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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "title": "ROOT, ELIHU",
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    "verified_text": "upon mr. root’s return in 1910 from the hague, where he had acted as chief counsel for the united states in the atlantic fisheries arbitration, he was appointed by president taft a member of the permanent court of arbitration. in the same year he was elected president of the carnegie endowment for international peace, an institution created by andrew carnegie to administer, in the interests of peace, the income of a fund of ten million dollars provided by the latter for that purpose. mr. root thus took up again the work which he had initiated when secretary of state, and became the recognised leader of the peace movement in the united states. he strongly supported in the senate the treaty of obligatory arbitration concluded between the united states and great 377 britain in 1912, but failed to prevent amendments to the-treaty being inserted during its passage through the senate which pre- vented an exchange of ratifications. his pacific tendencies were also exemplified in his support of president wilson in the matter of the repeal of the preference given to american coastwise shipping passing through the panama canal. great britain had protested against the panama tolls as contrary to the hay- pauncefote treaty of r901, and at the instance of the president the discrimination against great britain in this respect was removed. in 1913 he was chosen president of the hague tri- bunal of arbitration between great britain, france and spain for the settlement of claims against portugal arising out of alleged confiscation of church property in that country. owing to the world war it did not meet till 1920 when it heard the case at the hague, its decision being accepted by the litigating parties. he took a leading part in the passage of the federal reserve bill of 1913, providing for a federal bank under federal control, in order to stabilise the finance of the country—a system which has stood the test of experience in war as in peace. in matters of foreign policy also his opinion had great weight. in rors atreatv negotiated by secretary of state bryan with colombia provided for payment by the united states of $25,000,000 to colombia in settlement of all outstanding claims between the two countries arising oul of the independence of panama. mr. root opposed ratification, principally because a statement of regret on the part of the united states which had been inserted in the pre- amble seemed to him to be an admission on the part of the united states of conduct in the matter inconsistent with the friendly relations of the two countries, though he also considered the sum too much. his opinion prevailed, and later on, in 1922, when the senate finally ratified the treaty, the clause in question was omitted. heretofore, mr. root’s career had been, on the whole, not unlike that of any other conscientious man of affairs. the out- break of the world war, however, and the position of the united states as the leading neutral power in a conflict the exigencies of which appeared to test all principles of international law, gave him a new environment. international questions of great mo- ment were forced to the front. although president wilson was in control of the foreign policy of the united states, mr. root was recognised as an outstanding figure. he was personally known to many european statesmen in whom he had inspired confidence by reason of his judicial mind and breadth of view; and, though a republican, his democratic opponents conceded to him an honesty of purpose which made his words carry great weight in his own country. in matters concerning the world war, he strongly condemned president wilson’s policy, believing that germany’s invasion of belgium was not only a violation of the rights of belgium, but a violation of the neutral rights of all neutral nations, which they could, and should, protest. he was opposed to the president’s ship purchase bill, the object of which was to empower the govt. of the united states to purchase and operate german vessels then interned in u.s. waters. the purchase of these vessels would have been in his opinion, an unneutral act, inasmuch as it would compensate germany for property which it could not use, since, had the vessels left american ports, they would have been captured by british cruisers. further, the operation of the vessels so purchased, if the enemies of germany had permitted it, would have caused the united states to embark upon business which would better remain in private hands. the bill failed to pass. on march 4 1915 his term as senator expired and he declined to be a candidate for re-election. that summer he was president of the new york state constitutional convention, and advo- cated, among other measures, the short ballot, means for remedy- ing the law’s delays, the reduction of costs involved in the admin- istration of justice and measures which would facilitate the impeachment of unworthy public officials. in the course of the convention he delivered an important address against “ invis- ible government.” mr. root, as secretary of war, tmmediately 378 following hostilities with spain, had seen with his own eyes the dangers of unpreparedness. upon the outbreak of the world war, he immediately urged that steps be taken to place the united states on a war footing, foreseeing that if the nation did not go to the war, the war would come to her. after the dec- laration of war by the united states, on april 6 1917, he gave his whole support to the government. he was asked by presi- dent wilson to head the mission which was sent to russia shortly thereafter with a view to encouraging the revolutionary govt. under kerensky, to carry on the war with vigour. he accepted, but whilst in russia the overthrow of the moderates there by the bolsheviks under lenin frustrated the purposes of his mission. at the conclusion of the war, though not a member of the u.s. mission to paris to conclude peace, his advice was requested in the matter of the covenant of the league of nations and his views prevailed to a certain extent. to the covenant as actually drafted, however, he was opposed. he was, nevertheless, of the opinion that the covenant and the treaty of versailles should be accepted with reservations, to secure the interests of the united states, inasmuch as the president’s re-election in 1916 and his presence as negotiator at paris had led, however errone- ously, the other plenipotentiaries to believe that he represented the opinion of his fellow countrymen. in mr. root’s opinion it would be better to accept the covenant with reservations, and by subsequent amendments to remove the obstacles which had originally stood in the way of its acceptance. he accepted an invitation from the league of nations to become a member of the advisory committee of jurists which met at the hague in 1920 for the purpose of devising a plan for a permanent court of international justice, in accordance with art. 14 of the covenant. his presence enabled the committee to frame a plan acceptable to all by which the judges were to be elected by the separate and concurrent action of the council (in which the great powers had a preponderance) and the as- sembly (in which the small powers were in a majority), cach interest, real or alleged, having thus a veto upon the abuse of power by the other. the plan was accepted with modifications by the council and assembly on dec. 14 1920 and became the statute of the court. it functioned perfectly when the judges were elected in 1921, and the court held its opening session in the peace palace at the hague, feb. 15 1922. thus mr. root’s original proposition made at the hague conference in 1907 saw its fruition 13 years later. mr. root was appointed by president harding one of the u.s. delegates to the international conference on armament limitation, which met at washington in nov. 1921. there he secured the adoption of the convention subjecting submarines to the requirements of surface vessels and prohibiting the use of noxious gases in warfare. he devised the pacific agreements which resulted in the cancellation of the anglo-japanese offen- sive and defensive alliance, and drafted the four power pacific treaty, which took its place. by this latter treaty the so-called great powers, the united states, the british empire, france and japan, agreed to respect their rights in relation to their insular possessions in the region of the pacific ocean and in case of dispute to resort to a joint conference instead of arms. he also brought about the scrics of agreements on chinese policies which secured the relief of china from aggrcssion on the part of the great powers, and precluded preferential treatment of any of them in chinese lands. the main idea, underlying the treat- ment of china by the conference was, as mr. root later stated, the encouragement of reforms in that country which would place it upon an equal footing with other nations and bring about the abolition of extraterritorial rights of nationals of other nations in chinese territory. he was prominent in the organisation in 1923 of the american law institute, which is engaged in a re-statement of the prin- ciples of american law with the view of doing away with the existing mass of precedent or case law. when completed this will be in effect, though not in form, a codification of the law. in 1924 mr. root resigned the presidency of the american so- ciety of international law, an office which he had held since the roscoe—rosenwald birth of the socicty 17 years previously. in 1912 he was awarded the nobel peace prize. (sce permanent court.) a collection of mr. root’s public addresses has been edited by robert bacon and james brown scott in six volumes, as follows: siddresses om government and citizenship (1916); the military and colonial policy of the united states (1916); latin america and the united states (1917); afisccllaneous addresses (1917); north athuntic coast fisheries arbitration. argumest on behalf of the united states (1917); men and policics (1924); he also published experiments in governments and the essentials of the constitution (princeton lectures, 1913). chedas se) roscoe, sir henry enfield (1833-1015), british chemist (see 23.725), died at leatherhead, surrey, dec. 18 1915. rosebery, archibald philip primrose, 5111 eart or (1847- ), british statesman (see 23.731), took an active part in the constitutional crisis in rgro and ro1r. he treated the parliament bill as a revolutionary measure, which in effect constituted single-chamber government, and did his utmost to arouse the nation to a sense of its danger. while, however, he bitterly condemned the conduct of ministers in going to “a young and inexperienced king ” for contingent guarantcces, he declined to follow the extreme course, recommended by the “ dic-hards,” of rejecting the bill. he shrank from the scandal of a great creation of peers. if the bill were allowed to pass, the house of lords would be left with some vitality; if the crea- tion of peers were forced, they would have none at all. he showed his own estimate of the impotence of the house after the passage of the bill by ceasing to attend its debates; and indeed he took no further part in public life till the outbreak of war in 1914 fired his patriotism. as lord-lieutenant of midlo- thian and linlithgowshire he promoted recruiting and other warlike activities among his own people and helped to hearten the nation and to avert a premature peace by occasional speeches. in 1921 he published a number of collected papers under the title of afiscellanies: literary and historteat. lord rosebery was created earl of midlothian in the peerage of the united kingdom—the earldom of rosebery being a scottish earldom—at the coronation of king george in rorr, at which ceremony, as at the coronation of king edward, he was one of the lords who bore the canopy. ile became chancellor of glasgow university in 1908, as he had long been chancellor of london university, and he was chosen lord rector of st. andrew’s university for the year of its quincentenary celebra- tion in tqgrl. the world war cost lord rosebery his younger son, hon. neil primrose (1882-1917), whose political advance had been watched by his father with eager sympathy. he became a member of parliament in 1910, was under-secretary for the foreign office in rgr5 and parliamentary secretary for munitions in 1916. but these appointments were only held in the intervals of fighting as a captain in the buckinghamshire hussars, and he died of wounds received tn action in palestine on nov. 18 1917. rosegger, peter (1843-1918), austrian poet and novel- ist (see 23.734), died june 26 1918. rosenthal, toby edward (1848-1917), american painter (see 23.735), died in berlin, germany, dec. 28 1917. rosenwald, julius (1862- ), american merchant and philanthropist, was born in springfield, iii., aug. 12 1862, and was educated in the public schools. from 1885 to 1906 he was presi- dent of rosenwald and weil, clothing manufacturers, chicago. in 1893 he became vice-president and treasurer of the mail- order house of sears, roebuck and co., chicago, and in 1910, president, ‘the gross sales of the company, which were $1,750,000 in 1896, increased under his management to $258,300,000 in 1925. he was during the world war a member of the advisory commission of the council of national defence by appointment of president wilson. in 1919-20 he served in washington as a member of the president’s industrial conference. he devoted much time to work for philanthropic, educational and civic organisations. he gave $250,000 to the fund for hampton- tuskegee (negro educational institutions), $250,000 for a build- ing to house jewish philanthropic organisations of chicago; and ross, sir george william-—-rothermere (with mrs. rosenwald) $1,750,000 for new buildings for the university of chicago. he founded dental infirmaries in the chicago public schools. during the world war he gave large sums to relief organisations, donating $1,000,000 in 1918 alone. in that year he went on a special mission to france for the secre- tary of war. he materially assisted the hoover children’s relief fund in 1920-1 and encouraged the building of rural schools for negroes in the southern states by offering to pay part of the cost. by 1926 more than 3,100 such buildings had been provided, hav- ing 353,500 pupils with 7,850 teachers. these buildings cost $13,250,000. the julius rosenwald fund supplied $2,350,000, the remainder coming from public funds and white and negro individuals. mr. rosenwald also interested himself in helping to provide y.m.c.a. buildings for negroes in cities, contributing up to 1926, $450,000 toward the cost of 18 buildings in 16 cities. these buildings cost more than $3,000,000 and served a negro urban population in excess of 1,000,000. he was appointed a trustee of the university of chicago, rockefeller foundation, hull house in chicago, the baron de hirsch fund and of tuske- gee institute. in dec. ro2r it was announced that mr. rosenwald had pledged $21,000,000 to safeguard the interests of scars, roebuck and co. during the critical period of business readjustment after the world war. in 1920 and 1921 the company had paid no dividends on its common stock and it was apparent that its accounts at the end of 1921 must show a deficit. but mr. rosen- wald by his action enabled the company to readjust its finances without impairing its capital stock, and protected its stockholders, many of them employees. it was recognised generally that he established a precedent which raised the standards of business when he thus risked heavy loss to protect those who had bought shares because of their confidence in his leadership. ross, sir george william (1841-1914), canadian poli- tician (see 23.739), was knighted in 1910. he published, amongst other works, the life and times of the hon. alex. mackenzie (1892) and gelling into parliament and after (1913). he died march 8 1914. ross, robert baldwin (1869-1018), british art critic, was born at tours, france, may 25 1869, a son of the hon. john ross, a distinguished canadian lawyer. he was educated privately and at king’s college, cambridge, and made a reputation as a critic of art and letters. he became recognised as a leading au- thority on many questions concerning the worth and valuation of works of art, and was an additional trustee of the national gallery. he had high repute also as a wit and conversationalist, being to the last a faithful friend of oscar wilde, whose literary executor he was. a widely subscribed testimonial by his friends was devoted by ross to the founclation of a “ robert ross ” scholarship at the slade school. he died in london oct. 5 1918. ross, sir ronald (1857- ), british physician and bac- teriologist, was born at almora, india, may 13 1857. hestudied medicine at st. bartholomew’s hospital, london, and in 1881 entered the indian medical service. in 1892 he commenced a serics of special investigations on the subject of malaria, and by 1895 had arrived at his theory that the micro-organisms of this disease are spread by mosquitoes (see 17.463; 20.786). in 1899 he retired from the indian medical service, and devoted himself to research and teaching, joining the liverpool school of tropical medicine as lecturer, and subsequently becoming professor of tropical medicine at liverpool university. in 1913 he became physician for tropical diseases at king’s college, london, and later, director-in-chicf of the ross institute and hospital for tropical diseases. during the world war ross was appointed to the r.a.m.c. and became war office consultant in malaria. in 1902 he received the nobel prize for medicine, in 1911 a k.c.b. and in 1918 a k.c.m.g. he received the royal medal of the royal society, of which he was a fellow in 1901. he was editor of science progress, and his other publications include the prevention of malaria (1910), philosophies (1910), psychologies (1919), the revels of orsera, a romance (1920) and memoirs (1923) as well as mathematical and medical works. (see ma- laria.) 379 rostand, edmond (1869-1920), french dramatist (see 23.754), devoted himself during the world war chiefly to the writing of patriotic verse. he died in paris dec. 2 1920. the following posthumous works were published: la derntere niuztt de don juan (1921); le cantique de l'atle (1922); le vol de la marseil- latse {1922). see g. haraszte, edmond rostand (1913); j. suber- ville, le thedire d'iekdmond rostund (1919). rosyth, scotland (see 14.718)—the development of the german navy in the first years of the 20th century rendered it necessary to create a british naval base suitable for a fleet concentrated in the north sea, and in 1903 it was decided to establish a first-class naval base at rosyth on the firth of forth. land was acquired and works were planned, but the development of possibilities of torpedo attack soon made it evident that the outer anchorage, as originally designed, would be insecure, and naval opinion became doubtful as to whether the base would be adequate. the plans of construction were, therefore, modified in 1908, but, up to the outbreak of war in 1914, rosyth was regarded as the principal base and headquarters for the grand fleet, though it was decided that initial stations must be estab- lished at cromarty and scapa flow. when the world war began, admiral jellicoe preferred to establish his headquarters at scapa flow, but rosyth was used as a secondary base, particu- larly for the battle cruisers. the original scheme included a high-level main basin covering an area of 55 ac., with an entrance lock from the fairway, a dry or graving dock 750 ft. long and ito ft. wide, a submarine tidal basin, the construction of an entrance channel, and the erection of work- shops and offices, and work was begun in 1909. the whole site of the works was reclaimed from the sea, and a great sea-wall was built to form the southern boundary of the docks, the number of which was increased from one to three. great progress had been made by the outbreak of war, and it was anticipated that the works would be completed by the summer of 1916. operations were pushed on vigorously during the war, and a special act of parliament was passed in i915 to facilitate the provision of dwelling houses for admiralty employees. by the original act for the construction of the base, the whole area between the town of dunfermline and the land purchased by the government was brought within the munic- ipal area, which was thus extended from 2,016 to 7,730 acres. it was decided in 1925 to reduce the dockyard to the basis of a ‘‘ care and inaintenance \" establishment. rothermere, harold sidney harmsworth, ist vis- count (1868- ), british newspaper proprictor, was the second son of alfred harmsworth, and brother of viscount northcliffe. he was born april 26 1868 at hampstead, london, was created a baronet in ro1o, baron rothermere in 1914 and viscount rother- mere of hemsted, after his services as air minister, in 1918. he married in 1893 mary lilian, daughter of george wade share. at the age of 21 he entered the publishing firm of which his brother, alfred, was the principal, soon after the date when answers was launched. fle assisted in developing the business on sound and economic lines, and for the next 20 years was the close associate of his brother in all his great undertakings. he took an important part in the reorganisation of the evening news, london, was one of the three principals in the establish- ment of the daily mail (1896), and was largely responsible for developing its methods of distribution. he founded the daily record (1895), bought the leeds mercury, and shared in the pur- chase of the times (1908). he became known also as a most generous benefactor of charities. by the gift of a large sum he enabled the union jack club to provide worthy accommodation for sailors and soldiers in london; and he gave {10,000 to the territorial force county of london association. in 1910 he founded the king edward chair of english literature at cam- bridge, and in 1910 he ceased his connection with the times, the daily maitland the evening news. in 1914 he acquired the daily mirror from lord northcliffe and in tors he founded the sunday pictorial, the first fully illustrated sunday newspaper in london. on the death of his brother, lord northcliffe, in aug. 1922, lord rothermere by purchase acquired control of the daily mail and associated newspapers ltd., the company which owns that newspaper among others; and subsequently bought large news- paper properties owned by messrs. e. hulton & co., ltd. under 380 his supervision the daily mail greatly increased its circulation and continued to prosper. it maintained complete political inde- pendence and conducted a continuous and determined campaign for the reduction of national and local expenditure. his trenchant pamphlet solvency or downfall, published in 1921, attracted great attention. he has always opposed dangerous distant commit- ments such as the british mandate in mesopotamia. in the world war, mr. lloyd george, while secretary for war, appointed lord rothermere in 1916 director-general of the royal army clothing department. in the following year he accepted the office of air minister, under mr. lloyd george as premier. he at once declared himself ‘‘ whole-heartedly in favour of reprisals,’? which were the best means of carrying the war into germany and protecting british towns against air attacks. suffering from precarious health and his bereavements in the war, he resigned on april 25 1918, after he had carried out the fusion of the royal air force and royal flying corps. “ my second tragic loss in the war, ro weeks since,’”’ he wrote to the prime minister, ‘‘ caused me great distress of mind and body ... 1 was suffering from ill-health and insomnia.” the tragic losses to which he referred were those of his two sons, capt. harold alfred vyvyan st. george harmsworth, m.c. (1894-10918) and lieut. vere sidney tudor harmsworth (1895- 1916). in memory of harold, killed in bourlon wood feb. 22 1918, lord rothermere founded and endowed the harold vyvyan harmsworth chair of american history at oxford in june 1920. in memory of vere, killed at beaucourt nov. 13 1916, lord rothermere in 1919 established and endowed the chair of naval history at cambridge which bears his name. lord rothermere’s third and only surviving son, esmond cecil (born may 26 1898), who had served during the last part of the war in the royal marine artillery, was in rg19 elected m.p. for thanet and was then the youngest member of the house of commons and the fifth ot his family to have a seat in one or other of the houses of parliament. (h. w. w.) rotor ship.—wind propulsion ror navigational purposes, in the commonly accepted sense, although suited for some par- ticular trades, is practically obsolete for cargo carrying; and the sailing ship, pure and simple, cannot be said to have a definite future. many sailing vessels are fitted with auxiliary propelling machinery, but, excluding fishing craft, these vessels have not proved an unqualified success. herr anton flettner, the inventor of the rotor ship, originally intended to construct ships with metal sails, being convinced that the effect of metal sails is much greater than that of canvas sails. the idea was to build the metal sails with sections similar to those used in the construction of aircraft planes. it was intended that the sails should revolve freely around a pivot mast, and then be put by a special rudder blade in such a position that the wind would drive the ship ahead. metal sails —experiments were carried out at the university of goettingen with canvas sails, metal sails and model ships. the result of these experiments showed that the effect of metal sails could be made approximately double that of canvas sails, a necessary condition being, however, that a third part of the sail area should be turnable. designs were got out, but the plans did not materialise. in the case of the rotor ship the inventor states that it is not intended to drive ships solely by wind rotors, but that they shall serve as an auxiliary power upon steam and motor vessels. in the vessel under discussion, the power of the wind is not made use of by sails, but by means of large metal cylinders. the ordi- nary elementary laws of physics do not fully explain the problem of the rotor ship’s cylinders; the modern science of currents deal- ing with liquid and gaseous bodies in their relation to hard bodies must also be considered. — revolving cylinders ——in 1922 experiments were carried out at goettingen with revolving cylinders, and it was then discovered that the pressure exerted upon a cylinder revolving in an air current was considerably greater than had been supposed. actu- ally, the power exerted on a normal cylinder was about 4-5 times as large as that on a normal sail. when, however, disks of a rotor ship larger diameter were provided at the ends of the cylinders, it was found possible te increase the effect to nine or ten times the amount of wind effect in the normal sail. one condition for this, however, is that the revolving speed of the cylinders is about 3 to 44 times as great as that of the wind. an ordinary sailing vessel requires to take down all her canvas in a hurricane, but the rotor ship could continue sailing, with more stability for manoeuvring. the danger from sudden squalls is not so great, as an increase of the wind speed has no influence, providing the circumferential speed of the towers is increased at the same time. equipment of the “ buckau.’’—the vessel selected for the first tests was the three-masted schooner “ buckau.” she had a displace- ment of 960 tons, and was fitted with an auxiliary motor of some 200 horsepower. the canvas rig of the vessel was dismantled, and in place of the fore and third masts, two very strong masts were erected. the new masts were shorter, being 42 ft. in height. these masts were provided with bearings at the upper and lower ends to allow for the free rotation of the cylinders, which were placed over the masts. the cylinders were fitted with disks at either end, the disks being of greater diameter than the cylinders, but built asa part of them. in this particular case the cylinders are of shect steel of o-o4 in. thickness. naturally, the whole structure is suitably stiflened. the cylinders are rotated by means of electromotors, which will give the towers a speed of 125 revolutions per minute. circumferen- tial speed is approximately 60 ft. per sec., and the power required to rotate the towers is nine horsepower. for working the plant one man only at the switchboard is required. by altering the cir- cumferential speed of one or other of the cylinders the operator can correspondingly change the pressure exerted by the wind upon this, and so alter the vessel’s course. when cruising, chang- ing the wind side can be effected solely by the towers, when the ship can be stopped and driven astern; this method being far superior to that of the ordinary sailing ship. the magnus-effect—the explanation of the phenomenon of the rotor ship may be traced to the so-called mfagnus-effect, ex- plained by prof. magnus of berlin in 1853; who found that a special power is exerted by an air current upon a revolving cy]- inder. the explanation of the reason for this effect was found, after more than 20 years of investigation, to be brietly as follows. when a cylinder revolves, the nearest stratum of air revolves with the cylinder, owing to the friction of the cylinder being much greater than the friction of the air molecules against each other. ‘the nearest stratum induces the next one also to revolve, but, naturally, this is done at a much slower speed. in the same manner the strata lying more distantly from the cylinder are moved more and more slowly, until at a certain distance the in- fluence stops. if such a rotating cylinder is impinged upon by an air current, the speed of which is slower than the circumferential speed of the cylinder, the streamlines are directed, so that at one side the air is rarefied by the frictional effect of the cylinder, and at the other side it is compressed. these changes of pressure are the causes of the magnus-cffect, and they create a power in a direction away from the side of the rarefied air, and through the centre of the densest air patch, or side in which the stream lines are compressed. actually the real direction of the power is not always at right angles to the wind direction, but diverges tn a measure, which is dependent on the speed ratio of the wind cur- rent to that of the circumferential speed of the cylinder. commercial aspects and vulue.—as with every new invention, the advent of the rotor ship was hailed, obviously by non-tech- nical writers, as a revolutionary step as regards ship propulsion, and many absurd and impossible claims were made regarding the capabilities of such a vessel. coal and oil for marine purposes were said to be doomed, and a new era opening up as regards sea and ocean transport. up toa certain point, the claims made by the inventor are justified; .but the scope of the ship is very re- stricted, owing to the narrow limits imposed by the dependence on air currents. there may possibly be a field for such an inven- tion as an auxiliary fitting to steam or motor vessels, and also when applied to tramp ships now dependent on the trade winds, rotterdam—rowing and in this connection the towers may to a certain extent super- secle sails; but it is a very far cry to state that revolving towers will be the motive power of the future for all sea transport. it is possible also that the invention will be useful when it is applied to windmills for stationary use—in generating stations, for example. the “ buckau’s”’? trial —the sea-going trial of the rotor ship *“buckau,” from germany to the forth, was claimed to be suc- cessful. it is, however, obviously impossible to give an unbiased opinion as to the ultimate value of the rotor ship until very full details are to hand regarding the capabilities of the vessel under all the varying conditions which obtain at sea. at present, ger- many, apparently, is the only country to which the rotor ship has made an appeal, and rotor ships are under construction in that country. it is not considered that this method of marine propulsion will find favour with british shipbuilders. see marine engineer officers’ magazine (jan. 1925). (f. j. d.) rotterdam, ifolland (see 23.766), population 536,838 in 1923, has increased its port facilities and dock space since the world war, and is very largely used as a transit port, with a great number of river boats, though the general traffic has hardly reached pre-war level. in 1924, 10,085 vessels of 15,089,293 tons entered the harbour, as compared with 10,459 of 13,036,194 in ror3. a new quarter has sprung up on the left bank of the maas, and the king’s bridge carries the road and railway across the harbour. coolsingel has been made into a boulevard, and a fine town hall and general post office have been built; the old town hall is used as offices. in 1925 the municipality was faced with a heavy deficit, but the reviving trade of the port was cx- pected to solve the difficultics of the city. the important coffee market is increasing its business, and the transit trade in iron ore is growing. roubaix, france (see 23.767), the chief centre, with tour- coing, of the woollen industry of france, has regained prospcrity after the calamities of the world war. the population was 113,265 in 1921, and a later estimate is 122,723. during the war the city was in the hands of the germans. all stocks of wool and most of the machinery were removed, and factories were pillaged and the railway station was blown up before the retreat of the enemy; but, as the mills were largely spared, work was started again, with the help of government advances and bank credits, in r919. in 1923 there were 71 combing, 61 spin- ning and 66 weaving establishments at work in roubaix and tourcoing. in 1925 large sums were being spent, both by the municipality and by manufacturers, in the provision of houses for workers since accommodation for them was very difficult to obtain. rouen, france (sce 23.768), with a population of 123,712 in 1921, has considerably increased its import trade since the world war. in 1923 the total amount of goods discharged (8,921,000 tons) exceeded the total of discharges and shipments at marseilles, hitherto the first french port, but shipments at rouen were small (345,000 tons). the equipment of the port has been much improved, but little progress had been made in 1925 with the larger undertakings, i.e., the deepening of the harbour and provision of new quays and basins. a chapel (of notre dame de la pitie) in the cathedral contains a french war memorial, and in the chapel devoted to ste. jeanne is a plaque in memory of the british dead. there are cemeteries near the town, the first, with 15,500 british graves, being the largest in france. part of the british expeditionary force disembarked at rouen in aug. 1914, and thereafter the town was a camp for reinforcements, and a large army service corps centre and con- tained several base hospitals. the archbishop’s palace was the british headquarters. rousseau, victor (1865- ), belgian sculptor, born at feluy-arquennes (hainaut) dec. 16 1865, became a member of the belgian royal academy of arts, director and professor of the brussels city academy, commander of the order of leo- pold and holder of many belgian and foreign orders. he began to exhibit about 1800, and his early works showed a lively under- standing and a true native sense of technique. gaining in repu- 381 tation rapidly, he was soon commissioned to execute works of importance. rousseau’s sculpture denotes both artistic insight and a sense of rhythm, and his art is peculiarly adapted to the translation of thought and emotion. his work is never specious, nor dependent on mere superficial beauty. among rousseau’s principal works mention must be made of “ les soeurs de pillusion” and “ demeter” (both in the brussels museum), the decorative figures on the fragnee bridge at liege, the ‘‘ matu- rite > monument in the place de ja chancelleric, brussels, and the max waller memorial in the same city. m. rousseau, who lived in london during the war, was commissioned to design the monument, signifying belgian gratitude to england, which stands on the thames embankment, london, close to cleo- patra’s needle. he also designed the memorial at forest, near brussels, to those who fell in the war. (por) rouvier, maurice (1842-1911), french statesman (see 23.781), died at neuilly-sur-seine june 7 ro1r. rowell, newton wesley (1867- ), canadian politi- cian, was born nov. 1 1867 in middlesex county, ontario. he was called to the bar in 1891, and became head of the law firm of rowell, reid, wood and wright, toronto. he stood un- successfully as a liberal for the dominion parliament at the general election of r900. in 1902 he became k.c. he was elected to the ontario legislative assembly for north oxford in rgr1, and from that year to 1917 was leader of the liberal opposition in the ontario legislature. in oct. 1917 he entered the fed- eral govt. as president of the council and vice-chairman of the war committee of the cabinet, and was elected to the dominion house of commons for durham county, ontario, dec. 1917. he was a member of the imperial war cabinet and imperial war conference, 1918; canadian govt. repre- sentative at the international labour conference at washing- ton, 1919; and a canadian delegate to the first assembly of the league of nations at geneva, 1920, subsequently becoming vice-president of the league of nations society in canada. he resigned his seat in parliament in may 1921. rowing.—the period from rg10-25 did not exhibit the best class of rowing in any country of the world except in the united states, partly because the first of these years seemed almost universally to coincide with a curious deterioration both in style and in material, but chiefly because the world war had an effect which was far from being limited to the absence of all possible competitors in open events from aug. 1914 until march 1919, and in some cases later still. in england, both oxford and cambridge and the metropolitan clubs suffered losses even more terrible, proportionately, than those recorded in other forms of first-rate sport, and these losses not merely reduced the number of active oarsmen, but gravely lessened the opportunities of coaching new crews, owing to the casualties sustained. a third reason is to be found in the unavoidable fact that very few boys and young men were able to continue any practice in rowing at all while the war was in progress, and the races organised at henley between various school crews were far from sufficient to give the competitors— when they survived—enough experience. the university boat race.—the results of the oxford and cambridge cight-oared race from putney to mortlake (43 m.) have been as follows:— min. sec. 1910 march 23 oxford won by 3)4lengthsin. . . 20 i4 igit april 1 oxford 234 ; : . 18 2g 1912 april 1 oxford 6 ; « 22-5 1913 march 13 oxford 37 : ; . 20 53 1914 march 28 cambridge 49 . 20 23 igi5-i19 no race. 1920 march 27 cambridge 4 : : » 2h i 1921 march 27 cambridge i ; . . 19) 45 1922 april 1 cambridge 414 19 27 1923 march 24 oxford 4 ; . 20 54 1924 april 5 cambridge 414 , , . 18 4t 1925 march 28 cambridge finished alone . 21 50 1926 march 27 cambridge won by 5 lengthsin . . i9 29 in view of what has been said above, it is curious to note that both the record for this race (18 min. 29 sec. in 1911) and 382 the second best time (18 min. 41 sec. in 1924) have been achieved in the period immediately under review; but weather, wind and water have a very great effect on times in this long race at putney, and the form shown in each case did not come up to that of earlier crews which were not so fortunate in their conditions. these factors also produced the catastrophe of 1925, when the oxford boat shipped so much water at the start that it was only kept afloat for the next mile by the bladders under the seats, and the crew was obliged to land soon after passing hammersmith, and cambridge, who were considered good enough to win in any case, had to finish alone. in 1r912 both boats were water-logged, and the cambridge boat sank before reaching hammersmith. they rowed again in two days’ time and oxford won. the results of the yale ancl harvard university eight-oared race at new london, connecticut (4 m.) have been as follows from i9t0-25:— . winner loser date won by min. sec. min. sec. 1g10 june 30 harvard . . . . 20 46144 21 of 1g{t june 30 ilarvard , ‘ « 22. 34 23 40149 1912 june 21 harvard. : : » 21 4gle> 22 04 1913 june 20 harvard. . . « 21 42)4. -22.-.20 1914 june 1g yale. . : : x <2f [16 21 161¢ 1915 june 25 yale o.. 8. -& 28. 26> be 21. pass 1916 june 23 harvard . . . . 20 02 20 17 iqi7 no race. 1918 june @ harvard . . . . io 58 er: loy 1919 june 20 yale. ; . : » oy abe. or, ayes 1920 june 25 harvard. . . = 2a a 23 46 1921 june 24 yale. : & : . 20 i 20° 44 %¢ 1922 june 23 yale. : ‘ ‘ » 2 . 53 22 06 1923 june 22 yale . : : a 22 40 22 35 1924 june 20 yale. : ; . 21 5835 22 1138 1925 june ig yale. . 20 26 20 3226 1926 june 25 yale. . 20 143 20 213% the record forthe thames river course was made in june 1916, by harvard who did 20 min. 2 seconds. in june 1918, ow- ing to the world war, the race was reduced to an informal two- mile contest at derby, connecticut. the full distance was introduced again in 1919. these races began over a two-mile course on lake winnepesaukee in 1852 when harvard won. in 1855 the course became three miles at springfield. then, for nine years, it was rowed on lake quinsigamond, and in 1869 on lake saltonstall. the crews of 1876 and 1877 rowed four miles at springfield, massachusetts. in 1878 the four-mile course at new london, conn., was inaugurated. racing at henley—for many years the blue ribbon of the rowing world for open competition in eights has been the grand challenge cup at henley regatta, and one of the finest crews which ever won it was that of the harvard athletic assn., from boston, in r914. even the institution of the olympic games and the olympic regattas of 1908, 1912, 1920 and 1924 have not sensibly diminished the value, in public estimation, of the henley grand challenge cup, which, since its foundation in 1839, has been won by crews from abroad only in the case of new south wales (1912) and belgium (1906, 1907, i909), in addition to the american crew already named. the winners of the grand challenge cup (distance 1 m. 550 yd., record 6 min. 53 sec.) since 1910 are the following:— min. sec. 1910 magdalen college, oxford 7 19 191t magdalen college, oxford 7 2 1912 sydney r. c. new south wales 7 6 1913. leander club . . . . 7 ii 1914 harvard athletic assn. _. 7 20 1920 magdalen college, oxford 7: 2 1921 magdalen college, oxford 6 54 1922 leander club : . ‘ 7 36 1923 thamesr.c.. ; 6 45 1924 leander club ss 3 1925 leander club 6 53 1926 leander club 6 56 with regard to these races it should be noted that the race of 1922 was rowed in a storm of wind and rain which must have added nearly 45 sec. to the time. in 1923 a short and perfectly straight course was tried as an experiment. from 1924 onward this straight course was made 1 m. and 550 yd., or exactly the rowing same as the distance in all former races except that of 1923. this course is marked out by piles with long booms which float on the surface of the water. it is now a straight course and the crews row up the centre of the river so that neither get shelter from the bank. this improvement was carried out by the hen- ley regatta committee and the thames conservancy. in the united states there is an inter-university etght-oared race in which five or more eights compete simultaneously over a 4 m. course at poughkeepsie. the following have been the results since 1912:— third wisconsin columbia iq 25 19 417% syracuse cornell washington 19 2836 19 31 19 33 columbia pennsylvania cornell ig 3745 iq 41 19 4474 cornell leland stanford syracuse 19 363% 20 4335 syracuse columbia 20 41% columbia winner seconil june 29 june 21 june 26 june 28 june 17 june 19 california i4 22 washington june 22 syracuse 13, 3834 columbia june 26 washington 14 034 washington june 28 wisconsin 15 09% washington ‘june 17 wisconsin ig 58 syracuse 19 53° june 22 1g 4 washington june 28 ig 283% in 1920 the race was only 2 m. on cayuga lake. the next three years were each 3 m. events. in 1924 the distance must have been about 3 m., and in 1925 there were seven crews com- peting, columbia finishing last in 20 min. 1§ seconds. over the full 4m. course the record of 18 min. 5314 sec., made by cornell in rgot, still stands. in the olympic regattas of 1908, 1912, 1920 and 1924 it will be sufficient to give the winners of the eights and of the single sculling race. the courses have been so different that a com- parison of times would be valueless; but the distance is generally i} m. (as it was at henley in 1908) or about 2 kilometres. fights great britain (leander). 1908 henley | great britain (leander). 1912 stockholm 1920 antwerp u.s. (navy). 1924 paris u.s: (vale). sculling 1908 henley il. t. blackstaffe (great britain). 1912. stockholm w.d. kinnear (great britain) 1920 6antwerp j. b. kelly (united states america). 1924 [aris j. beresford jr. (great britain), for the professional sculling championship of the world (about 4 m.) the following races have taken place since 1910:— nits. sec: 1910 r.o. arnst, beat g. whelch in new zealand. 21 50 1910 r.o, arnst, beat e. barry, on the zambesi . 20 14 1911 r.o. arnst, beat h. pearceon parramattariver 19 40 1912. e. barry, beat r. arnst, putney to mortlake 23 8 1912 e. barry, beat e. durner, putney to mortlake 22 31 1913. e. barry, beat h. pearce, putney to mortlake 24 9 i914 e. barry, beat j. paddon, putney to mortlake 24 28 1919 a. felton, beat e. barry, putney to mortlake . 25 40 1920 e. barry, beat a. felton on parramatta river. 24 32 ig2t r. o. arnst, beat j. p. wannan in new zealand 22 38 1922 |). a. hadfield, beat r. arnst in new zealand 19 46 1922 j. paddon, beat d. a. hadfield in new zealand... .. 1923 j. paddon, beat d. a. hadfield in new south wales. , : ‘ : . ig i9 1924 j. paddon, beat a. felton at brisbane. , cf 1924 j. paddon, beat major goodsell in new south wales... ; 2. 7 - °f 1925 major goodsell, beat j. paddon (3 m. 167 yd.) on parramattariver . : ; i <a 22 50 roy ce—ruanda-urundi in amateur sculling nothing has yet touched f. s. kelly's record of 8 min. ro sec. done in 1905 on the henley course and hardly anyone has shown such perfect form. in 1913 the dia- mond sculls were won by c. mcvilly of ‘tasmania, in 1914 by g. sinigaglia of italy, and in 1922 by w. m. hoover of the duluth b.c., minnesota, u.s.a., who was beaten in 1925. iis style was his own and broke nearly every known rule, but he practised it so persistently and sculled so hard that he was al- ways a very difficult man to beat, and was certainly as fast as any american entry for this famous race since e. h. ten eyck of worcester, u.s.a., won it in 1897. for a long while columbia college was the only entrant from the united states of america that took a henley prize across the atlantic, and they won the visitors’ in 1878. this race is now reserved to english college crews for which it was originally intended. sivles compared.—the crews sent for the grand challenge cup at henley from cornell, yale, harvard and pennsyl- vania have almost invariably shown that in the united states there are as many styles of rowing as there are famous coaches; and though english coaches like mr. r. c. lehmann, mr. g. nickalls and others have occasionally coached american crews these differences have always persisted.t in england, on the other hand, it may be truthfully said that there is only one accepted and orthodox style, laid down by dr. warre of eton, and carried on by such coaches as dr. gilbert bourne and mr. harcourt gold. all first-rate crews aim at this, and the differ- ences between them may be measured by their respective near- ness to a common ideal. boats for rowing.—on both sides of the atlantic considerable progress in the theory of boat building has been made. the belgian plan of building their boats in sections for convenience of transport revolutionised certain fixed ideas as to weight. the experiments of dr. warre in building a boat only 56 ft. long were also most fruitful; but though she proved faster than usual for a first-rate crew (and certainly won a university race on her merits in a storm), she was also slower than usual for a second- rate crew; and, since the absolute best can never be anticipated with complete certainty, dr. warre’s model never became pop- ular. sir william christie, formerly astronomer royal, designed a boat based on the involute of the circle in such a way that pro- fessional boat builders could make their own templates by quite simple methods on purely mathematical principles. finally dr. bourne, combining first-rate experience with high technical acquirements, designed several boats on the streamline prin- ciple exhibited in certain fishes, and made a step forward of which the full results have not yet been realised. rowing in other lands.—yrance, one of the carlicst nations, after the united states, to compete at henley, does not seem to have contributed much to the technique of oarsmanship as yet, but holland, which now seems to be following successfully in belgium’s footsteps, is making rapid strides both in style and technique. italy is also sending crews to english regattas. sweden and norway, each devoted to what is known as the english style, have also made very great advances. germany, whose four (the heaviest yet seen at henley) was only just beaten in r914, does not seem to have made that contribution to the theory of boat building which might have been expected from her industry and science. both canada and australia sent very fine crews to england in the 20th century, and their winners are to be found in the lists both of the grand challenge eights and of the stewards’ fours. oars and other accessories—dr. warre’s style has hitherto been exemplified at its best with fixed rowlocks. but several english crews, and nearly all those of other nations, use the swivel rowlocks which are of course universal in single sculling. the english slide is usually 16 in. long and the oarsman slides right up to his work. but a few english crews and many ameri- can and other cights use slides without stops at either end. not much difference is observable in oars, which are largely iniluenced | : , ; : central railway of tanganyika. this reservation deprived the ‘the various american styles are all founded cn the english style, the chief difference in america being a longer slide, a harder leg drive and less body swing. (ed. eb} 383 by style and rig. some favour short ones of 12 ft. or less with 6 in. blades, such as the belgians and most american crews prefer. others use oars of 12 ft. 3 in. to 12 ft. 5 in. with 43 in. blades, preferring length of stride to rapidity of action. the choice can only be decided by the coach of each particular crew. in 1925 the oxford university press published a text-book on oarsmanship by dr. g. c, bourne, which is the most complete trea- tise on the whole subject which has yet been issued. d royce, josiah (1855-1916), american philosopher, was born at grass valley, cal., nov. 20 1855. he graduated from the university of california in 1875 and in 1876 went to johns hopkins university as a fellow. after receiving his ph.d. in 1878 he was instructor in english literature and logic at the uni- versity of california. in 1882 he was appointed instructor in philosophy at harvard, where, after holding various intermediate posts, he became alford professor of religion, moral philosophy and civil polity in 1914. he was the leading american exponent of idealism (see 14.284) and his works were distinguished for their literary qualities. he died at cambridge, mass., sept. 14 1916. royce was the author of a primer of logical analysis (1881): the religious aspects of philosophy (1885); the feud of oakfield creek (1887, a novel); the spirit of modern philosophy (1892); the con- ception of ged (1895); studies of good and evil (1898); the world and the individual, 2 vol. (1900-1), gifford lectures at the university of aberdeen; the conception of immortality (1900); outlines of psychol- ogy (1903); lferbert spencer: an estimate and review (1904); the philosophy of loyalty (1908); race questions, provincialism and other american problems (1908); william james and other essays on the philosophy of life (1911); bross lectures on the sources of religions insight (1912); the problem of christianity, 2 vol. (1913), lectures before manchester college, oxford; war and insurance (1914); the hope of the great community (1916), war addresses; and the post- humously published lectures on afodern idealism (1919). royden, agnes maude (1876- ), british social worker and preacher, youngest daughter of sir thomas royden, 1st bart. of frankby hall, cheshire, was educated at cheltenham and lady margaret hall, oxford. after leaving oxford she was for several years engaged in social work, first in liverpool and later in the country parish of luffenham, rutland. in rg908 she became an active member of the constitutional wing of the women’s suffrage movement and until 1914 edited the common cause, the organ of the national union of women’s suffrage societies. the reputation she achieved as a thoughtful and incisive speaker and writer on contemporary religious and social problems brought her in 1917 an invitation to become assistant preacher at the city temple, london, which she accepted, and thus became the first woman in great britain to occupy the pulpit of a regular place of worship. on relinquishing her ap- pointment at the city temple she founded in conjunction with dr. percy dearmer, the fellowship services conducted first at the town hall, kensington, london and afterwards at the guild house, eccleston square. miss royden’s numerous books and pamphlets include women and the sovereign state (1917); sex and commonsense (1922); prayer as @ force (1922); political christianity (4922); and the church and woman (1924); and she has written copiously for the press. ruanda-urundi is a mandated territory in east africa lying between the first and fourth degrees of south latitude and 29° to 31° east longitude. it is bounded on the north by uganda, on the east and south by tanganyika territory, and on the west by the belgian congo. it comprises that portion of the former german colony of east africa which was assigned under mandate to belgium after the world war, and covers an area of about 22,000 sq. miles. the country was occupied by belgian troops from the congo in r916, and in 1920 the frontier between the two mandates was laid down by what was known as the orts-milner boundary. by this delimitation, the kisaka district, a considerable area along the valley of the kagera river, was detached from the territory claimed by king musinga of ruanda, in order to preserve a line of access for a future british railway to connect uganda with the people of ruanda of some of their most essential grazing lands, and created much consternation among them. at the instance 384 of the mandates commission, the british govt. consented | in 1924 to the readjustment of the frontier, and the kagera river now forms the greater part of the boundary. there was much delay in issuing the mandate—ior which the con- currence of the united states had to be obtained—and this was further prolonged by the readjustment of the frontier. it was not therefore until oct. 1924, that the mandate was formally accepted by the belgian parliament. a law was then passed by which the territory should be administered -as an integral part of the congo but with a separate budget. the pacification of urundi, which under german rule had been disorganised by internal warfare, was completed in 1021, and reports, inclusive of that year, have been regularly sub- mitted to the mandates commission under the draft mandate, and examined in the presence of an accredited representative. the country is divided into two distinct units—ruanda under the despotic king musinga, and urundi under a council of regency during the minority of the chief. each is supervised by a resident with headquarters at kigali and nkiteja respectively, the capital being at usumbura on tanganyika lake. it is the declared policy of belgium to support the authority of the native chiefs and to rule through them, there are about 70 european officials. the greater part of the country is mountainous and lies at a high altitude. lakes tanganyika and kivu form part of its frontiers and there are numerous other smal{l lakes—one, karago, at an altitude of 6,000 fect. the population is estimated at 5,000,000, the density in some areas being upwards of 300 to the sq. mile. the bulk of the people are of bantu stock, but the ruling caste are of the pastoral wahima race, as in ugana, unyoro and ankoli. the wealth of the country consists in its flocks and herds. the local revenue is about 4,500,000 fr., of which half is derived from a direct tax on the natives. it is supplemented by a grant of 1,400,000 francs from belgium. owing to its distance from the sea and the lack ef cheap transport, the trade of the country is at present small, a quantity of foodstuffs with livestock and hides is ex- ported (see mandates), (la) rubber (sce 23.795).—the area devoted to growing rubber trees was in 1924 computed to be as follows, about 75% produc- ing:— oof total in bearing | planted ac. malaya 2,230,000 1,672,500 56-8 ceylon 410,000 307,500 10°5 india ; 127,000 95,250 3:2 dutch indies 1,000,000 750,000 24-4 other districts 166,000 120,000 5:1 3192 7,000 2,945,250 | the following table shows the world’s rubber production from 1920~5 :— : : total wild total prete | antation | uber | worlds production | production (tons) (tons) (tons) 3,200,000 304,671 36,464 341,135 3,321,000 276,746 23.903 300,649 3,475,000 378,232 27,878 406,110 3,915,000 379;738 26,685! 406,423\" . | 4,266,000 386,703 | = 26,396 413,099 ; 4,296,000! 470,000! ° 35,000! 505.000! 1 }’stimated. i. varieties of commercial rubber price range for crude rubber —demand and supply, and, in a minor degree, speculation, occasioned a wide variation in the price of crude rubber: early in 1925 it was back to the average for 1913, but on july 20 1925 reached $1.21, the price in aug. 1914. the united states department of commerce gives the following as the average monthly price per lb. for spot rubber in new york for the years 1913-24 inclusive:— rubber the following table shows the approximate world consumption in gross tons from 1920 lo 1925:— 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 united states | 252,922] 185,394] 301,076] 309,139] 324,500/384,837 great britain | 56,572] 42,087} 11,765} 12,558] 18,500) 26,500 germany 13,400] 22,428) 27,551] 19,436) 22,738] 28,263 austria 4,200] 2,000) 2,270) 1,334] 2,500] 3,900 scandinavia 1,100 g00| 1,600] 2,000! 2,400, 2,700 france 16,606[ 14,701} 27,660] 31,108] 34,442) 39,000 japan 5,500] 23,164) 16,581] 17,318] 18,905} 20,000 russia . 140 200/ 2,100] 3,900} 2,000] 4,000 belgium, holland 3,500} 1,800] 1,200) 1,880| 2,200] 3,100 canada 11,350] 8,259) 9,353] 13,255] 14,391] 20,500 australia 800 900| 1,700] 2,400) 2,900] 3,300 italy 6,800} 4,000; 6,400] 8,490; 8,764{| 10,500 other coun- tries . ; 1,178} 1,225] 1,600) 1,760; 2,100] 3,500 es ey pe ee, world totals | 374.069] 307,058) 410,856} 424,578] 456,340|550,100! 1 estimated. stevenson restriction plan.—to support the price of crude rubber a regulative measure, known as the stevenson plan (after sir james stevenson, chairman of the committee appoint- ed by the british secretary of state for the colonies) was, on the recommendation of the committee, adopted by british planting interests late in 1922. prices were well below production costs (touching 114 cents per lb. in 1921); so the stevenson compulsory restriction plan was enacted into law by the legislatures of the malay states, straits settlements and ceylon, taking effect from nov. 1 1922. it established as standard production the quantity of dry rubber produced from any holding during the period nov. 1 1919 to oct. 31 1920, plus an allowance, if claimed, for untapped trees. the total standard production was estimated at 330,000 tons. provision was made for a minimum export duty to be levied on that percentage of standard production which producers would be allowed to export under the scheme at the minimum rate of duty, which was not to exceed 1d. per pound. if a producer wished to export more than that allowed at a mini- mum rate of duty, he would be required to pay an export duty per |b. on his total export during twelve months on the following scale :— not exceeding 65° of standard production . . 3 . 4d. over 65° but not exceeding 70°. . : . sd. over 70° but not exceeding 75° . 2 . 6d, over 75°, but not exceeding 80°) . 7d over so °%, but not exceeding 85% . 8d over 85°, but not exceeding 90% . od over 904 but not exceeding 95 °% tod over 95°o but not exceeding 100° tid over 100 ‘9 , : ‘ : d ; ¢.-t2d, at the outset the percentage of rubber exportable was set at 60, based on standard production: but the plan provided also for alteration in the percentage, on the basis of the price of stand- ard quality smoked sheet in the london market: when the av- erage price during three conseculive months had been maintained at not less than rsd. per ib. london landed terms, the exportable allowance would be raised automatically by 5° for the next quarter: should the average price be maintained at not less than isd. for the three consecutive months the percentage would be raised by 10% for the ensuing quarter: and so on until the point of maximum or full standard production be reached. if, however, during any three consecutive months the price had not averaged at least 12d. per ib. the exportable allowance would be reduced io 55%, and so on by reductions of 5% at the end of each three months until, by control of export, the demand for rubber would bring its price back to the basic 15d. figure. once lowered, the percentage would not be increased except on the basis of the 15d. price. the standard production for nov. and dec. 1925 and jan. 1926 was adjusted to 369,641 tons. the table! on page 385 shows the percentage of standard produc- tion exportable at the minimum rate of duty during each quarter 1 reproduced from 17th report of the council to the members of the rubber growers’ association (incorporated). rubber since the inception of the scheme in nov. 1922, together with the average daily price for spot sheet in london during each quarter :— ouarter oe z pice | nov. 1922 to jan. 1923. 60 i i feb, 1923 to apriliig23. 60 i 4858 may 1923 to july 1923. , 65 i 2-242 aug. 1923 to oct. 1923. , 60 i 2-994 nov. 1923 to jan. [924 . ‘ : 60 i 2-175 feb. 1924 to aprilii9g24. : ; 60 i o-917 may 1924 to july 1924. : : 60 . 10-974 aug. 1924 to oct. 1924. : 55 i 2°632 nov. 1924 to jan. 1925. ; : , 50 i 5-998 feb. 1925 to apriliig25_. 55 i 7-356 may 1925 to july 1925. ; , . 65 3 2-469 aug. 1925 to oct. 1925. 75 3. «7-269 nov. 1925 to jan. 1926... : 85 a ae feb. 1926 to april19g26. ; . 100 , the export quota remained at roo°%, for the quarter a july 1926. reclaimed rubber —in few other industries is conservation such an important factor as in rubber manufacture. worn-out vulcanised rubber goods are collected and the basic material recovered to be manufactured again into new articles. so many uses have been found for reclaimed rubber that in 1925 its con- sumption approached that of the crude product. the element of cost has been an important factor in popularising reclaimed rub- ber, as articles made of it could be produced and sold for much less than those made with new rubber only: and to a considerable degree the price of the crude product has been kept down by the ample supply of the reclaimed. to mect the growing demand, large companies have supplanted the small reclaimers: such con- cerns employ not only the most modern machinery, but main- tain research and analytic laboratories for control of processes, standardising products, and for the study of reclaiming and compounding problems. the first attempt to reclaim rubber commercially was made in the early ‘fifties of the 19th century when hiram l. hall, a man- ufacturer in massachusetts, boiled and steamed powdered vul- canised rubber and then sheeted it. an important later develop- ment was the destruction of fibre in the ground material by means of acids, chiefly sulphuric, for which processes over 50 patents were granted. the acid process was of use chiefly in the reclaim- ing of worn-out footwear, but was not of great valuc in recovering other waste. the alkali process, invented by arthur hudson marks, a manufacturer in the united states, solved the latter problem. in this, caustic soda was used to destroy fabric and incidentally it proved to be the most eflective agent in de-sulphur- ising the mass. the removal of not only the free sulphur from vulcanised rub- ber (which modern reclaiming accomplishes) but also of the sul- phur which during curing unites chemically with the crude rub- ber, is the goal towards which experimenters have been striving. notable progress in this direction was made in england by dr. david spence, who used an accelerator, aniline-potassium, but in solution in excess gf aniline. he claimed not only the dissolu- tion of the waste rubber but the liberation in soft rubber of from 78% to 90% of the combined sulphur, and the changing of the latter into an insoluble alkaline sulphide. in hard rubber 73% of the combined sulphur was said to be similarly reduced. there are also many processes of a secret nature, most of which tend to the production of higher grades of reclaimed rubber. the gathering of worn-out or damaged rubber goods, called scrap rubber, is a highly organised business, particularly in the united states. i’rom the junk men it passes into the warehouses of the specialists in rubber waste, who sort and bale it and sell it toreclaimers. the standard grades are, boots and shoes, trimmed arctics, untrimmed arctics: hard rubber, battery jars; inner tubes: mechanical, black scrap, heels, horseshoe pads; hose; red scrap, white scrap: auto tires, bicycle tires, solid tires. the reclaiming factories convert the scrap into reclaimed rubber which they sell to manufacturers of rubber goods. the existing grades of reclaim run into hundreds, but the standard grades 385 are: floating; friction; mechanical; shoe, unwashed; tires, auto; tires, truck; white. with crude rubber at 60 cents per lb. scrap varics from 2 to 8 cents, and reclaim from 8 to 20 cents. synthetic rubber —many attempts have been made to pro- duce synthetic rubber, and success has attended these efforts, but the production of commercial rubber synthetically had not been achieved by the beginning of 1926. in the making of syn- thetic rubber the chief concern of the chemists has been the solu- tion of the folowing problems: (1) the production of isoprene, an oily, volatile hydrocarbon (c;fis), and hemiterpene, with its analogous hydrocarbons, such as butadiene or methy]-isoprene and dimethyl-butadienc; (2) the polymerisation of these products 450 ww db on © oo oo 7housands of tons tj oo oo 0 1910 istt 1912 19t3 1914 i9is 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 year. fic, 1.—during the period 1910-25 both the production and con- sumption of rubber greatly increased. this chart is based on figures supplied by the rubber growers’ association (london). the out- standing features, as shown by the chart, are the great increase in the production of plantation rubber, mainly from british malaya, ceylon aud the netherlands east indies, and the decrease in the output of wild rubber. it is also interesting to note that from 1923 to 1925 consumption outstripped production. into caoutchouc (cyohis); and (3) the grouping of such funda- mental caoutchouc molecules into an aggregate having the di- mensions, arrangement and properties of the complex molecule of natural rubber bearing the formula (cyohie)». isoprene was obtained first by i°. c. ilimley in 1835, and was noted by apollinaire bouchardat in 1837. in 1860 it was properly characterised by greville willams, who isolated it and caout- chene through dry distillation of rubber and rectification with sodium. gustave bouchardat, in 18709, produced caoutchene, a polymer of isoprene, by treating the latter with hydrochloric acid, obtaining a substance seemingly identical with rubber. sir william tilden, in 1882, also converted isoprene with hydro- chloric acid into a tough, elastic solid, and noted that isoprene could be changed spontaneously into rubber. in 1884 he pro- duced isoprene by passing turpentine through a hot tube. in the same year he suggested that not only isoprene but its homo- logues, butadiene and others, should be as readily polymerised. in 1892 he proved that polymerised isoprene could be vulcan- ised with sulphur. in 1887 prof. otto wallach of the university of gottingen, polymerised isoprene into caoutchene (col is) at 260° centigrade. prof. wilhelm euler of the university of stockholm, in 1897, synthetised and polymerised isoprene. a. heinmann, in 1908, suggested the production of isoprene from methylthiophene, which could be produced from starch hydrolised, oxidised and treated with phosphorous trisulphide. drs. fntz hofman and carl coutelle, in 1909, produced pure isoprene, which, on being heated in a closed tube, with other substances, gave a product pronounced pure rubber by prof. c. d. harries, of kiel univer- 3286 sity. prof. harries, who had, in 1905, determined the chemical constitution of natural rubber, in 1910 produced its counterpart by heating isoprene in a closed tube with glacial acetic acid. starting with commercial alcohol, he worked out a process for producing a material yielding from 60 to 75° of pure isoprene. prof. harries and the english investigators, f. e. matthews and e. halford strange, noted independently that sodium greatly quickened isoprene’s polymerisation and gave a better product; and german chemists noted other important results of poly- merisation in carbonic acid. a german process used ozonisers as catalysers with sodium hydroxide. the polymerisation of butadiene with sodium has since been effected in three hours, it is stated, with the temperature held between 40 and 50° centigrade. j. plotnikow, in 1922, found that ultra-violet rays polymerised vinyl chloride (an acetylene deriva- tive) to caoutchouc chloride, which could be readily turned to rubber. he obtained a similar product and simulated plant photo- synthesis by adding a uranium salt to the vinyl chloride and expos- ing it only to sunlight. some of the synthetic rubbers are elastic, soluble, and may be readily vulcanised, but they lack the dura- bility, tensile strength, and other qualities of the natural article, imparted to or conserved in the latter by certain resins, protective colloids, etc. a drawback in the manufacture of synthetic rub- ber is the formation of undesirable by-products which are diffi- cult to remove. mineral rubber.—this is a plastic, inelastic hydrocarbon, or asphaltic pitch, combined with harder bitumens, such as gil- sonite, or the product obtained by blowing the still residues from asphalt and mixed base petroleums combined with gilsonite. mineral rubber may be mixed with natural rubber up to a ratio of seven volumes of the former to 100 of the latter, with beneficial effect on the physical properties of the natural article. it is sup- plied in solid, liquid and powdered form. ; artificial rubber. —a factitious rubber, known as factice (though often miscalled rubber substitute) which has physical resem- blance and qualities akin to the natural product, artificial rubber comprises a class of material valued for compounding with true rubber, and in the preparation of which vulcanising accelerators may be used. factice is made from vegetable (rarely animal) oils subjected to the action of metalloids like oxygen and sulphur, of certain chlorides like that of sulphur, and oi acids of the nitric type, which under varying temperatures determine the qualities of the product. anderson in 1847 was the first to recognise the industrial value of ‘‘ vulcanisable oils,”’ as they were termed. nickles and rochel- der soon afterward noted that by mixing the oil-sulphur com- pounds with sulphur chloride a substance analogous to rubber could be produced; and parkes, who discovered the cold-curing process, considered both reactions identical. experiments by roussin, gaumont, perra, bruce and warren led to improved technique in manufacture and extended commercial use. drying oils like those of linseed, poppy and rape seed are preferred, but castor and some other non-drying oils also yield good factice. sulphur products are brown; chloride of sulphur, whitish. to the former, resin oils, tars and asphalts are often added; and to the latter, chalk, talc and magnesia. to both kinds, waxes, vaseline and clear mineral oils are added to reduce density chiefly. factice is insoluble in the usual rubber solvents, but yields to boiling, heavy naphtha, alcoholic soda and acid chlorides, and slightly to warm chloroform. chemistry of rubber.—the caoutchouc molecule had long been known to contain 5 carbon and 8 hydrogen atoms, and had hence borne the formula cshs. but rubber, unlike other hydrocarbons having a similar formula, gives proof of a molecular group for- mation, the number of such linked molecules being yet unknown, although estimated at 8 or 10. on account of its analogy to the terpenes it was later given the formula ciohis, termed a poly- terpene, and the index » added, indicating an indeterminate molecular grouping. a question still disputed, too, is whether the molecule members form a cyclic or an open chain complex. a recent and plausible theory gives (csfis)g as the ultimate molecule of caoutchouc, in which 32 carbon atoms form a ring rubber compound. rubber being of a colloidal nature is not soluble in a chemical sense. it can form only pseudo-solutions or “ swell- ings inthe fluids knownasrubbersolvents. investigators, hence, have been seriously handicapped through the lack of a solvent which could resolve the colloidal aggregation (schidrowitz) into a true, z.e., crystalloid, solution, and thus make possible the direct and final determination of the structure and weight of the caout- chouc molecule. il. the manufacturing side in all commercial rubber caoutchouc exists in two forms, one fibrous or hard, the other viscous and soft. the soft form can be easily dissolved: the fibrous form swells, but does not dissolve. vulcanisation hardens the viscous portion, and the rubber be- comes thus more durable and less sensitive to heat and cold and to the effect of acids and alkalics. a small amount of sulphur in rubber and moderate heat produces soft rubber, more sulphur and greater heat produces hard rubber. in manufacture india rubber is softened by heat until plastic, and calendered; or shaped for making up for vulcanisation; or it is put in naphtha solution, spread, shaped and made up for vulcanisation. it is never melted, as the result would be a worthless sticky semi-fluid. from the time of goodyear, rubber footwear was vulcanised by the dry heat cure; that is, in closed rooms filled with hot air. this was very slow, entailing some seven hours of heating. furthermore, only rubber containing a considerable amount of litharge could be used for this type of- cure. the colour was always black, and variety in compounding and stocks was impos- sible. the discovery of the pressure cure by augustus o. bourn, of providence, rhode island, in 1901, however, practically revo- lutionised the business. in this process the goods were confined in large boiler-shaped shells. these were filled with hot air under pressure and the air from the inner suriaces removed by a vacuum process, the result being that vulcanisation was hastened and a great variety of tough compounds, as for example those used in tire treads, were made available. in the period 1910-25 much progress was shown in such chemi- cal discoveries as accelerators, and the mechanics of rubber man- ufacture were revolutionised. for many years rubber, after being cleaned by washing, was dried in airy lofts, often hang- ing for a year to “age.” hot dryers brought the drying period down to wecks and sometimes days. eventually with the vacu- um dryer a few hours sufficed to extract the moisture. more than 250 fillers and compounding materials are used in rubber manu- facture. their purpose is chiefly to enhance properties or supply certain qualities in which rubber may be lacking. for example, powdered asbestos in quantity makes a compound that is heat- resisting, as in packing and brake linings. most of the above materials have been known for years. the successful use of organic plastics such as glue is recent, as is the preparation of elaterite in plastic form for rubber compounding. direct use of latex—a notable improvement on the acid method of coagulating rubber latex is that of ernest hopkinson, by which rubber milk, blown in a mist into a hot compartment, is dehydrated and deposited quite pure in a snowy and velvety mass. by adding sulphur, fillers and accelerators, this may be applied directly to fabrics so as to produce complete “ friction ”’ at one operation. another use for latex is in paper making. ac- cording to the process of frederick kaye, diluted latex added to pulp in the beater of a paper-making machine and thrown out on the fibre with a coagulant, yields a paper having a marked strength, vellum-like texture and improved folding, moisture and dielectric resistance. the wm. beach pratt process for de-coagulating crude rubber results in a water dispersion of rubber coagulum, similar to natural latex, which may be recoagulated and vulcanised: and may be made not only of crude rubber but also of vulcanised and acid and alkali reclaimed rubber. the product mills easily, and eliminates solvent, fire and health hazards. miscellaneous soft rubber products—with the interest in pilot and dirigible balloons stimulated by the world war, came marked progress in rubber compounds used in their manufacture. rubber of these the most notable were cements of vastly increased tenac- ity: ingredients and surface coatings that remain unaffected by the sun’s rays; and compounds practically impermeable to inflating gases, such as the gas-proof masks evolved by rubber chemists, that effectually protected soldiers from poison gas and are widely used in many perilous industries. bathing suits and bathing caps of rubber, beautiful in texture, colours and ornamentation, are recent accomplishments. this is due to the production by chemists of colours unaffected by heat and sul- -phur. an exceptional and novel use is rubber thread in golf- ball manufacture. the standard ball was for years made of solid gutta. in 1898 coburn haskell, of cleveland, ohio, invented a golf ball with a small ball of rubber as a core around which was wound rubber thread under tension. outside of this was moulded a thin cover of gutta percha. the ball, because of its long flight, soon took the place of the “ gutty ”’ and helped enormously to popularise golf. flexible, transparent ‘‘ rubber glass”? has been produced by fordyce jones through precipitating rubber from a solution vul- canised by a dual-gas process and obtaining a plastic mass which can be pressed or moulded after the manner of glass. much progress in the decade 1915 to 1925 has been made in the produc- tion of rubber pavements. their successful use on bridges, not only as a preventative of noise but to remove vibration, promises well for the future. rubber and fibre soles and soles of crepe rubber have found a very large market. the rubber heel has also largely displaced leather in medium and high-grade footwear. organic accelerators in vulcanisation—the most striking progress in the art of rubber manufacturing, second only to the discovery of vulcanisation, has been achieved through the efforts of chemists to reduce the time required for vulcanising, while enhancing the quality and properties of the products. for two- thirds of a century workers in rubber were content with litharge and a few other mineral substances as curing-quickeners. in the early \"nineties, in consequence of attempts to vulcanise synthetic rubber, the unique value of various synthetic organic chemicals (mostly coal tar derivatives and related to organic dyes) as curing accelerators was revealed by dr. david spence and others. as compared with white lead, as used by goodyear in 1839 and men- tioned in his patent of 1844, and formulas which required from 5 to 15%, less than 1% of an organic accelerator would suffice and give both quicker action and better results. since then their use has fairly revolutionised compounding and vulcanising. the first mention of a nitrogenous or organic material for quickening vulcanisation occurs in a patent granted in england in 1881 to t. rowley for the use of ammonia vapour: but no commercial use of an organic accelerator was made until 1906, when in the united states a typical one, aniline oil, proved of practical value. the successful use of piperidine by dr. david spence was announced in england early in 1912. later in this year, after patents had been granted for numerous german prepa- rations of this kind, organic accelerators began to be employed on an extensive scale. since the world war, however, american organic chemical products have to a large extent replaced those of german manufacture. the earlier theories advanced to explain the action of organic accelerators assumed that nitrogen was an indispensable con- stituent, and for several years preference was shown to those con- taining aniline (amino-benzene) or allied compounds; but the later and successful use of sulphur-bearing compounds led to a different conclusion. a now widely held theory is that velocity of curing is effected by an accelerator which first adds sulphur to itself, forming an extremely active polysulphide, the “ super- sulphur ” of which is, as soon as formed, shed to the rubber, speedily vulcanising the latter even at low temperatures. m. andre dubosc, an eminent french chemist, after experi- ments with hexamethylene-tetramine (the drug urotropin, one of the amino group) which, like thio-carbanilide, is still one of the most widely used of accelerators, concluded that cyanhydric acid, was the “ active principle ” which dr. spence had tried to determine; and that its practical effect was the transformation of ordinary divalent sulphur into hexavalent sulphur which could 387 saturate three double bonds in the rubber molecule, while divalent sulphur would saturate but one bond in the same time. the theory is also applied to nitroso bodies, which dur- ing vulcanisation generate cyanic acid. the latter, reacting with sulphur, yields sulphurous anhydride and sulphocyanic acid; the latter dissociates and leaves hexavalent sulphur, and the liberated cyanhydric acid again functions as an accelerator. organic accelerators are commonly grouped into four classes: ultra rapid, rapid, moderate and slow. of the first class, two groups are especially notable: 7.e., tetra-methyl-thiuram-disul- phide, and the metallic salts of dithio-carbamic acid. the first is not only one of the most energetic cure-quickeners known, but is also a vulcanising agent. using but 3% ina batch, with some zinc oxide as an activator, it will cure the rubber in 5 min. at 20 lb. of steam in the open, or in to min. at 60 jb. ina mould, either cure showing a tensile test of about 4,000 lb. per sq. inch. it is an oxidation product of dimethyl-amine and carbon disulphide, is non-poisonous, does not discolour fine stock, and delays ageing of the product. the second group includes about 40 salts, largely substituted ammonium compounds, many of which are not only powerful cure-quickeners, but are also intense organic colouring substances. a typical accelerator of this group is piperidine penta-methylene- dithio-carbamate, which, with some zinc oxide, will vulcanise rubber in from 3 to 10 min. at ro lb. of steam, or at room tem- perature in from 2 to 3 days. organic accelerators with a wide range of uses and properties include para-nitroso-dimethyl- aniline, mercapto-benzothiasole, piperidonium-piperidyl-dithio- carbamate, di-o-tolyl-guanidine, diphenyl-guanidine, thiocarban- ilide, hexamethylene-tetramine, alpha-phenyl-biguanide, quino- dine, para-phenylene-diamene, aldehyde and furfural am-— monia, hydroxy-quinoline, quinosol, alpha-naphthyl-amine, form- aldehyde aniline, triphenyl-guanidine, anthra-quinone, anti- pyrine, the toluidines, the xylidines, putrescin, bone oil, etc. vudcanisation —vulcanisation, or curing, is effected generally by either the heat cure or the cold cure. in the first named method either steam or heated air is employed. a wide range of rubber goods, either in moulds wrapped with strips of cloth, or imbedded in french talc to preserve their shape, is very efficiently cured with live steam in various types of vulcanisers. for many other needs the dry-heat cure, in which the goods are placed in a hot compartment without either wrapping or mould protection, has been found serviceable. still another heat cure, now but little used, is that of solar-vulcanisation, whereby fabrics, coated with a thin skin of rubber, are exposed to the sun’s rays. in very exacting work, such as the vulcanising of hard-rubber sheets, curing is effected by immersion in hot water. in the cold cure either the acid or the vapour process is employed. in the former, goods are dipped in solution of chloride of sulphur dis- solved in bisulphide of carbon. in the latter, rubber goods are suspended in a heated compartment in which the fumes of chlo- ride of sulphur pass freely over the surfaces to be vulcanised. the period of vulcanising ranges {rom a few minutes to many hours, depending on the degree of heat employed, the nature of the compound, the thickness of the goods, etc. the rate of cure, shown in england by dr. philip schidrowitz, is affected by the amount of protein or nitrogen in the crude gum, its stay in stor- age, its density, the amount of smoke, formalin or other preserv- atives used, quantity of acid used in coagulating the latex, time in drying, age of latex yielding tree, etc. since charles goodyear (see 12.240) in 1839 discovered, and in 1844 patented, his process for vulcanising rubber with sulphur by means of heat, numerous attempts have been made to improve upon his method, but the bulk of the goods produced is still cured by the sulphur and heat method. in the long train of experiments, many of which have led to important results, the curing of rubber has been effected by the use of sulphates, sulphides, chlorides, nitrates, fluorides, bromides, iodides and phosphides of nearly all the common earths and metals, as well as chlorine, sulphurous acid and various gases. the russian chemist, ivan ostromislensky, vulcanised rubber with irinitrobenzene and other nitro compounds, imparting all the 288 qualities given it by sulphur and effecting the curing more rapidly than with sulphur, with but one-twelfth of the material, and at a lower temperature. victor henri, a french chemist, also reported in rgo9—10 that he had vulcanised thin layers of rubber solutions by means of ultra-violet rays. similar researches along the same line have much scientific, if not practical, interest. an important vulcanisation development is the cold, dual gas process of vulcanisation, devised by s. j. peachey, the english chemist, in ror8, after an investigation of the behaviour of rub- ber towards the various allotropic forms of sulphur. unlike the parkes process, which yields an addition-product of both sulphur and chlorine, this leads to the formation without the aid of heat of a sulphur addition equal to that produced by the hot-curing process. by it rubber, alone or compounded with fillers and pigments, is exposed in a compartment successively to the action of two gases, sulphur dioxide for ro min. and hydrogen sulphide for 30 minutes. diffusing through the rubber and inter- acting, the gases produce an especially active form of sulphur capable of combining with and vulcanising the rubber at ordi- nary temperature, and more thoroughly than by either the hot process or the sulphur-chloride cure. a density is acquired, it is said, unattainable by the older methods. the dual gas treat- ment can be used either for rubber in its original solid form or liquefied with a solvent. when used in the latter form two separate solutions of rubber in benzol or naphtha are prepared, one containing sulphur dioxide and the other hydrogen sulphide; then both are mixed, effecting, among other things, the wet moulding of goods heretofore produced only by the dipping process. in the two-solution process, as it is called, the gases eflect a complete pectisation of the solution, forming a jelly which, on evaporating the solvent, is found to be fully vulcanised rubber. one of the advantages claimed for the two-gas process is that fabrics, as well as organic fillers, such as leather waste, sawdust, woodmeal, etc., that would be more or less scorched or decom- posed by the hot cure or the sulphur-chloride cure, could be used with rubber or heavy reformed leathers, linoleums, etc. it may also effect a considerable improvement in the water- proofing of cloth. rubber footwear, it is stated, may be pro- duced by the new process without either the heat or pressure hitherto deemed essential, and without special machines for stitching and riveting, thus greatly cheapening the product. in a later cold vulcanised process devised by s. j. peachey, rubber in solid, dissolved, or emulsified form, is treated with a mixture of sulphides of phosphorus in a solid state or in benzol, carbon disulphide, or other solvent. binliography.—t. secligman, g. l. torrilhon and h. falconnet, india rubber and gutta percha (1910); p. schidrowitz, rubber (1911); h. wright, zevea brasthiensis or para rubber (1912); a. dubosc and a. luttringer, rubber, tts chemistry (1918); h. c. pearson, crude rubber (1918); c. d. harries, untersuchungen tiber die natiir- lichen und kttnstlichen kauischukarien (1919); w. c. geer, the reign of rubber (1922); c. w. bedford and h. winkelmann, systematic survey of rubber chemistry (1923). lothar e. weber, the chemistry of rubber manufacture, 1926. ch: 40. ps) rudder: see flettner rudder. ruhr, the name given to a district of westphalia, germany, lying on the right bank of the rhine and occupying roughly the lower basin of the river ruhr (see 23.823). description and production.—the ruhr basin, which contains the important towns of ruhrort, diisseldorf, duisburg, essen, bochum, dortmund, elberfeld, gelsenkirchen and others, is the most impor- tant industrial district of germany, or, in fact, of the continent of europe. it is the heart of the german coal and metallurgical indus- try; the coke produced from ruhr coal having peculiarly valuable metallurgical properties. the majority of the great german syndi- cates were formed and had their headquarters there, and the direc- tors of heavy industry in the ruhr—krupp, stinnes, thyssen and others—controlled the economic destinies of germany through their activities (metallurgy, coal, coal derivatives, chemical industry, dye- stuffs, fertilisers, shipping companies, import and export of raw materials or manufactured foods), in 1913 the production of coal in the ruhr was 115,000,000 tons out of a total for germany of 191,000,000, which total was reduced by the loss of the saar, lor- raine and polish silesia to 145,000,000. it produced 9,000,000 tons of cast iron, 10,000,000 tons of steel and a vast quantity of by-products. rudder—ruhr before 1918 the ores of lorraine and the coke of the ruhr were complementary, but, when lorraine passed to france, the german ironmasters invested a great deal of the compensation paid them by the german government in smelting works and blast furnaces dupli- cating those lost in lorraine. at the same time they began to adapt ruhr furnaces to the consumption of swedish and other ores instead of those of lorraine. the french thus saw the value of their newly acquired property in lorraine threatened from two directions, especially as even without the duplication of plant in the ruhr, the industry throughout the world seemed bound to suffer from over- production for many years as a result of post-war impoverishment. the french occupation.—according to the treaty of versailles only the left bank and bridgeheads of the rhine were occupied; but on march 8 r9o21 ruhrort, duisburg and diisseldorf,,on the fringe of the ruhr, were occupied as a military sanction. this gave to french troops occupation both of important blast fur- naces and of the parts of the ruhr and the rhine through which these were supplied with lorraine ore. on dec. 26 1922, against the vote of the british member, the reparations commission declared germany in voluntary default in respect of timber deliveries and at the paris conference of the allies (jan. 2-jan. 4 1923), france claimed that under clause 18 of the treaty of versailles this declaration of default entitled her to take separate action, whereas the british reading of the clause was different. actually, however, the plan of ‘‘ productive pledges ” had long been cherished in france. m. dariac, presi- dent of the finance committee, had previously laid privately before the french chamber a report on the feasibility of this plan, which was supported by the majority of the french heavy industrials of the comite des forges. france also hoped by this action to assist her policy in the rhineland mr. bonar law stated the british view that the french pro- posals were ‘“‘ likely to have a grave and even disastrous effect upon the economic situation in europe,” and the british govt. could not therefore “ take part in or accept responsibility for them.’ germany contended that the occupation constituted a breach of the treaty of versailles and a military invasion of a defenceless country in time of peace. she decided to oppose it by every means except armed resistance; subsequent events showed that there was no plan, methods of resistance being improvised as required. the temper of the population was such that the german govt. required less to urge resistance than to deprecate violence. the french concentration in diisseldorf was met by a removal of the kohlen-syndikat with all its books from essen to ham- burg, thus rendering it impossible for the french to obtain a comprehensive oversight of the intricate system of production and despatch of coal and coke over the network of railways and canals in the ruhr. on jan. 11, the first two divisions of french troops, preceded by armoured cars, light tanks and cavalry (to- gether with belgian troops) crossed the frontier and occupied essen, the crowds were sullen and bitter, the french cold and determined, but correct. the burgomaster struck the note that subsequently characterised the whole defence action by saying that he could not recognise the french commander’s authority and would bow to force alone. the french declared officially that a peaceful mission of engineers had been despatched to essen with a few troops to protect them. so great was the de- testation of the ruhr workers for militarism that no german troops had ever been stationed in the district; the men’s leaders now declared that they would somchow make the french realise that bayonets were ill-adapted to coal-hewing. three days later the french occupied buer, bochum and dort- mund. the german govt. prohibited any further reparation deliveries or payments to the invading powers. on jan. 15 the first blood was shed when french sentries fired into a crowd, killing one man and wounding others. a military order to six directors of thyssen’s, krupp’s and other industrial concerns to deliver coal to france met with a refusal; the directors were arrested and tried by a court-martial which imposed heavy fines. their return from mainz to essen provoked demonstrations of enthusiasm which the occupying powers could not suppress. a short period of uncertainty followed. the french were taken 1 miscell, no. 3 p. 756 cmd. 1812 of 1923. rumania by surprise at the bitter resistance of the dour westphalians. they occupied the state-owned mines and the reichsbank branches, but the hostility of the workers and a financial panic led them temporarily to withdraw their troops. partly owing to outside causes, but largely as the result of the occupation, the already depreciated currency began to plunge catastrophically; prices soared and fears of a blockade led to a rush on food shops. german resistance.—the french decided to break german ob- stinacy at all costs, but the more frequently the troops resorted to physical violence, the more resistance stiffened. the german police now became openly hostile; they were frequently arrested and scvere~- ly handled or deported. telegraph and telephone operators refused to work for the invaders, and the french occupied their offices, cut~ ting of the civil population from this means of communication. the railwaymen, in accordance with the orders of their government, also refused work, and, as troops occupied each station, went on strike, so that gradually all railway traffic ceased except for a few military trains. by the end of the month, not a single ton of coal had reached france, and the resistance only stiffened as the mass arrests and deportations of germans began. by the end of the ruhr struggle several thousand persons had been imprisoned and heavily fined, and some 140,000 men, women and children summarily deported at a few hours notice. over one hundred germans were killed by french and belgian troops, who themselves lost about a score through german violence. those imprisoned often suffered severely: there were many authenticated instances of brutal treatment, especially among those guarded by coloured troops or separatists, (see riineland.) even where the french prison commandant was humane himself, the overcrowded state of the gaols inevitably made the punishment doubly severe, especially for men in high positions, as were so many of those condemned. the german resistance aimed at putting the maximum difficulties ia the way of the french, but it was realised from the first that time was on the other side. i{uge sums were spent on strike pay for the railwaymen and later for the officials of the customs, taxation and forestry departments as these were seized by the french. the whole ruhr industry—capital, masters and men—had to be indemnified during enforced idleness. centres of resistance were formed outside the occupicd zones by deported officials, secret telephone jines were kept working, courier services to avoid french postal espionage were organised and later employed to convey money when the french began to seize cash in the reichsbank and clsewhere. sabotage on the railways and canals began and, although the german govt. denied responsibility, these acts of violence were certainly welcomed at one period. yhe french countered with severe court martial sentences anid local reprisals. many persons were sentenced to death, and one was actually executed for an attempt to derail a coal train. prominent citizens were forced ta travel as hostages on french trains, callective fines were imposed, and the “ curfew ”’ was applied to the towns near the scenes of attempted sabotages. inhabitants had to be indvors with all windows closed from 4 or 5 p.m. till 6 a.m. owing to the expulsion of the entire police force, the streets at night were exposed to the double danger of uncontralled professional criminals and a nervous and ircitated saldiery. the french established a complete military and customs cordon, preventing first the export of coal, then of metals, and finally of all goods, offering to grant export permits on application and the pay- ment of duties. this the german govt. prohibited, and for many months practically no one applied, but with the lapse of time the french stranglehold began to tell. german saboteurs, themselves liable to be shot at sight, retaliated from time to time, and several french sentries were killed and wounded. in april a detachment of french troops which had occupied a section of krupp's works opened fire on a hostile crowd of workmen, killing 12 and wounding 30. the french declared that the directors were responsible, and subsequently sentenced herr krupp von bohlen and four others to periods of from 10 to 15 years impris- onment. they were released after 8 months, however, as soon as the german heavy industry agreed to resume deliveries to the french on the collapse of german resistance. the widespread distress amongst the unemployed and hungry workers resulted in april and may in short-lived communist control of one or two towns, the french standing aside. in june there was a serious german outrage, when it belgian soldiers were killed by a bomb placed in a train by ger- man saboteurs who escaped arrest. behind all this violence, french economic pressure slowly and at great cost began to show results. the railways were seized in the rhineland and the ruhr, and handed over to a franco-belgian * regie ” which kept a restricted railway service going with imported labour. small quantities of coke were produced by french workers, and some of the coal accumulated at the pit-heads removed to france. the french issued a franc currency of their own, based on the regie property. large sums of money were confiscated and col- lected as fines, timber was cut down and exported and gradually a small number of merchants began to pay french export duties. no one was allowed to enter or seave occupied territory without a 389 french permit, and finally the frontier was hermetically sealed. newspapers were suppressed, and their editors deported. the hopeless struggle continued for nearly 300 days; then the chaotic state of german finance made it impossible for berlin to con- tinue to supply funds; on sept. 27 1923 berlin stopped the rubr credits, and orders were given to cease passive resistance. the area was now financially and economically devastated. the german govt., its currency practically worthless, refused to finance rep- arations deliveries, and the industrials, in order to export and keep their men working, were forced for a time to do so themselves. there was great distress, and serious industrial trouble in many towns. the french authoritics nevertheless persevered in their policy despite the cessation of resistance, and their enterprises at last began to show considerable profits, although at the cost of seri- ous damage to machinery, future production and germany as a whole. but the french slowly realised that though german resistance was broken, they had not established a lasting system. when m. herriot succeeded m. poincare in may 1924, new methods were tried. the dawes plan was adopted at the con- ference of london in aug. 1924 and preparations were immedi- ately made to evacuate the ruhr. by nov. 15 1924 there was a total economic ‘‘ evacuation ” of the whole system of pledges, and all exploitation of the railways by the regie came to an end. the military evacuation began in mid-july 1925; if was com- pleted before aug. 16. the three “ sanction towns ” of dissel- dorf, duisburg and ruhrort were evacuated on aug. 25. | balance sheet of the occupation.—the balance of the ruhr occupation up to jan. 1925, was estimated by the french and belgian authorities as follows:— gold marks 129,000,000 163,000,006 1q1,000,000 receipts coal tax ot custonis receipts . , licences and permits . forests . ; 27,0pd, doo profits of railway regie 67,000,000 passports and miscellaneous 4,009,000 490,000,000 iexpenses | costs of collection and administration 16,000,000 costs of loading coal and exploiting mines 54,000,000 military expenses (france) , 95,000,000 amlilitary expenses (belgium) 19,000,000 184,000,000 credit balance 306,000,000 gold marks. in addition, france and belgium obtained requisition and deliveries in kind to the estimated value of 491,900,000 gold marks. germany presumably reckoned her stubborn if unsuccessful resistance as a moral victory. the total cost of the occupation to germany and thus indirectly to the world cannot be estimated. by sept. 1923 german official figures estimated the approximate cost to germany of the occupation at 3,500,000,000 gold marks. at this date it was unofficially estimated that france had lost about £40,000,000 worth of coal by her action. the great in- dustrialists claimed compensation from the german govt. amounting 10 706,402,500 gold marks. bibliography.—l. coupaye, ‘‘la ruhret l’allemagne ” in the fn- cyclopedie parlemeniaire (1922 no. 3); the dariac report. ruhr, rhineland and saar, manchester guardian (nov. 2 1922 and march 5 1923); department of overseas trade: reports on the economic and financial conditions in germany (j-ondon, 1923 and 1924); j. king, the rukr (loudon, 1924); see also —files of : the times (london) ,'le temps, k olnische zeitung, frankfurter zeitung, and bergwerksseitung, british official publications, french and german official publications and many semi-offictal pamphlets. (g. e.r. g.) rumania (romanra), a kingdom of southeast europe and a member of the league of nations (see 23.825) bounded west by hungary, northwest by czechoslovakia, north by poland, east by russia, southeast by bulgaria, southwest by yugoslavia. as a result of the second balkan war and the world war, ru- mania has more than doubled in size, having incorporated the provinces of southern dobruja (from bulgaria), bessarabia (from russia), the bukovina (from austria), transylvania and parts of the banat (from hungary). the area is now 122,282 sq. m., the estimated population (1922) 16,250,000. this in- cludes minorities, some being of very considerable size. they l¥ bukovina pam. tes ures radduti ny ct suceava % ny ro, wea, 1; ie, dia she\" —\" os: ist al <a targul muresu 1 ee\" j ae asighigeara i alba futia ¢ | fists ra’. ie xn \\ fy 0 sy cn ts rs: fb ee bbe pe aang pe). es — ss ms ay ce if sss e, 3 ae whe rf evermn | => cratova¥ 1 reiarr i de2vede rumania wi a mes oe lw uh ia ie . \\ english miles oo 20 40 60 a0 kilometres oo 20 40 60 bd 100 provincial boundaries .---- | main railways his pt) een cdldrast i i cae se © ‘ . : eh). — eee se are of german, magyar, ukrainian, bulgar, jewish and gypsy nationality (see minorities). i. political history internal position in r9%11—towards the end of ro11 the liberal ministry, now headed by j. j. bratianu, was obliged to resign. its last measures had been a law creating a supreme consistory of the church and the conclusion of a convention with austria-hungary. bratianu’s successor was p. p. carp, who on the death of g. gz. cantacuzene, had become head of the conservative party. among his colleagues in the new min- istry were t. maiorescu, n. filipescu and the great lawyer and orator, b. st. delavrancea. when parliament met, a campaign was opened against the new economic policy of the liberals, which had been inspired chiefly by vintila bratianu, brother of the leader of the party, and aimed at combining the interests of private capital with those of communal and state capital in such great transport concerns as the electric tramways at bucharest. the liberal opposition, numerically small, left the chamber and combined with take jonescu, the creator of the new conservative demo- cratic party, in a heated campaign for the overthrow of the con- servative government. the carp govt. was reconstructed in april r912 with titus maiorescu as premier and take jonescu as the most important member of the ministry. the balkan wars.—in oct. 1912 the balkan league went to war with turkey. rumania, although she had not accepted military alliance with turkey, was yet bound to austria-itungary by her adhesion to the triple alliance, and her sympathies were uncertain. she was therefore not taken into the confidence of the belligerents; in fact, articles 2 and 3 of the military conven- tion signed between serbia and bulgaria at sofia (march 13) provided for mutual support in case either belligerent were attacked by either austria-hungary or rumania. at first the rumanian govt. expressed desinteressement in events beyond the danube; but the rapid successes of the bulgarians at kirk kilisse (oct. 23-4) and lule burgas (oct. 28-nov. 1) aroused uneasiness in rumania and austria-hungary alike. rumanian public opinion demanded “* compensation ” in case of a division of turkey in europe; and the government let the bulgarian govt. know that some correction of the frontier in the dobruja would be required. danev, then president of the bulgarian house of deputies, appealed to austria-hungary, who was in the difficult position of wishing to secure both rumania and bulgaria for allies, and this step aroused anxiety in rumania. danev then proceeded to bucharest himself in nov. 1912, where he offered to renounce forever bulgaria’s claims to the northern dobruja and to modify the existing frontiers by flattening out salient angles in favour of rumania. no agreement could be reached. immediately after conrad von hetzendorf, chief of the austro-hungarian general staff, was sent to bucharest (nov. 29 and 30) to attempt to arrange a modus between bulgaria and rumania, to calm rumanian suspicions and to arrange a military convention between rumania and austria-hungary. these moves were only partly successful. the conversations between danev, misu and take jonescu were continued in london, but although bulgaria was prepared to make concessions, no agree- ment could be reached as to their extent. at last the case was submitted to the conference of st. petersburg (may 17), which assigned silistra to rumania. this arrangement, however, failed to satisfy the country. carp, supported by filipescu, was conducting a violent cam- paign against the government, which was called upon either to resign or to declare war on the bulgarians, and when bulgaria suddenly attacked serbia at the end of june, rumania deter- mined on military intervention. russia advised in that sense, serbia just then enjoying the support of the russian govern- ment. on july 10 1913 the rumanian army, 500,000 strong rumania crossed the frontier, occupying on one side the southern dob- ruja as far as kavarna, and on the other side advancing upon sofia by vrattsa and orkhanie. the exhausted bulgarian sol- diers deserted en masse, and the rumanians sent them back to their homes. as the rumanian troops, commanded by the crown prince, drew near the bulgarian capital, the tsar ferdi- nand despatched a telegram to king charles asking for peace. negotiations were immediately begun at bucharest, where an armistice was signed on july 31 1913, between rumania, serbia, greece and bulgaria. the treaty of bucharest was concluded on aug. 10; rumania obtained the territory which she had already occupied in the dobruja and her rights of protection over the vlachs in macedonia were recognised. but the result of this was to render rumania’s position more uncertain than ever. she was bound to austria-hungary by her secret adhesion to the triple alliance of 1883; her general staff made fresh arrangements with the austro-hungarian staff as lately as ror2 for the event of war with russia, and the secret triple alliance was renewed for the fourth time in feb. 1914. but this friendship was largely personal to king charles and all the efforts of the central powers—francis joseph’s visit to bucharest, and that of francis ferdinand to sinaia, could not make the relationship cordial. the younger generation was utterly opposed to this policy for two main reasons: the resent- ment aroused by the magyar oppression of the rumanians in transylvania and austria-hungary’s diplomatic support of bulgaria. the latter now had unfortunate results; austria- hungary made a diplomatic intervention in favour of bulgaria at bucharest; the austrian minister there, prince fiirstenberg, presented a note from count berchtold in which the recently- concluded treaty was referred to as a simple “ preliminary arrangement.” this conception was energetically rejected, as was that of calling an european congress to settle near eastern affairs ‘“‘ definitely.” rumania became therefore more and more convinced of the necessity of a national policy in the interests of the entire ru- manian nation, whether in the kingdom or under austro-hun- garian or russian rule. she hoped that russia would enable her to realise her ambitions; but the visit of the rumanian heir to the throne to st. petersburg (march 27 1914) and of the tsar to constanta (june 14 rgr14) did not bring about a definite change of orientation. rumania during the world war—maiorescu had renewed the triple alliance in feb. 1914; and when the world war broke out, j. bratianu, head of the liberal party, had succeeded him with a long programme of reforms—foremost among them being an agrarian law based on the expropriation of the large land- owners, and an electoral law establishing universal suffrage except for illiterates. bratianu had never shown any intention of breaking with king charles’s policy, but in face of italy’s disclaimer of her obligations under the treaty, and great britain’s declaration of war against the central powers, charles i. and his advisers were forced to adopt the compromise of an armed neutrality. with the german check at the battle of the marne, m. take jonescu passed from the first idea of “ loyal neutrality ” to that of intervention on the side of the allies, and in this he was supported especially by the combative energy of filipescu. the latter did not shrink from dividing his own party, opposing alexander marghiloman, who favoured the central powers, and, joining hands with his former rival, he effected a fusion with take jonescu. meanwhile, austria-hungary and germany con- cluded conventions by which rumania was exploited to feed the population of the central powers. there were popular dem- onstrations against this policy, and filipescu vehemently de- manded rupture with austria-hungary. one great obstacle to this was removed by the death of king charles on oct. 10 1or4. the bratianu govt. continued to negotiate with the central powers, but modelled its attitude on that of italy. when italy declared war in may 1915, rumania nearly followed her example; but she still hesitated. in 1916 the western powers overcame russia’s objections, and great britain, france, russia and italy signed a treaty on aug. 17 1916, by which they guaranteed 39t rumania the banat, transylvania, the hungarian plain as far as the tisza, and the bukovina as far as the prut, in return for an immediate declaration of war. on the same day russia and rumania signed a military convention, russia undertaking to unite with the rumanian forces when they entered transylvania, and to march in concert upon budapest and also promising to send into the dobruja troops sufficient to keep watch on bul- garia. rumania declared war on austria-hungary aug. 27 1016. (for a fuller account of these negotiations sce europr, history.) the rumanian troops at once crossed the passes into transyl- vania, but germany began a strong counter offensive and had expelled them by mid-november. bucharest was occupied on dec. 6 1916. the army retired into moldavia to reorganise there, sheltered by the russian troops; the king, his ministers and parliament, had already retired to jassy. a counter offensive had begun in july 1917, when the defec- tion of the russians left mackensen free to throw all his forces against the rumanian army, which was rendered incapable of further resistance after the prolonged and glorious struggle of masdresti in aug. 1917. the russian army disintegrated into pillaging bands; hostilities were suspended; and eventually it became necessary to submit to the armistice imposed by the germans at focsani on gen. shtcherbachev, who had assumed the chief command on the rumanian front over king ferdi- nand’s head (dec. 6 1917). agrarian and llectoral reforms—parliament had met at jassy in dec. 1916, and had determined to prosecute the war te a finish. bratianu had formed a coalition with take jonescu and his section of the conservative party. in april 1917 the agrarian question once more became urgent, largely owing to the effect on the public mind of the social revolution in russia. in may direct and universal suffrage was introduced, raising the number of voters from 180,000 to over 1,200,000. iniluenced by the crown, the conservatives in may ror7 at last accepted the radical policy of expropriation, to be applied to an area fixed at 2,000,000 hectares. a law was passed by a large majority on july 14, which left the original proprietors with a maximum of 500 hectares per estate (absentees being completely expropri- ated), and assigned them a compensation in state bonds, the amount not to exceed twenty times the value of the annual return from the property. a scheme for the communal holding by village associations of the land thus obtained was rejected in favour of traditional individual tenure. the union of bessarabia.—on the break-up of the russian empire, a “‘ national moldavian committee ” formed itself out of the rumanian elements in bessarabia (may 1917); in august the ukrainian national rada recognised bessarabia as a sepa- rate unit. in oct. a supreme council (sfatul-tarii) for bessa- rabia was set up, the various nationalities being represented on it proportionately. on dec. 17 this body proclaimed an inde- pendent moldavian republic, and invited rumania to send troops into the country for its defence. rumania took this step, partly in order to guard the large food depots which she had accumulated there. russia protested, and a siute of war existed between russia and rumania from jan. 28 1918 till march 9, when an agreement was reached that the rumanian troops should withdraw. on april 8, the sfatul tarii voted for political union with rumania, bessarabia, however, to retain a large degree of autonomy. the central powers sanctioned this ar- rangement by the ‘treaty of bucharest to compensate rumania for her other losses. no russian govt., however, admitted the validity of these arrangements, as the rumanian troops had not been withdrawn as agreed, and the ukrainian representatives of the sfatul had abstained from voting. the treaty of bucharest.—in face of the equal impossibility of either organising resistance or signing a treaty of renunciation, bratianu resigned on tfeb. 9 1918. gen. averescu was charged with the peace negotiations at buftea, near bucharest. von kiihlmann advised that only economic terms be imposed; but czernin, for austria-hungary, insisted on territorial changes. the dobruja was ceded as far as the danube, bulgaria taking over the southern half which she had lost in 1913, while the 392 quadruple alliance administered the northern half conjointly. rumania was to have a trade route to the black sea via con- stanta. the rumanian army was to be demobilised except for eight divisions. the frontier of hungary was advanced in the carpathians. the central powers secured such terms on the danube, in the rumanian oilficlds and over the railways, as would have placed rumania in a state of economic slavery to them for many years. averescu’s cabinet hesitated to sign and resigned on march 12. czernin, however, brought a personal message to the king that his dynasty would be endangered unless the peace were concluded. the germanophile marghiloman ministry was appointed on march 18 and the treaty was signed at bucharest on may 7 1918. marghiloman’s ministry struggled against almost unsur- mountable difliculties throughout the succeeding months. in the occupied territory everyone was snatching greedily at the remnants of national prosperity; the central powers forced the banque generale to issue no less than 2,500,000,000 lei in paper money, and disorganised the finance of the kingdom; while economic ruin was ensured by the exportation of sheep and cattle, the cutting down of forests and the dismantling of factories. the population meanwhile was starving, reduced to famine rations, and the morale of its working-class was being perverted by revolutionary propaganda. peace: the formation of greater rumania.—on nov. 8 1918, when the defeat of the central powers was assured, the king called to power gen, coandai, an old soldier who had already had diplomatic experience, with gen. grigorescu, to whom was due the chief credit for the stubborn resistance at marhsesti, as minister of war. coandit repealed all laws introduced by the marghiloman ministry and decreed universal, obligatory and secret suffrage for all male voters over 21. the king re-en- tered bucharest nov. 30 after the german troops had evacuated rumania under the terms of the armistice. bratianu again be- came minister on dec. 14. the new liberal govt. had the extraordinarily difficult task of reuniting provinces which had been under the domination of different alien states, bessarabia was already incorporated in the ancient kingdom, having abandoned the idea of autonomy. her council voted for unconditional incorporation on dec. 9 1918. in transylvania the magyar administration throughout the war had ruthlessly oppressed the rumanians, who formed the majori- ty in the rural districts. the prisons were filled with suspects, who were executed on the slightest pretext ; a measure was framed to expropriate in favour of alicn immigrants the widows and children of soldiers killed in action. when vienna and budapest repudiated the hapsburgs, a great rumanian assembly at alba tulia declared that transylvania henceforward formed part of the kingdom of the united rumanians but that they promised absolute national liberty to their saxon and magyar fellow- citizens (dec. 1). the saxons gave their adhesion at a meeting held at medias, jan. 21 1919; but the magyar bishops, catholic, calvinist and unitarian, did not take the oath of allegiance to king ferdinand till 1921. a council of direction, presided over by julius maniu, formed a provisional government. a general assembly of the rumanians in the bukovina (who, however, by austrian statistics, numbered rather under one-half of the total population) voted the union of their province with rumania in a meeting held at czernowitz, nov. 28 1918. during the first few months of its existence, the liberal govt. carried on difficult diplomatic negotiations for the recognition by the allies of the new irontiers. those fixed by the agreement of aug. 1916 were drawn back in places to give the hungarians a part of the hinterland of oradea-mare, and the yugoslavs the western half of the banat. a line of demarcation was fixed in hungary, and rumanian troops occupied the country up to this line, pending final settlement by treaty. in march i919 a further ‘‘ neutral zone ”’ was established and rumania was given the right of occupying it. bela kun’s govt., which now came 1 according to the official austro-hungarian statistics of i9r0, 2,948,186 in hungary (transylvania and the banat); 275,088 in| austria (the bukovina) rumania into power in hungary, started a campaign, asa result of which the rumanians advanced to the (theiss) tiza, where they were stopped by the allies on may 9. on july 22 kun started a new offensive; but the rumanian army defeated his troops, crossed the tiza—despite the interdiction of the allies—and occupied budapest on aug. 4. here they remained in the face of numerous protests until november 14. the treaties of st. germain and yrianon recognised as rumanian the predominantly rumanian territories of the old dual monarchy. austria quickly agreed; but hungary resisted till 1921, and rumania was only able to demobilise in april 1921 (see hungary). post-war politics—the bratianu govt. resigned on sept. 13 1919 as a protest against article 60 of the treaty of trianon (minorities clause), especially as two successive measures had already been passed granting full political rights to the jewish population without distinction between old inhabitants and recent immigrants. new elections were held on oct. 3 by a provisional ‘‘ ministry of generals,” presided over by arthur vaitoianu. they gave a large majority for the peasant party, whose chief was the rural school teacher john mihalachi, and the national democrats; the liberals now formed only one-fifth of the total number of deputies; a certain number of socialists made their appearance in this first parliament of united ru- mania. the majority parties coalesced as a bloc purlementaire, and on dec. 9 1919 formed a democratic government of ad- vanced tendencies. the president was the transylvanian alexander vaida voevod, who at once visited paris and london and obtained the formal recognition of a rumanian bessarabia.” dr. lupu was minister of the interior. during the premier’s absence, however, the landowners agitated against proposed expropriation, and the court and society felt alarmed at the bolshevik propaganda. the cabinet was forced to resign and gen. averescu became premier (march 19 1920) with the support of the “ league of the people ” which he had founded in april 1917, an organisation which included many conservatives and some new men. he also concluded a pact with take jonescu’s conservative democrats. elections were held early in june. averescu’s party won a large majority even in transylvania. take jonescu became minister for foreign affairs in his government (june 21 1920). phe averescu government—the chief object of the averescu govt. was what it called “the re-establishment of order.’ in fact the bolshevist danger continued on the dniester, where a real revolutionary movement had been attempted at hotin under the previous government; the sovict russians no doubt had friends, not only in bessarabia, but also in the ‘‘ ancient king- dom ” and the odious crime in the senate® had shown to what lengths their fanatical ardour could go. it was thought necessary therefore to continue the regime of press censorship, and in may i921, as the communists had begun to hold a congress at bucharest, which seemed likely to be the beginning of fresh activities, the minister of the interior, who held proofs of their relations with the third international of moscow, had all the participants arrested and brought to trial, the trial being unduly prolonged. alaw on workmen’s unions, first of all received with noisy protests in working class circles, soon succeeded in securing agreement to accept state mediation between masters and men, and after that, thanks to a change of attitude on the part of the men, the number and importance of strikes diminished. but, up to the present, except for one school for apprentices, nothing was done for the instruction or education of the urban classes. agrarian reforms.—at the same time the popularity of gen. averescu among the rural population forced him to carry through his agrarian reforms. the bill was only introduced in the spring of 1921, by the minister of agriculture, garoflid, a big landowner, who belonged to the ‘‘ progressive ”’ party of the germanophiles led by marghiloman. this experienced economist would have *(s. v. v. tilea, actiunea diplomatica a romaniei (nov. 1919- mart 1920), sibiiu, 1925). *on dec. 9 1920 an infernal machine exploded in the senate killing the bishop radu, and mortally wounding d. grecianu (the minister of justice) and another senator. rumania liked a practical organisation of small holdings, giving land only to those who could ensure a good return, and guaranteeing a supply of rural labour to the remaining big estates. in the chambers, composed of varied social strata and with cross- currents, but with a predominance of the left wing, the op- position of the minister and the hesitations of the president of the council had to be surmounted in order to secure decisions favourable to the peasantry in general. the principle was recognised that the break-up and distribution of the land was a reward for the sacrifices of the peasants during the war; on this basis several categories were distinguished, not always wisely. there were passionate discussions on purchase price, methods of payment and rights to the subsoil, of special importance in petroleum-bearing districts. the right wing of the party, which was a conglomeration kept together by the general’s sole authority, was victorious. the state added to the sum to be paid by the new owner a payment to be raised from a special tax on new fortunes, and the subsoil was not allotted to the state, as the left wing wished. later on regulations drawn up by the liberal minister of agriculture were to change in many respects the cnactments of the garoflid law (see land tenure). fiscal reform.—after march 1921, before the solution of the agrarian question, the finance minister, nicolas titulescu (later rumanian minister in london), who was considered the eventual successor of take jonescu in the democratic party, from which he was cutting loose at this time, introduced the bill on new taxation. the old taxes, a mixture of oriental features and modern innovations, were impossible. public opinion demanded an energetic attack on ill-gotten gains, but their possessors had long since assured them against attack. the rural democracy opposed all burdens on the newly acquired small holdings, which were, and still are, badly consolidated. the minister, who had his own point of view, favoured the french system of taxa- tion, but had to take into account in his legislation all these interests and tendencies, and, while introducing some happy innovations on several points, certainly went beyond what could be carried out in the country. foreign policy —-m. take jonescu gave rumanian foreign policy a definite direction. marriages were concluded between the crown prince and princess helen of greece, march to 1921, the princess elisabeth and the crown prince of greece, feb. 27 1921 and princess marie and king alexander of yugoslavia, june 6 1922. rumania and poland were equally threatened by russia, who had never recognised rumania’s right to bessarabia, and seemed little satisfied with poland’s right to retain her white russian and ukrainian territories. sapieha’s journey to bucharest brought the conclusion of the rumanian-polish treaty (march 3 1921), which provided for mutual assistance in the event of an unprovoked attack upon either party on their eastern frontier; for common diplomatic action towards their eastern neighbours; and for a military convention. rumania took cognisance of poland’s agreement with france, poland of rumania’s agree- ments with other states for the maintenance of the treaties of trianon and neuilly. the last-named clause referred to rumania’s relations with the little entente. czechoslovakia and yugoslavia had already signed a convention for mutual protection against aggression by hungary (aug. 14 1920). immediately after m. bene visited bucharest (aug. 19), with a view to including rumania in the agreement. the hungarian danger was common to all; but take jonescu would have desired a wider defensive alliance to include greece and poland, for mutual guarantee against any aggressor, including russia or bulgaria. the russophil govts. of prague and belgrade could not agree to this; but rumania concluded a convention with prague for mutual protection against an attack from hungary (april 23 1921) and with belgrade against an unprovoked attack from hungary or bulgaria (june 7 1921). since this date rumania has formed a part of the little entente, and as such has taken part in its periodical deliberations, her eastern policy being regulated by agreement with poland (see 393 poland, czechoslovakia and little entente). the dispute with russia remained acute. at geneva, to which the head of the government went in person, and at lausanne, where the foreign minister attended, the bessarabian question was brought no nearer solution. italy and japan refused to vote the support which had been granted to the vaida government. during 1924 russia kept up continuous agitation and threat of war; for three days in 1924 there was even a communist republic at tatarbunar in south bessarabia. a conference with the soviel representa- lives held in vienna (march 27 to april 2 1924) led to no result, although an understanding was reached at cetatea alba to prevent incursions of bolshevik bands. the russian danger continued to impose a heavy burden on rumania. the bratianu government—from the beginning of the year 1921 the liberals, who only had four representatives in parlia- ment, demanded power. a national festival was organised on the occasion of moving the ashes of j. c. bratianu, the great minister of king carol. great popular demonstrations, arti- ficially promoted, were organised to show the king that the party had regained its popularity among the rural masses. on the occasion of a vote on a mining concession in the banat, a concession later on repudiated by the liberal regime, the entire opposition left the chamber not to return. the new session of parliament was opened, nov. 1921, with bad prospects for the government. the king formally demanded a detente; gen. averescu took offence. take jonescu took power (dec. 17). during dec. he made efforts to gain a majority. only the nationalist democrats gave him unreserved support; the transylvanian party voted for him when it came to the decisive moment. but his old associates dominated parliament; on the re-opening of the session a vote of confidence in the democratic leader was rejected (jan. 17 1922). | a coalition ministry was expected, as an outcome of the struggle against the averescu govt.; it would have united the liberals, the transylvanians, part of the bessarabians (except the powerful peasant party) and the bukovinians, and had also the support of the nationalist democrats who had considered take jonescu’s advent to power as an intermediate solution. however, after indecisive discussions on the division of candi- datures, the king was forced to accept m. j. j. bratianu, as he was convinced of the necessity of retaining in political life this liberal party of the bourgeois right wing, and preferred unity of direction which had been so much insisted on (jan. 19). the head of the new government believed he had a mission to save the country, and a right to the exceptional measures of a dictatorship, and at the same time proposed to strengthen his party so as to avoid in future such bad luck as that through which it had lately passed. the elections were forced and he, owing to his personal unpopularity, was opposed by the people’s party, the popular transylvanians, the peasant party and the nationalist democrats. the opposition parties declared the parliament illegal and all legislation passed by it null and void in their eyes, and abstained from voting. a party administration took office almost at once. the brother of the president of the council, m. vintila bratianu, was entrusted with the task of re- establishing order in the finances, which were endangered by the quantity of treasury bonds and unfunded loans. the coronation and the constitution—but at the same time m. j. j. bratianu thought it necessary to give the country the imposing ceremony of the coronation of the king and queen, which had already been prepared for by the preceding govern- ment, and to draw up aconstitution. on oct. 15 1922, ferdinand i. and queen mary assumed the crowns of united rumania at alba-julia, without the presence of any representative of the party which had given the kingdom this beautiful province. the proposed constitution was only introduced in the spring of the following year, in the chambers which had no legal right to adopt it. the new law of the constitution, debated by the nation- alist democrats only, and with reservations, was adopted march 28 1923. it was only a reproduction of that of 1866, with the addition of the election of deputies by universal suffrage, with a vague right of representation of electoral minorities, 394 and adding to the senate the old dignitaries and members of parliament and representatives of the chambers of commerce and agriculture. the subsoil and forests were nationalised. the admission of jews to citizen rights was incorporated in the constitution, but open competition with the newcomers pro- voked violent trouble in the universities, which was exploited by politicians whose ambitions had not been satisfied, and still continues. a local government law followed tradition, as did also educational reform. in agrarian affairs, in labour questions, in military matters, and above all in foreign affairs, there were no innovations. in the financial sphere the position was long maintained of isolation towards foreign capital; the attempt to commercialise properties and state enterprises did not succeed. the opposition was systematically divided, indeed this was the basis of a policy which disdained popular support and showed itself indifferent to parliamentary criticism. however, at one time the transylvanians and the peasant party seemed to have united; then having abandoned united action, the former joined the friends of take jonescu, who died on june 21 1921. in 1924 m. argetoiant, the leading member of the averescu govt., separated from the general, and joined the nationalist demo- crats. in march 1925 this nationalist-popular party united with the transylvanian party and became the national party. the new party came to an understanding with the peasant party and the allies gained a great victory in the elections for the chambers of agriculture in august. the opposition, which had long been so sterile, was thus becoming formidable. in june 1924 a mass meeting of peasants under averescu demonstrated in the streets of bucharest, and a tumult was feared. the same year saw a number of financial scandals in the liberal party. the opposition coalition produced a programme based on fulfilment of the wishes of the peasants and the national minorities, the abolition of arbitrary government and a new financial policy. it was generally believed that the long government was coming to its close. it had had its faults—notably its doctrinaire opposition, almost up to the last, to the competition of foreign capital, which was only admitted under irritating restrictions to the exploitation of the oilfields. none the less, it had helped to consolidate the financial position of the country. the opposition of the national and peasants’ parties abandoned the violent attacks which they had commenced in may and june in view of the approaching end of the regime, while the people’s party negotiated with the liberals in the hope of forming the next government with their support. nevertheless m. j. j. bratianu wished to carry his reforms through to the end. the law for the unification of the church had already been passed, introducing the transylvanian system of elective councils for each parish, each diocese and for the religious life of the country in general. in the autumn he put forward an education bill which was at- tacked, not only by the national minorities, but even by the rumanian opposition parties because it infringed on the liberty of private, religious and national education by imposing on it too strict state control. the crown prince charles.—at the end of dec. the heir to the throne, the crown prince charles, who had done much for his country by his “ institute ” of national propaganda, and by his expert advice in military and especially aeronautical matters, left rumania under circumstances which permitted his enemies to unite against him. at venice he renounced all his mnghts, including that of bringing up his little son prince michael, and repeated his intention of disassociating himself from his country. meanwhile, a crown council had met at sinaia. the king in- sisted that the party leaders recognise the situation created by the prince’s action. there were some doubts expressed as to the advisability of this measure, but the decision which the sovereign took on dec. 31 was not to be shaken. on jan. 11 1926 the chamber of deputies and the senate met to discuss the new situation regarding the succession to the throne. gen. averescu voted for the government plan; the real opposition abstained from voting. a provisional council of regency was immediately formed consisting of the patriarch miron cristea, the president rumania of the supreme court of appeal, buzdugan and prince nicholas, the second son of the king, who was recalled from england where he was studying. the king’s recent very serious illness had necessitated this measure. the parliamentary situation —when the chambers re- assembled, bratianu forced through an electoral law of the fascist type. the version presented to the senate was much more liberal. any party which received 40% of the total votes cast, the other votes being divided among several political bodies, was rewarded with half the number of seats, without counting what it got on the scrutiny (march 1926). in holding local elections in feb., the government had believed that it would secure a basis which would enable it to continue in power. it was undeceived. almost all the large towns voted for the nationalist and “ peasant ” coalition, which had been joined by ° averescu’s party. in the country the government machinery was able to prevent the opposition candidates from coming forward, and the government lists were declared elected in three thousand rural communes. nevertheless, bratianu saw that he must retire. consultations which the king held at the end of march with the opposition leaders looked as if they would end by forming a national or national peasant govt. in accordance with the results of the last election. this would have corre- sponded to the parliamentary situation. the king, having de- manded a ministerial coalition of the three groups, asked for a list for each group. although the nationals and peasants had presented a common list under the presidency of m. maniu, one of the leaders of the national party, the king entrusted averescu, who had been joined by the small progressive group with the task of forming a government. bibliography.—c,. (kiritescu, jstoria razboiului (bucharest, 1924); n. jorga, regele ferdinand (bucharest, 1924); id., regina morita (bucharest, 1924); sisesti jonescu, la reforme agraire en roumanie (bucharest); id., rapport au congres d’agriculture de 1924; rapport sur uactivite du gouvernement liberal (bucharest, 1925). (nj) il. defence military service in rumania is universal and personal. all rumanians, without distinction of race, language or religion, are liable to service. the duration of service is for 29 years between the ages of 21 and 50, divided as follows: two years in the regular army, or three years in the navy; 18 years in the reserve and nine years in the militia. on completing ig years of age, young men are liable to be called up for preparatory training. certain classes of persons are exempted from service for social reasons, and volunteers are also allowed. the army is organised in 7 army corps and i corps of mountain lightinfantry. it consists of 66 regiments of infantry(168 battalions, each with a machine-gun company); i regiment of tanks (2 battal- ions); 20 regiments of cavalry (12 regiments red hussars, 7 regi- ments black hussars, 1 regiment royal escort); 21 regiments (144 batteries) of field artillery; 4 regiments (96 batteries) field howitzers; 2 groups (6 batteries) horse artillery; 2 brigades (18 batteries) mountain artillery; 4 groups (8 battcries) mountain howitzers; 1 groups (42 batteries) heavy artillery. besides these ‘* normal’ batteries there are special and heavy batteries. there are 6 battal- ions railway engineers, 2 signal, 2 bridge, i motor transport, 4 pioneers, 2 mountain pioneers. the air force consists of 3 groups of scouting planes, 2 of fighting, i of service, i of naval; 1 balloon group and i air defence regiment. the aeroplanes in use are of very various types. the effectives of the air force (1925) were: 487 officers; 518 re-engaged; 3,450 men; total, 4,455. the navy consists of a danube division with 7 monitors, 7 patrol boats, auxiliary and minor vessels, a land river defence force with mine-laying groups and coastal artillery; a naval river base, including wireless stations and a naval arsenal; and a maritime division, con- sisting of a maritime naval force (2 destroyers, 6 torpedo boats, 5 gunboats, ctc.), a land maritime «dlefence force (coast battery, mine- laying group), base and training school. there is a corps of frontier guards, consisting of 20 battalions; and a corps of gendarmes with 14 battalions. the budgetary effectives in 1925 were: officers, 12,344; re-enlisted 10,509; n.c.qo.s and men, 116,974; civil servants em- ployed by the army, 3,342. the defence expenditure of the ministry of war in 1925 was 4,324,650,000 ici, of which 3,853,638,000 were for the army; 120,619,000 for the navy; 349,489,000 for the air force; and 908,000 for the army endowment fund expenditure on frontier troops as charged to the ministry of finance. arms and munitions were up to 1925 generally bought in foreign countries; but it was proposed to establish a large munitions factory in rumania which should cover the requirements of her fighting forces. rumania iii, economic and financial history area and population.—the peace settlement after the world war more than doubled the area of rumania and nearly doubled the population which is predominantly rural. the total area of the country and the population are distributed as follows:— sq. km. population moldavia 38,058 2,233,556 muntenia 2,505 3,485,859 oltenia. 24,078 1,484,706 | dobruja 23,262 693,190 bessarabia . 44,422 2,344,800 bukovina 10;442 811,721 banat . 17,980 910,393 crishana 17,086 1,145,113 maramuresh 8,592 466,956 | transylvania 57,819 2,685,833 201,244 16,262,127 agriculture —the 23,737,420 hectares of rumanian agricultur- al and forest land are used as follows:— per cent of total 49°4 18-0 30:2 hectares 11;731,420 4,278,059 7,241,720 arable land : ; meadowland and pastures forests : . : ‘ : f trees, shrubs and bushes (including vineyards) 485,248 2°4 before the war rumania was still a country of great estates and one of the great wheat-exporting countries of europe. the peasants were emancipated in 1864, and from time to time distributions of crown land were made, but in insufficient quantities to satisfy the general land hunger. the distribution of arable land in 1905 is given as follows by mr. sisesti jonescu :— percentage of total area 40-29 i1-02 48-69 too: no. of landowners area in size of holdings hectares 3,153,645 862,800 3,810,351 7,826,796 under 10 ha. 10-100 ha. : 100 ha. and over 920,939 38,723 5,385 965,047 distribution was equally unsatisfactory in the newly acquired provinces of bessarabia and transylvania, but in bukovina the peasants already held a considerable share of the land. the pledges given by the constituent assembly of 1917 for the division of the land were fulfilled in agrarian laws for bessarabia, 1920; for the old kingdom of rumania, 1921; for transylvania and bukovina, 1921. the rumanian law provided for total ex- propriation of landlords resident abroad, foreigners, corporate bodies and for partial expropriation of resident large owners. the progress of expropriation to nov. 15 1924. old tran- bess- buco- ru- syl- arabia. | vina. mania, | vania. hectares expropriated 2,708,462,1,580,777|1,491,920| 73,495 number of persons still en- titled to receive land 599,529] 530,604, — 36,800 number of persons who have | received land . : : 413,932] 335,073] 357,016] 19,166 area in hectares allotted to the latter. ; ‘ 1,396,665] 411,022|1,098,045) i1,440 communal pasture lands (hectares) : 475,348] 338,268) — 7,058 communal forest lands (hectares) : ‘ ; — 218,697} — — reserve -gencral—(hectares)} 80,659} 58,840 102,977] 7,573 reserve for districts(hectares) 201} — — — reserve for communes (hec- tares) : : ; , 42,253, — = -— forests allotted to the state | (hectares) : ‘ . 2,006) , == 198,405) — balance to be distributed . 710,330} 556,950] — 53,423 unproductive lands . not not 2,493; not ascer- | ascer- ascer- tained. { tained. tained. 393 the thousands of peasants who took over the land in the first years of the agrarian reform were unskilled in management, inadequately organised on the co-operative side, and lacked machinery and capital. the immediate results of the land reform were a large reduction in the output of wheat and cereals, and a diminution of production generally. the changes in production are shown by the following table:— in thousands of metric tons | pre-war + averages 1919 1924 1925 (estimate for present territory) wheat . : 1,797 1,916 2,850 4,574 rye. 5 : : 338 i5i 203 52: oats . ‘ 528 610 740 1,504 barley ; , - 786 670 1,019 1,457 maize 4,142 3,949 4,159 5,912 rumanian economists are inclined to believe that the division of the land will lead to ullimate increased total production, but not necessarily to the resumption of the pre-war production of wheat. the peasants grow more maize and fodder crops for use on the farm, and individual houscholds consume more. another reason for the decrease in the cereal export (wheat was actually imported in 1924) is that, whereas old rumania was a compact agricultural country, greater rumania includes industrial and mining districts which absorb some of the food products formerly exported. a useful index of the prosperity of rumanian agriculture is the number of animals maintained. the figures are as follows, but account must of course be taken of the change in frontiers:— ————— ss et igi! 1920 1925 cattle . 2,667,000 4,730,000 5,399,000 sheep 5,269,000 8,690,000 13,612,000 pigs : 1,021,000 2,514,000 3,133,000 llorses 843,000 1,485,000 1,845,000 rurai co-operation.—with the post-war law giving the land to the peasants the role of the co-operative socictics was changed. the whole organisation had been destroyed by the german occupation, and it was necessary to begin to build de move. the central credit bank has a capital of 12,000,000 lei, of which two-thirds were found by the state. the nominal capital was increased in 1923. the rural societies provide the peasants with seeds, machinery, etc., and in many cases make arrangements for the collection and export of produce. there were at the end of 1924 over 2,500 socicties, with 236,713 members. : mining.—the chief mineral wealth of old rumania lay in the rich petroleum deposits. in 1913 rumania produced 1,885,000 tons of petroleum, standing fourth in the rank of petrol-producing countries, in the autumn of 1916 an allied mission, acting in concert with the rumanian govt., put the ficlds out of action in order to prevent the exploitation of the wells by the germans. production fell to 517,000 tons, but by 1925 was restored to 2,316,000 tons (provisional figure), considerably higher than the pre-war figure. this progress was made in spite of heavy restrictions placed on the industry by the imposition of maximum prices in rumanian. markets. a decision of dec. 15 1923 removed the maximum price limitation and restored freedom to export, subject to an export tax, all petroleum products except crude and residues. the industry was affected by the new constitution voted in march 1923, article 19 of which nationalised subsoil rights, though existing rights were respected. when new oil-bearing land is to be exploited permission must be obtained from the government. in theory 60° of the capital in an industrial enterprise must be rumanian and there must be a certain percentage of rumanians on the board. rumanians must be employed in all industrial concerns, and if foreign labour is imported, cause must be shown. the majority of the big foreign companies conformed to this ruling, and have found that in practice the new system works reasonably smoothly. . the other principal mineral products are coal, natural gases and salt. the coal supply was formerly insufficient to meet requirements, and supplics were imported, chiefly from poland. the output of the coal mines is, however, steadily increasing and at the beginning of 1924 the state railway authorities decided not to purchase any foreign coal. in 1925 the govt. imposed a high import duty to prevent the import of coal. they were probably influenced in this decision by the continued increase in the supply of petroleum residues which are largely used by the railways. 396 according to the figures of the ministry of industry and com- merce the annual coal output for the years 1922 to 1924 was as follows:— 1922 1924 nletric tons | metric tons | metric tons lignite of 3,000 to 7,400 calories 1,861,579 2,229,410 2,479,083 stone coal and anthra- cite of 6,000-8,c00 cal. . 254,642 291,983 297,288 total 2.316;221 2,521,393 2776, 371 with the annexation of transylvania, rumania acquired the coal, iron, gold, silver, lead and copper mines of that province. the whole of the ore is handled in the three metal works owned by the state. ae development of these mines is delayed by the lack of coking coal, trade.—the three principal exports from: rumania are cereals, petroleum products and timber. quantities for the years 1921 to 1924 show a gradual improvement. (in metric tons, 000’s omitted) cereals petroleum products timber ! 1 total not available. 2,483 other exports are hides, wool, vegetable oils, wood manufactures, fruits, etc. the principal imports are manufactured goods (a large part of which are textiles), colonial produce and chemicals. the complete breakdown in the export of wheat in 1924-5 was only temporary and was due to the peasants holding their stocks in anti- cipation of a rise in prices which did not occur (in fact the world price of wheat fell), to lack of transport and to the increased home consumption and high export taxes already mentioned. in view of the low figure of export trade in 1925 the export taxes were heavily reduced in 1926. taking only imports for domestic consumption and exports of domestic produce, rumania showed before the war a large favour- able balance of trade, due to the wheat export. in the years imme- diately following the war the balance was adverse, but the tide turned in 1922 and the monthly averages after that date indicate the recovery she made, which, however, saw a setback in 1925. monthly averages of imports and exports (in thousands of le1) imports exports 682,051 1,169,941 2,050,872 2,318,633 2,383,928 1,012,093 1,027,114 1,626,336 2,182,704 2,501,511 finance.—the fundamental factor in foreign exchange in rumania is the grain harvest and the facilities for moving it, for the lei with which rumanian merchants can purchase foreign goods are the profits on the cereal export. there was much headway to make up, owing to the devastating effect of the german occupation and the temporary chaos in agriculture which followed the expropriation of the large estates. the financial position was made more difficult by the expenses incurred by the invasion of hungary in 191g and by the large expenditure on armaments due to rumania’s political situation, and especially to the refusal of the soviet govt. to agree to the rumanian status of bessarabia. during the occupation the ger- mans issued some 24 miilliards of lei; they also secured large sums of rumanian gold by the sale to the peasants of goods, especially sugar, of which there was a great scarcity. under the peace treaty germany was to repay her various depredations, but it was even- tually agreed between the two govts. that the demand should be met in part at least by the delivery of locomotives and other goods. on taking over her new territorics rumania also had to take over 8! million austrian kronen and 2 milliards of russian rubles. further, at the time of the german invasion the bullion of the national bank, with much private property in jewels and treasure, was sent to moscow for safety. this property, valued at 315,000,000 lei gold, is estimated as irrecoverable. the decline in the value of the leu was rapid between 1918 and 1922, during which period the amount in circulation increased from 24 milliards to 15 milliards. the decline in the value of the leu, normally equivalent to the franc, during this period is shown in the following table:— rumanian literature mean rate to the £ sterling i9ig : ‘ 79 1922 673°16 1920 ‘ 20341 1923 o48°75 1921 329 1924 . : 8yy6°75 1925 1,008-25 there was a further subsidence of the exchange in the carly months of 1926 owing to the reduction in the grain exports for 1925. the decline in the external value of the jeu was much greater than the decline in the internal purchasing power. wlarge stores of goods (british, french, italian, swiss) were sent to rumania because of this difference of absorption at one period, with the result that the adverse balance was increased. in 1921 a government commission considered the question of the exchange. many decrees were issued, and restrictions imposed, but they proved ineffective. mm. titulescu sought to bolster up the exchange by (1) new taxation, (2) govt. control of the cereal harvest, and by holding a balance in paris for purchase of lei offered at low prices. early in 1923 a rumanian delegation visited london and manchester, and came to agreements with british private creditors on liabilities contracted by rumanian traders since the war. an arrangement was also reached with i*rench creditors. in 1925 new decrees were issued. the restrictions on the export of wheat and barley were removed. an effort was made to stop in- flation. the rumanian budget had been balanced in 1922. inflation for the purpose of balancing the budget was now declared to be illegal. the treasury was to pay the national debt by ycarly instal- ments, to pay the rr milliard’s owing to the national bank by yearly instalments of about 2? milliard ici, and the bank was to buy gold with the state payments thus made to back the currency. finally, the bank was to have power to establish a mint, and was granted the privilege of issuing currency for a period of 30 years. ‘the capital of the state bank was raised to 100,000,000 lei gold, to permit the participation of the state to the extent of 33,300,000 lei. the effectiveness of these steps is shown by the following bulgct estimates for the years 1924, 1925 and 1926:— (in millions of lei) revenue expenditure surplus 1924 24,000 22,642 1,358 1925 31,750 31,750 1926 29,250 29,250 communications.—. large part of rumanian trade is carried on the danube. the main communications of rumania converge on braila and galatz. rumania receives two-thirds of her tmports from the industrial countries of europe from the danuhe river ports, and from those ports are loaded not only rumanian produce, but the produce of other riparian states from czechoslovakia downwards conveyed to these ports by river craft. galatz is the principal port for timber export, braila for cereals, vegetables, petroleum products, etc. constanta is the only rumanian port open all the year round. for the international regime of the danube see danube. the incor- poration of the new provinces, whose communications were naturally directed chiefly to serve the states to which they formerly belonged, have made new railway communications essential to the develop- ment of rumanian trade and industry. a new line from oradia mare to arad obviates a detour through hungarian territory. new lines, the surveys for which were provided for by credits voted on july 7 1923, are brasov-nehoias; hva-mica-vatra dornet; bum- besci-livezenit; hamangia-tulcea. the first of these provides a direct route from brasov to constanta; the second will give a direct connection between the bukovina and transylvania; the third will traverse the vulcan pass, and permit the easy transport of coal from petrosani to craiova. other work in hand includes the transforma- tion of the bessarabian railways to the normal gauge and.the proper linking up of bessarabia with danube ports. before the war the outlet for bessarabian produce was oxlessa and a necessary condition for bessarabian prosperity under the new conditions is the provision of an easy outlet from danubian ports. the railways would be adequately supplied with railway stock, locomotives and rolling stock having been taken over from the central powers, if repairing shop accommodation were sufficient. a large part of the reduction in export is due to the condition of the railways which delays the shipment of grain from the interior to the ports, and the development of rumania depends to a considerable extent upon the improvement of her communications. bibliography.—builletin statistique de la roumanie (bucharest, annual); mitita constantinescu, l’evolution de la propriete rurale .. » en roumanie (bucharest, 1925); reports on rumania (british dept. of overseas trade, london, annual); u.s. dept. of commerce, rumania, an economic handbook.",
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