 onwards a desperate effort was made by the serbs to hold the are caeak-kragu- jevac-jagodnja-nish-leskovac. the bulgars were held back at bela palanka, but the germans and austrians advanced steadily. kragujevac fcll with its arsenal on nov. 1, jagodnja and kraljevo on the 3rd, para¢in on the sth. by the oth nish fell, and the defence of this line was at an end. the orient rail- way, falkenhayn’s objective, was now clear from germany to constantinople. final scrbian effort—making a further effort to envelop the serbian right, the bulgar ii. army moved out fanwise from vranje on pristina and from skoplje (uskiib) on kaeanik, qal- qandelen (tetovo) and the babuna pass, whilst its left was heavily engaged with considerable anglo-french forces from lake doiran to krivolak and kavadar. in a last attempt to break through to the south putnik assembled the remnants of five divisions round pristina and struck at the bulgar ii. army on the oth, driving back its right to vranje and towards kuma- novo. but the arrival of part of the bulgar i. army from lesko- vac on his left rear and the pressure of the germans and austrians from the north made it impossible for putnik to persist; he then decided to escape through albania with what could be saved of his army. between nov. 20 and 25, the historic plain of kosovo polje witnessed another last effort of the serbian people, then every- thing flowed away towards pee, djakovica and prizyen. the pursuit ceased in the first week of december. the bulgar ii. army then turned south and drove the anglo-french force over the serbian border. by dec. 16 this force had withdrawn to salonika (see salonika campaigns). montenegro was com- pletely occupied by the third week in jan. 1916. the end of the pursuit did not mean rest and reorganisation for the remnant of the serbian army. a midwinter march through the albanian mountains brought those whom its rigour left alive to the coast of the adriatic. thence they were trans- ferred to corfu, and later to salonika, where the western powers provided food, clothing, equipment and stores, mitigating to that extent a disaster which might have been prevented by a more vigorous policy towards bulgaria and greece, and the earlier dispatch of the reinforcements which were ultimately sent. bmiiograprhy.—h. barby, l’epopee serbe (1916); e. denis, la grande serbie (1916); g. gordon-smith, through the serbian cam- paign (1916); c rawfurd price, serbia's part in the war noe see also world war: bisliograpiy. cl t3.-ge il) serbo-croat literature (sce 7.476).—perhaps the most noticeable and important characteristic of the modern literatures of the serbs and the croats ts to be observed in their marked 1these were followed by the french 57th and 122nd divs, (oct. ‘i 5-31) and british 22nd, 26th, eae and 28th divs. (nov. 10-28 516 rapprochement. the tendency to merge or coalesce has grown steadily stronger since the first decade of the present century, when the change in political relations, resulting in the serbo-croat coalition of 1906, brought with it the beginnings of a closer re- lationship between the literary men of both peoples. the blending of thoughts and ideas has been even more pronounced since the union of the two nations in 1918, though it is, perhaps, too soon to speak of one and the same “ serbo-croat ” literature. the two literatures have grown and developed fundamentally under different conditions: consequently, each has retained certain individual traits. croatian literature until 1918 naturally reflected the political and racial aspirations of the croats under austro-hungarian rule, whereas in serbia there was no corre- sponding problem to colour the literature of the time, although it, too, was in some measure concerned with questions of political and social organisation. : the turn of the century marks, nevertheless, in both countries, 4 change in the attitude of literary men towards their subjects. the attempts of writers during the ‘nineties to revive the romanticism of the middle of the roth century were superseded by a realism which differed from that of the ’seventies and ‘eighties in that it was more consciously opposed to romanticism both in subject and form. practically all the modern literary movements of europe have been reflected in the literatures of the yugoslavs, and in the zoth century french literature came to exercise a predominant influence, in succession to german, hungarian and russian intluences, although the last continued until the outbreak of ‘the world war and contributed to the triumph of realism. in serbia, literature became more indi- vidualistic, at first melancholy and pessimistic in tone, but gradually growing happier as the political outlook improved. in croatia, too, writers were concerned with individuals, but the setting was less local in character, and hence literary works as a whole were less coloured by local atmosphere. dalmatia, from a literary point of view, remained somewhat apart from these tendencies; it had long felt the influence of italian literature and has continued to look to italian sources. poetry.—the growth of realism in serbia and croatia found ex- pression in the forms taken by literature as well as in subject and spirit. epic poetry has been neglected and practically abandoned in both countries. lyric poetry, on the contrary, has made considerable progress, and there are a number of lyric poets of a really high order. but the new lyric poetry is unlike the older lyrics, which, in croatia especially, are pathetic, declamatory and patriotic; it is ‘ objective’ and finished in its style. its models have been the french ‘“ parnassiens”’ (baudelaire, leconte de lisle, heredia) and the ‘ symbolists” (verlaine). from the point of view of language, and of the art of verse especially, it shows a remarkable advance. the foremost repre- sentatives of this school are jovan dudie (b. 1874), yugoslav diplomatic agent at cairo, and m. rakie (b. 1876), yugoslav minister at sofia. of modern croatian lyric poets, d. domjanovie (b. 1875), m. begovie (b. 1876) and v. nazor (b. 1876) are the most prominent. fiction—in prose, the short story has developed further than the novel. it is well represented in both literatures by a number of gifted writers; in serbian by b. stankovic (b. 1876), i. cipiko (b. 1869), and p. koti¢ (1877-1916); 1n croat by d. simunovie (b. 1873), i. kozarac (1885-1910), j. kosor (b. 1879) and a. g. mato8 (1873-1914). it is modelled in general upon the russian short story, but german and italian (espe- cially d’annunzio) models are used among the croats and in dalmatia. the long novel as a realistic study is still in its infancy; it fails to reach the standard of the romance of the 19th century, but material is gradually being accumulated which may in the near future provide a basis for realistic novels. drama—modern serbian drama, like the novel, has shown decidedly less progress than its croat fellow, and in spite of frequent prize competitions and a closer co-operation with croat writers of plays still remains undeveloped. ivo vojnovic (b. 1851), 2 dalmatian novelist and playwright, who is one of a small number of authors midway between the serb and croat ») serum therapy literatures, has composed plays of distinct merit. spectally noteworthy are his ragusan trilogy (and ed. 1909), part of which has been published in the slavonic review (no. 1}, and the mother of the jugovie. in croatia proper, drama may be said to have become the most prominent form of contemporary literature. under the influence of ibsen and hauptmann on the one hand, and of rostand and maeterlinck on the other, two main currents are to be remarked—the one naturalistic, social, analytic; the other symbolic and lyrical. the former is represented by s. tucie (b. 1873) and the latter by m. ogrizovie (b. £8714). one of tucie’s plays, the liberators, was published in english in 1918. j. kosor also has written a number of plays, four of which were published in english in 1917 under the title people of the universe. criticism.—meanwhile in serbia literary criticism tends to take the foremost place. in this form of literature the serbs seem always to have been stronger than the croats. under the influence of the modern french school, serbian literary criticism has advanced in judgment and subtlety, although it tends, pos- sibly, to be over-critical and is quicker to blame than to praise. among the serbs social as well as literary criticism was repre- sented by professor j. skerlie (1877-1914), who, though removed at the early age of 37, had already exercised a profound intluence upon the movement for yugoslav unity. aesthetics are repre- sented by professor bogdan popovie (b. 1863), who belongs to the school of sainte beuve and faguet. among the croats, the former is represented by milan marjanovie (b. 1879) and the latter by b. livadie (b. 1871). prominent places must also be given to the following serbian critics: prof. pavle popovie (b. 1868) and b. lazarevie (1883), yugoslav minister in albania. itistory.—serious historical studies are of comparatively recent date. ratki was the founder of a historical school in zagreb, whose chief living representatives are klai¢e and sidie. since the death of novakovie the leading serbian historian is slobodan jovanovie, author of three brilliant studies on the history of serbia from 1842 to 1878; and mention should also be made of t. gjorgjevie (social conditions, ethnography and folklore), g. jakgie, stanojevie and corovie. the death of m. gavrilovie, yugoslav minister in london, before he had com- pleted the fourth volume of his classical biography of milos obrenovi¢, was a severe loss to historical criticism. journalism.—yoremost among literary and political journals are srpski kujizeent glasnik, fortnightly (belgrade); nova europa (tri-monthly, zagreb); letopis (published by matica srpska in novi sad); savremenik, novi zivot and misao (bel- grade, 1921), organ of the younger and more advanced literary school. the serbian academy in belgrade, the yugoslav academy in zagreb and the srpska matica in novi sad, and the museums of sarajevo and spalato (spljet) are the main centres of learned and scientific publication. literary women.—a development which is of fairly recent date in serbo-croat literature should perhaps be noticed here, namely’ the increasing number of women pocts, story writers, essayists and critics. among these, isidora seku- lie and m. janovie in serbia and a. mileinovie and i. brlie-mazuranie in croatia deserve special mention. of writers who have only come to the front since the war the most promi- nent are i. andrie (b. 1801) of sarajevo, perhaps the most talented of the younger yugoslav poets; and among story-writers milan krleza, whose realistic studies of the war, made a pro- found sensation in croatia, and d. vasie, both the latter being very outspoken in their criticism of political and social conditions. (d. su.) serum therapy.—scrum therapy consists in the intro- duction into the patient of blood serum containing specific anti- bodies, performed in some other animal, which will (a) neutralise the toxins produced by the corresponding infecting bacteria or (b) destroy the corresponding bacteria themselves—thus estab- lishing a condition of ‘“ passive’ immunity (q.v.). action of microbes —disease-producing microbes may be divided into two broad groups (1) those secreting poisonous sub- stances or /oxins into the surrounding tissues or (2) those multi- service plying and invading areas far distant from the point at ww hich they gained entry to the body of their host. anti-ioxin and immune body. natural recovery from a bacterial infection due to an organism of the first group coincides with the appearance in the blood serum of a neutralising agent known as avfi-textn in adequate amount; whilst when dealing with microbes of the second class, nature elaborates, also in the serum, a different anti-body—a bacteriolysin or immune body for the purpose of destroying the invading bacteria. in each instance the resulting anti-body is specific in character—that is to say, it will only act vis-a-vis with the particular toxin in the one case or in the other with the members of that particular snecies of microbe whose entry into the body provoked its formation—the serum which is the vehicle of the curative substance is termed in this first instance “ anti- toxic ” and in the second “ anti-bacterial.’’ thus the early and accurate recognition of the bacterium responsible for any infec- tion it is proposed to treat determines the selection of the ap- propriate anti-serum. preparation of anti-scrum.—aas these sera are nowadays em- ployed in considerable quantities it is customary to select a large mammal, such as the horse, for immunisation. after a period of observation during which the freedom of the arimal from diseases transmissible to man is established, a series of subcutaneous injections is undertaken starting with an artificially attenuated virus or a mixture of toxin and previously obtained anti-toxin as the case may be and gradually increasing the size of the dose and the potency thereof until the animal is able to withstand enormous quantities of highly poisonous material without any ill effects while maintaining perfect physical con- dition. from time to time small quantities of blood are with- drawn from the animal and the serum tested to ascertain the amount of anti-body that is available, and when a suitable stage has been reached the animal is lled to the extent of several pints, the serum carefully separated from the blood corpuscles and passed through a stcrile porcelain filter to ensure its freedom from bacteria. occasionally the serum is concentrated, some of its unneeded proteins removed and purified. siandardisation.—it is obvious that a correct appreciation of its valency is necessary for the scientific employment of any serum in the treatment of disease; but, unfortunately, bacterial poisons formed by various micro-organisms, and even by different strains of the same species, not only exhibit many variations in toxicity depending upon biological factors (not all of which are at present known) but they have, so far, proved incapable of isolation in a state of chemical purity. consequently, it is only possible in the majority of instances to effect a comparison by observing the results of their introduction into suitable experi- mental animals. biological test—indeed only in the case of diphtheria toxin is there any universally accepted standard, for here ehrlich pre- pared, many years ago, a standard diphtheria anli-toxin of con- stant ‘valency which is prescrved hermetically sealed in vacuo, by means of which all diphtheria toxins can be graded and the potency of the sera prepared by their means expressed m anti- toxic units. in the case of toxins produced by other bacteria, and in the preparation of anti-bacterial sera, the plan usually adopted is to inoculate gradually decreasing doses of the virus into susceptible animals until the smallest quantity, that will cause death with certainty, and within a specified time, is determined. this is termed the minimal lethaldose (m.l.d.) and forms the basis for the standardisation of the corresponding anti-scrum. varying quantities of serum are in turn mixed with a constant dose of virus—usually too m.l.d.—and injected into animals until that amount of serum is determined which will effectively neutralise the test dose. this quantity of serum is then regarded us containing one unit of anti-body and the serum which is in process of standardisation is stated to contain so many units per cubic centimetre. anti-toxin sera —of the anti-toxin scra, diphtheria anti- toxin is rightly regarded as the most eflicient. its use, now almost a7 universal, has been largely responsible for the reduction of the death-rate from diphtheria (sce infectious fevers) in a most striking manner from over 33% in pre-anti-toxin days to about “percent. this latter figure includes all cases in all stages, but if treatment is instituted on the first day of disease the mortality falls to zero. tetanus anti-toxin is also of great value, but owing chiefly to the fact that tetanus (q.2.) is rarely diaemosed until the toxin has secured a firm hold upon nervous elements, it has not achieved a position as a therapeutic agent equal to that occupied by diphtheria anti-toxin. on the other hand the mass of evidence accumulated in the world war clearly demorstrates the necessity for its use in the prophylactic treatment of earth- soiled wounds. gas gangrene, rife during the early days of the world war, led to the production of highly efficient arti-sera for the toxins of b. welchii and the vibrion septique, the recessity for which has largely passed. another serum, for the reutralisa- tion of the toxin of bacillus botulinus—a germ which gives rise to a particularly fatal type of food poisoning forturately rare in the british isles—is also prevared but there is little evidence available as to its efficiency (sce poop porsontnc). finally, calmette has obtained an anti-toxic serum, “ anti- venene,” from horses which he had immunised against both colubrine and viperine venoms. anti-bactertal scran—many varieties of anti-bacterial sera have been prepared agaisst mary of the microbes of the second group, but few of them have stood the test of time; and at the present day only anti-streptococcic, anti-meningococcic, anti- pneumococcic, anti-anthrax and anti-dysentery sera remain. these have established their positions in the therapeutic arma- ment largely as the result of recent acquisitions to our knowledge of the biology of certain microbes but in part also toimprovements in the methods of preparing anti-sera. the recognition that numberless strains of streptococci exist which though morphologically identical are biologically diverse has resulted in the preparation of polyvalent sera which some- times produce dramatic recoveries in apparently hopeless cases of septicaemia, although tn other instances serum is employed without avail. in the case of infections by the pneumococcus too, several different types may be encountered to some of which no curative serum could be prepared. within recent years these organisms have been classed into four different groups of which the two first were alone amenable to serum treatmert—that designated type 1 being particularly so. similarly, and largely as the result of researches necessitated by the prevalence of the so-called ‘ spotted fever ” (see spinal meningitis) during the war the meningococci have been grouped under four types and whilst multivalent sera comprising ar-ti-bodies for all types have been made, the use of appropriate univalent sera has afforded even more success{ul resulis. the two anti-sera prepared against pathogenic bacilli, anti-anthrax and anti-dysentery, are both of very considerable value. the first has long been employed either alone or in conjunction with operative measures in the treatment of “ malignant pustule,” but the position of the latter depends almost entirely upon the ample demonstration of its value in the war provided it is used early in the disease. biblrography.—w. c. bosanquet and j. w. eyre, serums, vac- cines and toxins in treatment and diagnosis (1916). (j. w. e. ) service, robert william (1874- ), canadian poet and novelist, was born at preston, england, jan 16 1874, and educated at hillhead public school, glasgow. after serving an apprenticeship with the commercial bank of scot- land in glasgow, he went in 1905 to canada and settled for a short time in vancouver island. later, after pursuing a variety of occupations in different parts of the pacific coast he entered the canadian bank of commerce in victoria, b.c. ile was afterwards transferred first to white horse in the yukon and then to dawson. in all he spent eight years in the yukon and travelled widely. during his last years with the bank he wrote verse describing life in the north, notably songs of a sourdough (19007) and ballads of a cheechako. in 1910 appeared a novel phe trail of ’98 giving a vivid description 518 of men and conditions in the klondike. during the balkan war of 1912-3 service was war correspondent to the toronto star and served this paper in the same capacity during the world war, in which he spent two years as an ambulance driver in the canadian army medical corps. he described his war expe- riences in rhymes of a red crass man (1916). after the war he devoted himself entirely to literary work and settled in paris. his other works include rhymes of a rolling stone (1913); ballads of a bohemian (1920); potsoned paradise, a novel of monte carlo (1922); the roughneck (1923). severn, england and wales (see 24.723).—in 1920 a scheme was brought out fora barrage across the river severn, carrying a road and railway, which should utilise the tides for the produc- tion of electrical power. the first part of the scheme provided for the construction of a locked basin, about 27 m. square, on the lower severn, formed by a barrage close to the line of the severn tunnel; much of it would accommodate the largest ves- sels at all states of the tide. high tides would be trapped by the barrage, and the water led out to turbines. part of the power from this installation would be employed to pump water to a salt-water lake high up in the valley of the wye, with turbines in the tidal area lower down the river. when the barrage scheme was not working owing to the state of the tide, or at times of heavy pressure, the water from this lake would be used to work the turbines on the wye. it was estimated that over 500,000 h.p. would be generated for a 10-hour day, with a peak-load capacity of over 1,000,000 horse-power. the water power resources committee of the board of trade reported on the scheme as deserving of further investigation, but owing to the necessity of economy it was dropped at the time. in 1924 the great western railway sought parliamentary powers for the building of a bridge to relieve the congestion of traffic in the severn tunnel, and this project was postponed whilst a further examination of the barrage scheme was made. preliminary geological and hydrographical investigations have been undertaken by a committee appointed by the government, and an engineers’ report, to take two or three years to complete, was also being prepared in 1925. the main question to be settled, apart from the engineering problem, is whether the proposed interference with the tidal currents would cause siltage in the ports of bristol, cardiff and newport. (see tipat power.) sevres, treaty of, the treaty of peace concluded between the allied and associated powers and turkey on aug. 10 1920. it was not ratified and was later superseded by the treaty of lausanne (g.v.), which was signed on july 24 1923. the principal arrangements of the treaty of sevres were as follows :— the king of hejaz was recognised as independent and the holy places were placed under his care. the boundaries of turkey were so drawn as to exclude her from control of any other arabian states or of syria, palestine and mesopotamia, and turkey renounced in favour of the principal alliecl powers rights over territory outside europe that lay outside her new frontiers (egypt, sudan, libya [tripoli,] morocco and tunis). palestine was to be entrusted toa mandatory power, syria and mesopotamia “ provisionally recognised as independent states to be advised by mandatory powers.” smyrna and the ionian hinterland were placed under greek administration for five years, when further arrangements would be made. the dodecanese islands were ceded to italy, imbros and tenedos to greece, and turkey recognised greece’s sovereignty in lemnos, samothrace, mitylene, chios, samos and nikaria. the zone of the straits from constantinople and scutari to the dardanelles, and a zone on the asiatic mainland were handed over to an international commission to be internationalised and demilitarised. western thrace, which had already been ceded to the allies as a whole, was ceded by them to greece by separate treaty. turkey ceded greece eastern thrace, up to the chatalja lines. turkey agreed to recognise armenia as “ a free and independent state '’ while kurdistan was to reccive local autonomy. the turkish army was to be reduced to 50,000, all turkish aircraft was to be surrendered and all the ficet except a few ships and torpedo boats. the financial clauses charged turkey with loss, with damage and with war guilt, but admitted that, as her resources were unequal to payment, such claims should be waived. but immense powers were conferred on a financial commission of british, french and italian representatives with a turkish representative in a consulta- tive capacity, which was practically empowered to control the bud- get and the financial laws and regulations of turkey. the council severn—sex of the ottoman public debt was to he similarly formed and to have complete powers over its administration. the capitulations were to be re-established for the allies but not for enemy powers, and the separate postal system of the allies was also re-erected. various turkish ports, constantinople, smyrna, alexandretta, etc., and the river maritsa, were to be placed under international control. see h. w. v. temperley, ed. [zist. of the peace conference at paris, vol. vi. (1924). sewing machine: see household appliances. sex (sce 24.745).—the problem of the determination of sex has in recent years been greatly elucidated. knowledge has come from'several sources. both breeding experiments and cytological observation have severally led, as will be seen, to concordant con- clusions, proving that the sex of the offspring is generally decided by one or other of the germ-cells which unite in fertilisation. but though in ordinary circumstances the mode of determination is now known, there are nevertheless indications that in special cases the normal course may be altered or at least disturbed by various influences, the operation of which is not understood. the reconciliation of this latter class of evidence with the former has not vet been satisfactorily effected. sex determined by spermatozoa.—knowledge of sex-determi- nation began with the observation of henking (1891) that in cer- tain insects the spermatozoa were of two kinds, (1) those which contained a supernumerary, unpaired or accessory chromosome (see cytology), now generally called the x-chromosome, and (2) those without this body. mcclung (1902) first suggested that this chromosome might be a determiner of sex, and took it to be the peculiarity of the male, but miss stevens (1905) and e. b. wilson (1905), to whom the development of this part of the subject is chiefly due, proved that the spermatozoa bearing the x-chromosome are in these animals destined to form females. the eggs are alike in each possessing an x, and thus the somatic or diploid cells of the daughters come to have 2 x, one received from their mother and one from their father, whereas the diploid cells of the sons have one only, received from their mother. since the gametes of the male are of two kinds, that sex is said to be hetero-gametic, the female being omo-gametic. further obser- vation, however, showed that the organisation of even nearly allied genera of insects is by no means uniform in respect of the sex-chromosomes. ‘though unpaired in the males of some genera, the x may in others have a pair or ‘‘ mate ” of smaller size, known as the y-chromosome. between these and other genera in which the male has a pair of sex-chromosomes not visibly different from each other there are several transitional conditions. in a considerable number of forms also, the x is represented by a group of separate chromosomes, regarded as collectively the mates of the y. the x-chromosome has been seen in several orders of insects, especially hemiptera, orthoptera and coleoptera, in spiders, myriapods and some nematodes. it has also been found in various mammals and in several dioecious plants. in man cytological observation is difficult but the best determination (painters) gives 48 as the diploid number, with an x and a small y in the male. , sex determined by ova.—naturally this discovery that the male is hetero-gametic was at first supposed to be of universal application, but the next advance, which resulted from experi- mental breeding, showed that this simple view could not be enter- tained. the currant moth (abraxas grossulauriata) has a variety lacticolour, characterised by a deficiency of black pigment, previ- ously known only in the female. doncaster, instituting experi- ments with this variety, found that by breeding such females with normal males the f; family consisted of males and females all normal.! interbred, these gave f2 composed of two normal males: one normal female: one /ucticoleur female. but lacticolour 9 xf,% produced families containing normal o, normal @, lacticolour zand lacticolour 2, allin equal numbers, on breeding any normal grossulariata @ with the /acticolour @ now produced, the sons were all grossuluriaia and the daughters all /ucticolour. 1in genetics the following symbols are frequently used: g =female; f=male ; * =mated with fi, fo, etc. =the first filial family, the second, ete. sex other interpretations have been proposed, but it is evident that the eggs of the grossulariata @ are of two kinds, (1) those which are destined to be females, and do not carry the grossu- lariata factor (2) those which do carry this factor, and are des- tined to be males (bateson and punnett). taking the factors g, egrossulariata: g, its absence; f’, femaleness: f, its absence, the results may be represented symbolically thus:— oe lact? x grosso ff:gg | §.gg 2. f, gross? xx grosso ~ af ge f. gg gametes ig; fg 1g; fg t gross? 1 lact.@ 2 grosso’ bys ge ff: gg if.gg ff.gg ce lact.? x transmitting grosso ff. gg | ff. gg lact. 2 gross 9 lact.¢ grosso ff.gg ff.gg nies — ff.gg 4. gross ? lactc¢ | ff.gg i gg gametes fg; fg fe | | lact.9?s grosso’'s ifsgg h.gg sex-limitation and sex-linkage-—such a system of heredity is sometimes called “sex-limited,”’ (though more usually ‘‘sex- linked ” since the limitation is not absolute) and the descent of the character so limited serves as an indication of the mode by which the factor determining sex is transmitted from parent to offspring. the proof that in these moths sex is determined by the eggs, or in other words that the female is the hetero-gametic sex, js thus complete. the same has been shown to be true of birds. in fowls, several conditions have been shown to be sex- limited to females; e.g., black as against the cuckoo-markings of the plymouth rock; golden (as in sebrights or hamburgs) as against silver; the black pigment of silky fowls is suppressed by a sex-limited factor which inhibits this development, etc. in canaries the peculiar form of albinism known as cinnamon, and in doves the pale albinotic variety shows a similar behaviour. we have thus to recognise that, paradoxical as it may appear, sex is in some animals determined by the sperm, and in others by the eggs. man belongs to the former class. the descent of sex- limited conditions, notably colour-blindness, demonstrates this. substituting male for female, colour-blindness is transmitted in man exactly as the jacticolour character is in the moths. a colour- blind man mated with a normal woman has sons and daughters with normal colour-vision. the sons cannot transmit the colour- blindness, but the daughters transmit it to /u/f their sons who are therefore colour-blind. moreover, when the transmitting female is mated with the colour-blind man, the colour-blind fe- male is produced, just as in the corresponding mating (3) in the grossulariata experiment, the lacticolour male was formed. finally when the colour-blind woman mates with a normal man the sons are all colour-blind and the daughters are all transmitters. cytological inter pretation.—this attractive branch of genetics has been actively developed by t. h. morgan and his colleagues with remarkable success; and though serious difficulties remain, the incidence of the sex-limited characteristics can so readily be interpreted as depending on the distribution of sex-chromosomes, observed or hypothetical, that a causative influence has with great plausibility been attributed to them. starting from the now familiar fact that in certain animals the xy male has visibly one x-chromosome and the xx female two, it is argued that the “double dose ” of x is the cause of the female characteristics and that one dose of the same element produces the male attri- butes. if, then, in such animals the dominant factors, which 519 show linkage, be supposed to be also carried in the x-chromo- some, the sex-limited distribution of the negative characteristics 1o males will result. at first sight the fact that in other animals the female is hetero-gametic seems irreconcilable with this scheme, but, by making the assumption that in these females a similar cytological apparatus exists, the genetic observations may be represented on the same plan as that adopted for the hetero-gametic males. for the hetero-gametic female may be represented as xy and the male as xx, and here again if the x carries the positive element, say the g of grossu/ariaiu, then the gamete of the composition xg is always destined to the sons, and yg to the daughters, as the facts require. the “ limitation ”’ to sex is in all such examples regarded as a consequence of the attachment of the positive factor, or element concerned, to the x-chromosome. by observation we know that just as in grossulariata the normal female is always heterozygous for the recessive lacticolor, so in man the normal male js always heterozygous for the recessive colour-blindness; and this is inter- preted to mean that the unpaired or unequally paired sex- chromosome is in each case responsible for contributing the dominant. nevertheless evidence from other sources, especially the experiments on the fish lebistes (winge) prevents us from asserting as a universal rule that the x-chromosome (or its analogue) is exclusively the positive contributor, since in that animal the paradox is well established that though females are all alike both in appearance and in genetical constitution, yet the sons always in certain respects resemble the fathers exclu- sively. the facts suggest that the y-chromosome, which in species with hetero-gametic males must normally be passed along the male jine alone, may contain definite mendelian factors. the strongest evidence in favour of the chromosome hy pothesis has been found in the phenomenon of ‘ non-disjunction ” in drosophila, the fruit-fly, whose genetical composition has been studied more fully than that of any other organism (see genetics). in this creature the male is hetero-gametic. exceptionally, un- expected forms appear, as, for instance, red-eyed males in the mating where white-eyed alone should normally be produced. bridges found that in such individuals and among the families containing these abnormal members, irregularities in the occur- rence of the chromosomes could be demonstrated. apparently in some maturation division two x-chromosomes had passed to the same egg, others receiving none. from this a scries of exception- ally constituted gametes are derived which could have brought about the observed exceptions. another line of argument point- ing to the same conclusion has been derived by morgan and his associates from a study of gynandromorphs—the curious indi- viduals composed of irregular patchwork of male and female tissues, which are formed with some [frequency especially among the various orders of insects. a number of these have occurred in the pedigreed familics of drosophila, and on analysis it was found possible in almost every case to refer the characters shown in the several parts to their parental origin. a primary objection to these modes of interpretation is that the cytological conclusions rest on a still slender basis of observa- tion. as regards the forms with hetero-gametic females an unpaired chromosome has been reported to exist in the females of two moths (phragmatobia and a psychid), but in other forms it has been searched for in vain. the student should constantly bear in mind that statements to the eflect that a certain charac- ter ‘‘ is borne by the x-chromosome, ” etc., are often only founded on analogy, and are not rarely made even in regard to forms of life in which we are fairly sure that no demonstrable x-chromo- some exists. conversely in certain animals having an alternation of generations, especially some nematoda (sce boveri, p. hert- wig), though an x-chromosome is easily demonstrated to be un- paired in males though paired in females, no attempt to bring the facts of the life-history into one consistent scheme of sex- determination has been successful. the presence of two x-chromosomes is thus regarded as the determining cause of sex, constituting the female in the one group of animals and the male in the other. nevertheless the evidence derived from the many curious forms resulting from 520 non-disjunction in drosophila has led to a modification of this very simple conception. by the errors of cell-division 3 x- chromosomes for example may be together associated in one body and accompanying these may be various numbers of the other chromosomes (autosomes). such abnormalities may be arranged in a series ranging from infra-males to supra-females and study of their cytological content shows that the several chromosomes must exert an antagonistic action, in which the x especially, but to some extent also the two larger autosomes, must influence the organism towards femaleness, whereas minute 4th chromosome acts in the contrary sense in the direction of maleness. this idea of “ balance,” as it is called, has been intro- duced with great plausibility by bridges. cytology has been of great assistance in codifying the ap- parently contradictory records as to the intricate series of parthenogenetic or agamic and sexual forms of the hymenoptera and hemiptera. we have learnt for example that in hemiptera (morgan; von baehr) when fertilisation produces females only, the fact is due to the death of all the sperms, which do not bear the x-chromosome. in a white fly (aleyrodes) also schrader has demonstrated a very simple system, eggs which are not fertilised remain haploid and produce males only. in the hive-bee a similar system obtains though beset by complications still not fully cleared up. also in these groups it not rarely happens (neuroterus, doncaster) that the fertilised females give rise parthenogenetically to other females of which, without fertilisa- tion, some produce females only and others males only, but no cytological distinction between these two types of females has been seen. whatever be the true cytological account of sex- determination, we have nevertheless to recognise that femaleness and maleness respectively, though similar throughout the meta- zoa both in outward manifestations and in deeper physiological features, are constructed upon at least two distinct genetic plans. to reconcile the infrequency of visible cytological distinctions between the sexes with the chromosome hypothesis it has been suggested that the critical bodies are in such cases attached to other chromosomes, but this, thodgh undeniable as a possibility, is as an argument dangerously tinged with obscurantism, a com- ment which applies to many of the subordinate hypotheses sup- porting the chromosome theory of genetic causation. the situation is one through which many scientific problems have passed before final solution has been obtained. by independ- ent lines of evidence conclusions largely identical have been reached. the facts are not in dispute, but a consistent interpre- tation of the whole series has not been obtained up to the present time. disturbance of normal sex-ratios: the production of inter- sexes.—hybridisation is not rarelv followed by a disturbance of the normal sex-ratio. for example, from domestic hens crossed with cock pheasants, sza/e mules (sterile) are easily bred but fe- male mules seldom if ever. among bovidae some crosses give fertile females but sterile males (s. v. nathusius) and the same occurs in a cross between species of cavies (detlefsen). among lepidoptera a series of such examples are known, the first having been observed by standfuss, who called attention to the absence or scarcity of females in many species-crosses. recenily golil- schmidt, working with races or species of lymantria dispar brought together from many countries, carried out a remarkable series of experiments. he found that a japanese race used as © x european & gave normal males and females, but that in the reciprocal cross though the males came normal, the females were intersexes, exhibiting many transitional stages, approaching males in various degrees both in form, colour and instincts. when japanese mates of certain races were used, the whole of the female offspring are said to have been thus transformed into males. goldschmidt states that the various races can be arranged in an ascending scale according to the completeness with which these effects are produced, but the phenomena showed many complications not as yet adequately represented, notably the appearance of partially transformed male intersexes in the fs generation raised by inter-breeding the normal offspring raised in the first experiment. it has been pointed out by j. b. s. sex ilaldane (1922) that, apart from certain exceptions, a general principle can be perceived in this group of phenomena. if in hybrid offspring either scx is consistently missing or defective, this will be the hetero-gametic sex, e.g., in birds and lepidoptera, the female, in mammals, the male. sex of twins——tyhe facts hitherto dealt with all go to prove that sex is determined by the gametic contribution made by one or other of the parents and that this is the normal course is not open to question. in harmony with that conception of sex- determination, it is found that when, as in twinning of embryos and generally when the fertilized egg multiplies by division, the products are.commonly all of the same sex. in the armadillo (tatusia novem-cincta), studied in detail by newman, four em- bryos, demonstrably arising by division of one blastodermic vesicle (developing ovum), are usually produced at a birth and are always of the same sex, the four being all males or all females. patterson found an exception in the case of the parasitic hyme- nopteron paracepidosomopsis, which by polyembryonic division sometimes produces both males, females and intermediates. that something analogous to non-disjunction here occurs is an acceptable interpretation of this anomalous instance. but there is a remarkable group of incontrovertible facts which show that sometimes the normal course of sex-development may be dis- turbed. f. lillie discovered a remarkable example. when in horned cattle twins of opposite sexes occur, the female 1s some- times sterile, being called a free-martin. it might be thought that these twins arose by division of one fertilised ovum, but lillie by study of material from the chicago stock-yards proved that an ovum had dehisced from each ovary and that therefore the twins were originally distinct. he further showed that some- times the twins had an actual anastomosis between their foetal circulations. ‘the presence of a male embryo must therefore be regarded as having the power of inhibiting the development of the female embryo, poisoning it in so far as the formation of at least the external organs is concerned. fffects of external condilions.—i)isturbance of the normal sex-ratios as a consequence of various interferences, such as starvation, high or low temperature, etc., has several times been alleged to occur, especially in amphibia, and the evidence of r. hertwig that delay in fertilising the eggs of the frogs causes the production of a preponderance of males has been fully confirmed. circumstantial details preclude the obvious suggestion that this is a result of differential mortality. hertwig thought that inas- much as the polar bodies are excluded very late after the eggs are laid, his result might perhaps be reconciled with the concep- tion of cytological pre-determination if the conditions of the experiment could in some way have decided which elements should be retained in the egg and which ejected in the polar body. recently seiler has made an observation of this kind in regard toa psychid moth, talaeporia. he states that if the females are kept in a high temperature while the eggs are undergoing mat- utation, it can be seen on cytological examination that the accessory chromosome more frequently remains in the egg, and that as a matter of observation more males are produced, the converse occurring under cold conditions. as to the genetical composition of the amphibian intersexes, an important obser- vation has lately been made by crew. from the eggs of a female frog, fertilised by a male showing intersexual characters, 774 tadpoles were reared, all females. hence the important inference may be drawn that though by some unknown cause the sex of a frog, cytologically female xx., may be completely altered to the extent that it grows up in all respects a male, producing sperms which fertilise eggs, yet in the determination of the sex of its own offspring the effect of the original cytological constitution appears, for the sperms all carry the x-chromosome and daughters only result. from other signs, however, we know that sex-determination in amphibia, and perhaps some fishes also, is beset with complications. in many fishes hermaphrodites are common and the frog is peculiar in the fact that ova are commonly found in very young males, the final determination of sex being postponed, sometimes indefinitely. sux according to baltzer, sex in bonellia is directly determined by the conditions of larval life. the female is of course an animal of considerable size, whereas the male is a minute creature para- sitic on her. larvae which find the proboscis of the female and attach themselves to it are said to develop into males, those which remain free-swimming becomfng females. larvae artifi- clally detached from the proboscis become intersexes. adequate controls, by which the hypothesis of predisposition may be excluded, would in such an instance be most difficult to institute. effects of castration—collateral evidence bearing on the nature of the distinction between the sexes has been drawn from many sources, especially from the results of castration, but though the facts thus empirically observed are of much physio- logical interest, they have no very direct bearing on the primary problem. the reproductive glands, acting, presumably, by vir- tue of the secretions (hormones) of their interstitial compon- ents, have often a great influence on the development and main- tenance of secondary sexual characters, but the part played by the hormones must obviously be of a secondary nature. removal of the genital glands has divers effects in various animals. in good agreement with the discovery that in the bird the female is the hetero-gametic sex, it is found that both in the fowl! and the duck (goodale) the removal of the ovary induces the plum- age and some other characteristics of the male. the female is thus an organism in which the male attributes are concealed or recessive, whereas a capon does not develop hen-feathcring. moreover, morgan found that in the sebright bantam, the males of which are ‘‘ henny ” in plumage (not in combs or wattles), after castration the cocks acquire ordinary male plumage, which may naturally be interpreted to mean that the hen-feathering of these cocks is due to their possession of part of the female complex which has been transferred to them. morgan and pun- nett also have shown that the henny character behaves as dominant in breeding, a fact which proves that the dominance proper to the whole female complex of the bird pertains also to that part of the complex which controls the plumage. castration performed on moths during the larval stage has not produced modification of secondary sexual characters (oude- mans). in crabs, however, the destruction of the testes by certain parasites produces very striking “ feminisation ” of the abdo- men and appendages (geoffrey smith), but we do not know which sex in crustacea is hetero-gametic, though work on gam- marus points to this being the male. we are without a satis- factory interpretation of this group of observations, some of which superficially considered seem to run counter to the facts cf gametic determination already established, but the disturbances of the normal! course may commonly, though perhaps not always, be conceived of as due to interruption of the chain of events by which the full effects of gametic predetermination are developed. hermaphrodites—attention should be called to a remarkable lacuna in our knowledge of sex-determination. up to the present nothing has been yet discovered either by cytological or analyt- ical methods as to the genetical relation of the hermaphrodite types among animals to those in which the sexes are distinct. in plants a little progress has, as will appear, been made, point- ing to the conclusion that the hermaphrodite is dominant, con- taining something which the females at least do not, but as to hermaphrodite animals nothing can be said with confidence. this is much to be regretted, as the whole subject might be greatly advanced by such knowledge. general considerations.—the primary sexual distinctions evi- dently depend on factorial elements which follow. more or less closely the familiar principles of mendelian segregation. the determining factor for sex should probably be regarded as a com- plex, usually transmitted in its entirety, but capable by acci- dental errors of cell-division of being disintegrated, so that the elements responsible for special characteristics may become detached from the rest and may even be passed over to the sex which normally does not receive them. for example, the races of fowls which do not incubate have presumably thus lost a portion of the dominant sex-complex; the hen-like cocks of the sebright bantam may be represented as having acquired that 521 ingredient of the female sex-factor which in the normal female inhibits the formation of the sickle-feathers and hackles of the cock, and so on. a similar representation may be applied to those cases (e.g., phalaropes) in which the cocks are hen-like and normally incubate the eggs. it is not unreasonable to suppose that the transference of an actual fragment of critical material, presumably a portion of a chromosome, is responsible for the physiological abnormality. the literature of obstetrics and of stock-breeding abounds with nostrums for the arbitrary regula- tion of sex in man and the domestic animals, but from what is accurately known of the mechanism of sex-determination, nothing favourable to these claims can yet be adduced. nor can any explanation be offered of the fairly constant departures from equality which normally occur in man and various domesticated animals, in the pig, ox and rabbit the male births are said sensibly to exceed the female, but in the horse and sheep there is a small excess of female births. the races of man show definite differences in the proportions of the sexes at birth. of living births, taking females at 1,000, the males for england and wales were for some time slightly below 1,040, which, though about the same as the proportion in japan, is somewhat low in com- parison with germany, several european countries and the white population of the united states, in which the males are about 1,060. on the other hand for the coloured populati n of the united states the male births are still less in proportion (in the year 1890, 1,024) and occasionally fall actually below the female number (998 in 1900). in all countries for which data can be obtained the proportion of males amor g sii//-births 1s very largely in excess of the females. such divergences usually poirt to differential mortality or to the action of lethal factors, but in view of the large excess of males among still-births this account is not readily applicable here. the excess of males (surviving infancy) is exceptionally large in certain, though not all, of the families affected with the tendency to bleed profusely from trifling injuries, known as haemophilia. this is one of the sex- linked abnormalities appearing in males which follow much the same system of descent as colour-blindness. illegitimate births in most countries show a distinct diminution in the excess of males. since the publication of dising, the proposition which he (following earlier writers) developed, that war procuces an in- crease in the proportion of male births, has been widely dissemi- nated. $. newcomb investigated data as to births in the united states during the civil war but found no positive result, and other parts of the evidence have been declared to be fallacious. nevertheless, statistics for great britain and also those for germany during the world war show a progressive rise which, though amounting to only one or two per cent, can scarcely be deemed insignificant. it should be remarked, however, that this rise had begun in prussia some years before the war. on the other hand, no similar change has taken place in the reutral countries. for an adequate corsidcration of the facts mary concomitant phenomena must be taken into account; for ex- ample, the fact that the total birth-rate of prussia fell in the war period to less than half. whatever be the immediate cause of the rise in male births, it is likely that it should be referred to the incidence of a differential pre-natal mortality rather than to any more fundamental genetic process. sex in planis-——the attempt to make a factorial aralysis of sex in the higher plants has not led to clear conclusiors. dioe- cious plants suitable for experiment are few. corrers, from results obtained in reciprocal crosses made between bryonta dioica and the monoecious b. albu, inferred that: the male of dioica was hetero-gametic, but the argument did not amount to proof. shull’s experiments with lychnis dioica and a variation having the elements of both sexes present together were also beset with many complications and obscurities. in dioecious mosses the marchals proved that segregation, in respect of sex, normally occurs at spore-formation, but their experiments gave indications of further complexities. sphacrecarpos, a liver- wort, produces spores in tetrads, and of the four, two became males and two females. c. e. allen states that the female spores 522 each receive an accessory chromosome larger than that which passes to the male spores. in rumex kihara has found evidence that the male is cytologically hetero-gametic. blakeslee showed that mucors consist of several strains which may be called + and —, and that conjugation only takes place when a + culture comes into contact with a—culture. these strains may with great probability be regarded as two sexes, but the results were complicated by the discovery of other strains which are indif- ferent. we meet here the same difficulty noted in the case of animals, that the factorial relations between hermaphrodite plants and the dioecious forms have not yet been successfully represented. varieties having the stamens to a greater or less degree aborted are not uncommon among the species of flowering plants which are normally hermaphrodite. if the deficiency is extreme, the variety is not merely in func- tion female, but it is in a condition morphologically not clistin- guishable from the females of plants dioecious in the strict sense such as lychnis dioica or vespertina. when such female varieties are fertilised with pollen from the hermaphrodite type the re- sulting family may be a mixture of hermaphrodites and females, but not rarely females only are produced. as the hermaphrodite is a dominant this evidence demonstrates that the hermaphro- dite factor must thus be relegated to the female side, the male side taking the recessive in which the anthers are aborted. such “ anisogenous ” distribution of the factors may exist in regard to colour, double flowers and probably many other factorial distinctions, and the conception of sex-linkage is in a special and limited sense applicable to them (c. pellew). otherwise, save in the one case of lychnis, nothing comparable with the sex- linkage of animals has yet been discovered in plants. chemical distinctions between the sexes.—the search for evi- dence that the physiological chemistry of the two sexes differs in any fundamental respect, though extensively pursued, has led to little positive result. lately, however, manoilov has stated that by the use of certain salts and dyes he has found a method of treating the blood of man and animals and the tissues of dioecious plants tn such a way that by the ultimate colour- reaction the sex from which the materials were taken can be distinguished. in this claim there is nothing @ priort improb- able, though before it can be generally accepted repetition and rigorous confirmation must be demanded. bibliography.—text-books: w. bateson, mendel’s principles of heredity (3rd ed., 1913); l. doncaster, the determination of sex (1914); r. goldschmidt, mechanismus und phystologie der gesch- lechtsbestimmung (1920); t. h. morgan, iteredity and sex (2nd ed., 1914). references to most of the authorities named are given in these works. special references: c. e. allen, ‘‘ the basis of sex inheritance in sphaerocarpos,”” prac. amer. phil. soc., 58°(1919); w. bateson and r. c. punnett, ‘‘ the inheritance of the peculiar pigmentation of the silky fowl,” jour. genetics, 1 (1911); f. baltzer, “die bestimmung des geschlechts nebst einer analyse des ge- schlechtsdimorphismus bei bonellia,” afitt. zool. stat. neapel, 22 (1914); c. b. bridges, ‘‘ non-disjunction as proof of the chro- mosome theory of ileredity,”’ genetics, 1 (1916), sce also his article ‘* sex in relation to chromosomes and genes, science, 1925, no. 661; c. correns, ‘' die geschlechtliche tendenz d. keimzellen gemischt- geschlechtiger pflanzen,” zes. f. bot., xii; f. a. e. crew, ‘ sex- reversal in frogs and toads,” jour. gen., xi. (1921) and animal genetics (1925); j. a. detlefsen, “ genetic studies on a cavy species cross,” carnegie institution publication no. 205 (1914); l. doncaster and g. h. raynor, “ breeding experiments with lepi- doptera,” proc. zool. soc. (1, 1906); kr. goldschmidt, ‘ unter suchungen tiber die intersexuadhtit,” zts. f. and. abst. u. vererbung- slehre, 23 (1920); j. b. s. ilaldane, ‘sex ratio and unisexual sterility in hybrid animals,” jour. genetics xii (1922); f. r. lillie, ‘‘ the free-martin, a study of the action of sex hormones in the foetal life of cattle,” jour. exp. zool. (1917); t. h. morgan and c. b. bridges, ‘‘ sex-linked inheritance in drosophila,” carnegie institution publication no. 237; t. h. morgan, c. b. bridges and a. h. sturtevant, ‘ contributions to the genetics of drosophila melanogaster,” ibid. no. 278 (1919); t. h. morgan, “' the genetic and operative evidence relating to secondary sexual characters,’’ ibid., no. 285 (1919); h. h. newman and j. t. patterson, “ develop- ment of the nine-banded armadillo,” jour. morph., 21; j. th. oudemans, ‘‘ falter aus castrirten raupen,"” zool, jahresb., xii. (see also j. meisenheimer, verh. deut. zool. soc., xvin.); j. t. patterson, ‘‘ studies on the biology of paracopidosomopsis,” biol. bull., 32-35 (1917-8); c. pellew, ‘“ types of segregation,”’ jour. gen., vi. (1917); j. seiler, ‘‘ das verhalten d. geschlechtschromoso- sgambati—shanghaiti men bei lepidopteren,” arch. 2. zellforschung, xiii. (1914); and “ts, f. ind. abst. u. vererbungslehre, xviil. (1917). for evidence as to human statistics: h. lucht, ‘‘ das geschlechtsverhialtniss d. ge- borenen in preussen wahrend des krieges,’’ zts. d. preuss. statistis- chen landesamts, jahrg. 60 (1920); b. mallet, ‘“‘ pres. address," jour. roy. stat, soc., 81 (1918); j. b. nichols, mem. amer. anthrop. assn., i. (1907); a. a. tschuprow, ‘‘ zur frage d. sinkenden knaben- iiberschusses unter d. ehelich geborenen,” bull. de l’inst. internat. de statistique, xx. (1915); h. kihara and t. ono, ‘‘ sex chromosomes in rumex,” zits. indukt vererbungsl., xxxix. (1925); e. o. manoilov, for references see satina and demcrec (who give some confirmatory evidence), science, ixii, p. 225 (1925); t. s. painter, ‘‘ comparative study of chromosomes of mammals,” amer, nat., lix (1925); f. schrader. “ sex determination in white fly,” jour. morph., xxxiv. (1920); o. winge, ‘‘ one-sided masculine and sex-linked inheritance in lebistes reticulatus,”” jour. gen, xii. (1922); e. witschi, “ verer- bung und zytologie des geschlechts nach untersuchungen an freschen,” zits. indukt. vererbungsl. xxix. (1922). (w. by.) sgambati, giovanni (1843-1914), italian composer (see 24.757), died at rome dec. 15 1014. shackleton, sir ernest henry (1874-1922), british explorer, was born in kilkee, ireland, feb. 15 1874. educated at dulwich college, he entered the mercantile marine service. in scott’s antarctic expedition of 1901-4 shackleton acted as lieutenant, but had to return home on account of illness. on jan. 1 1908 he sailed from new zealand in the “ nimrod ”’ in com- mand of an expedition which reached a point about 97 m. from the south pole (see 21.968). on his return in 1909 he was knighted and received the c.v.o. on aug. 1 1914 he sailed from england on the “ erebus ” in command of the unfortunate 1914-7 expedition (see polar exploration). finally, in sept. 1921 he set out a third time, in the “ quest.”? on jan. 5 1922, off south georgia island, he succumbed to an attack of angina pectoris following influenza. he was buried on south georgia island. shackleton gave an account of the 1907-9 expedition in the heart of the antarctic (1909); and of the 1914-7 expedition in south (1919). see h. begbie, shackleton. a memory (1922); a. s. v. blunt shackleton (1922); h. r. mill, the life of sir ernest shackleton (1923, new ed. 1924). | shagall, marc (1888- ), russian painter, was born in vitebsk, of a family of jewish artisans. he became, at the age of 20, a pupil of leon bakst in st. petersburg. he went to paris in 1910, where he stayed four years and exhibited in the ‘ salon des independants.”’ under the influence of cubism he painted a series of fantastic pictures, in which he showed extraordinary gifts for colour. on returning to vitebsk, he painted 60 small pictures, interiors and scenes from jewish life, in which truth and mystic conceptions were mingled; some of these he exhibited in the ‘“‘ artistic world.” the “ wandering jew ” flying over an orthodox church and the idyllic “ anniversary ” (wiesbaden) finally established his reputation. in 1918 he founded and di- rected a school of art in vitebsk; in the following year he exe- cuted for the yiddish theatre in moscow a series of justly cele- brated frescoes. in 1922 he went to berlin and later settled in paris. he engraved a cycle of prints entitled “‘ my life,” and made a serics of 100 etchings to illustrate gogol’s dead souls. exhibitions of shagall’s work have been held in paris, berlin and other german cities and new york. shanghai, china (see 24.799), with a population of 1,538,500 in 1923 (including 20,295 foreigners, largely japanese, in the international settlement), and an area of 82 sq. m., is the first port of china, and among the first four or five ports in the world in point of tonnage. in spite of the interruption of communica- tions and the impositions caused by the civil wars, trade has steadily increased. the port was entered and cleared by 29,- 500,000 tons of shipping in 1923, as compared with 19,500,000 tons in 1913. in 1924, however, owing to fighting tn the neigh- bourhood, trade received a setback. british shipping in 1921 exceeded the highest pre-war figure by over 1,000,000 tons, and is still predominant, though the american and japanese trade has also increased largely. shanghai is a great clearing house for all kinds of contraband narcotics, and large quantities are seized yearly. a scheme for the regulation of the river was initiated in 1912 by the whang- shannon, c. h.—shannon poo conservancy board, who are responsible for the adminis- tration of the port of shanghai, and considerable work in canal- ising, dredging, reclamation and surveying has been carried out, the cost being derived from taxes on customs and duty-free goods. the inner and outer bars have been eliminated, and the minimum depthis now over 24 feet. a jetty has been built east of the outer bar; the narrow reach at nantao was widened and a bund made in 1915-6; and the sea approaches are now buoyed and lighted. woosung, at the junction of the hwangpu and the yangtse, was created an open port and joined to shanghai by a motor road in 191g, but has little traffic, as the anchorage is small and exposed. the board acquired its own dredging plant in 1916, and it was increased in 1925 and 1926. further improve- ments in port facilities being urgently required, owing to the increase in traffic, a special inquiry was undertaken in rorg, and it was proposed to build a new commercial dock and also to provide mail steamer accommodation at the mouth of the yangtse river. shanghai has grown also as an industrial centre, and has a number of silk, cotton, wool and rice mills, and large engineering and shipbuilding works. in 1920 the government decided to start a mint in the city, but after the buildings were nearly finished and the machinery had begun to arrive the scheme col- lapsed in 1924, owing to financial difliculties. the substitution of modern offices and houses in place of the old native type ts making rapid progress. the older buildings on the bund have been almost all replaced, and many large houses erected in the west district. an imposing building for the shanghai club was opened in 1911; a public library in 1913; the municipal buildings on the hankow road, with a tower 150 ft. high, in 1922; and a customs house of nine storeys was being built in 1925. the gen- eral hospital on the north bank of the siichow creek has been rebuilt, and a statue of sir robert hart was unveiled on the bund in 1913. there are a number of flourishing foreign banks, and the chinese banks have made great progress. ‘the shanghai- hangchow and the nanking railway are now connected by a line 83 m. long, and the line to ningpo was opened in 1912. there was fighting near shanghai in 1924 and 1925, and the volunteer corps had to be mobilised to protect the british settle- ment. much trouble was experienced with refugees and retreat- ing soldiery. early in 1925 a strike at large japanese mills led to anti-foreign demonstrations and attacks on mulls and the police station. in june a general strike was declared, and the essential services had to be carried on by volunteers. a force was landed to protect foreign interests. shannon, charles hazelwood (186s5- painter (see 24.801), was elected r.a. in 1920. shannon, sir james jebusa (1862-1923), anglo-american artist (see 24.801), died in london march 6 1923. he was knighted in the previous year. shannon (sce 24.801).—one of the first matters to engage the attention of the government of the irish free state was the provision of cheap electrical power. several proposals having been considered, it was decided that power could be most econom- ically produced by the construction of a central generating station capable of utilising the immense resources of the shannon. messrs. siemens-schtickert prepared a plan and an estimate for the construction of such a station, and their proposal was sub- mitted to four independent experts of european reputation, who approved its main features subject to minor modifications. the scheme was formally adopted by the government and received the approval of the legislature. outline of the scheme—the preliminary operations were com- menced in 1925. the scheme provided for the development of hydroelectric power from the shannon in three stages—called the partial development, the further development and the full development respectively. in the partial development, which was considered sufficient to meet the requirement of the free state for five or six years, three turbines, each of 30,0c0 h.p. were pro- jected; in the further development six turbines all of the same capacity; while in the full development the turbine capacity would not be increased but additional storage would be provided. ), british 923 in the partial development lough derg alone was to be used for storage, but the winter level would not be raised. in the further development the storage in lough ree and lough allen would be added; and in the full development the storage in lough derg would be increased by raising the level of the lake above winter high water level. the head race constructed for the partial development was to be the size necessary for the full develop- ment; but the tail race, which is mostly in rock, would be en- larged for the further development. in the shannon the period of maximum flow coincides with that of maximum demand, thereby reducing storage requirements. on the other hand, as the fall from lough derg to the sea is gradual, it was necessary to construct a long head race in order to obtain an ade- quate fall. the siemens-schiickert project contemplated utilising the total fall of 100 ft. between lough derg and limerick in a single large step, by leading the water out of the river bed into an inlet canal, or head race, to leave the shannon at parteen, above o’brien’s bridge, and to extend a distance of about 6§$ m. to ardnacrusha, where the power station was to be situated. here the water was to be conducted to the turbines by large steel pipes 20 ft. in diameter and 140 ft. long and carried back to the shannon in a tail race 14m. in length. in order to prevent the water backing up the tail race, and so reducing the head in times of heavy flow, the river would be deepened at several points: below the mouth of the tail race. the electric energy produced in the power station would be transmitted by means of a high tension network to most of the towns and villages of the free state with a population of over 500. a 100 kv. trans- mission line in duplicate would run from the power station to dublin, and a single 100 kv. line from the power station to cork, where roo kv. transformer stations would be erected; and, in the further development, an auxiltary station would be added at maryborough. from the power station and these three centres a 35 kv. network would radiate in a closed ring formation, so that all stations would be fed from two directions. a further to kv. network, also constructed at the closed ring system, would complete the scheme of distri- ution, cost of the scheme.—the capital outlay was estimated at {5,200,000 for the partial, £7,700,000 for the further and £8,000,000 for the full development; and the annual expenses, including interest on capital at 53°%o, amortisation spread over 40 years, maintenance and management at £493,000, for the partial development and {£661,000 for the further development. the price at which electricity could be supplied to the consumer would depend upon the density of popula- tion in the locality and upon the volume of the general demand. it was estimated that the wholesale price of electric power supplied in bulk at dublin and cork should be about 0.6d. and at the end of the 10 kv. lines about 2.5d. ultimately the current might be supplied at a flat rate, in which case the wholesale price everywhere should be less than id. per unit. these figures are considerably less than the costs at the commencement, and the price might be expected continuously to decrease with the growth in the demand for current. it was calculated that the scheme should return from §3 to 7 % upon the invested capital, provided out of public money. benefits of the scheme.—the success of the scheme will depend largely upon the growth of effective demand for current. at first the free state was very backward in its use of electricity both for industrial and domestic purposes. both siemens-schiickert and the experts who advised on the scheme were of opinion that the supply would create a very rapid growth in demand. cheap light, heat and ower for domestic consumption would be provided; and also power or large and small scale industry, particularly mills and creameries. it was hoped that farmers would use the power to light their prem- ises and to drive farmyard machinery, and that the growth of manu- facturing industries of an electro-chemical nature would be stimu- lated. the electrification of the railway system, apart from suburban lines with heavy traffic, was net contemplated. the organisations for the distribution of electricity would continue to operate as here- tofore, except that instead of generating their own power they would purchase it in bulk from the power developed from the shannon. effects on the river.—it remains to consider the effects which the siemens-schiickert scheme would have on (a) the drainage, (d) the navigation and (¢) the fisheries of the shannon. as regards drainage, it was claimed that the partial development, in which the winter level of lough derg would be maintained for about five months of the year, would by reason of the embankments to be erected, save from 3,000 to 4,000 acres of land from annual flooding; and that the later stages of development, in which the storage capacity would be increased and the consequent embank- ment extended, would save a further large area. the drainage of the shannon basin would therefore be improved by the scheme. as regards navigation, it was proposed that there should be erected beside the power station a ship’s hoist, and that the head race and tail race should be utilised by boats proceeding up and down the shannon, the complete protection of the fisheries from damage was admitted to be impossible, but everything possible was to be done to minimise the injury that would be inflicted, and provision made in the scheme for compensation to fishery interests. 524 shantung bibliography.— full particulars of the shannon scheme are to be found in the electrification of the irish free state; the shannon scheme developed by siemens-schiickert and vhe report of the experts appointed by the government, stationery office, dublin; dail eireann, debates, oficial report, vol. io and 11. (g. o'b.) shantung (sce 24.803, and china).—a maritime province of northeast china, bounded north by chihli province, east by the gulf of pechili and the yellow sea, west by honan and south by kiangsu. it is one of the most densely inhabited provinces of china, its area being 55,984 sq. m. and population 30,803,245 (post office estimate, 1923). historically, shantung was origi- nally composed of the kingdoms of ch’i and lu, both of which names are still retained in various provincial organisations. as the birthplace of confucius and mencius, shantung has always occupied a unique place in the affection of the chinese people. the grave of confucius is situated in the southern part of the province, in the picturesque temple of ch’ii-fu. production.—the main agricultural products are millet, corn, barley, sorzhum, maize, beans, peas, cotton and tobacco. tpea- nuts are now widely cultivated, and, with the soya bean, form valuable articles of export on account of the oils which they con- tain. the chief trees are the pine, poplar, willow, oak, cypress and mulberry, whilst the main fruits are pears, apples, peaches, apricots, persimmons, grapes and plums. shantung is very rich in minerals. coal is found in four main regions—in the neighbourhood of weihsien, chih-chuan, po- shan and i-chow respectively—whilst iron, copper, gold, lead, gypsum, clay and sandstone have also been discovered. industry and communications.—within recent years shan- tung, which is primarily an agricultural province, has greatly increased its industries (which consist chiefly of sericulture, glasswork, pottery, mining, strawbraid, paper and cotton mills) and has improved its means of communication. in addition to the two main railways (the tsin-pu and shantung railways), which traverse the province in a north and south and easterly direction respectively, other lines have been surveyed, the most important of which will connect chefoo and weihsien. several hundred miles of motor roads (for the most part non-metalled) have been built within the last few years, and on some of these (notably the cheff-weihsien road) regular services of motor vehicles are now maintained. chief towns.—tsinan, capital of the province, is situated at the junction of the two main railways and ts a growing city of about 300,000 inhabitants. a large portion of the city has been laid out on modern lines, with broad macadamised roads and a number of modern shops and residences. the shantung chris- tian university, one of the largest international universities in china, is situated in this city. the other chief towns are weihsien, tsiningchow, tsaochowfu, chefoo and tsingtao. political itstory-—the province of shantung obtained an international reputation during the years immediately following the world war, owing to the difficulties attending the rendition of the kiao-chow territory seized by germany in 1897 (sce 24.893). the territory remained in the hands of the germans, who spent large sums of money improving and developing the colony, until nov. rg14, when it was captured by the japanese. it was understood that it was to be handed back to the chinese govt. at the conclusion of the war, but the treaty of versailles con- firmed japan in the possession of the territory. as a result, the chinese representatives at the peace conference refused to sign the treaty, and an intense anti-japanese boycott took place all over china. the whole question was carefully considered at the time of the washington conference in 1921-2 and prolonged negotiations followed. through the mediation of the earl of balfour (then mr. balfour) and mr. c. e. hughes, these nego- tiations were brought to a successful conclusion, the whole ter- ritory, including the various public buildings and the shantung railway, being handed back to china during 1922 in return for yen 56,000,000 (see cuina; japan). see hl. w.v. temperley, izistory of the peace conference at paris, vol. vi., pp. 391 ef seg. (1920 ef seq.) for the text of the 1922 treaty see bulletin of association for irternational conciltation, no. 172, (march, 1922). (hl, ba.) —shaw, g. b. sharp, cecil james (1859-1924), british musician and writer, was born in london nov. 22 1859. he was educated at uppingham and at clare college, cambridge and, in 1883 went to south australia where he founded a school of music at adelaide. he was principal at the hampstead conservatoire, london, from 1896-1905, and director of the english folk-dance society which he founded in ro1r. he performed valuable work in collecting and arranging english folk-songs and dances, as well as in lecturing on the same subjects; and the renewed interest in english folk-songs was largely owing to his efforts. during his visit to america he discovered in the appalachian moun- tains interesting survivals of old national melodies. he died in london june 22 1924. among sharp’s numerous publications may be mentioned: a book of british song (1902); with c. l. marson, folk songs from somerset, series 1-5 (1904-19); folk songs for use in schools sets 1-10; english folk songs from the southern appalachians (1917); american english folk songs, etc.; english folk songs, 2 vol. (1921); posthum with a. p. oppe, the dance, an wvistorical survey of dancing im furope (1924). see winifred a. s. shaw, cecil sharp, an a pprecta- iton (1925). shaughnessy, thomas george shaughnessy, rst baron (1853-1923), canadian railway magnate, was born at milwaukee oct. 6 1853. educated at st. gall’s academy, wis- consin, he began railway service at the age of 16, and in 1882 joined the staff of the canadian pacific railway as general pur- chasing agent. in 1891 he was appointed a vice-president and from 1899 to 1918 he was president and chairman of the board of directors, as well as director of all the allied lines. knighted in 1901 and created k.c.v.o. in 1907, shaughnessy was raised to the peerage of the united kingdom in 1916 as baron shaughnessy of montreal and of ashford, county limerick. he was deeply interested in the development of catholicschools in montreal, and in ror7 raised a fund of $200,000 for building and development pur- poses. for many years he exerted his influence jn favour of union between canada and newfoundland. he died in montreal dec. io 1923. shaw, anna howard (1847-1019}, american reformer, was born at newcastle-upon-tyne eb. 14 1847. when she was a small child her parents moved to the united states. from 1872 to 1875 she studied at albion college, mich., and in 1878 graduated from the theological school of boston university. the district conference of the methodist episcopal church granted her a local preacher’s licence, but the new england conference of the m.e. church refused to ordain her because of her sex, and the refusal was upheld by the general conference at cincinnati in 1880. the same year she was ordained in the methodist protestant church. while preaching she had studied medicine and received the degree of m.d. from boston univer- sity in 188s. in 1886 she became national superintendent of franchise of the women’s christian temperance union, serving for six years. she was also associated after 1886 with the national american women’s suffrage assn. in various capaci- ties, and from 1904-15 as president. she was a member of the international council of women, the international suffrage alliance, the national society for broader education and the league to enforce peace. in 1917 she was chairman of the woman’s committee of the council of national defence. she died at moylan, p’a., july 2 roro. she was the author with elizabeth jordan of the story of a ptoneer (1915). shaw, george bernard (1856-— ). irish dramatist, was born in dublin july 26 1856. his father, george carr shaw, was an impoverished and humorously helpless member of what, in england, would have been called the middle class, but in ireland is still called the gentry. he was first employed by the govern- ment in the four courts, then the dublin law courts, and when his office was abolished in 18530 compounded his pension for a lump sum, with which he became a member of the dublin corn exchange, engaging in a business of which he was totally ignor- ant, that of a wholesale corn chandler. he married lucinda eliz- abeth gurly, the daughter of walter bagenal gurly, a landed proprietor in county carlow. three children were born of the marriage, lucinda frances, elinor agnes and george bernard. shaw, g. b. the financial affairs of the shaw family did not prosper, but the young wife, who had a mezzo soprano voice of remarkable purity, became known as an amateur singer. there was then in dublin a gifted conductor and teacher of singing, named george john vandaleur lee, with whose work mrs. shaw became asso- ciated. in this way the shaw children, despite their father’s financial straits, acquired a considerable musical culture which was extended to the theatre by her amateur operatic perform- ances. her son, after a private grounding in latin grammar from his uncle, the rev. william george carroll, vicar of st. bride’s, dublin, who was reputed to be the first minister of the church of ireland to proclaim himself a home ruler, was like many other church of ireland children, sent to the wesleyan connexional school, later known as wesley college, in dublin, and was “ generally near or at the bottom of his classes.” at home however, he acquired an extensive acquaintance with the works of composers of music, so that before he was 15, ‘“‘he knew at least one important work by handel, mozart, beethoven, mendelssohn, rossini, bellini, donizetti, verdi and gounod from cover to cover.” he studied pictures in the na- tional gallery of ireland, and at 15 ‘‘ knew enough of a consid- erable number of painters to recognise their work at sight.” in 1871, when he was 15 and had no hope of going to a univer- sity, he received, through the influence of his uncle, frederick shaw, an appointment in the office of a dublin land agent, charles uniacke townshend, at a commencing salary of £18 per annum. at the end of a year, when he was 16, the important post of cashier unexpectedly became vacant, and he was tem- porarily appointed to it. he filled it so ably that he was con- firmed in it, and his salary, then £24 per annum, was doubled. in 1876, no longer able to endure employment which had always irked him, he withdrew from it and joined his mother, who, some years earlier, had settled in london and become a pro- fessional teacher of music. but before he did this he made his first communication to the press. the american evangclists moody and sankey had arrived in dublin to conduct a revival, and he went to hear them deliver their gospel. after he had heard it he wrote a letter, signed “ s.,” and dated april 3 1875, to public opinion, in which he asserted, to the horror of his pietistic relatives, that if this sort of thing was religion then he, on the whole, was an athcist. the first nine years of his life in london were passed in poverty and oppressed to some extent by a sense of failure. his literary earnings in that time amounted to six pounds. ‘“‘ when people reproach me,”’ he wrote in 1896, “ with the unfashionableness of my attire, they forget that to me it seems like the raiment of solomon in all his glory by contrast with the indescribable seecli- ness of those days, when i trimmed my cufis to the quick with scissors, and wore a tall hat and sot-disant black coat green with decay.” in those nine years, 1876-85, he “ devilled ” for a musi- cal critic; began a passion play in blank verse which he did not finish; wrote an article for one and all, of which george r. sims was editor, the payment for which was 15§s.; wrote an article for patent medicines for £5, and a verse for a school prizebook for ss.; and composed five novels. he was supported during these nine years by his mother, and by his father, who was still strug- gling with his dwindling business on the dublin corn exchange. on a few occasions he endeavoured “‘ to carn an honest living,’ the last occasion being in 1879, when, for a few months, he was in the service of a company formed in london “ to exploit an ingen- ious invention by mr. thomas alva edison.’”’ thereafter he insisted on following the bent of his mind. “ 1 did not throw my- self into the struggle for life: i threw my mother intoit. iwas not a staff to my father’s old age: i hung on to my father’s coat tails. . . . callous as comus to moral babble, i steadily wrote my five pages a day and made a man of myself (at my mother’s expense) instead of a slave.”’ such glimpses of london socicty as he obtained he owed to the possession of a suit of evening clothes and to his being a sufficiently sympathetic accompanist to be tolerated as an amateur in musical circles. between 1879 and 1883 the five novels were written—one each year. the first was, “ with merciless fitness,” called zmmaiurity. 925 it was declined by chapman and hall, the publishers, who wrote “no” on it, and it has never been printed. the manuscript was thrown aside and nibbled by mice, but “ even the mice failed to finish it.” yhe irrational knot, love among the artists, cashel byron’s profession, and an unsecial socialist followed it. no publisher would accept them, and it was not until after he had made many friends in advanced political and humani- tarian circles that any of them were printed. in 1882, when bernard shaw was 26 and the author of four unpublished books, he attended a public mecting at the memo- rial hall, farringdon street, london, which was addressed by ¥ienry george on the subject of jand nationalisation. george believed that the social ills of mankind would be cured by the nationalisation of land, or single tax: all other forms of capital could safely be left in private possession. shaw resolved to join in george’s campaign, but he did not long remain in it, for, on proceeding from a study of george’s progress and poverty to marx’s cupital he bscame a socialist and demanded the na- tionalisation of a// forms of capital, a demand which was repug- nant to george. in this campaign shaw made a number of firm f-iendships: with james leigh joynes, sydney olivier (later lord olivier), henry hyde champion, the rev. stewart d. weadlam, henry s. salt and his wife, william morris, annie besant, edward carpenter and sidney and beatrice wekb. propaganda magazines inevitably followed in the trail of these friends; and in one of them, printed by champion and called to-day, an unsocial socialist and cashel byron’s profession were serialised. to-day died, and was succeeded by our corner, published by mrs. besant, with whom shaw had become ac- quainted about the time that he joined the fabian society, a society of socialists founded in 1883. the irrational knot and love amoig the artists were serialised in this magazine. it, too, died. cashel byron’s profession had an artistic, but not a popu- lar, success. stevenson was enraptured by it, and henley wanted to make a play out of it. shaw himself, some years afterwards, burlesqued it for the stage under the name of 7he aldm.rable bashvillc, in excelient blank verse. it was abundantly clear in these novels, written after the style of the 18th century authors, that narrative was sot the form in which shaw could best express himself. he ran to dialogue rather than to description or to narrative, and his characters on any or no provocation uttered long speeches that read like platform deliveries rather than conversation. the story was always a poor one when there was any story at all; the author was not fastidious about the peg on which he hung his opinions. he shared with shakespeare a willingness to use any plot that would serve his purpose. but he could not continue to use a form which was in- tractable in his hands, and so, after many diversions and ad- ventures in search of a suitable instrument, he turned to the stage. it may here be said, however, that the novels were a preparation for the plays. much of what is in the former was re-used in the latter. the hatred of hypocrisy and pretentious respectability and irrational social cleavages and stupefying poverty and every kind of organised priestcraft, whether of the law or the church or of medicine or of politics, which he acquired in dublin as a boy and a youth, was poured into his nove.s and distilled from them into his plays. ann whitefield, who takes the initiative in the sex ducl with john tanner in man and super- putt, is descended from madge brailsford who hunts down owen jack in love among the artists. the conclusion of love among the artists, as julius bab has pointed out, is almost identical in situation and words with the conclusion of candida. his fortunes now began to mend. he criticised books for the pall mall gazette and pictures for the werld. he was appointed musical critic of the star, under the pseudonym of ‘‘ corno di bas- setto,” but he presently transferred himself in the same capacity to the world, in which he made his initials g.b.s. familar to the public. later on he acted as dramatic critic of the saturday review. during this period of critical activity, however, he was arduously engaged in his political propaganda. henry george’s progress and poverty directed his attention from the so- called controversies between science and religion to political 526 economy, to which he devoted several years of study; karl marx’s das kapital, which he read in french, completed his disillusion with capitalistic civilisation. he took up public speaking and incessantly addressed ‘audiences of every de- scription, from university dons to london washerwomen. from 1883 to 1895, with virtually no exception, he delivered a ha- rangue with debate, questions and so on every sunday—somce- times twice or even thrice—and on a good many weekdays. this teeming and tumultuous life was passed on many platforms, from the british association to the triangle at the corner of salmon’s lane in limchouse.” he was now a most active mem- ber of the fabian society, which he joined in 1884, and was the author of its second and third tracts. in 1898 shaw’s health yielded under the weight of his work and he was obliged to refrain from addressing meetings almost nightly. he became, instead, a co-opted member of the vestry of st. pancras, afterwards st. pancras borough council. he was invited, but declined, to become a candidate for parlia- ment. his chief political activities were done in committees of the fabian society. by this time he was well known as a bril- liant and witty critic and debater, but was hardly known at all to the generality of people as an author, although, in addition to his novels, he had written the sanity of art (1908), a reply to dr. max nordau’s degeneration; the perfect wagnerite (1898); the quintessence of ibsenism (1891); and four plays. but from 1894 his rise to world fame was steady and swift. he now definitely was a dramatist, although he still did an immense amount of journalism and political propaganda and published his plays for general reading (then an innovation in london) with elaborate prefaces on political, social and finally on religious and biological questions, which were quite independent of the plays to which they were attached. it was as an acted dramatist that he entered into the knowledge of the ordinary man. at the time of writing (1926), his plays, long and short, number 34. they are as follows, and, as nearly as possible, in the order of their writing: widowers’ houses (1893); the phi- landerer; mrs. warren's profession; arms and the man; candida; the man of destiny; you never can tell; captain brassbound’s conversion (1901); caesar and cleopatra (1901); the devil’s disciple (1901); the admirable bushville (1909); man and superman (1903); john bull’s other island (1907); afajor bar- bara (1907); how she lied to her husband (1904); passion, poison and petrifaction, or, the fatal gazogene (1903); the doctor’s dilemma (1906); the interlude at the playhouse; getting married (1908); the shewing-up of blanco posnet (1909); press cuitings, a topical sketch compiled from the editorial and correspondence columns of the daily papers (1909); afisalliance (1910); the dark lady of the sonnets (1910); fanny’s first play (1911); androcles and the lion (1912); over-rided (1912); pygmalion (1912); great catherine (1913); heartbreak house (1917); o'flaherty, v. c. (1915); annajasku, the bolshewk lin- press (1917); the inca of perusden; augustus does his bit (1916); back to methuselah (1921); and saint joan (1923). he also made translation of siegfried trebitsch’s frau gittas sihne, under the title of jilta’s atonement. the first of these plays was finished in 1892, seven years after it had been begun in collaboration with william archer. shaw, it seemed, could write “incomparable” dialogue but “ con- struction was not his strong point’; archer “ could not write dialogue a bit, but. . . considered himself a born constructor.” they agreed to pool their abilities and make a play. archer constructed “a twaddling cup-and-saucer comedy. .. to be called rhinegold.”’ but shaw held that plot was the curse of fiction, literary or dramatic; and archer was the apostle of plot and construction. consequently the plot, in shaw’s hands, underwent such a change that archer retired from the collabora- tion, nor did he ever expect to see the play completed. seven years later, to help the independent theatre out of an emergency, shaw finished the play—a treatise on slum-property—and it was performed for the first time in dec. 1892. archer, then dramatic critic for the world, earnestly endeavoured to dis- suade shaw from following a carcer as a dramatist, “ for which | shaw, g. b. he has no special ability, and some constitutional disabilities.”’ the last of the plays, saint joan, was written in 1923. it will be seen, then, that the bulk of shaw’s dramatic work was done after he had maseed his 40th birthday, and that half of it was done after he had reached the age at which shakespeare died. it will also be seen that the three plays which are now considered to be his greatest, [tcartbreak house, back to methuselah and saint joan, were written when he was well over 60 years of age. three of the plays, afrs. wurren’s profession, the shewing-up of blanco posnet and press cuttings were banned by the censor, but the ban was subsequently lifted from then. passion, poison and petrifaction is a burlesque melodrama written for the benefit of the actors’ orphanage. the interlude at the playhouse isa topical prologue quoted at length in the daily mail, jan. 29 1907, and not otherwise published. his political writings, in addition to a number of fabian tracts and pamphlets, include common sense about the war, peace conference proposals and the intelligent woman’s guide to socialism and capitalism. the plays vary from exposure of social wrongs, as for example slum ownership in widowers’ houses and prostitution in afrs. warren’s profession, to philosophical and religious disquisitions, as in afisalliance and androcles and the lion, heartbreak house, and metabiological prophecies, as in back to methuseluh, drama- tised historical chronicle, as in caesar and cleopatra and saint joan. shaw has ranged through a great varicty of scenes in his plays—america, bulgaria, egypt, england, france, germany and ireland; and he is always careful to make the settings as picturesque and romantic as possible. he goes to extraordinary lengths to introduce oddity into his work, as when he makes captain shotover, in hearlbreak house, live in a house shaped like a ship, and causes one of the characters in the play to wear the clothes of an arab chief in the evening. at first, his work seemed to express an absolute detcrminism—not man, but his environment, was at fault—but in his later plays he insists, in macbeth’s phrase, that man “ still has judgment here,” and expresses what may be called a neo-protestant belief. mankind, in back to methuselah, reaches through creative evolution a state of longevity which resembles eternal life. joan of arc protests that no one shall stand between god and her. the general religious belief expressed in the plays may be briefly summarised as follows: god, or the life force, is an imperfect being striving to become perfect. if he were omniscient, omnip- otent and omnipresent, he would not tolerate certain horrors in the lives of his creatures, any more than an ordinary father would tolerate disease in his children if he could prevent it. the whole of time has been occupied by god in experiments with instruments invented to help him in his attempt to per- fect himself. when he found that these instruments were either uscless or no longer serviceable he scrapped them. in this way the disappearance from the world of mammoth beasts, among other creatures, is explained. god eventually found that all his instruments suffered from a common defect, that they were unaware of his purpose and were unable to help him of their own volition. hethereupon created a new creature, man, and made him aware of his purpose and gave him a will so that he might deliberately help him to achieve perfection. mn, in short, can help or hinder god in his efforts to fulfil himself. all the cruel and wicked things in life are explicable to shaw as acts of rebcllion against god or the consequences of indolent failure to help him. disease, poverty, war—all of these are acts done against god by man; and shaw warns the world that if it will not amend its ways, and endeavour to fulfil god’s purpose, he will become impatient and scrap mankind as he scrapped the mammoth beasts. ‘‘ you should live so that when you die god is in your debt. ’’ in 1808, after he had retired from regular journalism, he married charlotte frances payne-townshend. bibliography.—holbrook jackson, bernard shaw (1907); julius bab, bernard shaw (berlin, 1910); g. k. chesterton, geerge bernard shaw (1910); archibald henderson, george bernard shaw (1911); edward shanks, bernard shaw (1924); j. s. collis, shaw (1925). see also chapters i in the following: g. k. chesterton, tleretics (1905); ashley dukes, modern dramatists (1911); st. john one some i mpressions of mu y elders (1922). (st. fe” shaw, r. n.—sherrington shaw, richard norman (1831-1012), british architect (see 24.813), died at hampstead, london, nov. 17 1912. sheffield, england (see 24.822), had a population of 490,- 639 in 1921 (511,668 including districts incorporated in that year) ; it was estimated at over 500,000 in 1925. the borough was en- larged by the inclusion of part of tinsley in rorz and part of bradfield in 1914; and in 1920 powers were sought to include a very large area for the purposes of a bold scheme of regional <le- volution. the area of land incorporated (in 1921), though less than had been hoped, amounted to 6,697 ac. (making the total area of the borough 31,627 ac.), and included handsworth and parts of ecclesfield and brinsworth. a new ward, that of hands- worth, was created, and four members added to the city coun- cil. the old boards of guardians of sheffield and ecclesha!l were dissolved in 1925, and a united board established. seven mem- bers have been returned to parliament since 1918. the milk supply was municipalised in 1918. an exhaustive civic survey has been carried out, and a zonal town plan prepared; authority for applying the plan to an area of 5,909 ac. was obtained in 1925. parks and open spaces acquired largely by gift or purchase from the late duke of norfolk and his trustees, include norfolk park (s2 ac.); buckwood (16 ac.); bingham and greystones parks, rustlings road; luxton chase (753 ac.); blackbrook, coppice, hutcliffe and bowden houstead woods (altogether 176 ac.); and woolley wood, wincobank; while 154 ac. of the norton hall estate were acquired in 1925 adjoining the site presented in 1924 to the joint hospitals council, and brinkcliffe tower, with 12 ac., has been given for use as a park after the death of the donor. the total area of parks and open spaces is 1,331 ac. (1,163 in the city itself). crookes cemetery was acquired in rg1o, and 84} ac. for another at shire green in 1925. in 1914 sheffield was created a diocese, consisting of the arch- deaconries of sheffield and doncaster, with that part of the rural deanery of dronfield which was within the city boundaries. the old parish church of st. peter and st. paul became the cathedral. new churches include st. oswald’s, millhouses (1910); st. chad’s, norton woodseats (1912); st. aidan’s park (1913);st. clement’s, newhall (1914); st. margaret’s, jenkin road (1918); a sweden- borgian church (1912); and the central synagogue, lee croft (1914). the jonas and edgar allen laboratories in connection with the university were opened in 1923, and a hostel for men in tap- tonville road in 1912. it was proposed in 1924 to amalgamate and extend the four voluntary hospitals, utilising the present buildings as receiving wards and casualty stations, and carrying on the main work in norton hall, which was given, with 120 ac. of land, for the purpose. a new wing of the royal infirmary was - opened in 1925. new buildings and monuments include the boys’ bluecoat school in psalter lane (1911); the coroner’s court (1914); a statue of king edward vii. in fitzalan square (1913); a memorial to men of the yorkshire and lancashire regiment in weston park; and a war memorial, consisting of a steel mast on a bronze base, in barker’s pool (1925). a village with a painted fabrics industry for ex-service men has been established at coal aston, on the outskirts of the city, and the erection of a large war memorial public hall was to be undertaken in 1926. a new wing of the town hall was opened in 1923, and it was decided in 1925 to build modern abattoirs. in connection with the derwent valley water scheme, for utilis- ing the water of the derwent and ashop rivers, the howden reservoir was opened in rg12, and the derwent reservoir and the service reservoir at ambergate were finished by 1926. the complete scheme involves about 80 m. of aqueducts, and a tunnel four miles long connecting the new works with those of the cor- poration at rivelin. the dams are over 1,000 ft. long, and 100 ft. high from the river bed. shefficld receives 25°, of the water, the rest going to derby, leicester, nottingham and country districts. |