RIO DE ORO

by franco-spanish agrecments of 1904 and 1912 the spanish zone in the sahara—which is bounded east and south by french territory—was extended first from cape bojador (the northern limit of the rio de oro colony) to cape juby, and secondly from cape juby to the wad draa, the inland frontier being fixed at 8°40’ west. the 1912 agreement settled a matter long in dispute by fixing the southern frontier of morocco, which had claimed the cape juby district, at the wad draa. by the agreement in question spain bound herself not to cede or alienate in any form her rights in her zone of iniluence. the value of the spanish sahara is, however, slight. the greater part of its area, about 102,000 sq. m., is desert; its inhabitants, nomad arabs or arabised berbers, do not exceed 100,000, of whom four-fifths live in the northern half. here, in the basin of the sagiyet el hamra, a river reaching the atlantic midway between capes juby and bojador, are fertile regions which might repay cultivation, including the oasis of smara, where is a permanent native settlement and a kasbah (stone fort). the spanish headquarters are at villa cisneros, on the peninsula forming the rio de oro inlet. it has about 500 european inhabit- ants. in 1916 a small spanish force was stationed at cape juby. the chief advantage spain derives from possession of the country is its convenience to the canary islands fishermen as a curing station and fish depdt. the waters between the canary islands and rio de oro abound with fish, but the industry is little developed. see spanish sahara (1920); british foreign office handbook no. 124; also the revista and the boletin of the royal geographical society of madrid. ritchie, anne isabella, lapy (1837-1919), british write (see 26.716), diced at freshwater, isle of wight, feb. 26 1919. river and canal engineering (sce canal, 5.168; river engineering, 23.374; weir, 28.496).—the most im- portant event of the period under review (1910-26) was the opening of the panama canal to traffic in aug. 1914 (see 20.666; also panama canal). there has been, since rorr, considerable development of ca- nal and river navigation in france, belgium, holland, sweden, central europe, canada and the united states of america, but very little in great britain, where the physical, industrial and economic conditions of the country provide little scope for such "progress. on the other hand, many tidal rivers in the united kingdom which afford access channels to important seaports have been improved by deepening and otherwise to keep pace with the development of trade and increases in dimensions of shipping. similar changes have taken place in many river ports in foreign countries (see port engineering). dredging craft of all descriptions have been improved to meet requirements, and at least one bucket dredger has been built capable of dredging material from a depth of 76 ft. below water level as well as suction dredgers of slightly less capacity as regards depth. i. in the old world great britain.—the navigation of the trent between newark and nottingham has been improved by the construction of four new locks on this section. begun in 1921, these will enable 120-ton barges to navigate at all seasons of the year as far as nottingham. rio de oro—river and canal engineering the anderton lift, which connects the weaver navigation with the trent and mersey canal, is worked by electrical power, each of the two caissons being counter-balanced by weights. the manchester ship canal (sce 17.550) was in 1925 deepened from 28 ft. to 30 ft. from the entrance locks at eastham to ellesmere port, a distance of about four miles. a petroleum dock has been constructed at stanlow on the canal, near l:llesmere, anct large extensions of quays, ware- houses and other traffic facilities have been made both at man- chester and at trafford park below the city. france.— lwo important canals were in course of construction in france when the world war commenced, the marseilles-rhone ship canal and the canal du nord. the total length of the former is about 48 m. and it extends from the port of marscilles to arles on the rhone, passing through the mountainous district of nerthe by a tunnel at rove, thence through the lagoon of berre to port-de- bouc. the canal is level throughout, but there are two regulating locks and one at arles between the river and the canal. these are 525 ft. long and 52 ft. wide. the waterway, normally 75 ft. wide at bottom, is 9 ft. loin. deep. the rove tunnel, nearly 4/4 m. in length, cut through rock, has a width of 72 ft. and a height of 47 ft. above water-level. the canal du nord, begun in 1907, connects the sensee canal at arleux and the oise canal at noyon, and is 58 m. long. it is note- worthy on account of its considerable rise and fall, crossing two water- sheds, its 19 locks, some of which have a rise of 21 ft. 6 1n., and two long tunnels. the water supply is obtained by pumping, by means of electricity, from reach to reach the 3 waters of the sensee, the somme and the oise. the maximum bottom width is 33 ft., the depth § ft. 2 inches. [t is the best example of the standard type of 300- ton barge canal in france. the locks, 360 ft. by 20 ft., are provided with cylindrical sluices and single-leaf gates, all worked electrically. ‘the works, which were wrecked in the course of the war, have been completed. several tidal rivers of france have been improved at considerable expense by dredging, straightening and regulation, notably the loire from the port of nantes to the sea, the seine below rouen, and the gironde below bordeaux. belgium.—the completion in 1921 of the works, which had been carried on spasmodically for over 30 years, of the belgian canal du centre provided a waterway for through traffic between the basins of the meuse and the schelde in southern belgium. the fast item of these works, the construction of three out of four barge lifts on the canal, was in hand before the world war and was resumed after the peace. these lifts consist of two steel tanks placed side by side, cach measuring 141 ft. by 19 ft., carried upon and lifted by hydraulic rams. the rise of the first lift, constructed on this canal at la lou- vicre in 1888, is 50 ft. 6 in., while the three later lifts have a rise of §3 [t. 7 in. in every case. they are the only lifts constructed on any inland waterway since 1899, when the henrichenburg lift on the dortmund-ems canal was opened. the roupel ship canal, be- tween a tributary of the schelde of that name and brussels, where an inland harbour has been built, was on the eve of completion, after lo years spent on construction, when war broke out in 1914 and was not finally opened for traffic until 1922. this waterway, about 20 m. long, has a minimum bottom width of 66 ft. and a depth of 21 ft. the three locks are 374 ft. by 52 ft. 6 in. internally. the enlargement of another important ship canal, the ghent-terncuzen canal was completed in 1911. the waterway, 18 m. long, about half of which is in belgian and the other half in dutch territory, was practically reconstructed, ‘the canal now has a depth of 28 ft., and large ships can navigate up to ghent, where an extensive inland port has been constructed. hoiland.—\mportant inland canal and river engineering works carried out in holland since 1910 are the improvement of the rivers waal and yssel, both branches of the lower rhine, the construction of the wilhelmina barge canal and its branches, totalling about 50 m., and of the meuse-waal canal. most important of all has been the deepening and straightening of the waterway, mainly an artificial channel, between rotterdam and the sea at the hook of holland to over 30 ft. at l.w.o.s.t. the enlargement of the north sea- amsterdam ship canal and the construction of a new entrance lock, which will be one of the largest in the world, and approaches at ymuiden, were commenced in 1922. central exrope.—the construction of the rhine-maine-danube waterway, which will link up the north sea with the black sea, was commenced in 1921, and a portion of the waterway was opened to through traffic as far as aschaffenburg in 1924. it was expected that through traffic on a limited scale to the black sea would be established in 1926, but the completion of the works for the transit of ships of 1,500 tons d.w. capacity is not expected before 1932. the enlargement of the inland navigation harbour of berlin, which now provides accommodation for barges and sea-going vessels of up to 600 tons capacity was completed in 1923. sweden.—the trollhattan ship canal, connecting lake vinern in southern sweden and the kattegat, completed in 1916, is remark- able for a flight of three contiguous locks, overcoming a rise of 77 fcet. the canal is 52 m. long, and the locks are 321 ft. by 45 ft., with a depth of 18 feet. the hammarby ship canal, connecting stockholm with lake malaren, is now being constructed, and the sddertalje ship canal has been enlarged (1924) to take ships of 8,000 tons cargo capacity. river engineering plate ae a ses pete ae siete. ‘qe bete . _ = "es . : “om: ave 4 * % , ocr ee > >. vk a j . ._—? _ x j kh =e & = o> eel - do j ~ - : * » - - fic. 1. panama canal. view of miraflores locks, looking north. f1c. 2. welland ship canal. view of no. 2 lock, looking south. (fig. 1. courtesy of royal mail steam packet co. fig. 2. canadian dept. railways and canals.) river and canal engineering ii. in the new world the total length of improved navigable rivers in the united states is now upwards of 23,000 miles. at least 40 distinct and separate rivers have been improved by canalisation.' since 1900 an immense amount of improvement of the inland water- ways both natural and artificial of the states has been accom- plished. as a rule, canalisation is well inland, the lower and mid- dle reaches of the great rivers being open navigations. for instance, on the hudson, the first lock is at troy, 153 m. from the sea; on the mississippi, at keokuk, 1,461 m.; on the tennessec, 1,339 m.; and on the missouri there is open navigation to fort benton, montana, 3,555 m. from the gulf of mexico. only in recent years have locked waterways been constructed near seaports connecting ocean traffic with inland navigations. the new orleans industrial canal and the lake washington canal at seattle are examples. apart from improvements effected by the federal govt. several of the states have also undertaken canal work, notably new york, in the reconstruction of the new york state barge canal. when traffic on american rivers commenced to become intense, recourse was had to extensive canalisation in cases where shallow water and limited flow gave rise to difficulties, either seasonal or continuous. among the rivers so improved are the ohio, with its tributaries the allegheny and monongahela; the kanawha, west virginia; the kentucky in kentucky; the cumberland in kentucky and tennessee; and tennessee in ken- tucky, tennessee in alabama; the black warrior and tombigbee in alabama; the columbia river in oregon and washington, and the mississippi above keokuk. the locks on the ohio are among the largest on the great rivers of the united states. when the improvements, commenced in 1910, on this river are completed there will be, in a length of 968 m. of canalised river, 50 locks, each 600 ft. by rro ft. in- ternally, with depths over sills ranging from 9 ft. to 12 feet. the lift of the majority of the locks varies from 6 ft. to 12 f{t., but one, completed in rg2t, has a lift of 29 feet. the cost of this im- provement scheme, including dams, one of which is constructed at every lock, and dredging, is over £20,000,000. eight locks in- cluded in the project are still under construction (1925). all are expected to be completed by 1929. the keokuk lock, the lowest on the mississippi, was com- pleted in 1913. in this case the dam was constructed primarily as a part of a hydroelectric power project. the lock, 380 ft. by 110 ft. internally, with 7 ft. over the sills, has a considerable lift— 41 feet. the upper gate is of floating caisson type and is op- erated by compressed air. the new york state barge canal.—commenced in 1905 and completed in 1918 at a cost, including terminals, of upwards of £23,000,000, this is a reconstruction of the old erie canal and connects the hudson river at troy with lake erie at buffalo. altogether, including branch canals and the lake champlain section, there are 525 m. of canal proper, with 57 locks. ships and barges up to 300 ft. in length and 44 ft. 6 in. beam can nav- igate the canal. some of the barges using it have a cargo capac- ity of 3,000 tons. <all the locks have a depth of 12 ft. over sills, and the maximum lift in any one is 4o ft. 6 inches. all lock and other machinery is operated electrically and the canal and its terminal ports are equipped in lavish manner with mechanical appliances. at oswego, on this canal, is a novel and interesting system of syphons for emptying and filling the lock chamber. so far the traffic on the canal has not justified the expenditure on its construction. the new orleans industrial canal-—~this connects the mississippi river with lake ponchartrain six miles distant. completed in 1923, at a cost of over £5,000,000, forms an im- portant link of an entirely artificial waterway between the mississippi at new orleans and the sea, but in the main its con- struction was brought about by the desire to provide increased waterside frontage at the port of new orleans. the lock at the 1col. e. h. schulz, u.s. army, zuternattonal congress of naviga- tion proceedings (1923). 301 entrance to the canal is constructed on a foundation of 24,000 piles driven through a bed of very fine quicksand. the usable dimensions of the lock are 640 ft. length, 75 ft. width, with 31 ft. depth over sills. the lake washington ship canal, cight miles long, extending from puget sound to lake washington, was completed in 1916. the sea entrance at seattle has a large double lock and a smaller one. the large lock has a usable length of 760 ft. and is 80 ft. wide with 36 ft. depth over the sill. flood water is provided for by the construction of a dam with movable crest gates. the cape cod canal, connecting cape cod bayon the east side, with buzzards bay in the west of the cape cod isthmus, is 724 m.inlength. its construction was commenced in 1909 and the waterway first opened to traffic in 1914, since when the works have been completed to give a depth of 25 ft. at low water. there are at present no locks on the canal, and on account of the difference in sea levels at the two ends there is at times a considerable current flowing through it. the sault ste. marie locks are situated in the st. mary’s river, which connects lakes superior and erie. two new locks, completed in 1914 and 1919, were built to accommodate the largest ships using the great lakes. the length between gates of each of them is 1,350 ft. and the clear width 80 feet. both have a depth of 24 ft. 6 in. over sills and a maximum lift of 21 fect. locks and dams.—since tg10, practically all locks on inland waterways in the united states have been constructed of con- crete. no mechanical lifts or inclined planes are in use, and no provision is made at any of the locks for mechanical haulage of vessels through them. electric locomotives for rack traction are, however, employed for towing ships through the locks of the panama canal. the large majority of the navigable waterways of the states, being rivers of very variable flow, the provision of dams or weirs with sluices has usually been necessary in con- junction with lock construction, and many of these works are of considerable magnitude. steel lock gates of the double leaf mitred type are now adopted generally for new works, but rolling caisson gates are also used for closing many of the river locks, particularly at the upper and shallow ends of wide locks on rivers. “ tumbling ” or flap gates (‘‘ bear trap ’’), hinged on a horizontal axis, have also been used in a few instances. sluice valves are constructed in the lock walls and are frequently of the “ butterfly ” type, but stoney gate sluices and cylindrical valves predominate. the practice of placing sluice valves in the gates has been abandoned. movable dams of the chanoine and needle types were formerly much used, but in the damsand weirs of recent construction some form of sliding or hinged sector gates has usually been adopted. the stoney sluice 1s {typical of the first class and the taintor gate of the second, canada.—the new welland ship canal, connecting lakes erie and ontario will, when completed, form the third connecting link between these lakes and will afford facilities for shipping on a far larger scale than the existing welland canal, which was recon- structed in 1872 and is 267 1m. long with 25 locks, 270 ft. by 45 ft., and 14 {t. deep on the sills. the new waterway was commenced by the govt. in 1913 and is not expected to be completed before 1927. the total cost will be upwards of £21,000,000. it will have seven locks, each 80o0ft. by 80 f{t. internally, with a depth of 30 f{t. over sills. i-ach lock hasa rise of 46 ft. 6 inches. in addition, there are regulat- ing locks at either end of the canal. the canal itself is being excavated to 25 ft. depth with provision for a depth of 30 ft. later. an ambitious scheme for a navigable waterway 25 ft. decp between the st..lawrence river at montreal and lake ontario, combined with hydroclectric development, has been considered by the (govern- ments of the united states and canada, but no decision to proceed with the work has been arrived at. delta outlets —the southwest pass at the sea outlet of the mississippi? was selected in the project of 1902 for obtaining a depth of 35 ft. across the bar. converging jetties, about 5,600 ft. apart at their land ends and 2,800 ft. apart at the bar, were substituted for the parallel jetties constructed at the south pass, and dredging was relied upon to maintain the channel between 2 r1th edition, article river engineering., 362 them. this dredging was found to be excessive, and in 1916 the project was modified by limiting the channel to a width of 2,400 {t. between the two parallel interior jetties. the depth is at present maintained at about 33 ft. or two ft. less than the pro- jected depth, and although the work of maintenance presents many difficulties, the conditions have become more favourable since the contraction of the channel was effected. the artificial improvement of two mouths of a river is an unique experiment. the forecast as to the necessity for the prolongation of the training jetties at the sulina mouth of the danube! has been realised. the cessation of dredging during the world war resulted in rapid decrease of the navigable depth which, com- bined with the continuous growth seaward of the deltaic deposit, so reduced the depth at and near the jetty ends as to compel resort, in 1924, to a subsidiary channel of limited depth on the north side of the entrance, which is now in use temporarily, while an extension of the jetties, 6,000 ft. seaward, and the dredg- ing of the direct channel between them are being effected. before 1914 the standard depth in the channel was 24 feet. til. mechanical improvements since 1910, the use of internal combustion motors as means of propulsion on canals has considerably increased. even on the smaller canals many barges in all parts of the world are now self- propelled. towage of barges both by steam and internal com- bustion motor tugs has also increased. mechanical haulage on canals has not developed in so marked a manner as towage. electric tractors are still employed for barge haulage on the teltow canal (germany) and the charleroi canal (belgium) and petrol road tractors on the bourgogne canal (france). all these installations date from before 1910, but in every case the system employed has undergone modification and improvement since. on the canal du nord in france, between saint-omer and janville, electric tractors running on rails on the bank haul 300-ton barges in groups of two or more. on the calais-saint-omer section light caterpillar road tractors of the citreen type were established in 1923 for hauling two or more loaded barges. electric rail tractors are also employed on sec- tions of the st. quentin and other canals in the north of france. mechanical traction by cable towing worked by electric capstans was installed in 1916 over a short length on the marne-rhin canal, but the results obtained have not been entirely satisfac- tory. other experiments in cable haulage have been abandoned after trial. on the whole, the results of mechanical traction on canals do not show any marked decrease in cost compared with other haulage or towage, nor has the speed of the boats been ma- terially increased. the cost of installing and working a system of electric rail traction is only justified in cases where, as on some of the canals in the north of france, the traffic is intense, and on the nord system light tractors are preferred for the less busy sections. electric capstans are provided at many french and a few belgian and dutch canal and river locks for facilitating the passage of barges through them. in some cases little use appears to be made of these facilities. bipl1ography.—tjnternational congress of navigation proceedings (1910 e¢ seq.); reports of chief of engineers, u.s.a. (passim); w. hh. hunter, rivers and estuaries (london, 1913); thomas and watt, improvement of rivers (new york, 1913); c. mcd. townsend, hydraulic principles of river and harbour construction (new york, 1922); o. jacquinot and f. galliot, navigation interieure (paris, 1922); van ornum, jhe regulation of rivers (new york, 1914); e. s. bellasis, river and canal engineering (london, oe g) river plate: sce plata, rio de la. rivers, william halse rivers (1864-1922), british psychopathologist, was educated at tonbridge and st. barthol- omew’s hospital, london. he was made university lecturer at cambridge in physiological and experimental psychology in dec. 1897, and in 1907, when the two subjects were separated, lecturer in the physiology of the senses. he founded during this period the cambridge school of experimental psychology, and 1 yrth edition, article river engineering. river plate—road construction was made fellow of st. john’s college. in 1898, with his pupils c. s. myers and william macdougall, he joined the anthropo- logical expedition to torres straits led by a. c. haddon, and had charge of the psychological work. by the genealogical method of social investigation he obtained such valuable results that whereas he joined the expedition as a pure psychologist he returned a convinced ethnologist. the tedus (1906) records his investigation on these lines among the todas in southern india in 1902. itis first expedition to melanesia was in 1908. he revisited that area later, and in the &mistory of melanesian society (2 vol., 1914) abandoned the evolutionary theory of society in favour of that of cultural migration. during the world war he obtained many valuable results as a psychopathologist, and while critically interested in freudian methods of psycho- analysis he came to very different conclusions on matters of principle and practice. his later works include zustinct and the unconscious (1920), psychology and politics (1923), medicine, magic and religion (1924), social organisation (1924). he was elected president of the royal anthropological institute in 192r and was nominated a candidate in the labour interest for the university of london. he died at cambridge june 4 1922. riviere, briton (1840-1920), british painter (sce 23.387), died in london april 20 1920. rivington, francis hansard (1834-10913), british pub- lisher (see 23.387), died july 2 1913. rivoira, giovanni teresio (18109-1910), italian archae- ologist, was born at la manta di saluzzo in piedmont sept. 22 1849. he came of an old piedmontese family and on his mother’s site was descended from the riccati (sce 23.288), a family of mathematicians and architects. he trained as an architect and engineer at the university of turin, entered rome with the italian army in 1870 and thenceforth resided there, devoting his life to travel and to the study of the architecture of the later roman empire. he published two monumental works, le origint dell’ architettura lombarda (1901-7, eng. tr. 1910), and architettura musulinana (1914, eng. tr. 1918). at the time of his death in rome, march 3 rq19, he was engaged upon a third, architettura romana, which was posthumously published in milan (1921) by his widow. riza pahlavi (1877- ), shah of persia, was born in savad kuh, the son of an army oflicer. he joined the army in early youth and eventually rose to be one of the senior officers of the cossack division. in 1917 he went to tehran from hamadan with his regiment and compelled col. clerge, the then commander of the cossack division, to relinquish his command and replaced him by col. starosselsky. in 1921 with a force of about 4,c00 men at his disposal he captured tehran, and as a result became commander-in-chief of the persian army and minister for war. in 1923 he took over the premier- ship and instituted a series of reforms, rendering assistance to the american financia] mission which was already in the employ of the persian govt. for the purpose of modernising the various departments. in oct. 1924 on the departure of the shah, sultan ahmad kadjar, riza khan pahlavi was appointed by the majliss to be head of a temporary govern- ment until the form of a new constitution was drawn up. on dec. 13 1925 riza khan pahlavi was appointed shah of persia and the sovereignty was vested in the pahlavi dynasty. the coronation took place in the gulistan palace in tehran april 25 1926. he had married the daughter of taimur khan, an army officer of high rank under whom he had served earlier in his career. there was a son of this marriage, by name mohamed riza, who thus became vahliad or crown prince and henceforth known as shahpur mohamed riza. road construction (sce 23.388).—the progressive trans- fer of traffic from railways to roads and the increase in the vol- ume of road traffic and in the consequent strain upon the road surface impel the road engineer to seck more and more perma- nent and impervious materials which will avoid the vexatious process of frequent renewal. incidentally, an impervious surface will prevent the deteri- oration of the foundation and will enable the camber or crown road construction of the carriage way to be reduced, thereby adding to the safety and convenience of drivers. cambers of 1 in 24,! and even steeper, used to be common. in modern practice this has been reduced to rin 48. in the design of new highways sufficient land is fre- quently acquired to enable all pipes, mains and conduits to be laid under the verges, shoulders or margins, so that the carriageway il- self may not be subject to future disturbance. dimensions of 100 ft. or 120 ft. between fences are becoming common in eng- land, while in the united states even more generous figures are adopted. width of road.—the wide road allows space for tree planting and keeps noise and vibration at a tolerable distance from the householder’s windows. spacious footways and verges on each side of a carriageway extend the motorist’s view as he rounds a curve and promotes the safety of vehicles entering from side roads. drivers gain a wider range of vision on each side and se- cure an extra fraction of a second for deliberation before ven- turing into the main stream of traffic. sharp bends and abrupt changes of direction are now dis- countenanced in favour of easy curves of long radius. where, owing to the configuration of the ground, curves of less radius than 1,000 ft. are unavoidable the outer edge of the carriageway is super-elevated or “ banked,” following the invariable practice of railway engineers. the width of the carriageway should be increased at such points. steep gradients which disfigure the rigidly straight roman roads are avoided by moulding the line to the contours of the hillside. in laying out the new arterial roads in the neighbourhood of london, it has almost invariably been found possible to limit the gradients to 1 in 30. gradients of excessive flatness (less than x in 300) are to be avoided, owing to the difficulty of effectively draining the surface. single and duplicate carriageways.—ln designing new arterial roads, varying opinions prevail as to the relative advantages and disadvantages, on the one hand, of a single wide carriageway, or, on the other hand, of the duplicate carriageways for up and down traflic respectively. while the single carriageway 50 ft. wide will probably carry a greater volume of traflic in the year than two 30 ft. carriageways cach reserved for one-way traffic, the separate tracks will conduce to the safety of the driver and to that of the pedestrian who, in crossing each carriageway, knows from which direction the traffic will be approaching him. again the duplicate carriageway lends itself to progressive development. in the first instance, while the country alongside the road remains open, a single carriageway can be formed and will meet travellers’ needs until such time as population and traffic increase, when the second carriageway can be constructed without interfering with the road which is already in use. the general tendency of road practice to assimilate railway methods, encourages the view that separate carriageways (up and down lines) are likely to prevail in the case of new arterial roads. in the older and more settled countries where a tolerably complete network of old highways already exists, the road enginecr’s task is usually confined to the improvement of these, rather than to the construction of entirely new communications. in great britain the creation of the ministry of transport in 1920 gave a marked _ 1m- petus to the modernisation of the old highway system. the yicld of the government’s road fund, derived from the taxation of mechan- ically propelled vehicles, rose from {11,500,000 in the calendar year 1922 to {17,250,000 in the year 1925, with the result that it became possible to launch in 1925 the so-called ‘ trunk road programme ” for the systematic transformation of the most important through routes of the country. in their unimproved state these usually pos- sess a carriageway varying from 14 ft. to 24 [t. in width, with little, if any, footway. generally speaking, where improvement is now undertaken, sufficient land is being acquired to allow a dimension of 60 ft. between fences. this affords space for a carriageway 30 ft. wide, two 8 ft. footways and two 7 ft. verges. in more rural areas the carriageway is limited for the present to 20 ft., only one footway is constructed, and the verges are widened to absorb the additional space. the work may be briefly sketched as follows: — adequate surface drainage, for want of which the older roads have usually suffered, is provided; fences are set back to 60 ft.; all sharp curves are smoothed out, and abrupt bends are eliminated where possible by forming a new sength of road along the base of the t the british refer to cambers in this way; in the united states they are referred to as 3 in. to 1 ft. or ¢ in. to 1 foot. (ed. £.b.) 363 triangle. in widening and regulating the existing carriageway the ground is excavated on each side, the existing haunches, where weak, are cut back and a foundation is formed of cement concrete from 6 in. to 9 in. in thickness, strengthened with metal reinforcement where requisite. this concrete serves not only as a foundation for the new road surface, but also as a lateral abutment for the arch of the carriageway. where clay or loam underhes the road, a layer is formed of clinker or other similar material from 4 in. to 8 in. in thick- ness, to serve, after thorough consolidation, as a bed for the con- crete. both sides of the carriageway are kerbed with granite, or reinforced concrete, the latter presenting the advantages that un- skilled local labour can be employed in its construction and that sav- ing in transport is effected. the whole width of carriageway 1s finally covered with an asphaltic carpeting or other impervious material. on some of the steeper gradients, a stonefaced reinforced concrete track is laid alongside the carriageway so as to afford a satisfactory foothold for horses mounting the hill. elsewhere the grass verges will be of service to horsemen. tne making of ciry streets in the principal streets of the world’s great cities where highly durable paving materials on a concrete foundation have long been in use—mastic asphalt, compressed asphalt, wood blocks, granite setts, etc.—recent changes of method are mainly confined to the strengthening of the concrete foundation by an increase in thickness or the introduction of metal reinforcement. in some areas in london it is now the practice to lay as a founda- tion for wood blocks a bed of cement-concrete as much as 12 in. thick, containing a stecl reinforcing fabric. intolerance of trafhe interruptions encourages the introduction of time-saving devices, such as pneumatic drills for breaking up old concrete foundations; growing use is made in the busiest thoroughfares of quick-setting cements, such as ciment fondu and ferrocrete, which reduce by a fortnight or more the period which must clapse before the road can be opened to traflic. various experiments have been tried in the use of rubber as a paving material; in some instances it has taken the form of a wearing cap applied to a block of wood or other material; in other instances the entire block is composed of rubber. the elasticity of the material renders it somewhat liable to displacement under the stress of traffic and experiments are still being directed to the attainment of a secure anchorage. foundations-—the choice of materials for foundations is usually dictated by considerations of transport, though in cer- tain favoured districts the hard, compact subsoil of chalk or rock needs but little improvement. on a firm stratum of chalk a well-compressed layer of clinker will often serve to carry the surfacing coat. equally serviceable as a natural foundation is a well-drained bed of coarse gravel; finer gravels, and even so fine a material as sand, are not to be despised, provided that the latter has no opportunity of escaping laterally under pressure. in france a thick bed of river sand is not infrequently used as the foundation for sett paving. the bearing capacity of clay, loam and other similar subsoils is so diminished by the presence of water that great care must be taken to ensure adequate drain- age before road-making operations are begun. the want of uniformity and reliability in the chance supplies of materials formerly used as ‘ hardcore ” foundation for new roads in areas devoid of quarrics has led to a notable extension in the use of cement concrete as a road foundation. hardcore derived from demolished buildings consists of ingredients possessing every degree of durability from broken fragments of plaster to the hardest vitrified bricks. these heterogeneous materials thrown down pell-mell in a layer 12 in. thick and subsequently crushed under a ro-ton steam roller form the foundation of most of the roads on outskirts of great cities, and it is not surprising that carriageways so constructed show obvious signs of weakness under the stress of modern traffic. the arguments in favour of concrete as a road foundation are somewhat less urgent in regions where supplies of rock are cheaply available in the vicinity of the road. in such cases the old method practised by telford of forming a foundation with hand-pitched rubble continues to hold its own. surfacing methods.—water-bound macadam which still re- mains in use on lightly trafficked roads, does not possess imper- vious qualities and is therefore usually treated with hot surface 364 dressings such as tar or various bituminous mixtures, applied in warm, sunny weather to a thoroughly swept, dry carriage- way, the surface of which is then “ gritted ”’ with chippings or shingle. as surface dressings, various asphaltic or bituminous emulsions are applied cold, regardless of weather. ‘tar 1s used as a surface dressing and as a “ binder ” for mixing with materials prior to their application so as to give cohesive qualities to the entire thickness of the road crust. by this means such materials as limestone and slag can be utilised, which are not so well adapted to waterbound methods. natural asphalts after a 60 years’ test still remain in high favour for the paving of streets in wealthy cities. during the ten years, 1910-25, however, much research has been devoted to the problem of utilising the valuable properties of asphalts and bitumens in some cheaper form of pavement suitable for wider adoption. asphaltic and bituminous mixtures are now utilised as a-matrix to bind together an aggregate of broken stone or clinker, applied in one or two coats as a road-surfacing material. in this category fall the processes known as bituminous macadam, grouted macadam, single-coat bituminous carpet, bituminous sand- carpet on a bituminous sand-crust, bituminous clinker carpet on a bituminous sub-crust. in many cases these surfacing materials are laid upon the old macadam road-crust suitably regulated, but where this does not afford sufficient strength a concrete foundation is formed. in all these bituminous surfacing methods, the need for securing the greatest possible compactness by the elimination of voids is achieved by elaborate precautions in grading the materials. it is necessary to determine experimentally the exact proportions of ingredients of varying graces needed to attain the highest degree of density in the resultant mixture. as an example of the general lines followed by modern prac- tice a few particulars may be quoted from a recent specification for one-coat bituminous clinker surfacing—a process which enables profitable use to be made of a waste product (clinker) :— the one-coat surfacing is to measure 2 in. in thickness after com- plete consolidation, and to have a crossfall or camber of 1 in 50, the mineral aggregate is to consist of well-burnt hard clinker, free from coke, ash or foreign matter. the bitumen has to comply with cer- tain ‘‘ penctration ” and “ solubility ’ tests. the conercte founda- tion, after thoroughly cleansing, is painted with a coat of hot bitu- men. the clinker aggregate is to be mechanically broken to pass a 4-in. mesh screen, and shall consist of approximately the following proportions of smaller grades:— o? rat) clinker evenly graded, jin. to gin. . ; : : i. 0 32 clinker passing 10-in. sicve : : clinker passing 20-in. sieve ; f ‘ : ; - clinker passing 30-in. sieve : : ” 2 . . 20 clinker passing 40-in. sieve : : , : ; ' clinker passing 50-in. sieve : : : ; ; , clinker passing 80-in. sieve : : : is 5 clinker passing 100-in. sieve : : ; 10 clinker passing 200-in. sieve : ‘ . . : ; 15 soluble bitumen as specified. . . fz total . : - & 100 the clinker is to be thoroughly dried and heated to a temperature of 300 to 350° fahrenheit. it shall be mixed in a mechanical mixer with 17° of soluble bitumen. after thoroughly mixing, the material is to be delivered on to the road at a temperature of 300 to 350° f. and spread with hot rakes to the specified thickness. rolling shall immediately follow with a light roller (6 to 7 tons), and as the temperature of the materials falls the rolling is to be con- tinued with a ro- to r2-ton roller until no impression is made upon the road surface, which is subsequently to be dusted over with ce- ment, or other approved filler so that a close compact surface may be formed. cement-concrete, after gaining a wide vogue in canada and the united states, is now extending its sphere of use in great britain as a running surface for carriageways. its use as a foun- dation for asphalt or wood blocks has long been an established practice. special interest attaches to the application of con- crete in view of the wide range of materials utilisable as aggre- gate, as compared with the very uncven geographical distribu- tion of good road-stone supplies. on the other hand, concrete is somewhat handicapped by the lengthy period of setting and curing,”’ which is requisite before the new surface can be sub- jected to the strain of traffic. this unavoidable delay is of less road construction moment in the case of entirely new roads than in that of the reconstruction of existing highways, where acute inconvenience is caused to traffic by any lengthy period of closing. this difii- cully may be mitigated in future by the use of quick-setting cements, several types of which (ciment fondu, ferrocrete and other aluminous cements) are now available. standardisation.—standard specifications and practice have not yet been evolved for concrete road construction. there is considerable variety of method. the construction may take the form of one-course work or two-course work, the former con- sisting of one grade of concrete for the full thickness, while the latter provides two layers of concrete mixed in varying propor- tions. one-course work is simpler, and avoids the risk of cleav- age between two layers of differing consistency. for two-course work a poorer concrete can be used for the lower layer. in america great lengths of new concrete highway are now being constructed across tracis of country hitherto unprovided with modern roads. the concrete measures 8 in. to 9 in. in thickness and 18 ft. to 21 ft. in width, with a scarcely perceptible camber. methods of laying—in the actual process of laying the con- crete, there is much variety of practice, some engincers preferring to proceed continously, while others adopt the “ alternate bay ” system, in which the carriageway is divided into slabs of uniform length, each extending the full width of the carriageway, the odd numbers would be laid first, separated by gaps representing the even numbers; these gaps would not be filled until the odd numbers had completely set, thus counteracting the effects of expansion and contraction. the transverse joints separating the slabs are sometimes disposed at right angles across the road; in other instances they he at an angle of 60° or so to the kerb-line, so that the impact of the wheels of the vehicle docs not strike any slab simultaneously the aggregate, consisting of crushed stone or gravel, should be clean and well graded in size, so as to reduce the percentage of voids toa minimum. risks of failure in the concrete are greatly reduced by washing the aggregate. the sand must pass a rigorous test for cleanliness, and its particles should have the largest possible range of size from fine to coarse; if only one grade is obtainable, coarse is to be preferred. the proportions commonly adopted vary from i cement, 1} sand and 3 gravel to 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 gravel. only a bare sufficiency of water should be added—a very wet mix- ture encourages voids. mechanical mixing plant is generally adopted and the use of mechanical tamping and finishing machines is greatly favoured in the united states, where they are found to play an invaluable part in minimising voids. the precautions to be taken during the setting of the concrete depend largely on the climatic conditions. in moist weather no harm will arise from leaving the green concrete uncovered for a few hours, but in hot sunny weather exposure will lead to the formation of hair cracks. heavy canvas is often used for pro- {ecting the concrete during the first 24 hours of setting. the canvas is then removed, and a layer of earth spread over the surface about 2 in. thick and left there for a fortnight or so. for the purpose of indurating the surface of the cement concrete, recourse is sometimes had to two or three applications of a weak solution of silicate of soda. reinforcement.—where anxiety is felt as to the soundness of the subsoil on which concrete is laid, and it is accordingly desired to form a slab qualified to serve as a raft or bridge, one or two layers of metal reinforcement are often introduced into the concrete. in other cases reinforcement is adopted owing to the fact that the thickness of the concrete has had for various reasons to be reduced, and it is necessary to compensate for this reduction by conferring additional strength upon the concrete. there are large numbers of fabrics in use, expanded metal of 6 in. and other meshes, woven wire, mesh fabrics in which the main tension wires of drawn mild steel run longitudinally with cross-wires welded thereto at regular intervals; other systems make use of twisted or vertical bars; double reinforcement is frequently used in “‘ mattress ” form, the upper and lower layers being connected by diagonal members. the weight of reinforce- ment varies in ordinary practice from 5 lb. to 25 lb. per yard superficial of concrete foundation. robert-fleury—rochester ribliography.—students should consult the proceedings of the institute of transport (london), the surveyors’ institution (j.on- don) and the international road congresses held at seville, 1923, and milan, 1926, besides the technical journals dealing with civil engineering. (c.h,.br.) robert-fleury, tony (1837-1011). french painter (sce 23.403), died in paris dec. 8 1o1tr. roberts, frederick sleigh roberts, eart. (1832- 1914), british soldier (sce 23.403). after 1905 lord roberts took a leading part, as head of the national service league, in the movement in favour of compulsory military service for home defence. on the outbreak of the world war he was a frequent visitor at the war office, and shortly after the arrival of the two indian divisions in france he crossed the channel to visit them in the trenches. he was attacked by pneumonia while at the front, and he died at st. omer on nov. 14 1914, the title going by special remainder to his elder daughter, aileen mary. he was buried in st. paul’s cathedral, london. robertson, sir george scott (1852-1916), british soldier and administrator, was born in london oct. 22 1852. he was educated at westminster hospital medical school, and in 1878 entered the indian medical service. he served through the afghan war of 1879-80, and was for the next eight years civil surgeon in the united provinces. in 1890-1 he travelled in kafiristan (see 15.630). in 1893 he went as political agent to chitral, and in 1895 was besieged there by hostile tribesmen (see 6.252). for his services he was created k.c.s.l., and appointed british agent in gilgit. he retired from the indian service in 1899 and returned to england. he was liberal member for central bradford from 1906 until his death on jan. 1 1916. he published the kefirs of the hindu-kush (1896) and chitral: the story of a minor siege (1808). robertson, sir william robert (1860- ), british soldier, was born at welbourn, lincs., sept. 14 1860. he enlisted as a private in the 16th lancers in 1877 and served in the ranks of that regiment until 1888, when he won a commission in the 3rd dragoon guards, then in india. he eagerly studied his pro- fession in all its branches and he was very successful in learning the native languages. he was appointed railway staff officer in the miranzai and black mountain operations of 1891, and in the following year joined the intelligence department at simla; while on its staff he carried out a reconnaissance to the pamirs, and in 1895 served with the chitral relicf force, being wounded and receiving the i).s.0. he passed through the staff college in 1897-8—the first officer risen from the ranks to do so—and then, after a few months at the war office, went out to south africa on the intelligence staff; he accompanied lord roberts on his advance from cape colony into the transvaal and was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel for his services. he spent the period from r9or to 1907 at the war office, being promoted colonel in 1903, and he then went to the staff at aldershot, where he spent three years. in rg10 he was appointed commandant of the staff college, was shortly afterwards promoted major- general and in 1913 became director of military training at the war office. on the mobilisation of the army for the world war, sir wil- liam robertson—he had been given the k.c.v.o. in 1913— was nominated quartermaster-gencral of the expeditionary force; he filled that appointment most successfully for five months and then, in jan. 1915, he became chicf of the general staff to sir john french. in the autumn of that year he was pro- moted lieutenant-general for distinguished service and in the following december was brought back to the war office to take up the post of chief of the imperial general staff. there he 1m- mediately introduced great improvements in the office organisa- tion. while convinced that the western front represented the decisive theatre of war, and fully aware how mischievous was dispersion of force in principle, he saw to it that, where operations in distant regions were unavoidable, the commanders on the spot were furnished with what was deemed essential to achieve success—with the result that the position of affairs in mesopo- tamia, on the suez frontier and in east africa was completely 365 transformed within a very few months of his taking up his task. his services were recognised by his being promoted general in 1916 and by his being given the g.c.b. in 1917. in the later months of 1917 he found it more and more difh- cult, in view of the somewhat disappointing results obtained by allied offensives in france and flanders, to persuade the war cabinet that diversion of fighting resources to alexandretta, or to palestine, or to macedonia, or to the austro-italian fron- tier, endangered prospects of victory at the decisive point and might lead to disaster near home. his anxieties were increased by the manner in which the problem of man-power was treated. ile moreover foresaw that the supreme war council, introduced towards the end of the year, would not provide effective means for combining the operations of the allies. in feb. 1918 he was transferred by the government to the charge of the eastern com- mand in england—just one month before the success that attend- ed the great german offensive of march proved how correct had been his appreciation of the situation. three months later he succeeded lord french as commander-in-chief in great britain. on the final distribution of honours for the war he was rewarded with a baronetcy and grant of £10,000, and he was nominated g.c.m.g. in ror9o. from april roto to march 1920 he com- manded the british troops on the rhine, and, after relinquishing that appointment on the force being reduced, he was promoted field-marshal. see his autobiographical volume from private te field-mar- shal (1921). (for nig) robinson, edwin arlington (1869- ), american poet, was born at head tide, me., dec. 22 1869. from the public schools of gardiner, me., he proceeded in 1891 to harvard, but withdrew after two years. from 1905 to 1910 he was connected with the new york customs house, and then devoted his time to literature, especially to poetry. he became a member of the national institute of arts and letters. in 1922 he was awarded the pulitzer prize of $1,000 for his collected poems. ilis works include the torrent and the night before (1896); the children of the night (1897); captain craig (1902); the town down the river (1910); van zorn (1914), a play; the porcupine (1915), a play; the man against the sky (1916); merlin (1917); lancelot (1920); the three taverns (1920); avon's itarvest (1921); collected poems (1921); roman bartholow (1922); the man who died twice (1924); dionysus in doubt (1925). robinson, james harvey (1863- ), american his- torian, was born in bloomington, tll., june 29 1863. on gradu- ating at harvard university in 1887 he went to germany, study- ing history at freiburg university (ph.d., 1890). in 1891 he was lecturer on european history at the university of pennsyl- vania and in 1892 he was appointed associate professor of history at columbia university, becoming professor in 1895. he resigned his professorship in 1919 and devoted himself to the organisation of the new school for social research in new york city. the “new history,” of which he has been a leading exponent, chal- lenges the traditional choice of material, maintaining that in the past far too much stress has been placed upon the course of politics and state rivalries, and too little on the rele of thought in world changes. he was associate editor of the american historical review from 1911 to 1920. robinson wrote the german bundesrath (1891); petrarch, the first modern scholar and man of letters (1898); an introduction to the history of western europe (1903); readings tn european [hisiory, 2 vol. (1904-6); with c. a. beard, the development of modern europe, 2 vol. (1907-8); with c. a. beard, keadings in modern european ilistory, 2 vol. (1908-9); the new history (1911); afe- dieval and modern times (1915); the mind in the making (1921); the humanizing of knowledge (1923). roby, henry john (1830-1915), british scholar (see 23.424), died at grasmere, cumberland, jan. 2 1915. ile con- tributed a chapter on roman law to the second volume of the cambridge mediaeval history in 1913. rochefort, henri (1830-1913), french politician (see 23.426), died at aix-les-bains june 30 1913. rochester, n.y., u.s.a. (see 23.430), increased 35:6% in population in the decade beginning rg10, reaching 295,750 in 1920, of whom 71,411 were foreign born and 1,579 negroes. the 366 state census of 1925 gave a population of 316,786. about 12 sq. m. were annexed at different times, making the area 32:1 square miles. between 1910 and 1924 the assessed valuation of property increased 176° (to $456,407,234); the net city debt, 229% (to $42,153,545); the city’s expenses, 249% (to $15,370,- 660); post office receipts, 146° (to $2,582,832); bank deposits, 114% (to $312,985,838); miles of paved strect, from 195 to 336; miles of sewers, from 275 to 422; number of pupils in the public schools, 104% (to 53,878). in the six years following the world war 33,820 building permits were issued, representing a value of $105,410,101. there was a substantial development in its well-established and various industries. the value of the out- put of plant within the city limits was $112,676,c00 in 1909; —$351,416,000 in 1919; $337,362,162 in 1923, when there were 964 establishments, employing 58,649 wage-earners. a city planning bureau was created (1917), and zoning ordi- nances were adopted in 1919 and 1920. in the abandoned chan- nel of the erie canal a subway, crossing the entire city, was con- structed, to provide tracks for interurban, passenger and freight service, and a belt-line connecting all the railways. the har- bour and warehouses of the barge canal (opened in 1918) are on the genesee river, in the heart of the city. at the mouth of the river, on lake ontario, is the port of rochester. the new medical school and hospital of the university of rochester (made possible by gifts of $4,000,000 from george eastman, of kodak fame, and $5,000,000 from the general education board) was approaching completion in 1925; and the university had received gifts amounting to $10,000,000 for expansion in other directions and general endowment. the eastman school of music, a department of the university, endowed by george eastman, was opened in 1921; and the following year the east- man theatre, a gift by the same donor, was built and run under the management of the eastman school of music. rockefeller, john davison (1839- ), american capitalist (see 23.433), continued after 1910 to live a retired life and, for some years, to give great sums for charitable and edu- cational purposes. in 1921 it was estimated that his bequests exceeded $s00,000,000, that he had drawn on his capital as well as his income and that he was no longer, as he had been, the richest man in the world. be that as it may, he gave the bulk of his fortune to his son who has also made immense giits. his son, john davison rockefeller, jr., was born at cleve- land, o., jan. 29 1874. he was educated at brown university (a.b., 1897) and, after engaging for a short time in business, with- drew and devoted his attention to philanthropic objects, continu- ing the charitable and other work of this nature initiated by the older man. he assisted, by endowments and otherwise, other educational and religious institutions, an instance of which was his financial support of the rst baptist church, new york city, planned for dr. h. e. fosdick. shortly alter the war he gave $1,000,000 for repairs to and reconstruction of the palaces at versailles and fontainebleau and the cathedral at reims. in recognition of this he was in march 1926 made a citizen of ver- sailles by the city council. in 1926 was announced his offer to the egyptian govt. of $10,000,000 for the purpose of establishing and endowing a museum of antiquities in cairo, which was ultimately withdrawn, owing to the unwillingness of the gov- ernment to meet the conditions of the gift. rockefeller benefactions.—it was estimated that up to the end of 1924 mr. j. d. rockefeller had given for philan- thropic and charitable purposes more than $500,000,0c00—the largest group of charitable and educational gifts ever made. in this distribution he aimed at stimulating others to give in addition to securing the most effective utilisation of the bulk of his own fortune. nearly four-fifths of his donations went to the four great benevolent corporations which he created: the rockefeller foundation, general education board, the laura spelman rockefeller memorial and the rockefeller institute for medical research. quite as significant as the magnitude of these gifts was the fact that they were free from all restric- tions, having been given outright for the purposes of the respec- rockefeller—rockefeller benefactions tive corporations, the trustees of which have power to dispose of the principal as well as the income. as the corporate pur- poses of these organisations are extremely broad, and the gifts free from restrictions, they will always be adaptable to the changing needs of future generations. general pur poses.—the rockefeller foundation was chartered in 1913 under the laws of the state of new york (congress hav- ing failed to enact the legislation necessary for a national charter) “to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world.” to this, the most extensive of his benefactions, mr. rockefeller had given in all nearly $183,000,000 by 1925. the income and $11,000,000 of the original gifts were expended from time to time by the trustces. with increasing definiteness the rockefeller foundation focused its efforts in the fields of medical education and public health. it supported by appropriations after 1913 the international health board, an independent organisation en- gaged, in co-operation with governmental agencies, in demon- strations for the eradication of hookworm disease in 14 southern states of the united states and 22 foreign stales or countries; of yellow fever in five south and central amcrican countries, and of malaria in 11 southern states ofthe united states. in addition, the international health board, with funds provided by the rockefeller foundation, organised in 1917, partly as a war measure, the commission for prevention of tuberculosis in france. this commission conducted in limited areas, as demon- strations, vigourous campaigns of popular education in hygiene, and provided for the training of french women as health visitors. the continuation of the work was taken over by the french authorities after 1920. china medical board——the rockefeller foundation es- tablished in rorg4 the china medical board to promote the development of scientific medicine and hygiene in china through medical schools, hospitals and training schools for nurses. the peking union medical college, founded by this board, was opened in 1919, together with pre-medical and nurse-training schools, with the ultimate purpose of vesting control and maintenance of these institutions in the chinese. the board has made gifts to other institutions in china which offer pre- medical courses, and to hospitals. the foundation gave, up to the end of 1924, $15,793,745 to aid medical education in china. it established, in 1920, a division of medical education, through whose advice large pledges of money were made for the develop- ment of medical centres in london and in various cities of canada. public health work.—as a part of its public health work, the rockefeller foundation also made grants for the teaching of hygiene at johns hopkins university, baltimore, and at the university of sao paulo, brazil. a special feature of this work was provision for fellowships to persons from many lands en- gaged in study in medical education and in public health. the rockefeller foundation in 1923 co-operated with 32 states of the united states and 77 other states and countries in sani- tation and medical education. during 1924, 864 individuals from 33 countries, including the united states, received from the foundation some form of fellowship stipend to support their training to safeguard public health. during the world war the rockefeller foundation contributed nearly $22,500,000 to war work and war relief, including $5,000,000 of its capital; and before the crystallisation of its general policy of limiting its work to medical education and public health, it made appropria- tions to other causes. educational work.—to the general education board, the next largest of his benevolences, mr. rockefeller had given, up to dec. 1924, $129,197,960. up to july 1923, the board had appropriated for “‘ the promotion of education in the united states of america, without distinction of race, sex or creed.”’ the sum of $106,214,284. most of this had been given toward endowments of colleges, excluding professional departments, the rule being to make gifts contingent upon the raising of addi- tional sums by the beneficiaries: when colleges, in 1919, were losing valued teachers because their salaries could not meet the suddenly increased cost of living, mr. rockefeller made a rodin—roman catholic church special gift to the gencral education board of $50,000,000 to be used in helping the colleges raise enough funds to increase salaries. this averted a severe loss to education. among medi- cal schools which have reccived aid from the general education board are: harvard school of public health, $1,203, 664; johns hopkins, $6,232,000; university of chicago, 32,000,000 (joint fund with the rockefeller foundation, 1916); vanderbilt, $5,500,000 (1919); rochester, $5,000,000 (1920); yale, $1,768,- ooo; columbia university, $2,000,000 (joint fund with the rockefeller foundation, 1920) and the meharry medical col- lege (for negroes), nashville, tenn., $150,000 (1920). besides the $50,000,000 mentioned, mr. rockefeller in 1919 gave $20,000,000 to the general education board, both principal and interest to be spent in the united states. the board that year gave $500,000 toward the endowment of a graduate school of education at harvard, opened the following year; and in 1920 appropriated $1,000,000 to the building fund of teachers college, columbia university, the largest gift yet made to any institution for training teachers. to the rockefeller institute for medical research, new york, which seeks to eradicate diseases by discovering their origins, mr. rockefeller gave in all some $40,000,000. he gave, up to the end of 1924, nearly $74,000,000 to the laura spelman rockefeller memorial, new york, largely to continue charities for women and children in which mrs. rockefeller (ee laura spelman), who died in 1915, had been much interested. besides these munificent gifts mr. rockefeller has given $18,000,000 to baptist and other churches and about $45,000,000 for various purposes connected with the university of chicago. j.d. rockefelicr, jr—tin his public gifts—3 48,000,000 up to 1925—mr. j. d. rockefeller, jr., has carricd forward the purpose of his father to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world. notable among these gifts have been: to the northern baptist convention, $2,300,000; bureau of social hygiene, $2,000,000; brown university, $500,000; inter- church world movement, $1,500,000; international house, where hundreds of columbia university students from many lands and all races live together in amity, $2,360,000; new york public library, $3,500,000; cathedral of st. john the divine, $500,000; young men’s christian association interna- tional committee, $1,500,000; hampton tuskegee institute (for negroes), $2,500,000; metropolitan museum of art, $2,000,- ooo; toward restoration of gardens of versailles and the cathe- dral of reims, $1,000,000; toward restoration of the imperial university of tokyo, japan, 4,000,000 yen ($1,540,000); inter- national education board, $21,000,000, to advance scientific research and education and to promote agricultural science and practice throughout the world. rodin, francois auguste (1840-1917), french sculptor (see 23.447), died at meudon, near paris, nov. 17 1917. roerich, nicolas constantinovich (1874- ), rus- sian painter of scandinavian origin, established his reputation by painting pictures of russian prchistoric life and the wander- ings of vikings. after beginning with realistic pictures, his manner evolved under the influence of the byzantine icon and of oriental art, towards a purely decorative and monumental style. roerich studied the technique of ancient russian frescoes and his wall paintings for the kazan railway station at moscow, representing combats between russians and tartars, are con- sidered his most important work. he became a member of the ‘“‘ artistic world ” group, director of the school for encouraging art in st. petersburg, a member of the imperial academy, and was also an archaeologist and a poet. he executed a number of works for the theatre: for the russian ballet he painted the scenery in price igor; for stanislavsky the setting of peer gynt. he wrote the libretto for and also designed the scenery and the costumes of the rite of spring, for which stravinsky com- posed the music. after the russian revolution of 1917 he settled in america, and his art grew more and more abstract, tending towards occult mysticism. in 1924 he undertook a journey to india which provided him with much inspiration for his later work, 367 roll, alfred philippe (1846-1919), french painter (see 23.465), died in paris oct. 27 1910. rolland, romain (1866- ), french man of letters, was born at clamecy, nievre, jan. 29 1866. he was educated at clamecy, and later in paris, where he had a distinguished academic career. from 1889-91 he was a member of the i*rench school in rome, in 1892 went with an archacological expedition to italy, and in 1895 was appointed professor of the history of art at the ecole normale superieure, later occupying the same position at the sorbonne, where he introduced the study of the history of music. he produced many critical and historical works, among them les origines du thedtre lyrique moderne, histoire de vopera en europe avant lulli ct scarlatti (1895); des causes de la decadence de la peinture italicnne (1895); le thedire du peuple (1901); besides studies on afillef (1902); becthoven (1903) and michel-ange (1906), les tragedies de la foi, saint louis, aert, le triomphe de la raison (1913). his most famous work, however, is the romance of jean-christophe (r904-12), the biography of a german musician. it is in three series, jean-christophe, jean-christophe & paris and la fin du voyage, and appeared in ro volumes, the first l’aube, in 1904, and the last la zounelle journec, in 1912. when the world war broke out rolland was in switzerland, and although his open letter to nauptmann expressed his horror of the burning of louvain, he became extremely unpopular in france owing to a series of articles published in the journal de gentve during sept. and oct. 1914, and especially by the article au-dessus de la melee, in which he deplored these single combats, “eucken contre bergson, hauptmann contre maeterlinck, rolland contre hauptmann.” ‘this article later gave the title to a collection of essays of which the ninth edition appeared in 1915. he maintained his pacifist attitude throughout the war. although his reputation in france suffered from his political views, it increased abroad, and the performances of danton and le 14 juillet (which with les loups make up his theetre de la revolittion (1909), caused a furore in berlin. his work afahatma gandhi (1924) is an impassioned defence of the indian seader. his later works include: colas breugnon (1918); les precurscurs (1919); clerambault, pierre ct luce (1919); voyage musical aux pays du passe (1919); liluli (1919); l’dme enchantee (1922); annette ct sylvie (1924); and l’ee (1925). | see jan romein, remain rolland (1918); i. debran, m. r. rol- gan ciel de defaitisme (1918); w. kuechler, romain rolland i9iq). romain, jules (188s5-— ), french poet and novelist, was born aug. 26 1885 at saint-julien-chapteuil in the ardeche. he went early to paris and spent his childhood and adolescence in montmartre. te entered the ecole normale superieure in 1906, and graduated in philosophy in 1909. [tor 10 years he taught philosophy in paris and in the provinces, notably at nice. his claim to fame is principally based on his position as one of the heads of the unanimist school of writers (arcos, vildrac, duhamel, chenneviere and others). this school con- ceives of crowds, especially those of modern cities, as possessing an unconscious solidarity by virtue of the communal lines of thought and sympathies that bind them—the equivalent of a socialist christianity without altars and without militant ideas, and is sometimes known as the group of l’abbaye, after the place of retreat that certain of them chose with the object of working and creating communally. romain’s novels and verse and certain of his plays, cromedeyre-le-vieil (1920) and le bourg regenere (1920), exemplify this doctrine. his later plays, af. le trouhadec saist par la debauche (1922), knock (1925), have a molieresque humour which made them popular in france. roman catholic church (sce 23.486).—in reviewing the history of the catholic church from 1910 to 1926, it will be seen that its activities range over a wide field of religious and phil- anthropic interests. these include the maintenance of its faith and discipline; the codification of its laws; the remodeling of its administration; the safeguarding of catholic education; the training of its home and missionary ministry; the fostering of organisations of charity and piety; the adjustment of its relations 368 with the civil power; the promotion of christian reunion; the expansion of its mission work; and the teaching of sound prin- ciples from the christian standpoint as the essential means of securing peace and equity between the nations, and between the classes within the nations. i. the church in the old world modernism.—the three years preceding the war (1911-4) saw the completion and execution of the decrees for the defence of the faith against modernism. the decisions given, and the measures adopted by the holy see in 1907, made it clear that the modernist teaching of that time could have no recognition or standing-room inside the pale of the catholic church. its three great leaders had been the abbe loisy in france, don r. murri in italyand father tyrrell in england. the first two were excommunicated. the third died under censure and was not buried with catholic ritual. the disciplinary regulations enacted by pius x. were supported by the episcopate throughout the world, and were maintained by his successors benedict xv. and pius: xi. the church and the war.— britain declared waron aug. 4 1914, and 16 days later, pius x.died—broken hearted, it is said, at the failure of his efforts to prevent the outbreak of hostilities. his successor benedict xv. was elected on sept. 3 and lived until jan. 22 1922, more than three years after the conclusion of the armistice. his pontificate thus broadly covered the whole period of the great world conflict. his attitude and action during that time, as shown by the documentary evidence, consisted in taking every means and every opportunity to bring about the restora- tion of peace. in feb. rors he ordered special services to be held, and prayers to be offered throughout the whole catholic world. he sent encyclical letters to the bishops and clergy in all countries to leave nothing undone to foster the spirit of peace-making and reconciliation. in aug. 1917, he made a direct appeal to the belligerent powers, and even suggested terms on which they might find a rational settlement of their quarrel. his conception of peace, and the conditions on which it might be brought about, were found to be too idealistic to have at that moment any chance of consideration. catholics in all nations, according to the custom of the church, were free in their prayers for peace to pray for the complete victory and triumph of the arms of their own and allied countries. on the other hand, the pope, by his position as spiritual father cf catholics in all na- tions, was bound to maintain an attitude of neutrality in the sense of paternal impartiality. fence in the mind of benedict xyv., the ideal of peace was one which was not to be attained by the crushing, or crippling, or humiliation of an adversary, or by any one-sided triumph over a fallen foe. as he expressed it in may 1015, the peace which was needed ought to be one “ in- spired by the spirit of equity and good-will, so that it might be an achievement of justice in harmony with the dignity of the nations.”’ he was convinced that no other peace would be lasting, or free from the complications and animosities which would jead eventually to another war. this ideal of a peace, carefully con- sistent with the honour and comity of nations, was set forth in all his utterances throughout the war, until the logic of events brought about the armistice, and with it a more drastic solution. in a public consistorial letter in the same month, he denounced “ the methods of warfare on land and sea ”’ which are “ contrary to the principles of humanity and of international right.” in the consistory of jan. 1915, he had protested against the devastation made in the occupied territory, and the cruelty to the inhabitants, beyond the necessities of war—a rebuke to the invaders, for which he received the thanks of the belgian government. while the efforts of the church proved unavailing for the stopping of the war, they were directed with greater success to mitigate its evils, by promoting organisations for the care of the wounded, the tracing of missing soldiers, the relief of prisoners of war, their transfer for convalescence to switzerland and nota- bly for the collection of funds for the starving populations in russia and in the near eastern countries. roman catholic church soon after the armistice, in dec. 1918, benedict xv. addressed an feneycelical letter to all bishops throughout the catholic world, ordering services to be celebrated in all their churches to thank god for the cessation of hostilities, and to ask his blessing upon the deliberations of the peace conference that it might se- cure 4 lasting reconciliation between the powers. on the part of the holy see, he pledged himself to use “ all the influence of his apostolic ministry to see that the decisions of the conference for the maintenance of order and tranquility amongst the nations should be gladly accepted and loyally carried out by all catho- lics.”’ the church and canon law.—the spring of the year 1917 marked the completion of a notable enterprise in the domain of the church’s jurisprudence. the laws of the church had accu- mulated during the centuries and had to be sought in the corpus jurts canonict, or in the ponderous collections of councils, or in the rescripts of the roman pontiffs or in the decrees of the roman congregations and tribunals, which largely make up the case-law of the ecclesiastical courts. the great project of pius x. at the inspiration of mgr. (later on cardinal) gasparri, was to transform this vast material from a corpus into a codex, in which the operative canons of the church would be collected, amended, re-arranged and while retaining their usual titles of classification, should appear in a consecutively numbered series and thus simplify the work of consultation and reference. the execution of this colossal task—jmmensum puene opus, as the papal constitution calls it—was entrusted to a commis- sion in which 29 cardinals took part, aided by more than 4o consultors, expert canonists selected from rome or various parts of the church for their proficiency in canon law. the work occupied the commission for 13 years, from march 1904, till may 1917. during that time, the proofs of the new codex were sent no less than three times over to the entire catholic episcopate in all parts of the world for suggestions, additions or amendments. as a result, the whole body of church law has been compressed into a single volume and set forth in 2,414 canons. on the promulgation of the new code to the world at pentecost, 1917, benedict xv commemorated the event by hav- ing a special medal struck and a large tapestry, with portraits of the commission, made to hang on the walls of the great con- sistorial hall of the vatican. apostolic visitations —while the work of codification of the canons was proceeding, pius x. took measures to strengthen discipline and to secure their observance. a visitation or com- mission of inquiry was held in many parts of italy, to investi- gate the state of the dioceses, to remedy defects and to promote spiritual progress. in several cases where the incumbents, owing to age or inefliciency, were unequal to their post, they were re- moved or practically replaced by an apostolic visitor until the required changes were effected. pius x.set the example for this disciplinary reform in his own diocese. as rome is the capital of the church, a considerable number of clerics and monks from all parts were usually attracted thither, and these included not only those who came for business or for study, but not a few that would have been more usefully employed elsewhere. pius x. issued strict orders to the cardinal vicar to see that no cleric or religious should be allowed to reside for any notable time in the city except for satisfactory reasons, and that in such cases they should be subject to the supervision of the ecclesiasti- cal authorities. these regulations were rigidly carried out, and served to restore the more normal proportion of the clerical to the lay population, and to remove causes of complaint and dissatis- faction. at the same time, the holy see sent letters to the bish- ops of italy and of other countries, urging them to encourage missions for the people, and the formation of guilds for teaching christian doctrine. it further exhorted them to interest their clergy in the social and economic well-being of the people, and to aid in the formation of parochial saving-banks to promote habits of thrift and industry. the holy see and jtaly.—the attitude of the holy see towards the civil power in italy, while abating in nowise its claim to spiritual independence, and all that is required for it, has, owing roman catholic church to the change of circumstances, during the years under review entered into a new ethos and outlook. the vatican has followed its policy of neutrality to all political parties, and has refused to identify itself even with the catholic partito popolare or with the pacific revolution which was effected by signor mussolini and his fascisti. nevertheless, under the fascist regime, the relations between the papacy and the kingdom of italy have been more friendly than they have been at any time since the italian occupation, and the holy see has welcomed with gratitude the fuller recognition of religion by the civil authorities, and the restoration of religious teaching in the schools. the church and france-—yor several years before the war, the church in france was still emerging from the crisis caused in 1905 by the separation of church and state. the difficulty lay in the collision between the traditional religion of the country and the political ideals inherited in part from the revolution. of 'a population of nearly 40,000,000, a majority may still be said to be traditionally or nominally catholic. but only a minority make practical profession of their religion or use their political influence in defence of its interests. the bulk of the electorate, and with it, the voting power, and consequently the govern- ment of the day, belongs to those who, if not hostile, or indiffer- ent, or respectfully neutral to religion, are averse in principle to any recognition of its place in matters of secular or national import. in the early years of this century, this movement made itself felt in the enactment of a series of laws in the direction of laicisation or secularity. the separation of church and state followed upon the suppression of the religious orders (save a few that obtained authorisation in view of their work in the east) and the disqualification of their members from holding any official post of teaching. the abolition of the concordat brought with it drastic disen- dowment. the provision substituted for the support of the church, and known as the -lssociations culiurelles, under the chief control or supervision of civil functionaries, was rejected by the holy see and the french bishops as infringing on relig- ious liberty, so that nothing remained to the french church but the permissive use of the cathedrals and parochial church build- ings. left wholly dependent upon the voluntary contributions of the people, the bishops have formed diocesan organisations of their own (associations diocesaines) and these, although labouring under many difhiculties, are said to be fairly successful. it was recently pointed out by eminent french jurists, that it was possible, under the existing law of syndicates, to obtain state recognition for these associations. this plan has been carried into effect at lyons and clsewhere, and, so far, promises to be a successful solution. on the whole, the condition of the church in france is said to be stronger than it was under the concordat, at least in the sense that what it has lost financially, it has gained in liberty. it is now free to found new parishes and build new churches wherever needed, without the hampering civil formalities of former times. in paris alone, more than 30 new parish churches have been erected to meet the necds of the city and the suburbs. most of all, the church is left free to have its bishops chosen without interference of the civil power. in the programme of laicisation, one of the most acute prob- lems is to be found in the schools. in those which are built and supported by the state, religion has no recognised place in their teaching. catholics have sought to meet what they feel to be a conscientious need, by building schools for themselves. these free schools (eco/es libres) fulfil a work of education, but receive no aid from the state, and have to depend upon the generosity of private benefactors. it has been proposed that the sum voted by the nation for the purposes of education should be equitably divided between all schools which teach efficiently, in proportion to the number of children taught or to the results attained. an association formed to promote this scheme (representation pro- portionelle scolaire) has an important following, but has not suc- ceeded in obtaining an effective majority, and thus the church in france in the important matter of religious teaching in the schools has not yet been able to secure the same advantages which are available in england, holland, germany and italy. 369 the church in germany.—in germany, the church has had to deal, and, during this period in a more accentuated form, with the spread of socialistic, or communistic, principles amongst the industrial classes. its policy has been to encourage catholic workmen to unite together to promote their legitimate interests —notably on the lines indicated in the labour encyclical of leo aiii.—and to protect themselves from the evils which would be wrought by unsound or unchristian theories. for this purpose large associations of workingmen were formed in eastern ger- many under the patronage of cardinal kopp, archbishop of breslau, and in western germany, under that of cardinal fischer, archbishop of cologne. theaim of both was the same, but certain differences arose in the method of pursuing it. the former wished to confine membership of the association to cath- olics, while the latter deemed it expedient to secure, if need be, the admission or co-operation of non-catholics. pius x. in his letter to cardinal fischer (dec. 31 1910) congrat- ulated him, as he had already congratulated cardinal kopp, on his great service done for the labouring population, and laid down regulations by which both systems might be worked efficiently. in a few years, the world war did much to suspend the action of these labour guilds, but in the new conditions after the con- clusion of peace, the church is again at work fostering union, and endeavouring to mect the penetration of subversive doctrines by the spread of sound economic and christian principles. in southern germany, the church has been helping in the recon- structive work of the new states, and the fragments of the late austrian empire. the church in se. and e. europe—the holy see concluded a concordat with serbia and poland, and also with czecho- slovakia, where a section of the clergy and people had seceded and formed themselves into a separate national church. bene- dict xv., addressed an encyclical to the czech bishops urging the work of more frequent preaching and of retreats for the sanc- tification of the clergy, and received in return the assurance of thanks and loyalty from the archbishop of prague and the church of czechoslovakia. to meet the new post-war condi- tions, new archbishoprics have been founded at danzig, at riga in poland and at jasovin, czechoslovakia. since ror1o, 23 arch- bishoprics and 47 bishoprics in other countries have been added to the catholic hierarchy. the church in spain.—in spain, the normal proportion of secular priests to the catholic population has not been notably exceeded, but that of the clergy belonging to the religious orders has, at least, in times past, been considerably above it. in 1903, a concordat with the holy see limited the number of religious orders to a few authorised bodies, and to one additional order sanctioned by the supreme pontiff. in recent years, the govern- ment and the holy see have entered into fresh negotiations in which a reasonable restriction has been satisfactorily arranged. {n the rural districts, under the guidance of the church, much has been done to help and organise the agricultural classes in the national catholic agrarian association, which has more than 5,000 local unions. its activities take the form of establishing savings-banks, encouraging co-operation and adjusting disputes between the employers and the employed. associations for women and for catholic young men, have been successfully established. the church in england.—in england, a notable constructive change took place in the government of the catholic church in 1911, when the holy see, which had raised it from the rank of a missionary country under the propaganda to the normal status under the consistorial, and divided its single province into three, westminster, liverpool and birmingham, and in 1916, placed wales under the new archbishopric of cardiff. this widening of the organism has already borne fruit in multiform and increased activities. | the judilee year—one of the most memorable features in the recent life of the church has been the celebration of the holy year or great jubilee of 1925, which drew to rome more than 1,250,000 pilgrims. these pilgrimages came from all lands— even from iceland and australia and chile—and have served the 370 vital purpose of a popular circulation to the centre from all parts of the circumference. they have shown the notable increase in the international character of catholic associations, including workmen, women, university students and many cther catego- rics. not the least remarkable was the assembly in the piazza of st. peters of 12,000 catholic boy scouts, of whom nearly 1,000 had come from great britain. pius xi. congratulated them on their international organisation, and on their imitating, in this, the catholic church, which itself is essentially international. the missionary exhibition held at the same time at the vatican was an object lesson of notable progress in the far-flung line of operations in the mission field. it may be said that the jubilee year has drawn the whole catholic world more closely together in the personal contact of bishops, clergy and people of all classes with the holy see. bibliograpity.—a. brennan, pope benedict xv. and the war (1917); c. maurras, le pape, la guerre, et la paix (1917); m. i. almedingen, zhe catholic church in russia to-day (1923); d. gwynn, the catholic reaction in france (1924); see also the catholic dtrec- tory; the catholic who's who and year book. (j. mo.*) il. the church in the united states there is hardly any parallel in the history of catholicism to the rapid growth of the church in the united states during the 100 years from the death of archbishop marechal (1828) to the present. this growth has given rise to serious discussion among catholic writers. some hold the increase from 25,000 in 1785 to about 25,000,000 at present to warrant the stand that there has been no ieakage; others, basing their study upon the same figures (immigration, statistics, census reports, etc.) hold that there has been a considerable loss (cf. canevin, az fristertcal and statistical examination into the progress and population ef the catholic church in the united states from 1780 to 1920). ‘the growth of the catholic church in the united states is due primarily to immi- gration, natural increase and conversions. the statistics gen- erally accepted by catholic writers, based upon the estimates made by john gilmary shea in 1891, are as follows:— 790 40,000 1820 243.000 1830 , : , : ‘ 337,620 1840 ; : : , 651,254 1850 ; ‘ , ‘ a ; 1,767,011 1860 , ; ‘ : : ‘ 3,392,980 1870 ee ce a see 4,901,930 1880 7,026,520 1890 . 10,419,668 1900 - 13,537,097 i910 . 18,463,320 1920 » 22,733,254 this computation would apparently support the statement that there were in the neighbourhood of 25,000,000 catholics in the united states in 1925. ‘that these figures do not represent what should be the actual total of catholics is claimed by some writers. in canevin’s careful study of the question, we read:— among the principal causes of loss to the church in the united states, particularly during the first half of the 19th century, we may mention: the inadequate supply of priests and churches; the want of catholic schools; the scandals and schisms arising from trusteeism; mixed marriages; intemperance and the degraded poverty of which it was the cause; social exclusion and sometimes the social and political persecution of catholics; and the proselytism of orphans and of men and women of weak faith. racial composition—racially, the church in the united states is made up of groups from every nation in the world, with the english-speaking peoples in the majority. up to the middle of the 19th century, the irish and the germans furnished the greater quota of its adherents. later the french-canadians, italians, mexicans, poles, lithuanians, slovaks, hungarians and others added notably to the number. there is also an appreciable percentage of oriental catholics—grecks (uniates), syrians, armenians, etc. zvternal relations —this almost unprecedented growth of a religious organisation which had been subject to legal and political disabilities since the 16th century was bound to give rise to misunderstandings in a country so largely composed of roman catholic church protestants. during the roth century several organised politico- religious movements were instituted for the purpose of hindering the exercise of the franchise on the part of american catholic citizens. chief among these were the native-american party, the know-nothings, the american protective assn. and recently the ku klux klan. being under the protection of the constitu- tion, and enjoying the advantages of the common law, catholi- cism has not met with any official opposition. such outbursts of political or religious anti-catholicism as there have been were but temporary or local, and did not represent the more general attitude of american citizens. these anti-catholic movements never became national in scope but remained mostly sectional and were due to a condition in which political, social and industrial elements were closely intermingled. the political theory of an inherent antagonism between catholicism and americanism has given rise to many intcresting studies upon the question, chief of which from the catholic side 1s the catholic builders of the nation (5 vol., boston, 1923). many writers on this alleged incompatibility between catholicism and republican institutions fail to give due allowance to the economic adjustments involved in these sectional antagonisms to the chutch. internal development—the internal development of the church in the united states has been of a uniform nature. its doctrinal history offers little of importance. the church dis- cipline in vogue is similar to that of the other churches of catholicism. unity of doctrine, of moral law and of liturgical observance is preserved by an intimate union with the see of rome. the universal canonical legislation of the church as re- organised in the new code of canon law (1918), the legislation by papal rescript, the decisions in contentious cases by the apostolic delegation at washington, d.c. and a certain number of customs and practices which have grown up in the american church during the past century and a half of its organised life form the basis for its domestic relations. every five years each american bishop is expected to pay avisit to rome (ad [mina apostolorum) and to make a report of the condition of his diocese. a system of diocesan synods provides for local unity among the bishops, clergy gnd laity. each province is convened into provincial councils from time to time, and at greater inter- vals a national or plenary council is held. three national or plenary councils of the american church have been held (1852, 1866, 1884) at baltimore. educution.—an outstanding factor in the internal develop- ment of the church in the united states has been in the field of education (cf. burns, catholic school system in the united states, 3 vol., new york, 1907-12). according to the official catholic directory for 1925, there are 6,819 parochial or clementary schools, in which 2,072,466 boys and girls receive secular and re- ligious instruction. the principal outlay involved in the paro- chial school system amounted (1924) to over $70,000,000. cath- olics at the same time contributed their proportionate share to the maintenance of the public schools. there are 218 high schools, colleges and universities for boys and 727 academies for girls. this system of secondary education is crowned by the catholic university of america, at washington, d.c., established (1887) by pope leo nuit. and the american hierarchy and en- dowed with the privileges of the old pontifical universities of europe. the purpose of the founders of this central institution was to carry the graduates of the catholic colleges into higher scholarship, and thus prepare teachers for the entire catholic educational system as well as leaders in the world of science and literature. the catholic sisters college, founded as an integral part of the catholic university of america (1914), gives to the religious women teaching in the catholic schools equal oppor- tunities for higher training. between the years 1920 and 1924 the enrollment in catholic higher schools increased 80%. there are 32% > more lay than religious instructors in the catholic universities and colleges for men. the education of the clergy is provided for by 121 sem- inaries, in which there are about 13,000 students. a directory of catholic schools and colleges for the united states has been printed (1926), as well as a directory of catholic charities (1922). romanones—roman religion there are 352 orphan asylums, with 47,825 inmates. other charitable institutions number over 2,000 and include every form of private and public charity. annual mectings of the national conference of catholic charities and the catholic educational assn., composed of all those in charge of educational and welfare organisations, maintain the necessary contacts and promote general progress. administration.—the actual government of the church in the united states is represented by the apostolic delegate at washington, d.c.; four cardinals (boston, new york, phila- delphia and chicago); 14 archbishops (baltimore, boston, chicago, cincinnati, dubuque, milwaukee, new orleans, new york, oregon city, philadelphia, st. louis, st. paul, san francisco and santa fe); 103 bishops; 17,681 diocesan clergy- men, under the sole and immediate direction of their bishops; 6,674 members of religious orders, subject to episcopal super- vision—in all, 23,697 clergymen. there are 11,625 churches with resident priests, and 5,955 mission churches—in all, 17,380 churches, to which must be added several thousand chapels. several hundred daily, weckly, bi-weekly and monthly publica- tions are printed in english and foreign languages. many of these are religious in content. others are diocesan organs for current local catholic news. there exist also several literary and academic reviews, published monthly and quarterly, of a high order of merit. a catholic press directory was published in 1925. historical events ——the principal events in the recent history of the church were: the third plenary council of baltimore (1884); the first catholic congress (1889); the opening of the catholic university of america (1889); the catholic educational exhibit at the world’s fair in chicago (1893); the establishment of the apostolic delegation at washington (1893)—cardinals satolli (1893-6), martinelli (1896-1902), falconio (1902-11), and bonzano (1911-23) and archbishop fumasoni-biondi (1923- ); the publication of the catholic encyclopedia (1907-14) in 16 volumes; and the formation of the national catholic war council (1017), from which grew the national catholic welfare conference, founded in rorg (cf. guilday, “‘ the church in the united states” (1870-1920) in the cath. hist. rev. for jan. 1921). an event of international importance in catholic american history was the eucharistic congress, held at chicago, in june 1926. national development.—students of the social and intellectual forces of catholicism in the united states are giving considerable attention to the recent development of the church along na- tional lines. the change in the immigration policy of the country has rendered this development possible, since it permits the racial elements to be more easily assimilated to national ideals. many agencies are at work effecting this general evolution. among them are the catholic educational assn., the national conference of catholic charities, the catholic hospital assn., the central bureau of the central verein, the american catholic philosophical assn. and the american catholic historical association. all these organisations are aided by the central bureaux of the national catholic welfare conference at wash- ington, d.c. national organisation is also being effected through such societies as the holy name society, the knights of colum- bus, the daughters of isabella and the catholic daughters of america, the international catholic truth society and the international federation of catholic alumnae. an annual meeting of the american hierarchy is held in sept. at the catholic university of america, washington, d.c., for the discussion of mooted points in church discipline and progress. the national catholic welfare conference, with heacl- quarters in washington, d.c., is directed by an administrative committee of bishops, who report annually at the aforesaid meet- ing. a recent development in the catholic church of the united states is the creation of the home and foreign missionary board. mission work.—missionary work has been begun by american priests and sisters in foreign fields. the catholic foreign mission society of america (maryknoll, n.y.), and the do- minicans and the foreign mission sisters of st. dominic, have 371 stations in china. the holy cross fathers maintain missions in india. the catholic students mission crusade is an active par- ticipant in these projects. there is a bureau for catholic indian missions at washington, d.c., and a national board for mission work among the coloured people, with headquarters in new york city. in social and educational welfare work the knights of columbus, with a membership approaching 1,000,000 men, has occupied a position of leadership. authorities.—the chief foreign source-collections for the history of the church in the united states are in rome (vatican archives and archives of propaganda), paris, london (westminster archives), seville (archfvo general de indias), mexico city (national archives), and quebec (archiepiscopal archives). transcripts of these docu- ments are in the shea collection at georgetown university, in the archives of the dominican house of studies (washington, d. c.), and in the guilday transcripts at the catholic university of america. every episcopal see has its own archives, and considerable material exists at the headquarters of the religious orders and congregations in this country and abroad, particularly in rome. the catholic archives of america at notre dame university are particularly rich in unpublished material. printed sources will be found in the quar- terly records and reviews of the catholic historical societies in the united states. the catholic historical review contains bibliographi- cal references for all phases of american catholic history. eccle- siastical legislation will be found in the acta et decreta of the third plenary council of baltimore. the new code of canon law has been analysed for american purposes in a supplementary volume of the catholic encyclopedia (191 8). the literature of american catholic history both of general and special nature is large in extent, although few works of outstanding merit have been published. shea’s four volumes on the //istory of the catholic church in the united states (new york, 1886-92) is still the standard work. the catholic encyclopedia contains articles on practically every noteworthy aspect of american catholic history and is especially valuable for biographical sketches. the lives of the deceased bishops, in two volumes, by r. f. clarke (new york, 1872), is generally trustworthy, though inadequate. statistics are given annually in the official catholic directory (new york), the bibliography of american church history, found in guilday's life of archbishop carroll (1922), gives a list of provincial, diocesan and institutional histories. the american catholic historical assn. (founded in 1919) is preparing a guide to the printed sources for american catholic ifistory. (p. gu.) romanones, alvaro de figueroa y torres, count de (1863— ), spanish politician, was born in madrid aug. 1 1863, and studied law in his native city and at bologna. on being elected a member of the madrid municipality, and soon afterwards appointed its president, he exposed and remedied many of the abuses which characterised that body. he next turned his attention to public instruction, first as parliamentary deputy and later as cabinet minister. as minister of agriculture and as home secretary in 1905 it fell to him to deal with strikes and riots, and he was compelled to suspend the constitutional guarantees. he became prime minister in nov. 1912, shortly alter the murder of canalejas, and passed a bill conferring limited autonomy on the catalans. during the world war his alleged partiality towards the allies was a constant source of public discontent. he was again prime minister from dec. 1915 until april 1917, and for the last time from dec. 3 1918 until april 15 1919, when he had once more to suspend the constitutional guarantees. he was minister of justice dec. 1922-sept. 1923, and after gen. primo de rivera’s coup @’ etat in that month he published a book in defence of the parliamen- tary parties entitled las responsabilidades politicas del antiguo regimen de 1875 a 1923 (1924).