ROMAN RELIGION

the period since 1910 has produced one masterpiece upon a large scale, the late dr. w. warde fowler’s religious expericnce of the roman people (1911), but in the main advance has been by the more intensive study of detail. the facts about the prchistoric peoples of italy, if still obscure have been made clearer by archacologists. a be- ginning has been made of the collection of data concerning local italic and celtic cults, and the cautious use of comparative folk- lore has thrown light upon particular primitive survivals. here eitrem’s valuable study of ritual practice might be mentioned, or rose’s recent suggestion, which has hardly yet stood the test of critical examination, that roman marriage customs point to the original existence of a classificatory system. 372 general tendcency—in general, however, there has been a sound reaction against wide generalisations based upon random analogies drawn from all parts of the world. greater attention has been paid to the analysis of the composite religion of histori- cal rome and to the importance of distinguishing what is roman from what is graeco-roman. for instance, the hypothesis of the existence of early king-gods or of married pairs of deities is now generally abandoned, as being quite inconsistent with what is known of genuinely roman religion. prehistoric pertod.—as regards the prehistoric period, there are certain religious phenomena (¢.g., the mundus or the pomcri- 4m) which seem to find prototypes in the terremare of the bronze age. but none of the attempts which have been made to iden- tify plebeians and patricians with the two prehistoric racial elements of which the romans were composed can be said to have succeeded. that the etruscans, who are now believed to have entered italy definitely by sea and probably not before the end of the gth century b.c., made important contributions to roman religion is certain, though modern, like ancient, authors may be inclined to exaggerate their extent. the most notable were divination by entrails (augury, upon the other hand, is italic and may go back to the terremare), the practice of temple worship and the cult of anthropomorphic gods. worship of numina.—before etruscan influences became opcra- tive, roman objects of worship appear to have been not gods, but #umina or impersonal powers. the difficulty of accounting for the very early existence of two exceptions, jupiter and mars, has not yet been solved. about the original character of mars opinion still differs as to whether he was primarily an agricultural or a warlike deity or a numen of growth. that early romans be- lieved in individual survival after death has become less prol- able. the view that the lar fumiliaris was not a spirit of a dead ancestor but a protector of the fields (see above) has won fairly general acceptance, and there is some evidence to show that while the early romans performed certain rites in respect of the collective dead the conception of the individual spirit of a dead man or ancestor was quite late in development, possibly under greek influence. 3 hellenistic influence-—in religion, as in all departments of history, increasing knowledge has emphasised the importance of the civilisation of the hellenistic kingdoms. the most inter- esting example, perhaps, is provided by the papyrus containing the regulations of ptolemy philopator for the control of the dion- ysiac societies in egypt, which almost certainly formed the model for the famous decree of the senate about the bacchanalian societies. , | impertal pertod.—<as regards the imperial period a great deal of work has been done by bousset, norden, reitzenstein, clemen and cumont in two main directions: 1, the investigation of the relation of the later syncretism to heretical forms of early chris- tianity; 2, the disentanglement of the greek, egyptian and iranian elements in this confusedly composite whole. thesystem- atic examination of provincial cults has alsoprogressed,andarchae- ological discoveries in rome itself have been rich in new material particularly as affecting the relations of early christian to pagan religious art. outstanding are the paintings of the via manzoni with their pagan (?) designs of the good shepherd type and the twelve figures which are popularly, though erroneously, supposed to be portraits of the twelve apostles. even more remarkable is the richly painted subterranean basilica of some unidentified non-christian sect, which was discovered in 1917 near the porta maggiore. | | bibliography.—j. toutain, les ctiltes paiens dans l’empire romain {1907, etc.); f. cumont, oriental religions in roman paganism, trans. (1911); w. warde fowler, religious experience of the roman people (1911); s. eitrem, opferrttus und vorepfer der greichen und romer (1915); w. warde fowler, roman essays and interpretations (1920); h. j. rose, the roman questions of plutarch (1924). (cw. r. h.) rome (sce 23.584), the capital of italy, has become a much healthier city; slum clearances, new drainage works and the re- moval of the ghetto, have resulted in the gradual disappearance rom e— ronaldshay of roman and typhoid fever, and a reduction of the death rate to about 19 per thousand. the population in 1925 was 746,783. the housing question has been acute since the world war. in 1925, the holy year, some 102,000 pilgrims visited rome in a period of four months. the via quirinale is now called via ventiquattro maggio, in honour of the day on which italy de- clared war on austria, and the via nationale is named in part via cesare battisti, in memory of a man hanged by the aus- trians, and in part via quattro novembre. a fine bridge over the tiber, the ponte vittorio emanuele, was opened in 1911. nuch work has been done on the remains of ancient rome since 1910. in 1910, in honour of the jubilee of the unity of italy, the formation of an archaeological park, extending from the via appia to the foot of the aventine and almost to the aurelian wall, was approved by parliament. it contains the baths of caracalla, where another corridor was discovered in 1913. the site of the palace of tibcrius has been ‘excavated, and a bath, staircase, etc. found. what is believed to be the “ mundus,” which was venerated in connection with the cult of the mazes as the centre of the furrow made by romulus, was found on the palatine in ror4; it is in the form of a well 40 ft. deep. the state apartments in the palace of domitian were laid bare between 1909 and 1912, the staircase connecting them with the rest of the palace in 1915, and the domestic offices in 1923. the ground under the arch of constantine has been dug away to its original level, and a carriage way made through the arch. outside the walls, the ancient aqueducts have been widely explored, and excavations under the renaissance church of san sebastiano, 13 m. beyond the appian gate, have resulted in valuable discoveries. in the suburb of porta salaria, a kypogenm, of which the original purpose is doubtful, has been found. in rglt zoological gardens were arranged in the grounds of the villa borghese, and a fine collection of modern italian art was opened in the palazzo delle belle arti, to the west of the villa. in 1922 a muscum of antiquities from the forum was arranged in a building adjoining the church of santa francesca romana; and the musco petriano, containing objects connected with the foundation and development of st. peter’s, was opened in 19285. it was proposed in 1922 to make the barracks and storerooms of the castle of st. angelo into a topographical museum. the palazzo venetia, for long the residence of the austrian ambassa- dor to the vatican, came again into italian hands in 1915, and frescoes of the renaissance period, by mantegna and bramante, have been found in it. among important modern buildings are the chamber of deputics, with its principal front on the new piazza del parlamento; the palace of justice, near the castle of st. angelo; and the polyclinico, a fine hospital on part of the large site, east and south of the castro pretorio, requisitioned by the government for building a new university, and bringing together various institutions scattered about the city. of this scheme the hospital forms part. a monument to victor emanuel ii., consisting of an immense platform and flights of steps deco- rated with fountains and figures, surmounted by an equestrian statue, towers above the piazza venctia. the campitcllo quarter was cleared to make space for it, and it is proposed to extend the via cavour to the piazza. a further municipal scheme of im- provement caused apprehension in 1926, lest a portion of the english college should be scheduled for removal. ronaldshay, lawrence john lumley dundas, fart of (1876- ), british administrator, was born june 11 1876, the eldest surviving son of the rst marquess of zetland and was educated at harrow and trinity college, cambridge. from 1898-1907 he travelled extensively in €cylon, india, persia, asiatic turkey, central asia, siberia, japan, china and burma. in 1900 he was appointed aide-de-camp to the staff of the viceroy, karl curzon, in india. he sat in the house of com- mons as conservative member for the hornsey division from 1907-16. a member of the royal commission on the public services in india from 1912-4 he was appointed governor of bengal in 1916 in succession to lord carmichael of stirling. he retained this appointment until 1922, when he was created g.c.5.i. and sworn of the privy council. in 1925 it was rontgen—rontgen rays announced that lord ronaldshay had undertaken to write the life of lord curzon. lord ronaldshay published sport and politics under an eastern sky (4902); on the outskirts of empire in asia (1¢04); 4 wandering student in the far east (1908); an eastern miscellany (1911); lands of the thunderbolt: stkhim, chumbi and bhutan (1923); the feart of aryavariu (1925). | rontgen, wilhelm konrad (1845-1923), german phys- icist (see 23.694), received the nobel prize for physics in 1901. he died in munich feb. 10 1923. rontgenology: s¢€ radiotherapy and rontgenology. rontgen rays (x-rays) (sce 23.694).—physical research has spread itself over 60 octaves or more of electromagnetic waves which are now known to stretch without break from wireless waves 25 m. or more in length, through heat waves, visible light waves, ultra-violet waves and x-rays, to gamma rays of wave lengths of the order of a ten thousand millionth of an inch. in this gigantic gamut of natural activity, that group of radiations en- croaching into and extending some 13 octaves beyond the ultra- violet, and possessing wave lengths ranging from about 5x10 ® to 5x107-' cm. is now generally styled r6ntgen rays, or x-rays. of these 13 octaves, to are extremely absorbable, but the re- maining three possess those remarkable powers of penetrating matter which made roentgen’s discovery so arresting when it was announced in 1895 (wiedemann’s annalen der physik, vol. 64, p.1). if we include the x-rays which radium emits—usually known as gamma rays—this gives a total of nearly 6 octaves of radiation. with these x-rays the science of medical and technical radiology of the present day does its work. (see also rays.) dangers.—at the outset, the dangers to the x-ray worker should be referred to. these dangers are well known and have caused many casualties in the past. they can, however, be wholly avoided by common-sense protective measures which con- sist in the main of interposing lead sheet or the like, properly dis- posed and sufficiently thick, between the x-ray tube and the operator. the reports of the x-ray protection committee! contain details of complete safeguards. generation of -rays.—rontgen’s discovery was made with a crookes tube, that is, a glass bulb exhausted to a low gas pres- sure through which a high-tension electric current is passed by means of electrodes provided. if the tube is made of special design, in which a converging stream of high-speed electrons (cathode rays) is arrested at its focus by a heavy metal target, then we have a modern x-ray rube—an instrument with an efficiency of about 7%. the x-rays leave the focal spot in all directions (travelling in straight lines with the speed of light. we cannot see them, but they affect a photographic plate or fluorescent screen and they ionise (or render conducting) any gas through which they pass, so that they can be detected and measured by one of these properties. tubes.—there are two main types of x-ray tubes—the gas tube and the hot cathode tube. in a gas tube an appreciable amount of gas ts left at a pressure ranging from o-oor to o-or mm. of mercury. when the exciting potential is applied the residual ions are accelerated and generate many more ions by collision with the gas molecules. the positive ions are directed by the electric field towards the cathode which they bombard and cause to emit electrons which in turn, under the clectric field, bombard the target and so gencrate x-rays. coolidge tubes—in the hot-cathode tubes, with which the name of coolidge is associated, the vacuum is so high that the residual gas plays no part. the electrons are produced by heat- ing the cathode by means of a subsidiary current. for this pur- pose the cathode takes the form of a spiral of tungsten wire. separate and precise control over the exciting voltage and the current through the tube is possible with a hot-cathode tube, a remark which does not apply to the gas tube. for most practical purposes targets are of tungsten or plati- num—metals of high atomic number and high melting point. much heat is generated at the target, and has to be dissipated 1copies can be obtained from the director of the national physical laboratory, teddington. o70 by water-cooling or the like. so-called metal x-ray tubes are now coming into use. the intensity of the x-rays from a tube 1s roughly propor- tional to nr¥?, where n is the atomic number of the target, 2 the current through the tube and v’ the exciting voltage. an x-ray unit of intensity is greatly needed for many purposes. fexcitation.—the x-ray tube is excited by voltages ranging from, say, 50 to 200 kilovolts; the higher the voltage, the greater the speed of the cathode rays, and the shorter the wave length of the x-rays produced. such voltages are produced by induc- tion coils, high-tension transformers, or some form of constant potential apparatus. in any event the x-rays are very hetero- geneous—a continuous spectrum of x-rays being produced. duane and hunt (piys. rev., 1915) showed that this spectrum is definitely limited at the short wave end, the position of the bound- ary depending not on the nature of the target but only on the maximum voltage vy applied to the tube. the relation is given by planck’s quantum equation, ve=/y, where e is the electronic charge, v the frequency and # is planck’s constant. substituting the accepted values of these constants, we have:— shortest wave length in a.u.=12,400-+maximum voltage. kaye (phil. trans., a., vol. 209, 1909) showed that superposed on this general spectrum of k-rays are the characteristic m-rays discovered by barkla and sadler (phil. afag., 1906 ef seq.). these have since been shown to be constituted of groups of spec- tral lines, the positions of which depend only on the material of the target. for each element there are several groups of characteristic radiations—called k, l, m, n—of which the k group have the shortest wave lengths. webster (p/ys. rev., 1916) has shown that these radiations are not generated unless the exciting voltage exceeds a value which corresponds to the line with the shortest wave length in each group. x-rays and afatier—three things may happen to a beam of x-rays when it passes through a material. part of it emerges undisturbed and undeviated and in x-ray photography (radiog- raphy) outlines the shadow picture on the plate. tart is “ scat- tered ”’ or dispersed, which is equivalent to stating that, while the rays are not altered in quality, or but slightly so, a consider- able proportion of them have their direction altered to a greater or less extent. the rest is “‘ absorbed ” with the resulting libera- tion of characteristic x-rays and electrons. . scattering effect—aas regards “ scattering,” the effect occurs at all depths and increases with the thickness. the heavier ele- ments scatter proportionately more than the light elements, though, owing to the greater absorbing power of the heavier elements, the scattering effect is usually more evident with the lighter elements. c. g. barkla (phil. trans., 19005) found that scuttered rays may show partial polarisation. a. h. compton (phys. rev., 1923) has shown that a proportion of the scattered radiation has its wave length slightly lengthened, as would be anticipated on the quantum theory and a recoil of the electron encountered. scattering is prejudicial to good definition in x-ray photography and has to be specially guarded against in radio- mctallography. absorption fefect—as regards “ absorption,” x-rays can penetrate all substances to an extent depending on their thick- ness and density and on the wave length of the x-rays. in gen- eral, the shorter the wave length the greater the penetrating power though, as will be seen presently, this is not so in special conditions. the power of a material to absorb rays of a particu- lar wave length is usually given in terms of lis absorption coefficient # where p is defined by i=ipe#* in which io is the intensity of a beam normally incident on a screen of thickness d, and i the intensity of the transmitted beam. for normal absorption « varies as \? where is the wave length. ordinary x-rays are heterogeneous, so that wis greater for thin absorbing screens than for thick. an element shows limited regions of abnormally high absorp- tion for x-rays somewhat exceeding in wave length one of its characteristic radiations. the effect forms the basis of the ab- sorption limits in the spectra first obtained by m. de broglie (jour. de phys. 1914, et seq.). 3 374 electrons.—the liberation of electrons is an effect attendant on the absorption of x-rays by matter. an x-ray of given wave length may give up a part or the whole of its energy to an elec- tron, the energy of the ejected electron being represented by the loss of frequency of the x-ray. in a proportion of encounters the whole of the energy is transferred and the speed of the elec- tron will reach an upper limit. in other cases, de broglie has shown that only a part of the energy is given up to the electron, the rest being wholly transferred to a group of characteristic x-rays originating in one of the electronic orbits of the atom. (see atom.) speed.—w ith reference to the upper limit of the speed of the electrons ejected by x-rays, it is found that this value agrees closely with the speed of the cathode rays in the tube which generated the x-rays. this fact strongly supports the quantum theory of x-rays, a theory which has not yet been reconciled with the conception of spreading waves, so clearly indicated by the diffraction phenomena of x-rays. the difficulty, however, is one which 1s common to all classes of electro-magnetic waves. diffraction of x-rays.—in 1912 laue (ann, d. phys., 1913) showed that x-rays could be diffracted by crystalline matter (see crystallography). the regularly spaced layers or planes of atoms in crystals are at the right order of distance apart to diffract x-rays, just as opals and chlorate-of-potash crystals with their stratified layers can diffract visible light. very similar optical relations connect the wave length of the rays with the angle of reflection from a particular set of atomic planes within the crystal. if we know the wave length we can derive the regu- lar spacing of that set of planes. if we can find the spacings of three main sets of planes, we have thus ascertained the linear dimensions or lattice constants of the unit cell from which, by continued multiplication, the space lattice of the crystal can be built up. alternatively, if we know the lattice constant for any particular substance we can determine the wave length of the x-rays. from this momentous discovery of laue the science of x-ray spectrometry has grown to great proportions. the main develop- ments deal with emission and absorption spectra, with crystal analysis and with the structure of atoms. x-ray specira.—in optical spectra the number of lines peculiar to an element are frequently numerous and their numerical rela- tions complicated. x-ray spectra, on the contrary, are note- worthy for their simplicity, the number of lines characterising an element being relatively few, readily recognisable and meas- urable with a precision not inferior to that which obtains in optical spectra. moseley’s great discovery (phil. mag., 1913) established a simple proportionality between the atomic number of an element and the square root of the frequency of a char- acteristic radiation or of an absorption limit. moseley’s law holds for all the known elements and so it is possible to interpret new spectral lines without the complexity associated with opti- cal spectra. it was by x-ray spectrometry that the element hafnium was discovered in 1923; and in 1925 monnack and tacke announced the discovery by x-ray analysis, of two new elements which they called masuritum and rhenium. thus 89 out of g2 elements are now known, and the x-ray spectral lines of the missing three elements (atomic nos. 61, 8s, 87) are predictable with certainty (see aromic weights and isotores). x-ray absorption spectra are very simply obtained by passing a pencil of x-rays through a sample of the matter and examining the transmitted beam by a crystal spectrometer. the x-rays should be excited by a suitably high voltage. the method is specially applicable to all elements with a strong absorption band, and excels in detecting traces of heavy elements in light elements. emission spectra are conveniently excited by mount- ing the material on the face of the target of an x-ray bulb and applying a suitably high voltage. in such spectra every element present is recorded with an intensity which appears to depend only on its concentration and is independent of the presence of any other elements with which it may be mixed or combined. the test, which is very sensitive, is specially applicable to analy- sis of the platinum group of metals and the rare earths. rontgen rays crysial analysis ——the aim of x-ray crystal analysis is to determine the grouping of the atoms and molecules in the crystal unit, and so to account for the properties of the crystal. the main experimental methods due to laue, bragg, hull, debye and scherrer are described in crystallography. x-ray analysis has shown that most chemical elements, including solidified gases, crystallise in the cubic or hexagonal systems. already nearly half the elements have been examined, including those allo- tropes which can arrange themselves in more than one kind of space lattice. as regards alloys, the x-rays have tested the truth of the existence of the several phases of steel and other alloys which metallurgists had differentiated by other means (see metallography). the method has also indicated the atom- ic features which go hand in hand with ductility, malleability, hardness, etc. it has also been shown that in a solid solution of two elements the replacement of one atom by another is effected by substitution in and distortion of the lattice and not by in- terstitial insertion. other points which have been worked on are the effects of annealing, tempering, rolling or other working; the mechanism of deformation and slip in metals; and the general shapes and sizes of atomic domains. by the use of x-rays, sir wm. bragg has shown that a diamond has an atomic bonding perfect in its symmetry and so possessing intense hardness. on the other hand, graphite (another variety of carbon) with unsymmetrical atomic linking, with weak bnking and greatest separation between cleavage planes, is a good jubri- cant. so-called amorphous carbon is found to consist of minute graphite crystals. the fragility of annealed tungsten lamp fila- ments is explained by the gradual transformation to a number of single crystals of large dimensions. crystalline forms in nature-——the x-rays have demonstrated that almost every solid substance in nature shows crystalline form, including such apparently amorphous materials as rubber, cellulose, the fatty acids, soap, leather, bamboo and tale. col- jloidal metals are shown to be made up of minute yet perfect crystals so small that they contain only a few score atoms. the molecular arrangements in thin metal and liquid films have been ascertained. in gold leaf, for example, the cubic crystals are found to have their cube faces parallel to the sheet. the method, has also been used to ascertain the crystal axes of jewel bearings, and to distinguish between natural and cultivated japanese pearls. medical applications of x-rays.—the great improvements of recent years in x-ray equipment and technique have given the diagnostic methods of physicians and surgeons a facility and exactitude never dreamt of at one time. x-ray snapshots of any part of the body can now be taken. the detection of for- cign bodies is commonplace. gouty and rheumatic joints, stones in the kidney and gall bladder, incipient tuberculosis in the lungs and joints, tumours, etc., are among the diseases readily displayed. the examination of the alimentary canal is facilitated by the use of opaque meals containing bismuth or barium salts. dental radiography has made great progress. the x-rays possess val- uable properties in the treatment of certain diseases, such as lupus, rodent ulcers, ringworm and skin eruptions. the precise “ dose”? is important (see radiotherapy and rontgenology). industrial applications of x-rays.—the differential absorp- tion of x-rays by different sorts of matter and, as already noted, the diffraction of x-rays have been turned to account in the industries and arts in a variety of directions. many of the vari- ous applications of radiography to industry have come about owing to the fact that the method does not injure the specimen in any way. further, it provides, in many cases, the only means independent of human judgment of detecting concealed defects in a material or of scrutinising in a structure or sealed enclosure the disposition of component parts which are hidden from view. incidentally, the mere existence of the method is not without its moral effect on the workman. experience differs as to the sensitiveness of the method, but, depending on the area of the inclusion, probably a variation in density equivalent to 2 to 5% of the thickness is necessary to be detected on the photographic plate. these figures require to be roosiv increased for fluoroscopy, but much depends on the luminosity and on the visual acuity of the observer. definition is, of course, dependent, among other things, on the size of the focal spot in the x-ray tube. exposures naturally depend on the conditions, and may vary from a few seconds to an hour or more. as regards the use of x-rays in radiographing steel, while 4 in. is the maximum thickness penetrated so far in the labora- tory, the present practicable limit is more nearly 2 in. for photography. radiography is useful, among other directions, in examining castings and welds, for detecting foreign metallic matter in electrical insulators ‘and for testing the centrality of golf balls, the proportion of ash in samples of coal, and the accuracy of assembly of explosive devices. the x-rays have also proved of service in supplementing the tests for detecting fraudulent antiques and old masters. bin_iograpny.—g. w. c. kaye, x-rays (1917); r. knox, radiography and radiotherapeutics (1919): iw gc, kaye, practical applications of x-rays (1922); a. dauvillin, la technique des rayons nx (1924); w. h. and w. l. bragg, x-rays and crystal structures (1925); m. de broglie, y-rays (1925); m. siegbahn, 7‘he spectroscopy of x-rays (1925). (ge w. cy ks roosevelt, theodore (1858-1919), 26th president of the united states (see 23.707), completed his second term, march 4 1909, the most famous man in his country, with a wealth of personal friends and a reputation as a master of men. yet from the presidency, like most of his predecessors, he stepped down into a retirement which seemed to forbid a re-entry into public life or a recovery of the headship of his party. in the 10 remain- ing years of his life he displayed the same qualities of intense thought and action that had characterised him before; within a year after his withdrawal he again became a great force in american society and public life. a sense of fair play to his successor, president taft, for whose choice he was indeed re- sponsible, and that drawing force of the unknown to which his nature was susceptible, led him to make plans for a hunting and exploring trip in africa, some months before the end of his pres- idential term. he was also influenced by invitations to make addresses in england and france. | accordingly he sailed from new york, on march 23 1900, for africa, where, in conjunction with his son kermit and the well-known hunter selous, he travelled a long distance, shot big game and safely emerged at khartum in march 1910. here he plunged at once into politics by addresses at khartum and cairo, in which he stood for orderly and vigorous government for egypt. in both instances the addresses were requested and approved by the local military authorities. from egypt he proceeded to europe, and, apparently to his own surprise, found himself an international celebrity. he was received in all the courts of central europe except the vatican, where an oflicial interposed between him and the pope by stipulating guarantees of his conduct in rome. he left a most interesting account of the impressions made upon him by this journey in a long and inti- mate letter written at the time to the english historian sir george trevelyan and published in bishop’s yheodore roose- velt and his time. it was in vain for him to claim that he was only a “ private citizen with no claim to precedence”; for every- where he was received with the honours ordinarily paid only to sovereigns. he was warmly received in france, where he made a public address at the sorbonne. in england, his ro- manes lecture at oxford, and particularly his guildhall speech on the management of a great empire, were noteworthy; and he was designated by president taft to represent the united states at the state funeral of edward vii. his most striking experience was in germany, where he was received with cordiality by the emperor, but, as he said afterwards, it was the only country in ‘urope where he felt that “every man, woman and child was my ne at 1s, the enemy of my country.” returning to the united states, june 18 roro, roosevelt found that both his african and european experiences had been followed closely by the american people. president taft had now had a year and a half of experience with the country, with congress and with treforms and policies which roosevelt had elt 375 initiated and expected would be carried out. there was a rift in the republican party. some of roosevelt’s friends were in opposition to the taft administration. in the ballinger contro- versy over western public lands, roosevelt sided against the ad- ministration. a group of dissatisfied republicans, the “ insur- gents,” had arisen in congress and prepared to dispute the su- premacy of the conservatives in the party, on whom taft seemed to be relying. to roosevelt’s mind, the ‘ mossbacks ”’ were in control; and a few hours after landing he agreed to throw his personal influence on behalf of gov. hughes of new york, who was engaged in a struggle with the republican legislature over the direct primary. he made an address at osawatomie, kan., aug. 31, in which he laid down a radical programme of political and social reform to which he gave the name of the ‘* new na- tionalism.” plainly he was dissatisfied with taft’s administra- tion. as early as nov. 21 he discussed with an intimate friend the possibility of his accepting the nomination in 1912, to suc- ceed taft in the presidency. through rori this quarrel grew. soon after returning, roosevelt became an editorial writer, bearing a free lance, in the outlook, and alike in his editorials and in public addresses he took the side of the insurgent element. he regarded tait as the representative of “ the interests.” early in 1912 2 group of seven republican governors united in an appeal to roosevelt to declare his willingness to be nominated. on feb. 12 taft made a bitter speech, in which, without men- tioning roosevelt, he spoke contemptuously of the extremists. this seems to have been the incident that decided roosevelt’s course; for on feb. 26 he came out openly as a candidate for the nomination by the party convention in june. meanwhile the usual campaign for the choice of delegates to the convention was going on, following the same lines as in 1908. in the southern states, where the republicans were hopelessly in the minority, delegates were elected by the usual rump and machine-led state conventions. roosevelt’s friends made a cam- paign in the northern and western states, especially in those which had provided for a choice of delegates through a popular vote in party primaries. a majority of the republican voters in those states favoured roosevelt. when the republican convention met in chicago june 22, taft was strong in the delegations chosen by state and local conventions; and roose- velt in those representing a predominance of republican voters. the organisation of the convention, however, was in the hands of the taft men, because they had a large majority in the na- tional committee. out of the numerous contested seats, only six were finally assigned by the committee of credentials to the roosevelt column. on a test for the choice of temporary chairman, the taft men showed a narrow margin. the turn of 15 votes—which might have been secured had roosevelt come out a few weeks earlier—would probably have brought on a “landslide ” for him. a speech by roosevelt a few weeks earlier before the ohio constitutional convention, advocating the ‘recall ” of judicial decisions, also gave alarm to some men who might otherwise have supported him. once organised, the taft forces were able to carry through the report of the commit- tee on credentials, which assigned them a safe majority. roosevelt himself had come to chicago a few days before the convention, and was the centre of the hardest battle of his life. he rallied his supporters and addressed an enormous public meeting, ending his speech with ‘‘ we stand at armageddon, and we battle for the lord.”? most of his followers stood by him; but they could not break down the walls of precedent and conservatism. the roosevelt delegates, on their leader’s re- quest, remained in the convention until the end, but refused to vote on the nomination; and taft was duly nominated for a second term by the vote of about two-thirds of the convention. roosevelt was a party man, who had stood by the party in 1884 when many of his friends bolted. his standpoint in 1912 was that he was trying to save the republican party from a ruinous ylelding to the forces of organised wealth and reaction. he was also a fighter, and felt himself deprived, by technicalities and personal hatreds, of an honour which the majority of his party was eager to bestow upon him. he unhesitatingly decided 376 to “bolt,” and on the evening of the adjournment of the con- vention, at a meeting in orchestra hall, he advised the formation of a progressive party. a later convention of the roosevelt men throughout the country, including a considerable number of democrats, nominated roosevelt, with gov. hiram w. john- son of california for vice-president. meanwhile the democrats had nominated woodrow wilson, governor of new jersey. the result was a three-cornered political contest, in which it was clear at the beginning that taft could not be elected, but that roosevelt probably could not win enough democratic votes to prevent the choice of wilson. nevertheless, roosevelt fought vigorously through the campaign, violently attacking taft as a reactionary and tool of reactionaries. while on a speaking tour at milwaukee he was shot by a fanatic, but was not seriously injured. the result of the election was the choice of wilson, who had 6,000,000 popular votes and 435 electoral votes; roosevelt, 4,000,000 popular votes and 88 clectoral; taft, 3,500,000 popular votes and 8 electoral. on this showing the progressives had more votes than their republican adversaries and therefore hoped to compel a reconstruction of the party. ‘their repub- lican opponents, however, kept tight hold of the name, organi- sation and prestige. they had deliberately accepted defeat in advance in order to put roosevelt out of the running. this, the first serious defeat that roosevelt had ever encoun- tered, was to him a bitter humiliation, he felt that his public career was ended. his first movement was characteristic. he had cordial invitations to visit south america and make addresses in the principal cities. as in his experiences of 1910, this dove- tailed in with a plan of exploration. accordingly, early in 1913, after visiting several south american countries, including brazil and argentina, he returned to brazil, made his way overland, and came down a river, whose uncharted course he followed for 600 miles. the hardships were severe, and he received an injury, serious for a time, and drew into his system the seeds of tropical malaria. the brazilian govt. named the stream rio teodoro. on his return to the united states, out of office, a defeated candidate, an insurgent, the personal encmy of the republican leaders, he seemed justified in his belief that his career was over. but as usual his enemies pliyed into his hands. an obscure journalist ventured publicly to accuse him of drunken- ness. in may 1913 he instituted a suit for defamation of charac- ier, with the result that the defendant broke down and acknowl- edged his error. a large section of the american people resented the affront and rejoiced in the vindication. during this period roosevelt was indefatigable as journalist and writer, first in the outlook, then in the metropolitan magazine and finally through the columns of the akunsas city star. the outbreak of the world war gave him a new opportunity for his pen and voice. his instinct was against germany as an oppressor of weak nations; but he stayed his desire for positive action for a time, from the fecling that he ought not to embarrass the president. it was at this time that a personal enemy gave roosevelt the opportunity of again showing his character to his countrymen, through a publicity which both roosevelt and the public enjoyed. william barnes, one of the acknow!- edged leaders of the republican party, brought a suit in april ig15 against roosevelt because of an accusation of unfair and corrupt politics as a “ boss ” which roosevelt had made against him. roosevelt vigorously defended himself and won the suit. for 10 days he was on the witness-stand, and his testimony, which was spread broadcast throughout the land, revealed his undiminished force and appealed to the popular imagination. the sinking of the “ lusitania ” by a german submarine in may 1915 brought his bitterest denunciation, and from that time he foresaw first the possibility and then the likelihood of wart between germany and the united states. he made him- self the leading spokesman for “ preparedness,” and presently drew down the wrath of president wilson’s administration for a speech at plattsburg. from that time he did not spare sharp criticisms of president wuilson’s policy as showing unwillingness roosevelt to face the dangers of war. his utterances against germany and in favour of the allies had great influence. as the election of 1916 drew near, the remaining progressives, aided by some who had stayed in the republican party, made an effort to force the republican convention to nominate roosevelt. they called a progressive convention to mect at chicago at the same time as the republican, hoping to make a joint nomination with the re- publicans. roosevelt did his best to secure the prize, but again the party leaders would have none of him. hughes was nomi- nated, and this time roosevelt accepted the situation as a loyal member of the republican party and supported the nominee. as the world war went on, roosevelt became the severest critic of the administration and the strongest advocate of pre- paredness. he formed a plan for raising a special division, in which he hoped to have a command, and which he would offer to the government. early in 1917, when the american breach with germany came, he offered the services of himself and his sons, all four of whom subsequently enlisted. he requested that he might have a personal command, which was denied by the administration, although both houses of congress united in a bill making his plan possible. during the year he made some of the most notable addresses of his life, especially that be- fore the “ order of moose ” convention in pittsburgh. by this time the republican politicians were looking forward to the election of 1920 and began to group themselves about roose- velt. his most persistent enemies, even william barnes, ac- cepted his nomination as a foregone conclusion. the year 1918, however, was a sad one for roosevelt. his son quentin was killed in the war. ever since returning from brazil, roose- velt’s constitution had shown weakness. he was several times in hospitals, and underwent a serious operation for abscess due to infection received during his brazilian explorations. the hearing of his left ear was wholly destroyed. still, he continued his writing and speaking and his direct personal influence upon his thousands of friends. even in the first days of 1919, when he suffered from renewed disease, he looked forward to public service. on jan. 6 rorg he died in his slcep. a man who could do so much could not do everything per- fectly, though few have ever done so many things so well. it was more true of him than of most men that his defects were inherent in his virtues. there were few half-tones in roose- velt’s moral perceptions and fewer in his vocabulary; he saw things as either black or white, and he forgot sometimes that he had not previously seen them as he saw them at the moment. he had enemies, and even former friends, who charged him with breaking promises, betraying political associates and set- ting his own wishes and interests above all others. the very intensity of his convictions sometimes blinded him to the sincer- ity and even to the justice of other points of view. nevertheless, this intensity, this moral fervour, gave his ideas a momentum and a success which they could never have acquired had they proceeded from a more judicial mind. he scorned ‘ weasel words,” and on occasion he did not hesitate to describe his enemies as thieves and liars. his remarkable energy reminded observers of some great elemental force which, like any natural phenomenon, is controlled by its own necessary laws. when lord morley was leaving the united states in 1904 he was asked by reporiers what in america had impressed him most. ‘ two things,” he replied, ‘‘ theodore roosevelt and niagara rapids.”’ his fearlessness was as conspicuous as his energy. with a courage very rare in political life he attacked the iniquities that had crept into the conduct of american business. he asserted the importance of personal rights when these were being openly denied in the name of property rights. he rallied the patriotic elements of the country against the menace of a private “ money power ” which not only had frequently dictated the course of legislation but threatened to usurp the authority of the government itself. he felt strongly that any position involving the exercise of power had its obligations as well as its privileges, and this feeling lent force to his denunciation of ‘‘ predatory interests ’’ and “‘ malefactors of great wealth.” on the other hand, he had little patience with demagogic attacks root on men or corporations merely because they were rich or success- ful, as was shown in his famous utterance in which he compared the authors of these journalistic attacks with the “ muckrakers ”’ in pilgrim’s progress. it was said of him satirically that he had invented the ten commandments; but roosevelt’s earnestness in behalf of old truths was of the essence of his service to his countrymen, and more important at the juncture than the discovery of new ones. his great personal powcr was used in the furtherance of honesty, fair dealing and patriotic service, when more than lip service to these virtues was vitally needed. he threw all his energy into the effort to bring about a reapplication of funda- mental moral principles to american business and political life. while he was unquestionably an astute politician, the secret of his success lay in his imaginative understanding of the views and feelings of his countrymen: his enthusiasm was contagious because he vividly expressed what they already felt and believed to be the truest american ideals. when he spoke for the “ square deal,” the american people as a people always responded. born of a wealthy family, in an aristocratic society, enjoying all his days a literary and artistic atmosphere, he was still a natural democrat. he had a personal interest in every man or woman that he met, and a genuine affection literally for thou- sands of individual persons. he was a scientific man whose observations and deductions were valued by naturalists and in- vestigators. he was a literary man, very widely read. he was an intellectual man, interested from youth to age in literature and philosophy. he was a politician without a rival in his time for boldness, foresight and an innate knowledge of what his fcllow countrymen were thinking about. he was a statesman of the most brilliant ability, who after a crushing defeat returned to power over the minds of the people and was on his way again to the presidency of the united states. his bitterest political enemies accepted his coming back to national leadership. to few men in history has it been given to wield such far-spreading and wholesome personal influence. bibliography.—between 1909-19 roosevelt published about 15 books, several of them consisting of articles and addresses. the more important are african game trails (1910); conservation of woman- kind and children (1912); theodore roosevelt, an attobiography (1913, contains little beyond 1909); life-{fistories of african game animals (2 vol. 1914); a flunter-naturalist in the brazilian wilder- ness (1914); through the brazilian wilderness (1914); a book-lover’s holiday in the open (1916). his principal later books on public affairs and on the world war are rkealisable ideals (1912); america and the world war (1915-9); fear god and take your own part (1916); national strength and international duty (1917); the great adventure (1918). numerous collections of extracts and speeches have been published, especially those of w. f. johnson (1909); l. f. abbott (african and european, i910); w. grifhth (1919); j. b. bishop, letters to his children (1919); letters to anna roosevelt crowles, 1870-1918 (1924); selections from the correspondence of theodore roosevelt and [henry cabot lodge, 1884-1918, 2 vol. (1925). a complete memorial edition of roosevelt’s works, edited by h. hagedorn, has been published in 20 vol. (1923-5). the most important biographies are those by j. b. bishop (1920): h. ilagedorn, boy's life of theodore roosevelt (1919); w. d. lewis (1919); w. r,. thayer (1919); bradley gilman (1921) and h. hage- dorn’s roosevelt in the bad lands (1921). see also j. f. rhodes, the mckinley and roosevelt admintstrations, 1897-1900 (1922), and j. dennett, roosevelt and the russo-japanese war (1925). a useful list of books by and about roosevelt is j. h. wheelock’s brdliog- raphy of theodore roosevelt (1920). (a. b. 11.)