{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1926:salvation army:cb5e6e00dbbd",
    "title": "SALVATION ARMY",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "4bdcd289f30ad1cbcfdcd218d848f5d0fcdf2191c0b44045072ddd437b685a35",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "the salvation army is a religious organisation of international scope, founded in 1865 under the title of the “ christian mission ”’ in the east of london. its founder, william booth, formerly a methodist minister, died in 1912. | the announcement of the founder’s death was accompanied by the intimation that his eldest son, william bramwell booth (g.v.), formerly his chief of staff, had become the new general. under a deed-poll of the salvation army, dated 1878, each gen- eral appoints his successor under seal, but the name of the person so chosen is not divulged until the proper time. at an interna- tional staff council in 1904 a supplementary deed-poll was adopted, the principal object of which was to set up machinery for removing from the position any general who proved to be un- worthy of confidence, and also for the selection of a general by a high council of the army called into being for this purpose, in the event of the position becoming vacant through failure to appoint or other cause. extension.—in many quarters it was feared that after the withdrawal of the forceful and picturesque personality who had dominated salvation army affairs for a generation, and had raised up a worldwide following from what was originally a de- spised and derided local effort in the slums of london, the army would decline. the world war also was a menace to all inter- national organisations. these fears, however, proved to be groundless. the number of adherents has steadily increased, and the “ field’ occupied has grown greatly in extent. at the time of the founder’s death the army was operating in 59 coun- tries. at the end of 1925 its flag was planted in 81 countries and colonies. extension has taken place on every continent. in europe new spheres of activity have been found in czechoslovakia, latvia and hungary. in asia, where the army had its oldest mission field (india 1882), it has opened in china and burma. africa has become an important sphere for its missionary operations, and, in addition to what ts known as south africa, regular work is carried on in nigeria, the gold coast, in kenya and the portuguese territories in the east. in the western hemisphere the accessions to the army's field include cuba, honduras, chile, bolivia and brazil. in the earliest countries to be occupied outside great britain important consolidation has taken place. canada has been divided into two “ territories” (a “‘ territory ” being usually a country or large part of a country under one command), one east and the other west, with toronto and win- nipeg as the respective headquarters; australia has been organised also into two ‘‘ territories,” with headquarters at melbourne and sydney; and the united states into three, with headquarters at new york, chicago and san francisco. in great britain sub- territories have been set up in scotland and wales. the corps—the army has more than 14,000 corps or socie- ties, each of which serves not only for the establishment of its own members in the faith, but as a centre of aggressive evangel- istic effort. it has also 1,400 social institutions for the friend- less, unfortunate and wayward. in the british is. the centres number 1,500, and reach a similar figure in the united states; in canada there are between 600 and 700, and in australia and new zealand nearly 1,900. india, with ceylon, has nearly 5,000 such centres, and the far east 450. the number of officers and cadets engaged in field and social work is about 22,360. the army’s mission field has greatly extended, and many of its offi- cers who work devotedly in their own dark lands were, but a few years previously, themselves in the bondage of superstition. the right method of evangelising the people is found in the employment of converted officers of their own race and speech. in japan, for instance, 98% of the officers are japanese. new organisations.—the progress which continued under the second general is not to bemeasured merely by an extended front. new organisations have been called into existence, espe- cially for influencing and instructing the young of both sexes. careful provision has been made to insure a constant replenish- ment of officers by means of institutes for the training of cadets. in each year upwards of 1,800 young men and women are trained for army work, to which they have to devote the whole of their time. congresses on national and international lines are held frequently for the instruction and encouragement of officers. constantly increasing use is made of the printing-press. the salvemini—samoa various war crys, as the principal periodical publication of the army is called, are issued in between 30 and 4o languages. finance.—greatly increased sums of money have been raised as the movement progressed. the financial system of the army is of a very carefully organised character. roughly it may be said to be divided into two parts, local and central, the one concerned with the local unit or corps, financing itself by its own efforts; and the other concerned with the provision of funds (1) for propertics, the training of officers, missionary enterprise, and (2) for social work in great britain. in the year ending in sept. 1925, the total income received at international head quarters for (1) was £599,768, and for (2) £71,174. social work.—the social work, which received its first great impetus in 1890 with the publication of in darkest england and the way out, by william booth, has become not only more ex- tensive but more varied in character. this work from the first has been regarded by the army leaders as an organised warfare against social evils in order to clear the way for evangelisation. it was realised that the physical and environmental condition of many of the people, especially in great cities, made it extremely difficult for them to apprehend the spiritual message which the army had to deliver. therefore various social activities arose, diverse in character but all actuated by the same purpose, from the provision of free breakfasts and night shelters to the settle- ment of people in overseas dominions. this last is a department of work characterised by careful selection of the emigrants, and is coupled, particularly in the case of the young, with training beforehand and effective provision for future care, while work is assured upon arrival. the efforts of the army in getting men to work on the land, both in england and overseas, have called forth many commendations from statesmen and others. rescue work among women was one of the earliest social tasks to which the army set its hand. in this work mrs. florence booth, wife of gen. bramwell booth, was the responsible leader from its inception until 1912. maternity work has been carried out by the army’s ministering women, and for this in 1918 the army received a grant from the british govt.—the first state subsidy ever made to the army in the country of its origin. in other lands also social work has proceeded, adapted to the dif- ferent national conditions and needs, and often commended and assisted by the governments concerned. this is true also of eastern lands: thus settlements for criminals have been estab- lished in india, and leper colonies in the dutch indies; and these are but instances of many such works. spiritual character of the work.—with this development of organisation the army has maintained its original character as a body of spiritual witness and aggressive evangelism. in theory and creed it is at one in almost every respect with orthodox evangelical belief, but its methods—its realistic presentation of religion, and its use of various constraining means to bring people to salvation—distinguish it from other religious bodies. it con- tinues to lay the greatest emphasis upon the need for conversion, preceded by penitence, and followed by growth in holiness. the people gathered into its ranks are cared for by its officers and trained in a real separation from the world and devotion to christ. they are set to work immediately with a definite objec- tive, their zeal is employed in the winning of others, and public testimony is required from them, however unlearned or back- ward in religious experience they may be. a large place in the army’s endeavours is given to music and song. in every country the band—usually a brass band—is a feature of army work. the strains of such a band, reaching farther than the human voice, draw numbers within earshot of the army’s message who would otherwise not be attracted. the army has also made use of improvisations of various kinds, not only because in this way public attention is more likely to be caught, but because these methods prevent the officers from fall- ing into the conventional and the ordinary. those who conduct army meetings are instructed to talk in a colloquial fashion, and, speaking generally, formal sermons are discouraged. ideals of conduct-—the army exacts a high standard of be- haviour from its adherents. in the series of orders and regula- tions for officers and for the rank and file definite guidance is 459 given even in the smaller matters of everyday conduct. officers accept a relative poverty, being content to receive sufficient for their simple needs. there are contributory funds from which they receive allowances on retirement, and from which provision is made for widows and orphans. marriages are solemnised “under the flag,” and children of members are dedicated to become soldiers or officers in the “ war.’ officers wear a regula- tion uniform, which it is not permissible for the individual to vary. the uniform is regarded as a means of confessing to the world the fact of separation and consecration, as opening the way to many opportunities of usefulness which would not other- wise appear, and as making possible instant recognition and fellowship amongst salvationists themselves. one of the great principles of the army, firmly adhered to, is that women have absolute parity of privilege, position and dignity. an order of the founder has been instituted to mark distin- guished and memorable services, revealing the spirit and purpose of the salvation army, such as would have especially commended themselves to william booth. some 30 officers have been admit- ted to this order. a memorial to the founder was projected in the shape of an international training institution in london, at a total estimated cost of £350,000, towards which about £250,000 sterling had been raised up to dec. 1925. brsliography.—h. begbie, the life of william booth (1920); m. l. carpenter, the angel adjutant (1921); mrs. b. booth, powers of salvation army officers (1923); m. l. carpenter, notable officers of the salvation army (1925); h. l. taylor, general booth's journal (1925); b. booth, echoes and memories (1926). (w. b. b.*) salvemini, gaetano (1873- ), italian historian, was born in molfetta in sept. 1873. im 1902 he became professor of mediaeval and modern history at messina university. he then went to pisa university, and in 1917 was appointed to the chair of history at florence university. his best known works as 2 historian are magnati e popolani in firenze dal 1280 al 1295 (1899); la rivoluzione francese 1789-92 (1905); afazzini (1915) and l’italia e gl’impert centrale dal 1871 al 19175. he became known to the british public through his lectures delivered in london university in 1923 and 1926. in politics he showed views of a liberal trend which brought him into conflict with the fas- cist government. he edited the liberal newspaper l’unitd (1911-21). before the world war he vigorously criticised the socialists for their half-hearted social work, and attacked gio- litti’s electoral methods. during the war he was a leading advo- cate of italian diplomatic moderation. he was a member of the italian parliament from 1919-21. after the fascists captured power, however, his political activity was made impossible, and, being suspect, he was in constant personal danger. in june 1925, while in rome, he was arrested and taken to florence, where he was charged on the hearsay evidence of a printer with complicity in the production of an anti-fascist newspaper non- mollare. he was imprisoned for 35 days before being tried. no evidence but that of the printer was cited, and his case was post- poned till july 1925 when he was provisionally released. pro- fessor salvemini was compelled to leave florence and was kept under police surveillance until oct. 1925, when he took the occa- sion of the government amnesty, proclaimed for the matteotti murderers, to leave the country. he resigned his post at flor- ence university on nov. 5 1925 and was “ dismissed ”’ from it on dec. 1. afterwards he resided in london. salvini, tommaso (18209-10915), italian actor (see 24.103), died at florence dec. 31 1915. samoa (see 24.115), a group of islands in the south pacific, which were before the world war divided between germany and the united states under an agreement made between these pow- ers and great britain in 1900. west samoa—the former german islands of west samoa were occupied by a new zealand expeditionary force on aug. 30 1914, and on may 7 1919 a mandate for these islands was con- ferred by the supreme council in paris on new zealand. the govt. of new zealand asked the british govt. for legal authority to act under the mandate, having no special desire to exercise independent action in the matter. the german holdings 460 of land, amounting to over 8,o00 ac., were taken over by the new zealand government. the constitution was settled by the samoa act of 1921, and an amending act of 1923. it is administered by an administrator appointed by the govt. of new zealand; he has the assistance of a legislative council, and a consultative native council. the principal islands are savai, with an area of 725,000 ac. and upholu, and the total population of the islands was estimated in 1925 at 38,829. cocoanut, cacao and bananas are the principal products and copra is the principal article of export. the total exports in 1924 were valued at £361,418, and imports at £274,803. the revenue in 1925 was £130,914 and the expenditure £135,523. the revenue is aug- mented by an annual subsidy from new zealand based on the additional costs of the education and medical services since the acceptance of the mandate by new zealand, and on the cost of the wireless station in excess of revenue. (see mandates.) eastern (american) samoa is administered by a command- ant who also holds the governorship by commission from the president of the united states. almost the whole of the land is owned by the natives, the principal article produced for export being copra. the total area is about 58 sq. m. and the population 6,125, the largest islands being tutuila and tau. the harbour of pago pago is a united states naval station. tutuila has a hizh power naval radio station, which is also used for ordinary com- mercial traftic. see the annual reports of the commandant at tutuila, pazo pago, samoa (washington, d.c.), and the new zealand official year book (annual, weilington, n.z.) samuel, sir herbert louis (1870- ), british poli- tician, was born at liverpool nov. 6 1870. he was educated at university college school, london, and at balliol college, oxford, where he graduated in 1893. in 1895 and 1900 he un- successfully contested south oxiordshire as a liberal, and in 1902 was elected for the cleveland division of yorkshire. he entered sir henry campbell-bannerman’s government in 1905 as parliamentary under-secretary to the home office. in 1908 he was sworn in the privy council. from 1909 to 1910 he was chancellor of the duchy of lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, and in 1910 became postmaster-general. he held this office until 1914, and then became for a year president of the local government board. from 1915 to 1916 he was again post- master-general and chancellor of the duchy of lancaster, and in 1916 became home secretary. he acted as chairman of the select committee on national expenditure (1917-8), and in 1919 was special commissioner to belgium. in 1920 he was appointed high commissioner to palestine and was created g.b.e. this post he retained until aug. 1925, when he returned to england and was made chairman of the royal commission appointed to inquire into conditions in the coal industry, as a result of the dispute between the coal-owners and the miners in the summer of that year. the report issued by the commission is often referred to as the samuel report. (see coat.) san, battles of the: see dunajec-san, battles of the; vistula-san, battles of the. san antonio, tex., u.s.a. (see 24.126), continued its rapid growth after 1910. in the following decade the population increased 67%, reaching 161,379 in 1920, of whom 14,341 were negroes and 36,824 foreign born (including 28,477 mexicans). the census bureau estimate for 1925 was 198,069. san antonio is the centre of a rich oil-producing area which developed rapidly after the opening of the first field at somerset in 1919. two direct railway lines connect it with the new deep- water port at corpus christi. five irrigation projects (under construction in 1925) will bring under cultivation about 500,000 ac. of new land. the large and varied establishment of the u.s. army (with about 12,000 troops) included three flying grounds, a great motor-transport camp, an artillery camp, and an artillery and rifle range, in addition to the arsenal and fort sam houston, which is a cavalry post and headquarters of the viii. corps area. the output of the factories was valued at $13,435,000 in 1909, $35,456,000 in 1919 and $34,756,016 in 1923, when there were 297 establishments, employing 5,581 wage-earners. samuel—sanctions and guarantees the leading industries were iron and steel, candy, textiles, cigars, leather goods, clothing and soap. gas and electric current for industrial and domestic consumption were supplied by the san antonio public service co., which was constructing a high- power hydroelectric station on the guadalupe river in 1925. the commission form of government was adopted in ror4. among the public improvements under way in 1925 were flood- prevention works and a municipal auditorium. the water supply (derived from 17 artesian wells and sufficient for a city of over 500,000) was purchased by the city for $7,000,000 from a private corporation. in respect of school attendance, san antonio in 1920 ranked last but one among the cities of 100,000 population and over; and in “illiteracy ” third. sanctions and guarantees (see 14.695) in international law correspond to the means adopted in national law to enforce legal decisions, but the decisions to be enforced are international decisions. during the years which followed the world: war it became increasingly apparent that the most important and the most enduring of european political problems was that known as the problem of security (g.v.). terminology.—as a deduction from the new conception of security the word “ sanctions ” began to replace in the language of diplomacy the word ‘ alliance.” security was now to be sought not in limited agreements between small groups of states to fight together whenever any of them should, for whatever cause, be involved in international conflict, but in common agreements among a greater or smaller number of states to act together when—and only when—the established rights of one of them had been violated by force. security, therefore, must be found in “ sanctions ” against the wrongdoer. for some time indeed, the word “ guarantees ’’ was used instead of, or on an equal footing with, the word “sanctions. ’”’ the first security scheme prepared by a commission of the league of nations was, for example, originally called a “‘ treaty of mutual guarantee,” but gradually the use of the word “‘ guarantee ”’ disappeared and the word “ sanctions ”’ took its place. this change in phraseology was right, for the security arrange- ments which european politicians after the war endeavoured to set up constituted nothing more nor less than an attempt to create a rudimentary international police. they constituted an attempt in international affairs to limit and control the use of force as it is limited and controlled in national affairs; an attempt, that is to say, to put force within the law instead of leaving it without the law to cause the international disorders which have resulted from its use in the past, and to this end to create a system of sanctions closely analogous in principle, though not of course in form, to the sanctions which support the legal system of every civilised state. the discussions which occurred during the years immediately after the war soon showed that there were two ways of achiev- ing the result in view, the first was by the creation of a general system embracing all the states throughout the world; the second was by the creation of hmited arrangements applying to a certain number of states situated in geographical proximity to each other and bound together by common bonds of material interest. the first corresponded broadly to the application in international affairs of the principle of the sheriff’s posse; the second was an elaboration, with of course essential changes, of the method of the pre-war military alliance. article 16 of the covenant.—it was by the application of the general method that the first step was made towards the organi- sation of a true system of international sanctions. this first step consisted in the adoption of the covenant of the league of nations, article 16 of which imposes obligations upon every member of the league to adopt common coercive measures, including especially a financial and economic boycott against states which, in violation of the undertakings of the covenant, resort to war. it was believed by the authors of the covenant that the system of article 16 would, if loyally applied by the members of the league, act as a very powerful deterrent against aggression. but article 16 unfortunately contained ambiguities the efiect of which was to create in the minds of many govern- sandburg—sandfly fever ments doubt as to the kind and the amount of help which the members of the league would in practice give to any state that might be wrongfully attacked. it was not, therefore, generally regarded as by itself creating a sufficiently sound system of sanctions to solve the problem of security. for that reason the temporary mixed commission set up by the council of the league of nations prepared in 1923 the draft treaty of mutual guarantee (or assistance), on the basis of which was prepared the geneva protocol of 1924. both instruments were founded on the clear acceptance by all signatory states of obligations to co-operate by military or other necessary means against an aggressor, and if they had been ratified they would have been regarded by the governments which drew them up as a sub- stantial progress towards providing the common action required for the protection of loyal members of international society against disloyal attack. regional guarantees—the second method, which in the early stages of the security discussions had great prominence, received its first application in the anglo-american-french guarantee treaties drawn up in 1919 at paris. these treaties failed to secure ratification, and were replaced by the franco- belgian, franco-polish and other similar treaties of alliance. the little entente was another example of the same method. but it was recognised even by the authors of these treaties that although they were subject to the covenant of the league they were nevertheless, liable to degenerate into alliances of the old sort, and that therefore they would be dangerous unless they were effectively controlled by the league. it was the temporary mixed commission above mentioned which first established the principles of the league control which would make such partial treaties consistent with a general system of sanctions, the commission recognised that in cases where for whatever reason there was great danger of war, special reinforcement for general obligations might be required, and in the draft treaty of mutual assistance the two methods were for the first time combined into one coherent system. the protocol similarly recognised the utility of special treaties in support of general sanctions, but on condition that such special treaties could only be applied after it had been recognised by some impartial arbitrator that aggression had taken place. after the first failure of the combination method of the geneva protocol, a return was made in the locarno agreements and the rhineland pact to the method of partial treaties. these agree- ments, however, in no way resembled an old-time alliance; the concern of their authors was plainly to create one more stable element in a new system of international sanctions against aggression. whatever developments may follow the locarno agreements, it is certain that the problem of security throughout the world will only be solved when satisfactory arrangements have been made for the provision of effective sanctions in support of inter- national law, and that such sanctions can only be effective if they are founded on a combination of the two principles of general and partial guarantees. (see league of nations and bibliography thereto.) (p; j:.bs) sandburg, carl (1878- ), american author, was born at galesburg, ill., jan. 6 1878. in 18 98~1902 he studied at lombard college, galesburg, and in 1910-2 was secretary to the mayor of milwaukee, wisconsin. he became associate editor of system, chicago, in 1913, and was also editorial writer on the chicago daily news. he served in the 6th illinois volunteers in the spanish-american war, seeing active service in porto rico. in 1918 he was a member of the editorial board of the national labour defence council. his poetry is distinguished by an intense realism, set off by an abrupt irregularity of line which intensifies its effect. his choice of words is always signif- icant and adds greatly to the force of his verse. he has been termed the laureate of industrial america. among his published works are chicago poems (1915); corn huskers (1915); the chicago race riots (1919); smoke and steel (1920); slabs of the sunburnt west (1922); rootabaga pidgeons (1923); abraham lincolnu—the prairie phase (1926). 461 sandfly fever.—“ sandfly ” or ‘ phlebotomous fever ”’ is an acute specific fever, common in tropical and sub-tropical countries. it is caused by a virus, possibly a leptospira, con- veyed to man bv the bite of a small midge of che dipterous family, psychodidae. the incubation period is about five days. sym ptoms.—the fever is sudden in onset, and of short dura- tion, accompanied by severe headache and pains in the limbs. the attack starts with a general feeling of depression and loss of appetite, soon followed by weakness of the legs, and pains and tenderness in the muscles, especially those of calves and back of neck. the temperature rises rapidly to 102 to 104° fahrenheit. there is flushing and fulness of face and eyes as though some constriction were being applied around the neck. the bloodshot eye is typical and in some countries has led to the disease being called ‘‘ dog disease’? (hundfieber), frontal headache and pains in the eyes and leg muscles are usually severe. the pulse is relatively slow throughout. there may be vomiting and diar- rhoea. rashes are uncommon and are not to be confused with insect bites. a blood examination shows a marked decrease in the number of white blood corpuscles. the temperature usually falls to the normal level within four days, although one- to seven- day types of fever are to be scen. recovery is slow, depression and other nervous symptoms may persist for weeks or months. treatment.—the sooner the patient takes to bed the less severe are the pains likely to be. the bowels should be moved by means of calomel, followed by salts. then the aches and pains may be relieved by the administration of 10 grains of aspirin every four hours, or by half a teaspoonful of liquid ex- tract of opium. quinine js useless. hot tea is very soothing for the pains, especially during the night. it is advisable to surround fever cases with a sandfly net to lessen the chance of the infec- tion spreading. tonics anda change of climate may be necessary during convalescence. __ etiology.—while the nature of the causal organism is uncer- tain, phicbotomus papatasti is the proven carrier of the disease. sandfly fever is liable to occur wherever the p. papatasii can breed, t.e., where for eight consecutive weeks the mean dail temperature lics between 65° and 90° fahrenheit. epidemics of the fever depend on the number of infected phicbotomus, and the number of susceptible people. other con- ditions, such as temperature, humidity, winds and reaction of soll, may modify the prime factors. the virus.—doerr in 1909 and birt in 1910 showed that, in sand- fly fever, the blood of man ts infective by direct transmission to other men only in the first day of disease. kilroy in 1909 infected himself by phlebotomus bites, and, by inoculation of his blood transmitted the disease to a non-immune subject. birt in 1910 showed that the virus could pass through a very fine filter. in 1921 couvy reported that spirochactes had been seen in cases of dengue in beirut. in the same year the royal air force sandfly commnission isolated a leptospira in six cases of so-called sandfly fever in malta, while in 1922, vervoort and van de velde, working in the dutch east indies, found ieptospira in cases of fever resembling phlebotomous fever. hlowever, the correct diagnosis of some of these cases was doubtful, and until further transmission experiments have been carried out this organism cannot be accepted as the causal! virus. the vector—doerr and birt in 1910 claimed that p. papatasii which had fed on cases of sandfly fever were capable of transmitting the disease, but only seven to ten days after sucking virulent blood. doerr suggested that the adult female phlebotomus transmits infec- tion to her offspring. during the years 1907 to 1922, parts of the bionomics of the sand- fly had been worked out, but its life history was not fully elucidated. the r.a.f. sandfly commission, working in malta and london during 1921, 1922 and 1923, bred the sandily in captivity and ex- tensively studied the bionomics of this insect. the fever was trans- mitted to man by the bites of phiebotomus bred in captivity in lon- don, showing that these flies were the true carriers of the disease, further experiments showed that the infection was handed on from generation to generation of sandfly in its breeding grounds, by the grub feeding on the excreta and dead remains of the parent flies, phlebotomus papatasii is a small midge measuring about 3 mm. tn length; of a very delicate build and thickly covered with fine, long hairs. the body is of a pale lemon tint and shows the morphological characters common to its genus. eyes are relatively large, black and conspicuous. the antennae are long and filamentous. the pro- boscis is long and prominent. the fine wings are lancet-shaped, covered with hairs and held erect, except when newly hatched and shortly before death. the female fly has a spindle-shaped abdomen, a62 the life-history of this fly covers a period of about eight weeks, the exact time depending on food supply, temperature and humidity. the egg stage occupies about nine days; the grub stage about 28 days; and the chrysalis stage about 10 days, ending in the emergence of the adult fly, the wings of the newly hatched fly are crumpled and moist. until these are dry the young fly can only crawl. the recognition of this stage is most helpful in detecting breeding spots of the insect. during the night, when the atmospheric humidity is usually great, the wings cannot dry. the process of drying is usually completed within three hours after dawn, and the mouth parts are sufficiently hardened to allow of the sucking of blood during the first 24 hours of adult life. copulation can take place within the next 24 hours, and eggs to the number of 40 are laid 6 to 10 days later. the length of life of the adult female fly in nature is about two wecks, though in the laboratory life may be prolonged for 30 days. only the female phiebotomus bites. a feed of blood is essential for the eggs to become fertilised. the insect usually bites after sunset. man is bitten wherever the skin is exposed. the sandfly progresses by a short hopping flight usually to one side. the distance of a single flight is never more than four yd., and it does not travel more than 50 yd. from its breeding haunts. it is attracted by the odours of man and other animals, and enters buildings by apertures in the walls, windows, doorways, ventilators or cracks. the flight of the phiebotomus is so fecble that it avoids all currents of air, natural or artificial. upstair rooms, which are more exposed to air currents, are less infected than those on the ground-floor. in nature the grub and chrysalis forms are found in the cracks in embankments, in the loose earth at the base of walls and buildings, in cultivated soil and in other places where suitable conditions of food, moisture and temperature exist. the grubs are found even to a depth of a foot or more in loose soil, and can migrate to the level of optimum environ- ment. hibernation takes place in the last grub stage, a very resistant stage. when ready to pass into the chrysalis form, they seek a drier spot, usually within a few inches of the surface of the ground. excess of moisture is injurious to all stages of the life of this insect. the recipient.—about 80 °% of newcomers to sandfly regions suffer from the fever during their first summer of residence, and about 15 % develop a second attack within three years. such factors as atmos- pheric temperature and humidity affect the development of the virus in man, prevention.—it is necessary to eliminate the hiding and breeding places of the fly. cracks in the ground or in masonry must be got rid of by levelling, pointing, etc. premises must be thoroughly cleansed, and dust and cobwebs removed. good refuse disposal is essential. the sandfly must be kept away by sandily proof nets (45 meshes to the square inch), electric fans or repellants, such as paraffin or camphor; whilst insects living in corners of rooms must be destroyed by swatting with a damp cloth or spraying with 1% cresol. there must be a daily war against this pest. all the necessary repairs, tarring, painting and lime-washing must be carried out immediately before the warm weather sets in. each year the interior of all rooms should be washed down and painted or lime-washed. bibliography.—c, birt, “ phlebotomus fever in malta and crete,”’ jour. rey. army med. corps, vol. 14, pp. 143, 236 (1910); : a. sinton, ‘‘ notes on some indian specics of the genus phle- otomus,”’ indian jour. med. research, vol. 10, no. 3, vol. 11, no. 4 (1923-4); h. e. whittingham and a. f. rook, ‘‘ observations on the life-history and bionomics of phlebotomus papatasii,” brit. med. jour., part 2, p. 1144 (1923). h. e. wu.) san francisco, cal., u.s.a. (see 24.144).—the population increased 21:5% in the decade 1910-20, reaching 506,676 in 1920, when it ranked 12th among the cities of the united states, and was outranked in california for the first time by los angeles. the population of the san francisco-oakland metropolitan district, however, was still (1920) somewhat greater than that of the los angeles metropolitan district (g00,921 and 880,653 respectively). for 1925 the census bureau’s estimate for ihe city proper was 557,530; local estimates were considerably higher, over 700,000. the population still had (1920) the fron- tier characteristic of a preponderance of males (116-6 males to 100 females). the leading nationalities among the 149,195 foreign-born were italians, germans, irish and english; there were 4,497 chinese, 4,198 japanese and 3,810 mexicans. the amount of illiteracy and of child labour was relatively small; the percentage of men employed relatively high; the general death-rate slightly above the average (probably because of invalids from the east); the infant mortality far below the aver- age. san francisco is the seat of the federal reserve bank for the twelith district. san francisco communications and commerce.—between toro and 1925 the western pacific railroad was greatly developed, and important improvements were made by the southern pacific and the santa fe companies. traffic by sea greatly increased, especially after the opening of the panama canal; the total tonnage of cargoes received and shipped in 1924 (including foreign, coastwise and local commerce) was 11,395,012 short tons. foreign commerce in 1924 amounted to 3,083,513 cargo tons (imports, 1,244,242 tons; exports, 1,839,271), giving san francisco eighth place among the ports of the united states. extensive improvements were made in port facilities: pier space was more than doubled; warehouses were built; and a tunnel was made connecting the government docks and the presidio with the belt railway. pas- senger and motor traffic across the bay increased beyond the possibility of accommodating it by ferries, and in 1923 the war department gave permission for the construction of a cantilever bridge for vehicular traffic across carquinez straits in the upper bay, and of two vehicular bridges across the lower end of the bay. the bay shore highway to san jose, a boulevard 125 ft. wide, was under construction in 1925. industries—products manufactured in san francisco were valued at $133,041,000 in 1909; $417,321,000 in 1919; $327,- 400,417 in 1921; and $416,317,535 in 1923, when the city stood | 15th among the industrial centres of the country. during the world war shipbuilding was very important; in 1919 the output of the yards within the city limits was 11% of the total value of the factory products; in the yards of the metropolitan district 165 cargo ships of 1,553,433 tons were constructed in 1916-20, besides 110 naval craft, including three super-dreadnoughts. following a strike of the longshoremen in 1916, which com- pletely tied up the port, the chamber of commerce, at a mass meeting of business men, declared for the principle of the “ open shop ”? in labour relations, and appointed a “‘ law and order ” committee, for which an initial fund of $1,000,000 was subscribed. an ordinance making picketing illegal was secured in nov. 1916. the organised effort thus begun to establish the open shop, in the city which had long been the greatest stronghold of organised labour, was continued after the war by the industrial association, an organisation of employers formed for the purpose. public utilities and building —in 1910 a bond issue of $45,- 000,000 was voted for the municipal project of bringing water from the headwaters of the tuolumne river in the sierra nevada mountains, 150 m. away; an additional $10,000,000 was voted in 1924, with $20,000,000 more still needed. the dam in the hetch-hetchy valley was completed in 1923. by 1925 an 18 m. tunnel through the mountains had been completed to moccasin creek, where the first powerhouse of the system (100,000 h.p.) had been built; the western end of the project also had been completed, including conduits and tunnels across the bay to the crystal springs lakes, in order to make immediately available an additional supply of water from the mount hamilton range. condemnation proceedings were begun in 1913 to acquire the property of the spring valley co., which owns the local distrib- uting system and the reservoir on the peninsula; and in 1922 an agreement with the company gave the city the right to purchase at any time before 1934, at $38,000,000 plus expenditures for improvements. up to 1925 the voters had refused to approve the necessary bond issue. on aug. 14 1925 the moccasin power plant was put into service, with the pacific gas and electric company as temporary distributor. the net revenue from the power and from the rental of the bay crossing aqueduct. is sufficient to pay the interest on the outstanding bonds. with the reconstruction of the geary street railway in ror2, the city government entered the business of local transporta- tion. by 1925 it owned 72 m. of track, and had met all expenses out of earnings while keeping a five-cent fare. an amendment to the city charter in 1920 authorised negotiations for the pur- chase of the privately owned street railways (286 m. of track) with provisos that the price must be paid out of earnings and that the agreement must be submitted to the electors for ap- proval. a tunnel under the twin peaks (about 12,000 ft. long, completed 1917) brought within easy reach of the business sec- san giuliano—san remo, conference of tion a new territory, where several well-planned residence dis- tricts of great beauty were developed. the stockton street tunnel (911 ft.) was completed about the same time. the du- bose tunnel (4,232 ft.), for which bids were received may 5 1926, will serve the sunset district. , land for a civic centre was acquired in 1912, and by 1925 it had been improved with a notable group of buildings: a large and well-designed city hall, the public library, the state building and the auditorium which was presented to the city by the admin- istration of the panama-pacific exposition. a municipal opera house is to be added soon. a city-planning commission was authorised in 1912, and a zoning ordinance (regulating use of buildings) was adopted in 1921. the building permits issued in the five years 1920-4 represented new construction to the value of $1098,832,000, but there was still a housing shortage. for the fiscal year 1925-6 the assessed valuation of property (on a 50% basis) was $734,000,000. education—after a long and bitter struggle, the charter of the city was amended in 1920 to provide for a board of education appointed by the mayor (but subject to ratification by the elec- torate), serving with only nominal compensation, who should appoint a superintendent of schools responsible to the board. this superseded a system in which the superintendent was elected by popular vote. upon the establishment of the new board a comprehensive building programme was mapped gut, for which a bond issue of $12,000,000 was voted in 1923, and by 1925 most of the buildings were under construction. the panama-pacific exposition, celebrating the opening of the panama canal, was held in r915 (feb. 20 to dec. 4). there were 80,000 exhibits, valued at $350,000,000, representing 39 foreign countries and 37 states and three territories of the united states; 800 congresses and conventions were held in con- nection with the exposition. the attendance aggregated 18,- 413,390; the average per day was 62,000. architecture, colour scheme and effective illumination at night combined to make it an artistic success. financially, there was a final net profit of about $1,000,000. it left to san francisco as a permanent hert- tage not only the municipal auditorium at the civic centre, but the marina park lands, extending along the bay for eight blocks between fort mason and the presidio, and the palace of fine arts with the surrounding park lands of 20 acres. government.—james rolph, jr., elected mayor in 1911 as a ‘‘ reform ”’ candidate, was still in office in 1925, with two more years of his fourth term to run. san giuliano, antonino paterno-castelli, marovis pi (1852-1914), italian statesman, was born at catania dec. 10 1852, a member of a noble sicilian family. after graduating in law at the university of catania he became, in 1879, mayor of his native city, and in 1882 was elected to parliament. when in 1892 sig. giolitti became premier, san giuliano was selected as under secretary for agriculture, while in the second pilloux ministry (1899-1900) he held the portfolio of posts and telegraphs. having been defeated at the election of 1904, he was nominated senator. when in dec. 1905 sig. fortis became prime minister he was appointed minister for foreign affairs, and on the fall of the cabinet early in 1906 he was appointed ambassador in london, where he remained until 1910. from london he was transferred to paris, but he soon returned to the consulta as foreign minister in the luzzati cabinet (1910-1), and con- tinued at the same post in sig. giolitti’s administration. san giuliano was an ardent believer in the triple alliance but having retained his portfolio under salandra, after giolitti’s resig- nation in march 1914, he carried out with complete loyalty the policy of neutrality adopted by italy on the outbreak of the world war. he died in rome on oct. 16 1914. san marino (see 24.153) had, in 1920, a population of 12,069. the peaceful revolution of march 25 1906 had restored the original system of election to the council (which had become a close corporation, renewed by co-option) by the arengo, or assembly of heads of families, one-third of the council being henceforth renewable every three years. but in sept. 1920 the council resigned in a body and enlarged the arengo into a single 463 constituency, electing the 60 councillors under practically universal suffrage and proportional representation, illiterates not being disqualified. : the march of democracy at san marino is shown by the figures of the general election of 1920, when 2,352 persons voted as compared with the 802 heads of families who polled in rgo6. san marinese public life takes its colour from italy; thus, the catholic popular party there, as in italy, was powerful in 1920, and socialism, imported from abroad, was largely repre- sented, while fascism has appeared. pending the election of their successors after the vote of 1920, the two half-yearly presidents of the republic, for the first time since 1787, remained in office after their six months’ legal tenure had expired, and, for the first time since 174¢, the new capitani reggenti came into power on dec. 5 instead of oct. 1 or april 1, the time- honoured dates, a return to which was effected at the ensuing election of presidents. | effect of the war—the world war affected even this neutral republic. the germans accused it of espionage through the wireless station on monte titano, which stands 2,437 ft. above the sea. the republic refused, however, to receive the threat- ened commission of inquiry. when italy entered the war, san marino showed its sympathies by voting £1,500 for the italian sufferers, and one of the regents publicly expressed his hope for an italian victory. some amusement was caused by the order of the council of the league of nations in rome in 1920 that its permanent military commission should inquire into the “ military and naval forces’ of this landlocked republic. relations with the powers—san marino has been since 1862 in treaty relations with italy, and the italian ex-premier, sig. luzatti, acted as its adviser. in ror1 it had a separate pavilion at the rome exhibition; in ro21 the flight of bolsheviks into the republic, and the “ punitive expedition ” of the fascisti in search of them, led san marino to invoke the aid of the italian carabinieri, who were placed under the republic’s authority. with great britain san marino, which has a consul-general in london, signed an extradition treaty in 1899, and sent an envoy to edward vii.’s coronation; correspondence passed between george v. and the regents on the death of edward vit.; and in r919 a celebration in honour of “ our smallest ally ” was held in london. the republic no longer confers titles for a consideration, but finds a fruitful source of revenue in the frequent changes of its postage stamps (first issued in 1877 and divided into two series, one for foreign and the other for internal postage, in 1899). however, it has had to resort to a loan, and new taxes were imposed to provide higher salaries for officials, causing the peasant rising in rgro. but it has steadily refused the offer of a gaming-table. in recent years newspapers have been published. the only exports, besides postage stamps, are stone from monte titano—the legendary founder of san marino was a dalmatian stone cutter—and the strong wine grown on this volcanic soil. the museum contains among other curiosities the banner ou garibaldi’s “ italic legion,”’ which sought refuge at san marino in 1849. the archives were rearranged and described by malagola. the present government house, built from the designs of azzurri, and inaugurated with an address by carducci in 1894, is a handsome building, and a fine statue of the republic adorns the pianello. the cold climate should make san marino a good summer resort now that it is connected with rimini by motors. education is provided at the belluzzi college, founded in 1691 and refounded in 1883, and the republic has produced two native historians. bipliograpuy.— verbale dell’arriugo generale dei capi-fantiglia tenutosi il giorno dt domenica, 25 marzo, 1906 (s. marino, 1906); di marino fattori, ricordi storict della repubblica di s. marino, 6th ed., edited by o. fattori (1912); verbale del consiglio grande e generale della seduta, 18 settembre, 1920 (s. marino, 1920); w. miller, ‘* democracy at san marino,” history, vol. 7 (april 1922). cw. m1.) san remo, conference of (april 19 to 26 1920).—this conference was preceded by a meeting of the supreme allied 404 council (mr. lloyd george, m. millerand and signor nitti) from feb. 12 to 23 in london, where the main lines of the future treaty of sevres with turkey were laid down, and the draft treaty with hungary and the fiume question were discussed. at san remo itself, where the three statesmen above mentioned were joined by representatives of greece, belgium and japan, the turkish treaty was the first and principal business dealt with, and the framework of the sevres treaty was there constructed. the mandates for syria, palestine and ‘iraq were assigned to france and great britain respectively, and an anglo- french oil agreement was negotiated which covered rumaria and the french and british non-self-governing colonies as well as the middle east. the most controversial question dealt with, as between the allies, was that of the maximum strength of the german army, both as to its total and as to the number of troops allowed in the neutral zone skirting the area under allied occupation. during the preceding month the reactionary p2tsch organised by herr kapp had temporarily driven the republican govern- ment from berlin; the swing of the pendulum had produced a communist rising in the ruhr, with which the republican government had come into armed collision; the government had dispatched against the communists (whose outbreak happened to have occurred in the neutral zone) more troops than were allowed in this zone under the versailles treaty; france had retaliated by occupying frankfurt and darmstadt without consulting her allies; and great britain had protested against this sharply. in these circumstances the german govt. asked the san remo conference to sanction the doubling of the maximum strength for the german army as fixed by the versailles treaty. in a joint declaration made at san remo the supreme allied council refused this request and charged germany with default in respect not only of disarmament but of reparation. at the same time they announced their inten- tion of inviting the heads of the german government to a direct conference. (see spa, conference of.) (a. j. t.) santayana, george (1863- ), american philosopher and writer, was born in madrid, spain, dec. 16 1863. at the age of nine he went to america and was educated at harvard (a.b. 1886; ph.d. 1889), where he taucht from 1889 to 1912 as in- structor, assistant professor, and, after 1907, as professor of phil- osophy. iie then retired to devote his time to literary work. in 1905 he was hyde lecturer at the sorbonne. as an essavist he attained a high position in american letters, being one of the acutest opponents of the pragmatic attitude in matters of con- duct and education. to the most abstruse subjects he never failed to bring an acid wit and a romantic beauty of style. his chief work is the life of reason: or the phases of human prog- ress (1905-6), 5 vol., entitled respectively reason in common sense; reason in society; reason in religion; reason in art and reason in science. his other writings include: sonnets and other verses (1896); lucifer, a theological tragedy (1899); a hermit of carmel and other poems (1901); three philosophical poets (1910); winds of decirine; studies in contemporary opinion (1913); egotism in german philos- ephy (1916); character and opinion in the united states; with remi- niscences of william james and josiah royce, and academic life in america (1920); soliloguies in england (1922); poems (1923); scepticism and antmal faith (1923); the unknowable (herbert spencer lecture, oxford, 1923); and dialogues in limbo (1928). santiago, chile, the capital of chile (see 24.191), had a population of 507,296 at the census of dec. 15 1920, an increase of 52:5% since 1907 (332,724), compared with an increase of only 21-2% in the same period for the province of santiago out- side the city, and 15-6°% for the entire country. as the natural increase of the population is small (3:3 per 1,000 of the province of santiago, 1923) and immigration had been inconsidcrable, it is evident that the growth of the capital was due largely to migration from the smaller towns and rural districts. the city had 9-5% of the entire population of the country in 1895, 10:2°% in 1907, 13°5% in 1920. birth-rates and death-rates both are excessive (37:7 and 34:4 per 1,000 respectively for the province of santiago in 1923); 38-40% of the births are illegitimate. santayana—santo domingo while santiago remained primarily the political and cultural centre of the nation, its importance as a commercial and indus- trial metropolis increased. there were many wholesale firms, doing a large business in cattle, hides and other agricultural products. chilean manufacturcrs received a stimulus from the dislocation of international trade during and after the world war, and by 1923 santiago had over 1,300 industrial establish- ments, with a capitalisation of 163,000,000 pesos. among the \\eading industries were breweries, flour-mills, foundries, ma- chine-shops, woodworking plants, tanneries, knitting-mills, soap factories, factories for making shoes, hats, umbrellas and various articles of clothing. there was a rapid development in labour organisation, and the chronic shortage in the labour supply persisted. by 1925 santiago was described by travellers as one of the most beautiful cities of south america, with all the characteris- tics of a modern capital; fine public buildings and private resi- dences, broad avenues, well paved and well lighted streets, and modern conveniences of every sort. among the new buildings were the palacio de bellas artes, in the parque forestal; the national library then under construction, for which a site was purchased in 1913; the agronomical institute and the school of engineering; and two banks of steel construction. the electric tramway and lithting company, which before the war had been in german hands, was reorganised as a chilean enter- prise. it constructed hydroelectric projects at santiago in 1921, and secured the contract for supplying power to the rail- way from santiago to valparaiso after its electrification, as well as for lighting the city and running its tramcars. in oct. 1924 the government granted a concession to a local firm for the construction of an underground way through the centre of the city (9 km. long, ro metres below the surface). the water supply was increased by bringing water from laguna negra in the andes, 53 km. away. the fifth international conference of american states was held in santiago march 25 to may 3 1923. santley, sir charlis (1834-1922), british si:z:ger (sec 24.194), published the art of singing (1908) and reminiscences of afy life (1909). he died in london sept. 22 1922. santo domingo (see 24.195), a west indian republic on the eastern portion of the island of haiti. estimated area, 19,332 square miles. the first census of the republic ever taken was com- pleted by the military government in 1921, when the population was declared to be 897,405. the estimated population in 1923 was 708,000. the inhabitants are mostly of mixed european, african and indian blood, though there are some creoles of spanish descent. santo domingo, the capital, had a population of 30,957 in 1923; santiago de los caballeros, 17,052. i. political history the assassination of president ramen caceres on nov. 19 1911 brought toanabrupt end the internal peace that was hoped to follow from the fiscal treaty of 1907. gen. a. m. victoria, the dominant military figure, secured the selection of his uncle eladio victoria as president. revolutionary outbreaks followed, and the united states president appointed a special commission to help estab- lish order. asa result victoria was induced to resign, and arch- bishop nouel was chosen provisional president. further political disturbances devcloped, and archbishop nouel resigned on march 31 1913, the national congress selecting gen. jose bordas baldez as provisional president. once more revolutionary out- breaks prompted the united states to proffer its good offices, and on the advice of the american commission baldez resigned and dr. ramon baez was elected provisional president on aug. 27 1914. in oct. of the same year the former president, juan isidro jimenez, was chosen constitutional president, and a period of peace and prosperity followed until april 1916, when gen. desiderio arias precipitated a revolution by marching on the capital. he scized military control, swept aside the aged presi- dent jimenez and proceeded to assume the executive power. his plans were thwarted by the united states govt., which dispatched an army of occupation to santo domingo in may 1916. jimenez resigned office and retired to porto rico, and the ~santos—sao paulo | american commander promptly suppressed arias. the com- plete pacification of the interior was rapid, and was effected without any serious resistance. on july 25 1916 the dominican congress selected dr. fran- cisco henriquez carvajal as temporary president. the united states, refusing recognition until assured of the non-recurrence of civil disorder, proposed a new treaty based upon the conven- tion adopted between the united states and haiti (¢.v.), which should provide for the collection of customs under american auspices, the appointment of an american financial adviser and the establishment of a constabulary force officered by americans. on the refusal of president henriquez to enter into this arrange- ment, the american authorities proceeded to withhold from the government all the revenucs collected by their officers. when henrfquez announced his intention not to retire from the prest- dency upon the expiration of his provisional term, but to present himself as a candidate for popular election, the deadlock threat- ened to continue indefinitely. on nov. 29 1916 santo domingo was placed under the military administration of the united states. executive departments were taken over by american naval officers, ex-president henriquez left the country, order was quickly established and santo domingo entered upon four years of civil quiet and economic improvement. on july rz 1922 the department of state at washington announced a plan for the termination of the military govern- ment in santo domingo. a special commissioner to the domini- can republic was appointed to make the plan effective. on oct. 21 1922 juan bautista vicini burgos was installed as pro- visional president to hold office during the period necessary to carry out the proposed plan of evacuation and to re-establish a dominican constitutional government. the executive officers of the military government continued on duty in santo domingo to assist the provisional government during this time. on july 12 1924 general horacio vasquez was inaugurated constitu- tional president of the republic, having been chosen at the elec- tions held on march 15 1924. control of all fiscal and adminis- trative affairs was again placed in dominican hands, with the exception of the custums service, which continued to be admin- istered by officials nominated by the president of the united states. the treaty with the united states for the withdrawal of the american forces was ratified by the dominican congress on june 26 1924, and on sept. 7 the last of the .\\merican marine forces of occupation left the republic. education.—primary education is compulsory and free. the government educational scheme comprises primary and secondary schools, technical and training colleges. by a presidential decree of nov. 29 1914 the professional institute was raised to the rank of a university. there were 972 public schools in 1920, with 105,000 pupils; in the same year the government expenditure on public in- struction was $966,952. the period of american occupation was marked by the building of schools and the extension of educa- tional facilities. in 1924 the dominican govt. made provision in the budget for the establishment of 300 schools in the republic, and legislation provided that the tax impuestoa de patentes should be used for educational purposes. il. financial and economic history finance.—political disturbances delayed the course of financial extrication ensured by the convention of 1907, but after 1916 raptil progress was made. of the $20,000,000 loan of 1907 there was on dec. 31 1924 an outstanding liability of only $3,868,716, which was to be paid off before 1929. the total bonded debt of the republic on dec. 31 1924 was $13,534,276. one of the first acts of the new government was to negotiate a convention with the united states to replace the convention of 1907. in effect, this proposed convention followed the lines of the convention of 1907, authorised the dominican govt. to issue $25,000,000 in bonds, and provided for the appointment by the president of the united states of a general receiver and the necessary assistants ta collect the customs cluties in the republic and to allocate to the interest and sinking fund of the bond issue the necessary amounts. this convention was signed in washington on dec. 27 1924. it was ratified by the united states senate at that session, and its ratification by the dominican congress was approved by the president of the republic on may 25 1925. during 1924 the customs receipts were $4,386,602 as against $3,596,166 in 1923. the internal revenue for 1924 was $2,998,686 as against $2,575,055 in 1923. deposits in the savings banks during 465 1924 showed an increase on those for 1923. estimated receipts for 1925, according to the budget promulgated dec. 28 1925, were $11,968,110, leaving after certain deductions an available balance of $6,006,540. production and indusiry.—agriculture is the chicf source of wealth in the republic, the cultivation of sugar taking first place amongst the industries. cacao, tobacco and coffee are the other staple pro- ducts. from 1o12 to 1914 the increase in production was arrested. but in 1915 production weut up. the military occupation and high prices caused by the world war maintained high export values through 1g20, when record prices were reached, ta be followed by an abrupt reaction. the 1924-5 sugar crop at 340,870 short tons ex- ceeded the estimate by 21,722 short tons. cocoa exported in 1924 was 23,142,478 kilos, as against 19,830,722 kilos in 1923. the value of the 1924 heavier exports at $2,793.502 was less than that of the 1923 exports, which were valued at $2,917,165. exports of coffee increased in value from $427,588 in 1923 to $863,531 in 1924. sugar and molasses exports in 1923 were $19,042,067, compared with $22,484,656 in 1924. [imports and exports for the years 1914 and 1924 were:— 1924 old imports $21,580,571 $ 6,729,007 exports 30,262,896 10,588,787 63°73 % of the import and 30-68% of the export trade being with the united states in 1924, as compared with 59-29% and 52-31% respectively in rgtt., the chief imports in 1924 were cotton goods, foodstuffs, manufactures of iron and steel and oils. communications.—-during the american military occupation a number of much-needed highways were constructed, of which 405 m. of highways hac been completed by 1924, 96 additional m. were under construction, with a further 452 m. projected. _ a government owned telephone system operates over 1,034 m. of lines, with telephonic connection with_the republic of haiti. in 1924 there were wireless stations at santo domingo and at la romana; the latter was opened to foreign traffic in 1912. | r (j. hf. iio.) bipliography.—reports of the council of the corporation of foreign bondholders (london, annual); s. bonsall, the american mediterranean (1912); c. a. nouel, itistorica eelesidstica de la arquididcesis de santo domingo, 2 vol. (rome, 1913); c. l. jones. caribbean interests of the united states (1916); the constitution of the dominican republic of 1908 (san domingo, 1918); o. schen- rich, sante domingo: the country with a future (new york, 1918); a, rodriguez, la cuestion dominico-hattiana: estudio geogrd phico- itistorico (san domingo, t919); c. n. de moya, bosquepe [historico dele republica dominicana (1919); u.s. navy department, santo domingo, tts past and tts present (1920); report of inquiry into the occupation and administration ef hattt and santo domingo, before select committee of the u.s, senate (1922). santos (sce 24.196), population rot.ooo, has made notable progress since roto. an annual rainfall of about 77 in. and a mean temperature of 69° f., combined formerly to create unhealthv conditions, but the building of a series of drainage canals, ex- tension of modern sanitation, paving of streets, construction of better business and dwelling houses, port improvements, all representing an outlay of millions of pounds, are largely responsi- ble for the change to a healthful citv. a suburban seaside resort, guaruja, with new hotels, now draws many visitors from inland parts of brazil. | santos has passedl rio de janeiro in the amount of its exports ancl is now the world’s greatest coflee port, shipping annually from 8,000,000 to 13,000,000 bags. the annual imports have increased in 20 years from about 500,000 to 1,500,000 tons. about 1,500 ships visit the port ycarly, the busiest season being from aug. to january. new docks extend for three miles and can accommodate 50 steamers at one time; belt conveyors operated by steam load several thousand bags of coffee per hour. many warehouses are splendidly equipped with machinery which replaces manual labour. the british-built railway to saio paulo (‘‘ heart of coffee land’’), 40 m. distant, transports the bulk of coffee of that region to santos, making the line the best paying railway in south america. a congestion of rail traflic at times has been pronounced and plans are proposed for additional facilities. motor trucks are gradually replacing horse-drawn carts. a good highway from saeo paulo to santos was completed by the state government in 1919. (w. alr.) sao paulo (sce 24.200), capital of the stateof thesame name in brazil, and its commercial and industrial centre, grew very rapid- ly between 1900 and 1925, especially after the close of the world war. in 30 years the population increased ninefold, reaching 579,033 according to the census of to20, and was estimated at 466 about 625,000 in 1925. the high rate of natural increase (as indicated by a birth-rate of 40-8 and a death-rate of 20-5) was supplemented by a considerable immigration, italians leading among the foreign population, followed by germans, portuguese, spaniards, french and english. manufactures (especially tex- tiles and clothing, hats, boots and shoes, machinery and other articles for home consumption, and meat products for export) were greatly stimulated by the war and, in a few years, the an- nual output was valued at $20,000,000. in 1923 four large pack- ing-plants were in operation near the city, with an output valued at 89,799,210 milreis (1 milreis= approx. 50 cents). with the in- crease in business the old and narrow streets in the business quarter of the city became seriously congested. sao salvador: see bahia. sargasso sea.—the portion of the atlantic ocean extend- ing from bermuda to the azores, bounded approximately by 25° and 30° n. and by 38° and 60° w. is termed the sargasso sea, because of the prevalence throughout this area of the weed known as sargassum bacciferum. this plant, floating on or near the surface, is about one foot in length and consists of a single layer of feathery branches of varying degrees of yellow in colour. scattered among these branches are numerous globular air blad- ders or capsules, the size of a large pea. the term “‘ sargasso ” is derived from two portuguese words, signifying the sea of the little grapes—having reference to these air capsules. the weed is not matted, but is always found floating nearly free, only sufficiently entangled for the mass to keep together, with long lanes of open water between the masses. the weed-infested region, though it apparently expands and contracts at uncertain times through unknown causes, is approximately one-third the size of the united states, and within this area is found a highly specialised and unique series of pelagic animals. though large in point of numbers, only 15 species have been met with, for the most part distinct from normal pelagic fauna. the sargasso sea was discovered by columbus on his first voyage and received from him the name of the mer de sar- gaco. geographers, sailors and scientists have varied greatly in their estimates respecting the extent and density of the area of weed, and also as to its source and propagation. some have stated that many of the branches show signs of having been at- tached to rock and that the individual plants have travelled a great distance, since in a large proportion of instances only a part of the weed is living. from these facts the suggestion is made that the weed is torn off from the bahamas by the force of the waves and is then caught in the eddy of the great system of atlantic currents. on the other hand it has been maintained that the weed propagates itself in the high seas. again, the statement has been made that the weed is so dense at times as to be an obstruction to navigation, whereas others have affirmed that it offers no resistance to ships, and even its very existence has recently been denied. the widely credited possibility of ships becoming embedded in the weed, and being unable to es- cape, is disproved by the expedition of the “ michael sars,” under the direction of sir john murray and the norwegian gov- ernment in 1910, which found the surface covered with weed only in patches. it would appear that at times the weed sinks, re- maining suspended 12 or 18 in. below the surfaces of the water, and this phenomenon may have given rise to the divergent opinions met with. other similar tracts exist covered with floating weed, e.g., in the solitary part of the pacific, north of the hawaiian islands, be- tween 30° and 40° n. and between 150° and 180° w. there is a smaller tract southeast of new zealand and along a belt of the southern ocean extending from the falkland is., south of africa and southwest of australia, similar floating banks of weed are discovered. sargent, john singer (1856-1925), anglo-american painter (see 24.219). for 4o years before his death john singer sargent was too towering a personality for his contemporaries to judge either him or his work in true perspective. a tall and commanding presence, with a small head well set on broad shoulders, with large, somewhat prominent grey eyes, kindly sao salvador—sargent in expression though nothing escaped them, with a close-cut beard at a time when nine men out of 10 were clean-shaven, he made an instant impression upon those who came into contact with him. during the last years of his life, especially, with his great size, his dark hair and beard turned silver-white, his com- plexion florid, and an air about him of singular freshness and calm, he had a look as of some serene and beneficent jove. that he was a great artist is universally acknowledged, but that he was a great man his life attested—in its austerity, its generous highmindedness, its breadth of vision, and above all in its independence of praise, fame or wealth. essentially a cosmopolitan, he was of american descent. he appreciated with amusement the anomaly of his own situation, claimed as he was by two countries—the land of his immediate forefathers, the land of his adoption. his record of extraordinary good fortune was based as much upon character as upon incidental circumstance. the simplicity of his aim was a citadel of strength. he knew what he wanted, and any distraction, however tempting, that interfered with his object he summarily brushed aside. yet he was in no sense an ascetic. he had a vigorous relish for good plays, good music, good books, good company. his movements were deliberate, he never seemed to hurry; but it was always a question whether his self-control did not consist rather of the coolness of the born fighter than of the phlegm of a somewhat contemptuous philos- opher. ele himself would have said that he was most fortunate in the choice of his parents. his father, dr. fitzwilliam sargent, was born in gloucester, massachusetts, where his ancestors, emi- grating from gloucester, england, settled before 1650. for his medical training fitzwilliam sargent went to philadelphia, practised there for a short period and married miss mary new- bold singer, a member of an old philadelphia family. in 1854 (mrs. sargent not having recovered from the death of her first child) the young couple, with mrs. sargent’s mother, went for change of air and scene to europe, with no premonition that this journey would result in their permanent establishment abroad. two years later, on jan. r2 1856, in florence, at the casa arretini, on the lungarno guicciardini, their son, john singer sargent, was born. he showed his special aptitudes from his earliest childhood, which was spent at nice, in rome, in dresden, with periodical returns to florence. whenever pos- sible he took drawing lessons of a desultory kind, interrupted by the exigencies of schooling and a life of constant travel. his mother, who herself loved to sketch in water-colours, recognised and encouraged his unusual gifts. his own awakening to the enchantment of being able to express his delight in the visual world came to him, he once mentioned, at miirren, with his closer acquaintance with mountains, in the summers of 1868 to 1870. his early drawings were carefully painstaking efforts to show every variation in rock forms, or in the verdure that sprang from their crevices. this creative ardour, this eagerness to attack a difficult problem, were char- acteristic to the last day of his life. in 1873 he won a prize for drawing at the accademia in florence. in 1876 he paid the first of many visits to america, but before the short interruption of this trip he had begun his artistic edu- cation in earnest, haying entcred the studio of carolus duran, in paris, in 1874, at the age of eighteen. rarcly, if ever, was a student better equipped for his profession. travel had enriched a naturally receptive and keenly observant mind. he had absorbed beauty in landscape, pictures, music or architecture as instinctively as he breathed, and extensive reading had made each place of sojourn live for him with all the intensity of the immediate as well as of the remote past. a fellow student described him as a tall, slenderly built, rather silent youth, with a friendly, somewhat shy manner, who could, on occasions, in spite of his diffidence, express himself with startling decision. mature for his years, he was never inclined to exuberance, and was more the amused observer than a participant in the riotous diversions that varied the routine of student life in paris. his industry was no less remarkable sargent than his physical strength, his youthful powers of endurance not being unduly taxed by the strain of attending not only the class at duran’s studio, but the beaux arts and an evening life class as well. contrary to many published recollections, sargent himself declared, perhaps with characteristic modesty, that he was by no means a brilliant pupil, that he was considered, at first, some- what dull and slow, and that he only acquired his amazing tech- nical skill by continued concentrated effort. what he did rec- ognise, with instant appreciation and lifelong acknowledgment of his debt, was the scientific precision of the method taught by carolus duran, who had occupied himself deeply with ques- tions of technique. duran had based his own theories on a close study of franz hals and velasquez. he believed that painting was a science necessary to acquire in order to make of it an art. few painters have the stamina to remain faithful to principles at once so precise and so crbitrary, where a slip invites disaster, and an error in one particular the failure of the whole. john sargent, not without struggle, made this technique his own, and it gave him, at the start, the assured mastery of his mate- rials, enabling him to devote all his energies to more engrossing problems. his first picture exhibited in the salon of 1878 won an hon- ourable mention. it was called “en route pour la peche,” and is now in the corcoran gallery at washington. in the next year’s salon he showed the portrait of his master, which he had painted in 1877, at the age of 21, and which was instantly acclaimed as of extraordinary promise. shortly after, emanci- pated from schools, he made a pilgrimage to spain, which he had already visited as a boy, and the studies done in the prado gallery, which, after his death, were sold at christie’s at such phenomenal prices, were painted on this occasion. some were quite small, some of the size of the originals, and all were inter- pretations rather than copies. immediately after his return to paris he painted the beautiful canvases “ el jaleo” (salon 1882), now at fenway court, bos- ton and “ the children of e. d. boit ” (salon 1883), now in the boston fine arts museum. of ‘ the lady of the rose ” (miss burkhardt), which was shown in 1881 and gained a second class medal, henry james wrote that it was the work of ‘a talent which on the very threshold of its career has nothing more to learn.” this was a phrase, for to the end of his days sargent remained the student, making ever briefer the span between brain and hand, between conception and achievement; yet these early canvases are remarkably mature, with a suave beauty of surface texture he rarely excelled, and with the added sense of atmospheric reality, the “‘ quality ” he had learned from velasquez. he had the special readiness of genius to absorb great traditions, to take valuable hints from every source, and incorporate them into his own work with the freshness and vigour of a deeply original mind. from the outset commissions came to him unsought. he had to knock at no doors; but it was not till the salon of 1884, when he showed the portrait of madame gautreau (metropolitan museum of new york), that the painter awoke to find himself famous—or infamous. madame gautreau was the friend of gambetta, acclaimed by the republican party, and sargent was accused of having purposely done a caricature. the jour- nalists outdid each other in senseless abuse. | this experience, with its astounding unreason, its venomous personal bias, probably laid the foundation for his almost incredible independence of all critical comment. irritated by adulation, detesting every form of publicity, he could never be induced, unless it was forced upon him, to read any criticism of his own work, appreciative or the reverse. so furious and so prolonged was the outcry in the french press that finally, in a fit of disgust, sargent left paris and moved to london. his first studio was in kensington, but in 1885 he had already settled at 33 tite street, chelsea. in 1901 he bought the adjacent house (no. 31), and a door was cut through between the two studios. here he lived and worked till his death on april 15 1925. 467 into these 40 years of his london domicile was crowded the experience of a dozen ordinary lifetimes. his first exhibited study of childhood: ‘‘ carnation, lily, lily, rose,” was bought in 1887, by the chantrey bequest, for the tate gallery. a few years later the luxemburg acquired the picture of the spanish dancer ‘‘ carmencita,” painted 1890, shown at the royal academy 1801. in spite of adverse criticism, it was not long before he was in great demand as a portrait painter, and the unflagging zeal of his industry kept pace with every triumph of public recognition. he numbered among his sitters princes and princesses, musicians, actors, teachers, writers, statesmen and diplomats. many of his distinguished models he painted in their habit as they lived. the great groups of “ the duke of marlborough and his family ” (1905), the ‘‘ ladies acheson,” (1902), the ‘‘ daughters of the hon. percy wyndham ” (1900), the “‘ misses hunter ”’ (1902), etc., and a noble series of single portraits, notably those of the duke and duchess of connaught (1908), the duke (1901) and duchess of portland (1902), lord russell of killowen (1900); of francis penrose, esq. (1898), and of innumerable beautiful women: the duchess of sutherland (1904), the countess of warwick (1904), lady agnew (1893), lady (lan) hamilton (1896), mrs. hammersley (1893), increased his ever-growing prestige. in 1894 he was elected an associate, in 1897 to full membership of the royal academy, and at the exhibitions at burlington house his portraits were the centre of interest and of contro- versy. it became a high distinction to be painted by him, and hundreds clamoured for the honour in vain. universities offered him degrees, he had as many medals as a war veteran. quite unmoved by all this acclamation, he retained the serene sim- plicity of manner that made him so exceptional and so distin- guished a figure. yet people, even his friends, went in secret awe of him. in the sense of being generally understood john sargent was never a popular painter. painting is the most outspoken of the arts, but its language is not easy to read. its apparent sim- plicity and the directness of its appeal to the eyes are misleading, and in the case of pictures so incisive and brilliant, so uncom- promising in their truth, so unerring and authoritative in their presentation of character, it was no wonder that they awakened as much resentment as admiration. sargent chronicled his enjoyment in no uncertain tone; like music made visible, each brush stroke seemed to resound, like a note on the violin, ringing and clear. there are mysteries of light, as well as of darkness, and the secrets of this accomplishment were no less inscrutable, became actually more tantalising, because the method of expres- sion was so frank, and looked so unexpectedly, amazingly easy to imitate. and he was imitated, inevitably, but in no single instance with any distinction. his own processes were individual. ff{e made no concessions to popular prejudice. his inspiration was peremptory and knew few ingratiating moods. referred to as a psychologist or a satirist, he was frequently accused of deliberately accentuating the less pleasing qualities in his sitters—a foolish legend he dismissed with a shrug of his shoul- ders. ‘i chronicle,” he once said, i do not judge.” though his outlook on life was essentially indulgent, his sense of humour was irrepressible, and the unerring rectitude of his realism struck at a deep-rooted human weakness—a preference to be seen not as we are but as we should like to be. in that its conclusions are so little deliberate painting differs from literature. john sargent did not sum up his characters, he painted what he saw; but he caught, subconsciously perhaps, each fugitive betrayal of a passing thought, a restless move- ment, a smile or a glance. this subtle power of definition has been, in all ages, the peculiar gift of great portrait painters. in recalling the astonishing variety and scope of his work, it may be assumed that he was almost indifferent to the form in which he was called upon to portray the modern spirit. his only prayer must have been that that spirit should not be utterly commonplace. for dullness he had no talent, even his magic touch failed to enliven it. before the strange, the unex- pected, the bizarre, his resource and his freshness were unfailing. 468 no happy invention was permitted to degenerate into a formula. he never repeated himself. for the extremes of youth and of age he had undeniable tenderness; with incredible delicacy he portrayed the flower-like freshness of one, and if he did not disguise in the other the hint of decrepitude it was generally illumined by more than a suggestion of wisdom and dignity. at the very height of his fame, in 1910, he decided to give up the painting of portraits. this decision, so typical of his artistic integrity, he lived up to. he was his own severest critic. he had grown tired of the tyranny of sitters, and had begun to lose interest in his work. he pulled himself up sharply. only in exceptional instances was he afterwards induced to break his rule, and then never for considerations of money. though he lived on a generous scale, he was never a wealthy man. always ready to give a helping hand to a student, or to a brother artist, he was at once too busy and too impatient of all forms of implied superiority ever to want to teach. delib- erately then, perhaps, he set his face against the scattering of his energies over too wide a field. an omnivorous reader and tt passionate musician, an excellent host and a most entertaining guest, his rare leisure was all too adequately filled. in a holiday spirit he began to play with water-colour (in which medium he had made his earliest efforts at painting) and the result of his first summer of freedom may be seen in the sparkling brilliance, the irresistible gaiety of the 80 sketches bought ew bloc by the brooklyn fine arts museum. his disci- plined hand had acquired an almost miraculous lightness and certainty of touch. but a heavier task had already for years been engaging his energies, and the jast 20 years of his life were given more and more to the magnificent series of decorations which illustrate the range of his great gifts. it was said of his “ history of religion,’ begun in 1890 and not completed till 1916 (the subject for the great hall in the boston public library known as sargent hall), that his work here was not only a monument to the picturesque possibilities of his colossal subject, but to the sheer erudition of the painter. this task took him on several journeys to egypt, palestine, etc., as well as for a few months almost every year to america, where he had a studio in boston, in the columbus avenue building; and he had also another studio in london, for these huge decorations, at the avenue, 75, fulham road. in ror4, at the outset of the war, he was on holiday in austria, and he witnessed with horror the disintegration of the europe he had known. he gave without stint; and when the opportunity offered went to the front to record his impressions at first hand. in his famous war picture “ gassed ” (london war museum) he testified to his deep admiration for the invin- cible pluck of the british soldier. in the background, through the waning light of the late afternoon we see a football game going on; the ground jis carpeted by writhing figures; while a trazic procession of wounded men, blinded by gas, staggers towards the dressing station. the quieter life in london suited his temperament better than the more buoyant, distracting, lavish social exactions of boston. in london finally he was to know an honour no living painter had hitherto experienced. the magnificent series of portraits, bequeathed to the nation by asher wertheimer, were hung in the national gallery. a wing in the tate gallery, the gift of sir joseph duveen, will one day house these, and such other works by sargent as are already in national posscs- sion—the portraits of lord ribblesdale (1902), of coventry patmore (1895), of henry james (1914), octavia hill (1899), of ellen terry as lady macbeth (1899), and many others. sargent is represented in the principal galleries of the world, but the metropolitan in new york, and the boston fine arts museum, are particularly rich in fine examples. the decorations for the boston library, for the boston fine arts museum, for the harvard memorial chapel, absorbed him till, fortunate to the end, at 3x tite street, death overtook him in his sleep, in his yoth year, with no evident diminution of his forces, no weakening of his physical or mental energy. sarrail mr. sargent had never married. he had been a devoted son and brother, and was survived by his two sisters, miss emily sargent and mrs. francis ormond. his body was interred at brookwood cemetery. memorial services were held at west- minster abbey, at the request of the royal academy and a replica in bronze of the crucifixion in the boston library, with a memorial tablet, is to be placed in the crypt of st. paul’s cathedral. | in looking back over his immense achievement in so many different ficlds of art, his extraordinary vitality strikes one first. his slightest sketch pulsates with life. the beautiful suavity of his style he acquired through the iron discipline of years. he would paint a head 20 times over in order to give it the look of perfect ease and fluency he aimed at. he kept his palette and his brushes as carefully clean as a soldier keeps his weapons. at his easel he had the calmness of intense con- centration. his brush would pause in mid-air and descend in a stroke calculated to a nicety. the knowledge of a lifetime was behind it. his insight into character was instinctive; char- acter wherever it was exhibited—in the cut of a coat, in the detail of a building, in a dog, in the hands of a woman, in the head of a philosopher. this went far beyond ordinary percep- tion; at its best it became a miracle of intuition, of skill in rendi- tion. he knew no greater joy in life than this concentration on work provided him. what he lacked entirely may be called, for want of a better term, the feminine touch. beauty and charm that were not in direct relation to his subject he could not entertain. this severity was his strength, as it was the weakness of so much of the art of the period that it perpetuated the worship of purely irrelevant sweetness. idealisation, he felt, must come of itself with the enriching processes of time, when the years, helped by the imagination, give that nobility that is partly aloofness, partly an inherent quality in all great painting, | taken as a whole, his portraits may come to be considered an epitome of the period in which he painted, not divested of those characteristics that make the human panorama so divert- ing, but bearing, with their unflinching realism, the very stamp of truth. compared with these powerful representations, drawn from every class of modern society, the living people who pass before them seem shadowy and ill-defined. it is certainly to him above all that the age he lived in owes an appearance of stateliness and splendour, which was evidently as much a part of his own vision of life as the grace and elegance he could lend to the portraits of women—clothed with all the eccentrici- ties peculiar to the late victorian era—or the beauty that flamed for him wherever light played: on the rushing waters of a mountain stream, on heavily laden oxen, on a palace court- yard, or the interior of a stable. the exact measure of his greatness may safely be left to the future to determine. ge 3 see sarrail, maurice paul emmanuel (1856- js-erench soldier, was born at carcassonne (aude) april 6 1856. he passed out from the st. cyr military academy in 1877, and after a series of promotions was appointed in 1907 director of infantry at the war office. in 1911 he was promoted general of division and on nov. i 1913 was given command of the viii. army corps, being later (april 24 1914) transferred to the vi. corps which he com- manded on the outbreak of the world war. on sept. 2 1914 after leading the vi. corps with credit at the battle of the fron- tiers, he succeeded ruffey as commander of the iii. army which played a brilliant part during the retreat to the marne. during the trench-warfare operations of 1914~5 he was less successful, however, and he was transferred to the chief command of the french army of the east. he later became commander-in-chict of the allied forces on that front (see salonika campaigns). after the world war he devoted himself to politics and having stood unsuccessfully as radical deputy for paris, he was, in jan. 1925 appointed high commissioner in syria. in this capacity he showed undue favour towards certain of the native elements and a rebellion broke out among the jebel druses during which sarrail bombarded the native quarter of damascus. these events saskatchewan—savings movement caused a bad impression in france and a section of the press be- gan to clamour for sarrail’s recall. in oct. 1925 as a result of the report by general dupont who had been deputed by the govern- ment to inquire into the matter, he was relicved of his post. saskatchewan (sce 24.225), a province of the dominion of canada. area 251,700 sq. m. of which 8,319 sq. m. are water. in 1921 the population numbered 757,510, an increase of 53°83 % over 1911. therural population amounted to 538,552; the urban to 218,958. the principal groups were english 206,472; scotch, 104,678; irish, 84,786; german, 68,202; scandinavian, 58,382; russian, 45,343; french, 42,152; austrian, 39,738; ukranian, 28,097; dutch, 16,639; and indians, 12,914. the capital city, regina, had a population in 1921 of 34,432. saskatoon is the seat of the provincial university. moosejaw is an important railway and milling centre. prince albert is well-known for lumber and fur trading. the province is governed by a legislative assembly, consisting of 63 members, with an executive council of seven members. it is represented in the federal parliament by 21 members in the house of commons and 6 senators. the educational system has been carefully developed by the provincial government, and includes elementary and high schools, two normal schools and a provincial university. production and industry.—the province is essentially agricul- tural. grain growing in the prairie sections and mixed farming in the prairie and woodland parts are carricd on with conspic- uous success. the transcontinental railway lines have a net- work of branches which serve the agricultural districts. the farmers are strongly organised co-operatively for the marketing of their products. : the following table gives the yicld in thousands of bushels and value in thousands of dollars of the principal field crops for 1922-5:— crop 271,662 218,075 19,278 8,582 5:494 4,370\" 425, 305° spring wheat . potatoes : hay and clover fodder corn 1 cwts. 1,309 2 tons. livestock in 1924 included 1,170,745 horses, 468,151 milch cows, 1,060,716 other cattle, 123,362 sheep and 872,819 swine. poultry farming is increasing in importance. rapid and sub- ‘stantial progress has been made in dairying, the province being well suited for milch cows and stock of all kinds. the values of dairy products increased from $6,051,000 in 1918 to $19,357,329 in 1924; the output of creamery butter increased from 1,548,696 ib. in r910 to 13,583, 902 lb. in 1924; in the same year 19,250,000 lb. of farm-made butter was produced. the output of factory cheese increased from 26,730 lb. to 165,000 lb. in the same period. there were 64 creameries in operation in 1924, 28 of which were equipped with mechanical refrigeration. manufacturing industries are not important, the chief develop- ment being in flour milling and lumbering. the conditions are favourable to the production of non-metallic minerals. lignites are mined in the southern part of the province. ordinary brick clays are widely utilised and there are extensive beds of clays used in the manufacture of fire brick, stoneware, pottery and sewerage pipe. water power resources are being actively devel- oped: in 1924 the available 24-hour h.p. at 80% efficiency, at the ordinary six months flow, was 1,030,634. the railway inter- ests are looked after by a provincial department of railways. in 1924 there were 6,956 m. of track in the province. highways on march 31 1924 included 124,613 m. of unimproved earth, 10,387 m. of improved earth, ro m. of gravel and 25 m. of bituminous concrete. the number of motor-cars is increasing, 70,561 being registered in 1924. (d. a. macg.) 469 savage, minot judson (1841-1918), american divine and author (see 24.239), died in boston, mass., may 22 1918. savings movement.—professor alfred marshall in his principles of economics says that “ man’s character has been moulded by his every-day work, and the material resources which he thereby procures, more than by any other influence unless it be that of his religious ideals; and the two great forming agencies of the world’s history have been the religious and the economic.” the national savings movement is a definite and well thought out attempt to apply the economic forming agency to the im- provement of the social conditions of the people of this country. the movement has two functions; the first is the education of all classes in the knowledge and practice of using wealth for the promotion of welfare. the second is to provide facilities for saving by the small investor on advantageous terms. i. great britain origin.—the movement in great britain was established in feb. 1916 on the recommendation of the committee on war loans for the small investor, presided over by mr. e. s. montagu. it was recognised during the war that the fighting forces required all, and more than all, the available material and labour for the conduct of the war, and that non-combatants ought to restrict their demands to as great an extent as possible in order that everything required for war might be supplied. the economic doctrine of ‘‘ goods and services’ was developed and popu- larised, and many people came to realise more fully than before the great extent to which national well being depends upon the way in which individual citizens spend their money. a more attractive motive for saving than has usually been presented, was put forward. saving is a process which may be good or bad according to the purpose to which savings are applied. it is beneficial to the individual and to the community 264,606 57,739 12177 2,888 14,580 3:949 5,080 1,560 when saving results in more but wiser spending. that more spending can result from saving is obvious from the fact that if fio a year is saved for 174 years, and interest is accumulated at 4° per annum, the capital will be sufficient to yicld at the same rate of interest {10 a year in perpetuity. while the meney is being saved and interest earned by it, the money directly or indirectly finds its way into industry, helps to develop the busi- ness of the country and in particular to increase employment. truths of this character were more readily appreciated during the war than in normal times, and this prepared the way for the better understanding of the economic doctrine of “ goods and services ’’ as applied to peace conditions. organisation.—early in 1916, on the recommendation of the montagu committee, two committees were established, one to undertake organisation, and the other to advise about matters of finance. after a few months the two were merged into one under the title of the national war savings committee. this was concerned with england and wales, and shortly afterwards a separate committee was appointed for scotland. correspond- ing work in ireland was subsequently undertaken. the method of organisation is interesting and has proved effective. local committees were established in most towns and country districts; their task was to educate public opinion and to establish savings associations which should receive subscriptions for savings cer- tificates among groups of people who are associated for other purposes, such as children in schools, employees in business firms and members of clubs. the members of the local committees 470 and the officials of the savings associations are all volun- tary and unpaid workers, but there is a small paid staff, the expenses of which are met by a parliamentary grant. the organ- isation has been well described as a “‘ voluntary movement that is also a government department.” every effort has been made to give the fullest expression to the views of the voluntary workers. the associations are represented on the local savings committees, and each savings committee nominates two mem- bers to attend an annual regional conference. formerly there was a conference for almost each county in england and wales, but after a time the territory was divided into twelve regional areas, in each of which a large and important conference is held every year. the original savings committee consisted only of nominated members who represented certain interests, or whose services were valuable on personal grounds. among the interests now represented on the national committee are the post office, the board of education, the national union of teachers, the joint stock banks, the trustee savings banks, the ministry of health and the municipal treasurers. it was thought desirable that other members of the committee should be elected by the volun- tary workers. to achieve this each annual conference elected representatives to serve on a national savings assembly, which normally meets annually, and which at its outset elected six rep- resentatives to serve on the national committee. this repre- sentation was so successful that the number of elected represen- tatives was increased to twelve, and on the division of the country into twelve regions, one representative is nominated at each of the twelve regional conferences. these elected repre- sentatives contribute to the management of the movement the result of their personal experience in their respective areas, and to this is largely due the flexibility and initiative that 1s usually more characteristic of a voluntary movement than of a govern- ment department. war savings certificates—in order to make better provision than previously existed for saving by the small investor, the “war savings certificate’? was introduced in feb. 1916. it originally cost 15s. 6d. and accumulated to {1 by the end of five years. the life of the certificate was subsequently extended to ten years, when it became worth 26 shillings. so far as savings certificates are concerned, income tax does not exist, the interest upon them not being taxed, and not having to be included in returns for either income tax or super tax. the certificates can be cashed at a day or two’s notice for their cost price, plus the accrued interest. the ingenious plan is adopted of allowing a rate of interest that, speaking generally, increases with the length of time which the certificate is allowed to remain before being cashed. the first series of certificates yielded just under 53% if cashed at the end of five years, and a trifle over this rate if allowed to remain for ten years. the second series of certificates was commenced in april 1922. the purchase price was raised to 16s., but the general conditions were almost identical with those of the first issue. with a further fall in the prevailing rates of interest a third issue was commenced in oct. 1923; the purchase price remained at 16s. and the value at the end of ten years is 24 shillings. important characteristics of savings certificates are that they can be cashed at any time without loss of capital; that the interest accumulates instead of being paid in dividends; that they are entirely exempt from income tax and super tax; that the rate of interest, especially if held for the full ten years, is high; that they can be purchased by instalments, and that they are regis- tered securities which can safely be kept by those who have no accommodation for the custody of valuables. these attractive features immediately won recognition. by april 1925 more than 764,000,000 certificates had been sold, representing a cash investment of nearly {600,c00,0c00, of which, after deducting withdrawals, more than £372,000,o00 remained invested, in addition to the accrued interest. in the financial year ending april 1926, the sales exceeded by about 10% those of the previous year, and the amount paid for withdrawals was substantially less though the total amount remaining invested had increased. savings movement the movement in peace time.—during the war the purchasers of certificates knew that they were lending their money to the government to help pay for the war. when peace came, it was thought advisable that the money might still be earmarked for some national purpose. it was therefore decided that half the money paid for savings certificates in any area could be borrowed by the local authority of that area for capital expenditure on housing. the purposes to which loans could be applied was sub- sequently extended, and up to april 1926 loans had been made to nearly five hundred local authorities. the use of savings certificate money for war purposes became so predominant that many people failed to realise, when peace came, the great advantages that would still accrue to individuals and to the community by the continuance of savings associations, and in consequence many of these came to anend. it took some years to make generally understood the great advantages of the movement to individuals and to the community. this is now being accomplished with increasing success, and in 1926 more than four hundred new savings associations are being formed every month. one contributing cause of this success is that extremely simple schemes for the purchase of savings certificates by instalments have been devised which involve practically no time or trouble for account keeping. special savings stamps costing six pence each are used under one scheme, and six penny coupons under another. these stamps and coupons are stuck on cards which, when they contain thirty-two coupons or stamps, can be exchanged for a certificate. there are other schemes admirably suited for different circumstances, which also reduce the work to a minimum. saving in the schools—from the outset the work has been most successfully and extensively undertaken by the schools. the board of education, the local education authorities, the national union of teachers, inspectors and directors of educa- tion and the schoolmasters and schoolmistresses throughout the country, have rendered a service to the country in this connec- tion that cannot be valued too much or praised too highly. in april 1926 there were more than thirteen thousand school sav- ings associations in existence. the national committee were confronted with the somewhat difficult problem of seeing that the work done in the schools and the habits there formed, were not lost when the children left school. for this and other reasons, it became important to establish savings associations in as many works, shops and offices as possible. ‘the importance and social value of the work was at first inadequately recognised, but in 1926 savings associations among industrial groups are being formed at the rate of over two hundred a month. employers can render no better service either to their employees, to the community or to the prosperity of the industry of the country than by encouraging the forma- tion of savings associations among their employees. in feb. 1926 the earliest issued certificates reached maturity at the end of ten years from the date of issue, and a committee under the chairmanship of mr. cecil lubbock was appointed to consider what steps should be taken in view of the approaching expiry of the term for which the certificates were issued. the committee recommended that an option should be given to all holders of first series certificates to continue to hold them until march 1932, receiving interest after the tenth year at the rate of one penny per certificate per month. this recommendation has already been adopted. the committee further recommended the issue, for the conversion of savings certificates of the first series, of a special savings bond designed to meet the needs of the small investor, and of the new 43° conversion loan; the encouragement of early conversion of savings certificates of the first series by the grant of a small bonus on certificates converted before they have run ten years; and finally that conversion of certificates should be made possible without the necessity of encashment and reinvestment. in order to avoid undue loss of income tax, the purchase of certificates by any one individual is limited to five hundred, and five hundred certificates of the first series have at the end of ten years a cash value of £650, whereas five hundred certificates of savings movement the third series would cost only £400. hence some fresh security was deemed advisable. doubtless the holders of comparatively small numbers of maturing certificates will convert them into certificates of the current series, while other holders may decide to have the value of the maturing certificates placed to their credit in the post office savings bank. (r. m. k.) tue pusriciry campaign prior to the outbreak of war in 1914, government loans in great britain were subscribed by a very limited circle of large investors, businesses and corporations. publicity in connection with the floating of them began and ended with the issuing of a prospectus, its publication in the press and its distribution by a limited number of bankers and stockbrokers. initial operations.—the first attempts at the application of modern methods of publicity to the flotation of war loans were on a limited scale, being hampered by official reluctance to depart from traditional procedure and a prejudice against any lapse from official “ dignity.” a slight expansion of newspaper advertising, at first not widely departing from mere “ publication of prospectus ” advertising, and the use of posters displayed in the streets and on hoardings, marked the beginning of a new state of things. the work of the war savings committee from 1916 onwards, together with news of the successful publicity work in the u.s., helped to reconcile british officialism to an increase of activity in this direction. by the time the so-called “ victory ” loan was floated, early in 1917, newspaper adver- tising had increased both in volume and effectiveness. many more posters appeared on the hoardings. the services of local authorities were invoked, and public meetings were held, up and down the country, at which speakers drew attention to the country’s pressing need of money and appealed openly for sub- scriptions. it was, however, in connection with the campaign for national war bonds, which were first offered to the public in sept. 1917, that organised publicity on behalf of british war loan subscriptions displayed the fullest measure of its possibili- ties and achieved its greatest success. the national war bonds were short-dated securities continuously on offer—in contrast to earlier loans the subscription lists for which had remained open only for some weeks. they were introduced by mr. bonar law, the then chancellor of the exchequer, in order to inaugu- rate a period of “‘ continuous borrowing ”—to provide a method by which the public could subscribe each week the weekly cost, or more than the weekly cost,of the war. it was hoped by this means to avoid the dislocation of the money market and the inflation of currency. despite attractive terms the subscriptions for national war bonds for the first two or three weeks were distinctly disap- pointing. starting at an exceedingly low weekly total the receipts rapidly fell, and it says much for the extent to which publicity methods had already justified themselves that in nov. 1917 the chancellor of the exchequer, faced with the prospect of the failure of the whole new scheme of continuous borrowing, saw fit to appoint sir george (then mr.) sutton, the chairman of the amalgamated press ltd., as directory of publicity for the war bond campaign—with a free hand as to methods employed, and, within very wide limits, a free hand as to expenditure. value of advertising —the backbone of the campaigns was undoubtedly newspaper and periodical advertising. this adver- tising was practically continuous, though very widely varied. the appeal of it was cast and recast in a hundred ways. it struck first the finance note, the self-interest note, the explanatory “ see what you get and what security ” note and then the loftier note of patriotism, of service, of exhortation to duty. the advertising was intensely human, written to appeal not merely to business men but to the people at large. it reached its highest pitch of emotional appeal during the terrible spring of 1918 when the germans, pushing far into the allied lines, threatened amicns, and the whole british nation hung breathless upon the march of events. during those dark weeks the war bond advertising told, almost day by day, the story of england in terms of bel- gium; pointing out the inevitable and hideous consequences of 471 defeat, and urging the duty of supporting with money the brave men then fighting. appropriate “copy ’”’ was actually kept standing for immediate publication in the event of certain con- tingencies such as a great victory, or (on the other side of the picture) the air bombing of important british towns. it was recognised that in order to sustain interest in war bonds over a long period the steady appeal of the press adver- tising required reinforcing by periods of special activity. the necessary stimulus was obtained by the organisation throughout the country of special “‘ weeks” such as “tank weeks ”’— “ business men’s weeks ’’—‘‘ war weapons week ’’—“‘ feed the guns weeks.” the main features of these were similar. they consisted essentially in the provision of some spectacular feature round which the appeal for subscriptions could centre. tanks, for instance (then just newly invented), each with an officer and crew, took up their stand for a week at a time in the leading towns and cities. officials of the bank of england and of the post office accompanied the tanks, and many million pounds’ worth of bonds were sold by them. forms of appeal.—all these separate campaigns of special weeks were “led off” by spectacular displays in trafalgar square, london, which was transformed for each occasion into something resembling a huge circus. tanks or guns, as the case might be, were “ parked ” and surrounded with skilfully built imitation trenches and entanglements; barriers and huts were erected, painted scenery was provided to form a background, giant posters almost hid the facades of the national gallery and the buildings surrounding the square, and hundreds of thousands of people were attracted of a class which could probably not have been reached by any other form of appeal. carrier pigeons wero also used, with great success from the point of view of publicity, to bring in applications from a distance to trafalgar square. another important publicity aspect of these special weeks was the opportunity each provided for an important official opening. thus “ business men’s week ” was preceded by a great public meeting in the connaught rooms, london, at which the chan- cellor of the exchequer was the chief speaker and to which all the leading bankers of the kingdom were invited. ‘“ feed the guns weeks ”’ were introduced by another great meeting at the guildhall, addressed by the chancellor of the exchequer and the rt.-hon. a. j. balfour. the extent of the response to these spe- cial weeks was enormous, as may be judged by one of them only, the “ business men’s week,” which brought in £160,000,000— nearly eight times as much as the average weekly total. apart, however, from greatly increased purchases, these special weeks, “ booms ” and ‘ stunts” were very valuable as yielding a continuous “ news ”’ story. the problem before the publicity director was to maintain interest in war bonds week after week and month after month; and had the campaign once been allowed to become a matter of routine, lacking new inci- dents, the “‘ news ” story of it would perforce have dropped out of the columns of the press. as it was, so great was the variety and so many the incidents that a full-size news agency had to be installed at headquarters, where a large staff was kept busily engaged in collecting news by telegram and telephone from all over the country and passing it on to the press. a successful publicity device was the inter-town war bond race. the race, of course, was to secure the largest total of local holdings in war bonds, and, promoted and fostered by the publicity director, it went gaily on for months—the varying position of the leading cities, now one leading, now another, forming for over a year an almost staple article of news. varied devices.—many other publicity devices were employed, among which the following may be noted :— (:) arranging with the postmaster-general to adopt a can- cellation mark carrying the words “ buy war bonds,” so that practically every citizen received a daily reminder of his duty on the envelope of every letter reccived. (2) a letter signed by the chancellor of the exchequer urging investment as a patri- otic duty—sent out by the bank of england with each dividend on a government security. (3) a letter signed by the chairmen of banks to the individual depositors urging that deposits should 472 be reduced and the money invested in war bonds. (4) a letter sent out by limited liability companies simultaneously with the dispatch of their dividend warrants, urging that the amount of the dividend should be at once invested in war bonds. after the armistice a closing date for war bonds was an- nounced, and a very extensive final appeal was organised which brought the total of investment in them up to the magnificent figure of £1,600,000,0c0o—subscribed in under 17 months. pub- licity in connection with post-armistice loans, notably the thanksgiving loan of r919, was conducted on similar lines. , (g. a. s.) ii. the united states in the united states the term savings movement was used in a somewhat wider sense than was the case in great britain. the publicity campaign carried on in great britain found its counterpart in the one conducted in the united states on behalf of the liberty loans (see liperty loans). | upon the declaration of war by the united states in april 1917 it became evident that the nation must practise strict economy if the huge war-time expenditures were to be success- fully financed and material aid given to the allies. president wilson outlined a food control programme, after the u.s. dec- laration of war in april 1917, appointing herbert hoover food administrator. congress passed the lever act (effective aug. 10 1917) designed to encourage the production and conservation of supply and to control the distribution of food products and fuel. the administration of the act was under the direction of a u.s. food administrator and a u.s. fuel administrator. the ends sought by the food administration were: (1) to save food and eliminate waste; (2) to distribute food equitably and cheaply; (3) to stimulate production; (4) to prevent hoarding; (5) to save transportation; (6) to provide for the needs of the u.s. army and navy; (7) to secure the largest possible amount of food for the allies. : sugar and \\wheat.—the most vital early need both for america and for the allies was the conservation of sugar and wheat. in aug. 1917 an international sugar committee was appointed. it was faced by a scarcity of sugar that had sent the price of cuban raw sugar to $9.15; this was fixed at $6.90 for the scason’s crop, the retail price being kept at 83 to 10 cents per pound. from may 15 1918 the sale of sugar for manufacturing purposes was prohibited except through special permits (certificates) by which records of consumption could be kept. retailers were restricted from selling sugar to consumers in quantities greater than 2 ib. for city residents and 5 lb. for those residing in the country, except for home canning, in which cases the dealer was required to secure certificates for the amount sold. ry such means asaving of between 400,000 and 600,000 tons was effected tn 1918. the wheat shortage of the season 1917-8 left the united states with only enough of this grain to meet normal demands for home consumption. the total production of france and great britain was considerably less than one-third their normal consumption and it was essential that they should receive from the united states an additional 75,000,000 bushels. ail manufacturers in the united states using wheat flour in the production of various foods were placed under licence and their supply was strictly limited. wheatless days and other measures for wheat conserva- tion were established. mills were permitted to grind only a certain percentage of the amount of wheat milled during a corre- sponding period the previous year. wholesale dealers were pro- hibited from purchasing wheat flour in excess of 70% of the amount they had purchased during a corresponding period the previous year. in sales to consumers the retailers were required to sell an equal quantity of substitutes to the purchaser at the time wheat flour was sold. between 13,000,000 and 14,000,000 women pledged themselves to the conservation of wheat by the use of substitutes for wheat products. these various measures made it possible for the united states to send abroad in 1918 approximately 140,000,000 bu. of wheat. export of fats to neutrals was greatly restricted and the amount of fats used in bakery products limited. in 1918, 1,125,397 savings movement short tons of hog products were exported as against 839,000 in the fiscal year ending june 30 1809, the largest in any year prior to 1918. in 1918, 773,000,000 lb. of beef were exported, or over three and a half times the exports on the average of the three previous war years. these supplies were made available by the conservation of meats formerly wasted, by voluntary rationing and by the adoption in many localities of meatless days and meatless meals. | to remedy the congestion of rail terminals and keep open the transportation routes, a regulation was promulgated providing an average increase in the minimum car-loads of about 50% over those of the published tariffs of the carriers. thus the number of cars required for the distribution of the commodities on the list of non-perishable groceries was reduced fully 25°. the waste reclamation service was instrumental in reclaiming dur- ing 1918 waste material valued at approximately $1,500,000,000. the national emergency food garden corporation put 1,500,- ooo ac. of city and town land under cultivation in 3,000,000 gardens, resulting in an increase of the food supply to the value of over $350,000,000 in one year. fuel administration.—the u.s. fuel administration began its work in aug. 1917, with dr. harry a. garfield as director. the administration set out to accomplish: (1) increased produc- tion; (2) better distribution; (3) fair sale prices; (4) the elimina- tion of waste. it succeeded largely, throuzh agreements, in preventing strikes, with their resulting interruption of produc- tion. in april 1918 a nation-wide plan designed to insure equi- table distribution of coal was put into effect. more than 5,000,- ooo tons formerly shipped from eastern mines to western terri- tory adjacent to western mines were saved for the eastern states, where the demand of war industries was greatest. rationing was put into effect, the supply of coal to non-essential industries being greatly reduced. it was estimated that this saved over 1,000,000 tons. all industries were held to their minimum needs. stores and office buildings were encouraged to take their electric current from central plants. a ‘“‘ skip-stop ”’ system was adopted on electric street railways by which no stops were made at unim- portant crossings. economy was also effected by “ lightless nights,” which affected window lighting, electric display and street illumination. home instruction was given in the operation of heating systems and in the use of electricity. for several weeks heatless mondays were observed in stores, office buildings and places of amusement. a saving of 12,700,000 tons of coal for the first half of the coal year was thus effected in addition to large economies made possible by “ daylight saving” (q.2.). from so-called gasolene-less sundays, involving a voluntary cessation of sunday motoring, resulted an estimated saving of 1,000,000 bar. of gasolene. the conservation division of the war industries board was established may 9 1918. its purpose was to eliminate wasteful or unessential uses of labour, material, equipment and capital. its specific aims were: (1) to secure the maximum reduction in the number of varieties of products of the various industries; (2) to eliminate accessories which used material for adornment or convenience, but which were not essential; (3) to substitute materials which were plentiful for those which were scarce; (4) standardisation; (5) reduction of waste; (6) economy in samples; (7} economy in containers and.packing. by such means enor- mous savings were effected in textiles, paper and other materials, as well as in storage space and labour. reductions in varieties of particular commodities held out such promise of permanent economies that this activity was later continued through a divi- sion of simplified practice in the dept. of commerce (see stand- ardisation). the request that the people of the united states lend money to the government to provide necessary funds for the prosecu- tion of the world war met with an almost universal response. over 22,000,000 people purchased liberty bonds and victory notes in various denominations from $50 to $10,000, and other millions invested in the smaller war savings securities. war savings certificates and thrift stamps.—section 6 of the second liberty bond act, approved sept. 24 1917, authorised saxony—sazonov the secretary of the treasury to issue war savings certificates, redeemable within a maximum term of five years from the date of issue, on which interest to maturity might be discounted in advance. a limitation of $2,000,000,000 (later $4,000,000,000) was placed by the act upon the amount of war savings certif- cates which might be outstanding at any one time; a limit (later withdrawn) of $100 was placed on the amount of certificates which might be purchased by one person at one time; and no individual was permitted to hold more than $1,000 in such cer- tificates (later $1,000 in a single issue). four series of war savings certificates were issued—on dec. 3 1917 (series of 1918); jan. § 1919; jan. z 1920; and jan. 1 1921. each certificate, in the form of a stamp, when affixed to a war savings certificate (a folder with spaces for 20 stamps) would have a fixed maturity value of $>\\ with the date of maturity not to exceed five years, the pur- chase price to vary one cent each month throughout the year of issue, beginning in jan. at $4.12 and increasing to $4.23 in de- cember. the stamps might be redeemed before maturity, their redemption value increasing one cent each month. there were also provided 25-cent “ thrift stamps,” bearing no interest and not redeemable for cash, but to be accumulated on a “ thrift card’ until there were 16, when they could be exchanged for a war savings certificate stamp by paying the additional odd cents necessary to cover the current price of the war savings certificate stamp. in addition to the original securities there were offered in july 19tg, treasury savings certificates, one of $100 and the other of $1,000 maturity value. treasury savings certificates were reg- istered at the treasury dept. at the time of purchase and in- creased in redemption value monthly on the same interest basis as war savings certificate stamps. in jan. 1921 there were offered for sale $1 non-interest-bearing treasury savings stamps and $25 treasury savings certificates, in addition to the other treasury savings sccurities. | organisaiion.—the sale of these securities was furthered by a national war savings committee, assisted by six federal and 52 state directors. the ultimate goal was to offer every man, woman and child in the united states the privilege of aiding the government by investing in government securities, and at the same time to develop habits of thrift. the war savings securitics were put on sale at every post-office, at banks and in thousands of voluntary agencies. house-to-house canvass for their sale was made by postmen, boy scouts, representatives of insurance companies and members of women’s organisations. sales from dec. 3 1917 to jan. 1 1g2r totalled $1,176,111,000. redemptions in the same period amounted to $415,174,000. | partly with a view to rendering permanent the habits of thrift imparted during the war, the war loan organisation, through a savings division, took over, in the autumn of 1918, the work of the national war savings committee. it aimed to sell treasury savings securities and to develop and protect all war issues of the government. school government savings systems were established and instruction in thrift, saving and the prin- ciples of sound finance was introduced into schools. (j. w. t.)",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926",
    "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:22",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "4bdcd289f30ad1cbcfdcd218d848f5d0fcdf2191c0b44045072ddd437b685a35"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}