RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, DISEASES OF THE

respiratory system, diseases of the (see 23.195).— some notable advances in the technique of diagnosis and in the means of treatment, both medical and surgical, of diseases of the respiratory system have been evalved in the present century. many of them are still in the process of development, but the results so far obtained have been encouraging. means of diagnosis.—direct methods of investigation, so long familiar in regard to the mouth, pharynx and larynx, have been extended to the trachea and bronchi, by means of the bron- choscope. the trachea, the main bronchi and their principal sub- divisions can now be directly illuminated and observed. the importance of this in regard to the presence of inhaled foreign bodies is obvious, but it has also proved helpful in connection with obscure pathological conditions of these tubes. a notable application of the same principle of direct illumination has been made by jacobaeus of stockholm to the pleura and lungs. to enable this to be done, an artificial pneumothorax (q.v.) is first established, whereby the lung retracts from the chest wall except where it is prevented from so doing by adhesions. at a suitable time after this, a small tube is inserted through an intercostal space under local anaesthesia, and a special instrument with electric light and a system of lenses is fitted into it. by this means a clear view of the state of the pleura and of the surface of the lung may be obtained. small adhesions, preventing the com- plete collapse of the lung, in the application of the artificial pneu- mothorax treatment to various conditions, may be successfully divided. the method promises also to be helpful in the diagnosis of certain tumours of the lung and pleura. improvements in the technique of x-ray methods have greatly increased their value in diagnosis. their use is now almost a routine matter in cases of obscure intra-thoracic disease. inthe distinction between fluid in the pleura and solid conditions of the lung, in the diagnosis of the extent of the disease in tuberculosis of the lungs and to some degree in the assessment of its type, in the early recognition of tumours of the bronchi, lungs, pleura or mediastinal glands, x-ray investigation is invaluable, and sometimes indispensable. a recent extension of their use in regard to the diagnosis of bronchiectasis or dilatation of the bronchial tubes is already 344 proving of great value. a measured quantity of lipiodol, a liquid substance opaque to the x-rays, is injected down the trachea, through the crico-thyroid membrane or directly in be- tween two of the cartilaginous rings of the trachea, under good local anaesthesia, the patient usually being placed in such a way that the lipiodol goes chiefly into the main bronchus of the side it is desired to investigate. the lipiodol rapidly diffuses into the bronchi of that lung, and in an x-ray film taken shortly afterwards the bronchial tree and its abnormal dilatations, if present, are seen with extraordinary clearness and accuracy. applications of an old method, the study of so-called “ vital capacity ” that is, the amount of air it is possible to exhale by a maximum expiration after a maximum inspiration, promise to give valuable information in diagnosis. the further develop- ments of bacteriological and other laboratory methods in the period under consideration have been helpful but not dra- matic in their results. diseases of the air passages—-an important function of the nose is to secure that the air reaches the lungs, warmed, mois- tened and filtered from micro-organisms. in this connection the importance of adequate treatment, either medical or surgical, of conditions causing nasal or pharyngeal obstruction and there- fore leading to mouth breathing, has become more generally recognised. for the same reasons, the treatment of septic con- ditions in the nose and nasal sinuses is more commonly carried out. the value of scientifically devised breathing exercises is also more widely accepted. such measures lessen the risks of catarrhal infections, and in young people prevent deformities of the chest with their attendant disadvantages. the use of the bronchoscope has proved to be of great value in the extraction of inhaled foreign bodies. in america, chevalier jackson of pittsburgh has pioneered this method with brilliant results. by its means the majority of inhaled foreign bodies can be re- moved, and the serious and often fatal results so common for- merly are obviated. the use of vaccines (see vaccine therapy) in the prevention of the “ common cold ” and the more scrious forms of catarrh of the air passages has given encouraging results. it is usual to employ a “stock” vaccine, containing a mixture of catarrh- producing organisms. an autogenous vaccine, 7.¢c.,one made from the patient’s own infective organisms, is, however, sometimes employed. at present, however, these protective vaccines have not proved as gencrally effective as the use of antityphoid and antiparatyphoid vaccines in the prevention of the enteric fever group of diseases. with increasing knowledge of the catarrh- producing organisms, a somewhat large and <liverse group, and of the conditions favouring their activity, greater success may be obtained. | bronchitis.—the use of vaccines in treatment has proved some- what disappointing, except in the form due to the pneumobacillus of friedlander, though in chronic cases they are helpful. gassing. —the employment of irritant and poisonous gases in the world war largely increased our knowledge of their effects, and in’some measure led to advances in means for the prevention of such effects and for the treatment of the resultant conditions occurring in civil life from accidental or occupational causes. some of these, such as chlorine and phosgene, lead to oedema of the lungs; others, such as mustard gas, to acute bronchopneu- monia; and others, such as carbon monoxide, to changes in the blood. tuberculosis as a sequel of gassing has proved to be rela- tively infrequent, but severe chronic bronchitis and emphysema are common. asthma.—the idiosyncrasies of asthmatics are well known, and their susceptibility to the emanations of certain animals was long ago recognised by hyde salter. this peculiarity has found a rational explanation in recent work on anaphylaxis, or hypersusceptibility (see mrpicine). some, if not all, cases of asthma seem to fall into a group of toxic idiopathies—i.e¢., disease conditions due to hypersusceptibility to certain foreign protein substances. these may be derived from animals, such as the horse, dog, cat, etc.; or from articles used as foods; or again they may be toxic agents produced by bacteria. respiratory system, diseases of the this aspect of the disease has been closely studied by chandler walker in america and by fleming and coke in this country. it was hoped that by testing the sensitiveness of the skin of asthmatic patients to large numbers of such substances, col- lectively called antigens, by means of scratches to which they are applied in solution, it would be possible to discover the particular agents to which the patient was susceptible, with a view either to avoiding contact with them if possible, or 1o desensitisation by inoculation with minute but increasing doses of the particular substances concerned. some good results are on record, but on the whole this method has been disappointing. probably hyper- sensitiveness is not the only factor in asthma, and there may be, in addition, an inherited or acquired instability of the centre in the brain controlling the inervation of the bronchi. the non-specific method of treatment of hypersusceptibility called protein shock therapy (sce therapeutiics) has been extensively tried in this disease, with some benefit in certain cases, but on the whole also with disappointing results. of medic- inal agents, apart from the iodides and the antispasmodic group of drugs such as belladonna, stramonium, grindelia and lobelia, small injections of adrenalin or of pituitrin, alone or together, have proved most useful. bronchiectasis.—bronchiectasis, or dilatation of the bronchial tubes, was for a long period almost the despair of treatment. the offensive character of the sputum, and the serious general effects of the septic and putrefactive processes which occur in connection with the retained bronchial secretion, renders this con- dition unusually distressing to the patient and to his friends. the course of these cases had been progressively downhill, and the result almost invariably fatal, often after years of suffering and incapacity. the application of surgical methods in suitable cases, if employed sufficiently early, seems to promise hope of real amelioration, or even of actual cure. in a small proportion of the cases, where pleural adhesion has not occurred, artificial pneumothorax may be sufficient; but, in the majority phreni- cotomy or a more or less extensive thoracoplasty may be neces- sary. by these means the sputum may be lessened or entirely lost, and ils offensive character ended. diseases of the lungs pneumonia.—there are certain advances to record in regard to this disease. the study of the causal organism, the pneumo- coccus, by duchez, gillespie and cole in america, served to ex- plain in some degree the failure of serum treatment in this disease in the past. they have shown that there are at least four types of pneumococcus, each with different serum reactions, called respectively types i., ii., ij. and 1v. attempts have naturally been made to prepare specific anti-sera for each of these, but so far only that for type i. has proved to be of real value in treat- ment, though a serum has been used in type ii. unfortunately, no effective antiserum has been obtained for type iii., which is responsible for the most serious and fatal form of pneumonia. pneumococcal vaccines have been used in the treatment of acute pneumonia, but though sometimes successful they have not achieved any widespread recognition. if they are to be of real value they must be employed early in the course of the disease. it has been recommended to use a stock vaccine as soon as the disease is recognised, and then if possible to prepare and use an autogenous one. vaccines seem to be more helpful in cases of delaved resolution. abscess and gangrene of the lung.—although some cases are successfully treated by medical measures, notably in the case of gangrene by injections of arsphenamine, the greatest success has been achieved from improved surgical methods. tumours of the lung, mediastinum and pleura.—the applica- tion of artificial pneumothorax promises to render some of these more easy to recognise and to deal with surgically. pulmonary af yceses and spirochactosis —improved laboratory methods have enlarged our knowledge of conditions due to some organisms such as moulds and spirochaetes, which occasionally cause pulmonarv infections. pulmonary tuberculosis —(sce tuberculosis). restaurant—reunion, church diseases of the pleura pleurisy with effusion—new methods of tapping the pleura have been introduced, including the replacement of the fluid by sterile air or oxygen by means of an apparatus like that for inducing pneumothorax. this may be particularly helpful in regard to chronic or recurrent effusions, more especially such as occur in association with malignant disease. empyema—the treatment of collections of pus in the pleura has changed considerably. the method employed varies with the cause of the empyema. in cases due to the pneumococcus, early drainage by means of removal of a small piece of rib is now the rule. in those due to streptococcal invasion repeated aspiration is adopted, until the process is localised, or until the nuid with- drawn is actually pus instead of thin turbid fluid, after which drainage by removal of 4 piece of rib is employed. in both cases many surgeons now employ special appliances for drainage, whereby a negative pressure is maintained in the pleural space to promote re-expansion of the lung. in empyema associated with tuberculosis, aspiration with gas replacement is the rule. surgery of the pleura and lungs-—war experience gave a valu- able impetus to the surgical treatment of respiratory conditions. the treatment of empyema has already been referred to. hae- mothorax or blood effused into the pleural space is now treated like any ovher effusion, and aspirated or gas-replaced if necessary. if infected it is treated like empyema (q.v.). artificial pneumo- thorax is proving of great value as a preliminary to other opera- tive procedures, apart from its uses as a means of treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. the operation of exairesis or avulsion of the distal part of the phrenic nerve as a means of treatment of chronic basic lung conditions, including pulmonary tubercu- losis, is on its trial and bids fair to be useful. more extensive operative procedures are ligature of branches of the pulmo- nary artery, and lobectomy or removal of diseased portions of the lung. operations designed to promote collapse of the lung when this is impracticable by artificial pneumothorax are pneumolysis and thoracoplasty. in pneumolysis attempts are made to collapse the lung, by the insertion outside the pleura of fat tissue or some extraneous substance such as paraffin. in thoracoplasty, suffi- cient portions of as many ribs as may be necessary are removed to allow the chest wall to fall in and thereby collapse the lung. the outlook in regard to the surgery of the lung and pleura is distinctly encouraging. see sir r. d. powell and sir p. h. s. hartley, diseases of the lungs and pleura (1921); f. w. price (ed.), textbook of the prac- tice of medicine (1922). (r. a. y,) restaurant: see food service. reszke, jean de (1850-1925), operatic singer (sce 23.201), died at nice april 3 1925. reunion, church.—the movements for the reunion of the churches, especially among english-speaking christians, are due mainly to two causes. in the first place, the reasons for division, which seemed once to be based on spiritual principles about which no compromise was possible, have grown fainter than they were. few men cling to them so tenaciously as they did, e.g., in the 17th century. secondly, there is a widespread feeling of the ineffectiveness of the churches in face of the tasks and problems of civilisation since the outbreak of the world war in 1914. to a large extent this is attributed to the divi- sions and consequent lack of unity of witness and aim among the churches themselves. this dissatisfaction has given new em- phasis to the conviction that it is the purpose of christ that there should be only one visible body, and consequently our “ un- happy divisions ” are entirely contrary to his will. these movements for reunion are concerned with the divisions outside the roman catholic church, which takes no part in them. on principle it cannot do so, as it has its own terms, sur- render and not adjustment, from which there can be no depar- ture. the one possible exception to this statement is to be found in what are known as the conversations at malines. at the in- vitation of cardinal mercier a small body of english theologians 345 has met a similar body of roman catholic scholars for the pur- pose of exploring their grounds of difference. begun quite unofficially, at a later stage these conversations have been held with the cognisance of the archbishop of canterbury; but at present, beyond an atmosphere of friendship and respect, very different from the controversial temper of the past, there are no positive results to report. l. the church of england movements for reunion may be dealt with conveniently under three heads :— i. the conferences and discussions based either upon the lam- beth appeal or the proposed world conference on faith and order. these are concerned with such questions as (a) the relations between the church of england or the american episcopal church and the oriental churches, (6) the relations between the church of england and non-episcopal churches and possible terms of corporate union, 2. within these larger groupings there have been movements for union owing to the urgency of practical needs or a growing sense of real identity of spiritual aim and purpose, e.g., among the various sections of the methodist church, between the church of scotland and the united free church, among the congregationalists, metho- dists and presbyterians of canada, and between the church of england and the south india united church. 4. some reference must be made to religious movements which, though not directly concerned with the problem of reunion, cut across ordinary ecclesiastical divisions and create an experience of unity in faith and action in groups of men who formerly were not accustomed to act together. they are important factors on the practical side, for they illustrate the wide area of agreement which exists already and by the spirit which they create make it natural to discuss even acute points of difference as friends and not as partisans, the church of england and the orthodox eastern church— negotiations between the church of england and the eastern orthodox church for mutual recognition and fellowship have a fairly long history, but the pace has been quickened largely owing to events which have followed the world war. in jan. 1920, an encyclical letter was issued from the patriarchate of constantinople “ unto all the churches of christ wheresoever they be.” it is an earnest plea for closer contact and better mutual understanding:— we consider it as most important that love between the churches should be revived and strengthened, so that they may no longer look upon each other as strangers and enemies, but as relatives and friends in christ. as a means to this end it is suggested that there should be a uniform calendar for christian feasts, intercourse between theo- logical schools, exchange of students, impartial and more his- torical examination of doctrinal differences, etc. following this, a “‘ proposed concordat ”’ was drawn up by the american episco- pal church. after setting forth points of agreement in faith and order, it concludes:— in accordance with the preceding agreements, we do solemnly declare our acceptance of the sacramental acts cach of the other, and that they are trueand valid. and, holding fast the truth once deliv- ered tothe saints, we pronounce that intercommunion is desirable and authorised for all our members wherever and whenever it is deemed convenient and practicable by the proper local and ecclesiastical authorities. to this the locum tenens of the oecumenical patriarchate sent a sympathetic reply. the next step was the presence of a delegation of the patriarchate at the lambeth conference in july 1920. their subsequent report to the holy synod is marked by a good deal of reserve. the latitude of the church of england is a source of difficulty. while with us the true member of the church, who continues in organic union with the whole, must accept the whole of our teaching, share economically in the holy sacraments and believe in lawfully settled ecclesiastical principles, in the english chucch men differing from each other in faith, not in things indifferent and non-essential, constitute one undivided whole. they also point out that the lambeth appeal puts forward ** measures in relation to the non-episcopal churches which also, in spite of goodwill, manifestly conflict with venerated principles and systems.” subsequently the eastern churches committee appointed by the archbishop of canterbury issued a statement 346 of terms of intercommunion. in feb. 1923, the archbishop an- nounced that the holy synod at constantinople, after careful consideration, had decided in favour of the validity of anglican ordinations. he pointed out, however, that this decision must be endorsed by all patriarchates or by a general council before it could become an oecumenical act. . the church of england and the free churches -—the move- ment for closer relations between the church of england and the free churches has been roused into activity by the lambeth appeal to all christian people in 1920. this brought to a focus various efforts for a better understanding which have been going on behind the scenes, notably in the conferences held at mansfield college, oxford, in 1919 and 1920. the american proposal for a world conference on faith and order was made at the general convention of the american episcopal church in 1910, prior to the lambeth appeal. various commissions have been appointed, the adhesion of numerous churches in europe and america has been secured, and a great deal of preliminary work has been done. in 1920, a meeting of a widely representa- tive character was held in geneva and it is hoped that the world conference itself will meet in 1927; but no forecast can be given of the probable result in view of the conflicting claims and tra- ditions which have to be harmonised. the lambeth appeal, though addressed to all christian people, has had its most impor- tant effect in the field of english ecclesiastical life. it has forced the great nonconformist bodies to reconsider their relations to the church of england and the grounds of their separation, and to do so in an atmosphere of friendliness and goodwill. the terms on which the appeal believes that union is possible are as follows :— we believe that the visible unity of the church will be found to involve the whole-hearted acceptance of — the holy scriptures, as the record of god’s revelation of himself to man, and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith; and the creed, commonly called nicene, as the sufficient statement of the christian faith, and either it or the apostle’s creed as the baptismal! confession of belief; the divinely instituted sacraments of baptism and the holy communion, as expressing for all the corporate life of the whole fellowship in and with christ; a ministry acknowledged by every part of the church as possess- ing not only the inward call of the spirit, but also the commission of christ and the authority of the whole body. it is claimed that the episcopate is the one means of providing such a ministry. ‘ but we greatly desire,’”’ it is added, “ that the office of a bishop should be everywhere exercised in a repre- sentative and constitutional manner, and more truly express all that ought to be involved for the life of the christian family ‘in the title of father-in-god.”’ these proposals have been the subject of prolonged discussion between representatives of the church of england on the one hand and a joint committee of the federal council of the evangelical free churches and the national free church council on the other, but so far no agree- ment has been found possible on two matters of essential impor- tance, viz., the use of the creed and the necessity of episcopal ordination. on the first point, the free church position is expressed in the resolutions adopted by the annual assembly of the federal council in sept. 1922:— we regard the place given to the two ancient catholic creeds as . . subordinate to the inspired word and living spirit; and these creeds are received not as a complete expression of the faith, but as preserving ‘‘ essential elements ” in it ‘in the form handed down through many centuries,’”’ and with reasonable liberty as to their interpretation and their use. we hold as not only consistent with this, but as implied in it, alike the fullest freedom in the intellectual investigation of truth and the most single-hearted discipleship to the mind of christ. in regard to episcopal] ordination the difficulty turns upon the question of the validity of the free church ministry. there is on the one hand a natural refusal to accept anything which im- plies that the free church minister must be re-ordained before he can administer valid sacraments in a united church, and on the other there is disinclination on the part of the church of england to advance beyond the admission that many free church ministries have been “ manifestly blessed and owned by reunion, church the hloly spirit as effective means of grace,” and consequently must be regarded as “‘ real ministries of christ’s word and sac- raments in the universal church,” though they may be in vary- ing degrees “ irregular or defective.” general results——the difficulties indicated above are still unsolved, in spite of many discussions and explanatory state- ments marked by a very conciliatory spirit. in a memorandum signed by the archbishops of canterbury and york and the moderator of the federal council in june 1925, it is stated that the joint conference believes that there should be a suspension of its activities in order that the documents already submitted may be studied with care. at its annual meeting in sept. the federal council concurred, and at the same time recorded its conviction that the conferences which have taken place “‘ have dene much to bring representative members of the churches concerned into closer fellowship and to a better understanding of each other’s position; and, further, that they have prepared the way to further progress towards unity in the future.” ii. methodist and presbyterian reunion methodist reunion.—the movement for reunion among the three branches of the methodist churches in england has reached a stage when it seems likely that it will soon be an ac- complished fact. a scheme has been drawn up, and in 1924 the wesleyan conference, the primitive methodist conference and the united methodist conference passed a practically iden- tical resolution in the following terms:— the conference is of opinion that, provided the methodist people desire the organic union of the three methodist churches concerned, the scheme now submitted (which is the result of prolonged delibera- tion and exhaustive inquiry) affords a basis of union which would ensure harmonious working without the sacrifice of any principle vital to methodism. the conference therefore commends the scheme to the prayerful consideration of the methodist people in 1925 the wesleyan conference took the further necessary step of declaring in favour of the union of the three methodist churches, provided that substantial agreement can be secured as to the measures to be adopted for effecting union. if this agreement is secured, application for an enabling act must be made to parliament. the churches of scotland —the first step towards union be- tween the church of scotland and the united free church of scotland was taken in 1908, when the general assembly of the church of scotland resolved ‘‘ to request the other presbyterfan churches to confer with them on the present ecclesiastical situ- ation.”’ conferences followed, and in 1914 a constitution was drafted under which the church would be both national and free. no further progress was possible till 1919, owing to the war. in 1920, the articles of the constitution were approved and in july 1921, an enabling bill was passed by parhament. certain questions connected with the property and endowments of the church of scotland remained to be dealt with by a depart- mental committee appointed in 1922 and presided over by lord haldane. it reported in 1923, and its recommendations are embodied in the church of scotland (property and endowments) bill of 1924. reunion in canada and australia. in jan. 1924, the presbyterian, methodist and congregational churches in canada accepted a scheme of union under the name “ the united church of canada.” in spite of an elaborate statement of doctrine, which has evidently been drawn up so as to exclude any possibility of modernist heresy, the dissentient churches have been few in number. there is a movement among the same bodies in australia for union on very similar lines with the title ‘‘ the united church of australia,” if]. reunion in the mission field and elsewhere the need for union on the mission field is illustrated by the negotiations between the episcopal synod of india and ceylon and the south india united church. the latter is a union of christian congregations connected with the london missionary society and the american board of commissioners for foreign missions (both congregational), the church of scotland, the united free church of scotland, the dutch re- formed church in america and the basel mission. a joint com- reunion, mittee was constituted in 1920 and several reports have been issued. as in england, the difficulty of agreement turned chiefly on the insistence upon episcopal ordination for all minis- ters of the united church. it is suggested that the fact of episcopacy should be recognised without insistence upon any doctrine of its meaning, and that a joint service should be held to commission all ministers who desired full status in the united church on reciprocally equal terms. the south india united church also insists that it cannot allow itself to be cut off from these non-episcopal churches with which it is now in full com- munion. it treasures its present catholicity too highly to take any step that would diminish or destroy the fellowship which it now enjoys with evangelical christendom.—(resolution, aug. 1923.) a brief reference must be made to some of the movements of co-operation among different bodies of christians, which have grown in strength and number since the end of the world war. though these movements do not deal directly with the problem of reunion, the same motives lie behind them, viz.: a sense of the weakness of the christian witness in the world due to division and a desire to co-operate in large fields of christian enterprise which are recognised as common ground. (a) the world alh- ance for promoting international friendship through the churches, founded at constance on aug. 2 1914. its object is set forth in the following reso.utions:— 1. that, inasmuch as the work of conciliation and the promotion of amity is essentially a christian task, it is expedicnt that the churches in all lands should use their influence with the peoples, arliaments and governments of the world to bring about good and riendly relations between the nations, so that, along the path of peaceful civilisation, they may reach that universal goodwill which christianity has taught mankind to aspire after. 2. that inasmuch as all sections of the church of christ are equally concerned in the maintenance of peace and the promotion of eel feeling among all the races of the world, it is advisable for them to act in concert in their efforts to carry the foregoing resolution into effect. the alliance consists of 28 national councils and is representa- tive of the organised christianity of the world with the excep- tion of the roman catholic church. the international com- mittce meets once every three years. its meetings in copenhagen (1922) and stockholm (1925) did much to focus christian thought upon the question of peace. the expense of the inter- national work of the alliance is borne by the american peace union. international missionary council—the functions of this body are defined in the following resolutions adopted in 1921:— 1. to stimulate thinking and investigation on missionary ques- tions, to enlist in the solution of these questions the best knowledge and experience to be found in all countries and to make the results available for all missionary socictics and missions. 2. to help to co-ordinate the activities of the national missionary organisations of the different countries and of the societies they represent, and to bring about united action where necessary in mis- sionary matters. ; 3.. through common consultation to help to unite christian public opinion in support of freedom of conscience and religion and of mis- sionary liberty. . 4. to help to unite the christian forces of the world in seeking justice in international and inter-racial relations. | the council is responsible for the publication of the jzfer- natiqnal review of missions. universal christian conference—the universal christian conference on life and work held its first meeting at stockholin in aug. 1925. six hundred and ten delegates were present, repre- senting 31 communions and 37 nations. asa result, a message to all followers of christ has been issued, setting forth the find- ings of the conference in the sphere of economics, of social moral- ity and of international and inter-racial relationships. a continuation committee has been appointed:— to follow up what has been begun, to consider how effect can be given to the suggestions which have been made, to examine the practicability of calling another such conference at a future date and in particular to take steps for the further study of difficult prob- ‘jems, and that further education of ourselves and of our churches, on which all wise action and judgment must be based. church 347 the conferences at miirren, under the leadership of sir henry lunn, must also be mentioned in this connection. though not representative in any official way yet, by bringing together lead- ing members of english denominations in an atmosphere of friendship and sympathy, they have been a factor of some impor- tance in preparing the way for some form of corporate reunion. bibliography.—tzowards reunion, being contributions to mutual understanding by church of england and free church writers (1919); george eayrs, british methodism (1920); various writers, the problem of christian unity and fellowship (1921); g. k. a. bell, ed., documents on christian unity, 1920-4 (1924); g. k. a. bell and w. l. robertson, eds., the chu ch of england and the free churches (1925). see also handbook of the world alliance. (w. h. dr.) iv. reunion in the united states the first pronounced voices for reunion in the united states were those of thomas campbell and his son alexander of the seceder presbyterian church, whose labours at the begin- ning of the 19th century, gave formation to the communion known as disciples of christ. the irenic attitude of the father was overshadowed by the aggressive attitude of the son, who became the leader of the movement; but the constant contro- versies and acrimonious debates of the disciples, along with their rapid growth, especially in the middle west, drove them some- what into isolation and, therefore, into a denominational attitude which, in the midst of other interests, quite obscured their message for reunion. from the middle of the roth century to nearly its close philip schafi, of the reformed church, was, perhaps, the foremost voice for reunion in the united states. he was one of the founders of the american branch of the evan- gelical alhlance. recent interests in reunion in the united states centre around the year 1910. in the summer of that year several protestant episcopalians organised the christian unity foundation of new york for the promotion of christian unity throughout the world by research and conference. they invited representatives of several communions to be their guests for conference and pub- lished pamphlets announcing the results of these conferences. it was the first attempt on the part of one communion to set forth under their own authorship and at their own expense a friendly interpretation of another communion without some adverse criticism. on oct. 19 of that same year at the general convention of the protestant episcopal church, meeting in cincinnati, a commission, consisting of seven bishops, seven presbyters and seven laymen, was appointed to take under advisement the promotion of a world conference on the faith and order of the church to be participated in by representatives of all christian bodies throughout the world. on the same day the disciples of christ, meeting in their general convention in topeka, organised the association for the promotion of christian unity, emphasising intercessory, prayer, friendly conferences and the distribution of christian unity literature by writers from all communions. at the same time the congregationalists, meeting in their national council in boston, appointed a commission on christian unity, dealing with all churches, but especially with the protestant episcopal church. the episcopal movement, under the leadership of robert h. gardiner, soon brought into co-operation representatives from most of the christian communions; and their first preliminary conference, held at geneva, switzerland, in 1920, marked the opening of a new chapter in theological reconciliation. of the larger churches only the roman catholic church declined the invitation, but the pope expressed sympathetic interest. for ten days representatives from eastern orthodox, anglican and protestant churches sat together in friendly conferences over theological questions that have divided christendom for cen- turies. the next conference is to be held in 1927 at lausanne. many smaller conferences in this cause have been held in the united states and other countries. the disciple movement continucd its policy as announced by its association for the promotion of christian unity. in 1925 the 348 secretary of that organisation became also a member of the secre- tarlat of the world conference on faith and order, and in 1926 the chief publication of the association—the christian union ouarterly—became a separate corporation, independent of any communion, having been from the start functioning interdenom- inationally, with an inter denominational editorial council com- posed of representatives from various communions in all parts of the world. the congregational movement functioned in a gen- eral agitation for christian reunion, particularly under the leacer- ship of newman smyth, who advocated a concordat with the protestant episcopal church; this, however, failed of ratification by either communion. at the instance of the presbyterian general assembly in 1918 the american council on organic union of the evangelical churches of america was organised and bore testimony to the necessity of reunion by a representative gathering in philadel- phia, in which 16 protestant communions took part. the federal council of the churches of christ in america was organised in 1908 in philadelphia for the co-operation of the various protestant communions in service rather than in an attempt to unite upon definitions of theology and polity. it has grown into large usefulness. aside from its general service through the protestant denominations, more than 50 munici- palities and several states have formed church federations. its headquarters are located in new york city. while protestant federation is not reunion, the federal council has functioned remarkably toward a larger and better understanding among protestants and thereby has contributed to reunion. biibliography.—n. smyth and w. walker, ed., approaches toward church unity (1919); macfarland, christian unity at work; christian century (chicago), jzistortcal documents advocating christian union; p. ainslie, afessage of the disciples for the union of the church (1913); willett, our plea for union and the present crisis; n. smyth, passing protestantism and coming catholicism (1908); ashworth, union of christian forces in america; manning, the call to unity; ainslie, if not a united church-what?; lynch, the christian unity movement in america; leighton parks, the crisis of the churches (1923); brown, the church in america; cowden, saint paul on christian unity. (p. al.) revel or taluinn (see 23.211), the capital of estonia, had a population in 1922 of 120,179, 84:8°% estonians, 8° german and 3°% russian. all the streets have been renamed in estonian, and the statue of peter the great removed from peetri place, but russian is spoken everywhere. revel is a fine old city, but is passing through difficult times; the country is surrounded by rivals, so that there is little trade. estonia is little developed industrially, and most of the factories are in revel. there has been considerable over-production, owing to expectations of trade with russia, which have not been realised. an interna- tional industrial fair is held yearly in june. revel is the chief port of estonia; the harbour is closed for some weeks in the carly part of the year by ice, but a channel is kept open by an ice- breaker. a polytechnic and technical school have been opened. there were raids on groups of communists in 1924, and 149 were tried and sentenced. an armed rising in dec. led to serious street fighting, but was quickly suppressed. soon afterwards the railway station was burnt down by communists. reville, albert (1826-1906), french protestant theologian (see 23.224), died in paris oct. 25 1906. revolver: see pistol. revue: sce variety theatre. reyer, ernest (1823-1909), french musical composer (see 23.225), died at lavandou-sur-hyeres jan. 15 19009. reymont, ladislas stanislas (1867-1925), polish nov- elist, was born at kobicle wielkie in the county of piotrkow may 7 1867. he spent his youth in various transient occupa- tions and his first novels were written when he was superintend- ent of a small railway sector. the comedienne (1896, eng. tr. 1921), ferments, 2 vol. (1897) and lily (1899) were objective novels describing the every day life of a troupe of provincial actors. in 1899 appeared the promised land (2 vol.}, modelled on zola and based on life in the polish industrial town of 1.6dz. reymont’s best-known work, the peasanis, appeared in four revel=--khine volumes rg04-9 (eng. tr. 1925-6). in it he revealed unusual insight into the life of the polish peasant; the construction of the novel is based on the four seasons’ labours of a peasant and brings to light his primitive instincts, inward dignity and almost religious attachment to the land. the merits of rey- mont’s peasant epic were recognised by the award of the nobel prize for literature in 1924. while the peasants was being prepared, a number of novels and short stories appeared, the most important of which are before duwn (1902), komurasati (1903), from a diary (1903) and the storm (1907). as a historical novelist, reymont, the naturalist and observer of the direct processes of life, was not so successful: the trilogy 1794, (the last dict, 1913, nil desperandum, 1916 and the insur- rection, 1918), though not lacking in literary merit, revealed a lack of historical exactness. he revolt, reymont’s last work, an allegorical novel describing a revolt of domestic animals against man appeared in 1924. he died dec. 5 1925. (see po- lish literature.) see i. matuszewski, jtw2eresosei twercy (warsaw, 1904); z. debicki, w. s. reyment (warsaw, 1925); j. lorentowicz, ladislas reymont, prix nobel 1924 (1925).