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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:rangefinder:8e2484d88dcd",
    "title": "RANGE-FINDER",
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    "verified_text": "range-finders or position- finders, as they are somctimes called, are used both in land and sea warfare. i, military range-finders the range-finder usually consists of two main parts, viz.: a strong outer tube and an inner frame which supports the delicate telescopic system, any slight derangement of which would seri- ously upset the accuracy of the range-finder. the outer tube is made as strong and rigid as possible, having regard to the weight which can be allowed. the inner frame 1s supported in such a way that any slight bending of the outer tube will not affect it. some form of double end retlector is always used. this at one time consisted of a pentagonal prism, but large pentag- onals are very costly; they absorb a good deal of light and are liable to slight distortion with changes of temperature. there is therefore a tendency to replace them by a combination of two silvered plane mirrors inclined to one another at 45°, and either fixed in a mount made of a metal having the same coceflicient of expansion as glass, or rigidly attached to an upper and lower glass support, to prevent change in their relative positions. the central reflectors usually take the form of two or more prisms balsamed together, and are known as the centre prism combination. their object is to deflect the rays received through the two ends of the range-finder into the eye-piece, and to present the two images of the target in the field of view immedi- ately above and below a thin separating line.! stereoscopic range-finders—the principle of the stereoscopic range-finder is entirely different. stcreoscopic range-finders have not found much favour in the british services; but they have t a very complete account of the construction and accuracy of this type of range-finder will be found in vol. 4 of the dictzonary of applied physics. ramsgate—range-findier been extensively used by the germans. speaking generally, a stereoscopic range-finder contains the clements of a stereoscopic telescope rigidly mounted in a tube. it is very similar in outward appearance to a coincidence range-finder with two eye-pieces. objects viewed through a stereoscopic range-finder are seen to stand out in stereoscopic relief; and it is comparatively easy for the observer to judge their relative distances. the actual dis- tance of a target 1s obtained with the assistance of one or more marks which are seen in stereoscopic relief in the field of view. by means of suitable optical arrangements the stereoscopic relief of either the objects in the field of view or of the mark can be varied until the target and mark appear to the observer to be the same clistance away from him. the range of the target can then be read off a range-scale attached. [for coast defence coast defence range-finding instruments may be divided into classes, depending upon the nature of their bases, as follows:— 1. depression instruments, having vertical bases (either range- finders or position-finders) the accuracy of which depends upon their height above the sea-level. it is usually considered that, to obtain ranges with an crror not excceding 1%, 100 ft. of height is required for every 5,000 yd. of range. all that the range-taker has to do is to keep a cross wire in the telescope of his instrument laid on the water line of the target. 2. instruments having a fixed horizontal base (usually position- finders). each usually consists of two instruments installed at the ends of a base which may be several thousand yards in length, the length required depending upon the range and arc of fire of the gun for which the instrument has been installed. the instrument at one end of the base is known as a transmitter and usually consists of a telescope mounted above an azimuth circle. it measures the bearing of the target and transmits it to the instrument at the other end of the base which is known as the receiving instrument. the bearings may be transmitted by telephone; or, as the telescope is traversed, electric impulses may cause some portion of the receiving instrument, e.g., a metal arm or a dial, to move automatically. the receiving instrument is usually an accurate, solidly constructed plotter, made to a certain scale, e.g., 500 yd. to an inch. in its simplest form it would consist of a base plate upon which two straight arms were ivoted, the relative positions of the pivots being, to the scale of the instrument, the same as those of the transmitter and receiving instru- ment. the first arm would be kept set to the azimuth angles re- ceived from the transmitter, and the second arm would be kept in line with the target by means of a telescope attached to it. the point where the two arms intersect would represent the relative posi- tion of the target. the arms being graduated in ranges and moving over azimuth scales, the range and bearing of the target from either end of the base could be read off. by means of a third arm, pivoted to the base plate in the position representing the position of the gun, the range and bearing of the target from the gun could be ascertained if the arm were brought above or below the point of intersection of the two other arms. 3. one-man range-finders used for coast defences are constructed on the same gencral principles as those used in the field; but, as their weight and size need not be limited to the same degree, many modifications to make them as accurate and convenient as possible are introduced. their base lengths are usually between 9 ft. and 10 metres, but even longer bases have been considered. ‘they are practically always of the coincidence type with both fields erect. the mark itt. depression range-finder will be taken as a type of a depression instrument. in this range-finder the range-finding triangle is reproduced in the instrument on a small scale. fig. i shows diagrammatically how this is effected by means of two arms. 1000 8.006 8000 7600 6000 5.000. 4000 3.000 2,000 1000 o fic, 1.—diagram of the principle of the two-arm range-finder. ab represents the height of the axis of the telescope above the sur- face of the sea bc. ab represents the distance between the pivot of the telescope arm ac and the range arm be, and this to the scale of the instrument, represents the height ab. when the instrument is level, the arm cb is horizontal, and therefore parallel to the sur- face of the sea. cb is subdivided and graduated in equal divisions ranger—ranjitsinji to the scale of the instrument. ac, which has a telescope mounted on it, is pivoted at a and can be directed on to the water-line of a target at c. the triangles abc and abc are similar, and the length of be therefore represents to the scale of the instrument, which is 1,000 yd. to an in., the actual range bc. similarly bd will represent the range bd of a target at d. if the instrument is required for use at any other height than ab, the telescope arm pivot a would be raised to a height above cb corresponding to the new height of the range-finder above the sca. in the foregoing, the surface of the sea has been considered as a plane surface, whereas it is really the surface of a sphere with its centre at the centre of the earth. allow- ance for this curvature could be made by making the arm be the arc of a circle instead of a straight line. it is, however, found to be more convenient to curve the telescope arm ac in the opposite direction, the effect being the same. corrections for mean refrac- tion are made in the same way as those for the curvature of the earth, but in the opposite direction; the arm ac being curved to allow for the combined effect of curvature and refraction. for air defence when laying a gun on aircraft, the setting of the sight is based on the height and angle of sight of the target and on the setting of the fuse. at the beginning of the world war, no height-finders were available, so existing one-man range-fin«ers, e.g., the barr and stroud, were used, and long-base height-finders which could be rapidly made were introduced. one-man range-finders were usually of two metres base length, and coincidences were made on the target in the usual way. in order to convert the ranges into heights, a slide-rule attached to the range- finder was employed. one scale of this slide-rule was automatically sect to the angle of sight of the target, by means of a cam, as the elevation of the range-finder was altered. ‘the other scale was sct to the range recorded by the range-finder, and the height of the target could then be read off. long-base height-finders usually consist of two instruments at the ends of a base about a mile in length. sighting planes in these instruments are kept laid on the target; the triangle formed by the intersection of a vertical plane with three planes, one of which is a horizontal plane passing through the base and the other two are extensions of the sighting planes, is mechanically solved; and the height of the point where the two planes of sight intersect (7.e., the height of the target above the base) is plotted at the same time. q a > 8 fic, 2.—diagram of the principle of the long-base height- finder. the principle of this method is shown in fig. 2. ax and by aretwo horizontal lines, parallel] to each other. the sighting planes of the instrument would be attached to axles whose axes were on any parts of ax and by. axqz and byqz represent planes of which the sighting planes form small parts. it is obvious that qz is hori- zontal, and that zk, pl or any vertical line between qz and the horizontal line kl (which is parallel to the axes of the sighting planes) represents the height of an aircraft in the line qz, say at p. if now the two stations, a and b, make simultancous readings of the altitude angles of p, and if one station, say b, telephones its reading to a, the height of p can be determined by a simple form of plotter. the principal disadvantage of long base height-finders is the difficulty of getting the two instruments on to the same target. range- and itcight-finder.—the optical parts of this instrument are similar to those of the ordinary two-metre base range-finder, but the deflecting prism is moved by gearing so arranged that when the height of the aircraft remains constant, the coincidence will not alter, although the range may be changing. the instrument is esscn- tially a range-finder, and in a small casing on top ranges are con- verted into heights by the mechanical solution of the equation log rtlog sin a = logh, where 7 is the range, a the height and athe angle of sight of the target; a differential gear is employed, the upper member of which is rotated in accordance with a logarithmic sine scale of angles of sight, and the lower member is rotated in accord- ance with a logarithmic scale of ranges, the jockey wheel accordingly revolving around the axis of the differential with a motion correspond- 297 ing to a logarithmic scale of heights, it will be noted that the angle of elevation and the range are determined by the instrument, so that the duty of the gears is to convert the angle and range scales to logarithmic form and then to add them together by means of the differential gear as explained above. the conversion of the reciprocal! range scale motion of the range-finder deflecting prism gear into log- arithmic range scale motion, and the angular motion, of the range- finder in elevation into motion corresponding to a logarithmic scale of sines, is done in each case by means of toothed spiral gears. il. naval range-finders the barr and stroud range-finder is now used almost univer- sally by navies. irom the description of the principle it is seen that the accuracy of the instrument depends upon the length of its base. since fighting ranges at sea have now been increased up to the limits of visibility, there has lately been a general increase in the base length of the range-finders which are carried afloat. in the british service, the first barr and stroud instruments had a 4}- ft. base, and this was soon increased to 9 feet. in 1911 a 15-ft. instrument was introduced, and this became the standard for the capital ships during the world war. in some of the latest ships the base has been increased to 30 ft., these instruments being mounted in turrets and gun control towers. the original mountings of ihe range-finders were simple and the 43 and g-ft. instruments can be worked by one man. in the larger instruments, however, it is necessary to have one man to keep the instrument “laid ” upon the object whilst the observer confines himself to making the ‘ cuts ” or observations, which are as a rule transmitted electrically to the transmitting station. the barr and stroud range-finder stood the strenuous test of the war and was satisfactory. it has the great advantage that any man with normally good eyesight can be easily trained to obtain accurate observations with it. also, the adjustments which are required to keep the instrument accurate can be readily made atsea. a rt metre base range-finder isin use in the british service for station keeping and navigational work. a range-finder constructed on the sextant principle—the way- mouth-cooke—has been used to a considerable extent on british destroyers. it is small and handy, but except on very short ranges it 1s far from accurate and has now been superseded by the short-base barr and stroud. in the german navy a zeiss stereoscopic range-finder was used to a great extent, and it has also been adopted by some other countries. it has, however, the great disadvantage, that to use one of these instruments the observer must have stereoscopic vision—a rare gift and one which varies from day to day. this makes it inferior for general service at sea to the simpler barr and stroud instrument. (see gunnery.) (s. h. w.) ranger, henry ward (1858-1916), american painter (see 22.891), died in new york city nov. 7 1916. rangoon (see 22.891), the capital of burma and the third seaport of british india, had a population, very diverse in nationality and religion, of 341,962 in 1921, including about 125,000 hincdus, 62,c00 moslems, 25,000 christians and 12,000 chinese. the burmese, who prefer the rural districts, were about 112,o001n number. the municipality, which is about 28 sq. m. in area, is lit with electric light and supplied with water from a large reservoir lake 17 m. distant, and has now a good drainage system. about 90% of the foreign trade of the province passes through the port, where the headquarters of the railway system and of all large commercial concerns are situated. ran- goon is the greatest rice port of the world, with a considerable far eastern trade, and the value of commerce in 1921, 1922 and 1923 was much larger than in any previous years. native industries include wood and ivory carving, and gold and silver work. the phayre museum, removed to make room for the general hospital, has been placed in the secretariat, pending the erection of new buildings. a teaching and residential univer- sity was opened in 1920. ranjitsinji, kumar shri (1872- ), maharaja of na. vanagar, was born at sarodar, in the province of kathiawar, sept. 10 1872. by race a rajput, he was educated first at raj- kumar college, rajkot and afterwards at trinity college, cam- 298 bridge, where he leaped into eminence as a cricketer, subse- quently becoming familiar to the british public by the affection- ate designation of “ ranji.” he first played for sussex in 1895 and in 1897-8 he was a member of the stoddart all-england eleven which went to australia. he headed the english batting averages in 1896 and again in rg00. on his cousin’s death in 1907 he succeeded as chief of the state of navanagar, in the bombay presidency of india, and quickly developed into an enlightened and sagacious ruler. during the early part of the world war, he provided troops for the allies, and himself served at the front in france. he represented the indian states on the league of nations assembly in 1920 and became vice-chancellor of the indian chamber of princes. he wrote the jubilee book of cricket (1897); with stoddart’s team in australia (1898); cricket guide, and howto play cricket (1906). sce p. c. standing, ranjitsinji, prince of cricket (1903). rapallo, treaty of (april 16 1922).—during the con- ference of genoa (see genoa, conference of), at which it was designed to consider the economic relations of the participating powers with russia, the russian delegates showed no great desire to resume relations with the allied and associated powers, but to the consternation of the latter signed an agreement with germany, after secret negotiations. the treaty was initialled on april 16 1922 by m. chicherin and m. rathenau. germany and russia renounced reciprocally all claims to war indemnities of any sort, including payment for the maintenance of prisoners of war. germany renounced any compensation for losses in- curred by german subjects in consequence of russian socialisa- tion of private property ‘ provided that the soviet govt. does not satisfy similar claims of other states.’ diplomatic and consular relations were resumed, the principle of the most favoured nation was to be mutually applied, with a russian reservation in favour of states formerly belonging to the rus- sian empire. economic relations were to be regulated ‘‘ with mutual feelings of goodwill.’”’ the treaty was made public immediately on signature (english translation is printed as a british white paper, cmd. 1637 of 1922), and it was emphatt- cally denied that it contained any secret political or military clauses. on nov. 5 1922 the treaty was extended to the ukraine, white russia, the transcaucasian republics and the far east- ern republic. rasin, alois (1867-1923), czechoslovak statesman, was born at nechanice. while at the university he took an active part in politics, and his abilities as an orator, journalist and organiser brought him into the forefront of the czech progres- sive movement. his anti-austrian activities brought him into conflict with the authorities; he was tried in connection with the ‘‘ omladina ” affair in 1893 and condemned to two years imprisonment and the loss of his doctorate. after serving his sentence he gained a prominent position in the czech liberal ( young czech ”’”) party, which he represented both in the provincial diet of bohemia and in the austrian reichsrath. during the anti-czech persecution in the world war period, dr. ra&in, together with dr. kramar, was arrested in rors, charged with treason and condemned to death. the sentence, however, was not carried out, and after the accession of the emperor karl, dr. ragin, with other political prisoners, was amnestied. he then took part in the preparations for the revolutionary coup in 1918, which, as a member of the national committee, he helped to bring about. in the first czechoslo- vak govt. he became finance minister and rendered ines- timable services to his country by freeing the czechoslovak currency from that of austria and inaugurating a financial policy which led to the stabilisation of the czechoslovak crown. he described his achievement in a book entitled #inanciat policy of czechoslovakia during the first year of its history (1921, eng. trans., 1923). in january 1923 he was attacked by a demented youth and died of his injuries six weeks afterwards, on feb. 16 1923. rasmussen, knud johan victor (1879- ), danish explorer, was born at jakobshavn, greenland, june 7 1879. in 1902 he made the first of several expeditions to greenland rapallo—rasputin and the northern polar regions. between 1905 and 1924 rasmussen visited all the extant eskimo tribes and ascertained that they were originally red indian tribes which had wandered east and west from the coast. rasmussen, whose ancestors in the maternal line were eskimos, gained a thorough knowledge of arctic peoples and customs and made them the subject of nu- merous tracts and publications, including nye aflennesker (1905); myter og sagn fra gronland (1921) and gronland langs pol- havet (1919). the last mentioned work has been translated into english by g. a. and r. kennedy as greenland by the polar sea (1921). rasputin, gregory efimovitch (1871-10916), russian monk, was born in 1871 in the village of pokrovskoe, near tyumen, in the province of tobolsk, siberia. he was the son of a poor peasant whose disorderly behaviour resulted in his being given the name of rasputin, meaning “ debauchee.” he received no education, and till the end of his life was unable to write properly. he spent the first part of his life till the age of 33 in his native village; he married in 1895 a well-to-do girl, olga chanigoff, and they had two daughters and a son. in 1904 rasputin resolved to change his mode of living. he left his family and devoted himself to religious exercises, declaring to his people that he was inspired by god. his passionate nature, his great physical strength and the superstitious atmosphere in which he had been brought up, gave an unexpected direction to his religious exaltation. ile adopted the views of the sect known under the name of “ khlysty,” the leading idea of whose teaching was that salvation could be'achieved only by repentance. “sin in order that you may obtain forgiveness ’’—was the practical rule which he drew from this doctrine. ‘‘ a particle of the supreme being is incarnated in me ’’—he told his hearers. “ only through me you can hope to be saved; and the manner of your salvation is this: you must be united with me in soul and body. the virtue that goes out from me is the source of light, the destruction of sin” (e. j. dillon, the eclipse of russia). this extravagant and dangerous teaching, which resulted in practice in the most wild orgies, not only created for rasputin immense popularity and the reputation of a holy man among his fellow- peasants, but opened before him the doors of some of the most fashionable russian houses and even those of the imperial palace. looking for new experiences rasputin left his native village, and made long pilgrimages to various holy places, and even went to mount athos and jerusalem. hespent some time in different monasteries and applied himself to the study of holy books, but his lack of elementary education reduced the results of his labours almost to nothing. he only retained by heart some incomprehensible passages, and often used them in his prophecies. hfe had, however, a strong magnetic power, the influence of which was recognised by his bitterest opponents. in 1907, during a stay in st. petersburg (leningrad), rasputin was introduced to the archimandrite feofan, rector of the ‘theological academy and confessor to the empress, who took an interest in the story of his conversion. the archimandrite, with the assistance of the grand iuchesses militza and anastasia, presented rasputin at court, and he produced a deep impression on the empress and emperor. the mystic atmosphere which al- ways prevailed at the russian court, and which was especially strengthened by the disasters of the japanese war, the internal troubles in r903 and the constant fear for the health of the tsarevich, created a convenient background for the appearance of such a man. fis disdain for all rules of good behaviour, his dark prophecies, and, above all, the eventual improvement in the health of the grand duke alexis, which more than once seemcd to result from his influence when medicine was ineffectual, created an exceptional position for him with the empress. disgusted with the russian intellectual classes and the bureau- cracy, she saw in rasputin the representative of the mass of peasantry, the only sure support of orthodoxy and autocracy, specially sent by god to save the heir to the throne and preserve the dynasty. rasputin took advantage of this belief, and did his best to rathenau persuade the empress that his fate was closely tied with that of the imperial family. the example of the court was followed by a large section of the upper class, and many doors were opened for the “ saviour,” as the empress used to call him. for some time rasputin was satisfied by this side of his social success, and at first he did not interfere in politics. but his activity was felt in church questions. [lis friendship with the famous monk, heliodor, and the bishop of saratov, hermogen, which resulted in a complete rupture between them and in a series of scandals, had a painful echo in the country. the appointment of varnava, an illiterate peasant and a friend of rasputin, to be bishop of tobolsk in 1911, and the extraor- dinary servility with which the holy synod followed the wishes of the favourite, provoked a strong opposition among ali classes of society. the most prominent upholders of ortho- doxy demanded a complete reorganisation of the russian church. and denounced the servile attitude of the holy synod. guchkov, the octobrist leader, in a famous speech delivered at the state duma, made direct allusions to the nefarious influence excr- cised by rasputin. but the influence of the “ saviour ” was too strong to be checked by any expression of feeling in the country, and rasputin triumphed over all his enemies. an unsuccessful attempt to kill him, made by a certain guseva in 1914, incited by the monk heliodor, only strengthened his influence, which became especially powerful during the two last years of the imperial regime. no important nomination was made without his approval, and the most unexpected people rose to the highest offices as the result of hisinterference. rasputin was too ignorant to have any opinion on political questions: he was in most cases an instrument of the reactionaries. numberless stories of the debauchery practised at the court, in which the name of rasputin was coupled not only with some of the court ladies but even with that of the empress herself, became a com- mon topic of conversation in all classes of russian society. at length a supreme effort to free the empire and the dynasty from his influence was made by a small group of men of the high- est social position, which included the grand duke dimitri pavlovich, prince yussupoff and m. purichkevich. rasputin was invited to a supper at the yussupoff palace on dec. 15 1916, and shot dead, after an attempt at poisoning him with a strong dose of potassium cyanide mixed with wine had not produced the desired effect. his body was thrown under the ice of a canal. the death of rasputin was a terrible shock to the empress; she transferred his body to the park of tsarskoe selo, where a special chapel was erected, and came every night to pray on his grave. the grand duke dimitri pavlovich was sent to persia to join a fighting column. yussupoff was ordered to leave st. petersburg (leningrad) and interned in his estate. purichkevich, protected by his immense popularity in the army and by his title of member of the duma, returned to his work on the front. cps vig) see letters of the tsaritsa to the tsay 1914-6 (1923); and further letters published in the alanchester guardian, jan. g and feb. 7 1924. rathenau, walther (1867-1922), german statesman and industrialist, was born in berlin sept. 29 1867, the son of emil rathenau, the founder of the allgemeine elektrizitats- gesellschaft. after studying philosophy, physics and chemistry at berlin and strasbourg he graduated in 1889, and spent a year studying machine structure and chemistry at munich. he was then engaged as a civil engineer by the aluminium industrie a.-g. of neuhausen, switzerland. in 1893 he became a director of the electrochemische werke g.m.b.h. at bitterfeld for the utilisation of a process for making chlorine and alkalis by electrolysis. he also built large works at rheinfelden, in russian poland, and in france, and elaborated processes for the production of ferrosilicate, chrome, soda and magnesia. in 1899 rathenau became a director of the all- gemeine electrizitats-gesellschaft, and built central stations at manchester, amsterdam, buenos aires and baku. in 1902 he belonged to the board of directors of about roo enterprises. during 1907 rathenau accompanied dernburg, the secretary of state of the imperial colonial office, to german east and west 299 africa, and also visited the british colonies in africa. his reflexionen (1908) contain his two final reports on those visits. the year 1912 marked his first public appearance in politics. he published z#r akritik der seit, in which he subjected the existing social and economic order to severe criticism. his fundamental philosophic work, zar mechanik des geistes, appeared in 1913. even at the beginning of the world war rathenau realised the whole extent of the danger which the british blockade meant to germany as regards raw material. in an astoundingly short time, with the acquiescence of the war minister von falkenhayn, he established a huge organisation for the administration of the war raw materials then at germany’s disposal. this board of the war ministry, called the “‘ kriegsrohstoff-abteilung,”’ which he left in splendid working order to his successor on march 31 1915, alone made it possible for germany to hold out with raw material till the end of the war. after his father’s death in the summer of 1915 rathenau was made president of the allgemeine elektrizitats-gesellschaft, to which he devoted his best energy. during this tims he published vou kommenden dingen (eng. trans. in days to come), fine streitschrift vom glauben and vom aktienwesen. in 1918 his collected works were published. after the war rathenau endeavoured to found a middle-class democratic party which was to bridge the gulf between the middle classes and labour caused by the revolution, and in this way to restore to the country its unity. in 1919 he was called by the government to partic- ipate in the preliminary preparations in berlin for the con- ference of versailles. from april 1920 to may 30 1921 rathenau was a member of the so-called ‘ socialising commission ” con- voked by the newly founded “ reichswirtschaftsrat ” in order to discuss the question of nationalising the coalmines. in the summer of 1920 he submitted to the public his report on this question, in which he proposed to hand over the privately owned coal-mines to the state with a reasonable compensation and with- in a space of about 30 years. he was appointed government expert at the spa conference of july 1920, and in the spring of 1921 took part in the prelimi- naries to the london conference. at the end of may 1921 he was asked by the chancellor wirth to join the government. the two leadirig men of the cabinet thus formed, wirth and rathe- nau, were united by deep confidence and friendship. the com- bination of the chancellor’s original and impulsive nature, his courage and love of responsibility, was a happy blend with rathenau’s far-sighted and extraordinary capability. rathenau as well as the chancellor realised that the chief task was how to bring about a better understanding abroad of germany’s real position, thereby annulling her complcte isola- tion, just once more revealed at the london conference (april- may 1921) and leading to a “reasonable solution” of the reparation problem. this policy of mutual understanding was to secure peace for germany, europe and the world, a peace absolutely necessary for the reconstruction of what had been destroyed. in a speech made at stuttgart a fortnight before his death rathenau characterised the task allotted to him as follows:— when in a space of 100 years the history of this epoch will be written, then the question will be carefully investigated: where were the first threads of peace tied? ilow was it possible in a world poi- soned by hatred and on a planet flaming with the passion of mutual revenge, in a world of destruction and dissension to knit the first threads? the answer will be: the german nation has united these threads by its patience, its energy, its positive will, its idealism, by its sense of sacrifice. in this spirit rathenau co-operated in the final conclusion of the peace treaty with the united states of america in aug. 1921. as minister of reconstruction he concluded with lou- cheur, the french minister of the regions liberees, an agreement at wiesbaden, securing to france the privileged supply of deliveries in kind as reparation payment, which contributed greatly to the relaxing of the tension between france and germany. however, this fact did not, unfortunately, react on the upper silesian decision of the league of nations. the 300 disruption of the upper silesian coal and iron district, quite contrary in german opinion to the versailles treaty and to the result of the plebiscite, provoked rathenau to a demonstrative resignation from the cabinet. rathenau did not withdraw his help from the cabinet, however, and went, deputed by the same, in nov. and dec. 1921 to london, to enlist england’s interest and understanding, and moreover to secure a british loan for the next reparation install- ment due from germany. this loan was refused, for the reason that “‘ under prevailing conditions’? decreed by the repara- tion commission for the german liabilitics during the next year such a loan could not be granted by britain. whilst in england rathenau came in touch with the then leaders of the british government. under his iniluence arose the famous lloyd george “ project of chequers, ” which for the first time gave a certain practical form to the idea of a “ united states of europe’ by proposing the reconstruction of russia through the united economic forces of the other chief nations of europe, including germany. the ideas underlying the later pact of locarno (1925) were also discussed. in paris, whither rathenau went immediately after the london negotiations, he found less support. nevertheless, the project discussed at chequers led to the conference of cannes (jan. 1922), which gave rathenau the opportunity, in an elo- quent speech, to declare before the world the impossibility of the london reparation demands and to obtain an essential dimi- nution for the reparation payment of 1922. it led also to the great economic conference of genoa (april-june 1922) in which for the first time since the war germany was admitted on equal terms with the other powers. in the meantime, at the wish of the chancellor, wirth, rathenau had entered the cabinet again, this time as minister for foreign affairs. the negotiations in genoa, opened under such great auspices, did not unfortunately produce the expected result of a united european work of reconstruction. the fundamental theme for the settlement of the question of repara- tion was not discussed owing to the opposition of the french govt., led by pcincare; russia also would have nothing to do with the chequers plan. but separate negotiations be- tween british and french representatives took place with russia to the exclusion of germany. rathenau, fearing that these secret negotiations would be carried out at the expense of germany, accepted on april 16 1922 at rapallo the treaty of peace and friendship offered by the russians, cancelling all reciprocal demands which had accrued from the war, thereby visibly proving that germany was endeavouring on all sides to unite the threads which had been torn asunder by the catastrophe. the climax of his endeavour to lead back the minds of the nations from their condition of blind hatred to the “ way of reason ’? was shown by his great speech in genoa on may 19 1922, which, after a concise summary of the hindrances to europe’s reconstruction and the necessary steps for the accom- plishment of the same, ended with the soul-stirring cry of petrarch: .“* pace—pace—pace!”? the question of the alleged war guilt of germany was one that rathenau had mostly at heart. he zealously furthered the publication of the pre- war documents and declared, on july 13 1922: “‘ the way of truth is long; it is all the longer as the lack of european interest has caused the questions which to us are vital questions to be looked upon as solved and the verdict of history as pronounced. the verdict can only be pronounced by a universally acknowl- edged tribunal. our search for the truth will not be satisfied till, in the name of history, a verdict has been passed by an authorised tribunal.” the effects of the inflation of the currency on the middle classes, who had made great sacrifices during the war and were now absolutely impoverished, caused him the greatest anxiety. many relief measures for these classes were passed owing to his efforts. at the same time he fully realised that german industry, when no longer under the influence of the inflation, would have to encounter extraordinary dangers; but that the development of reparation payment in kind and the treaty with russia rationing would at least ensure some work for industry in the impending hard times of recovery. nevertheless, he considered that all attempts in this province must of necessity be frustrated until the burden of reparation was kept within reasonable bounds. rathenau, however, was not permitted to sce the fulfilment of his plans. on his usual morning drive from his house to the toreign office on june 24 1922 he fell a victim to the bullets and hand-grenades of misguided young germans, who by this deed robbed their country, not only of a great philosopher and industrialist, but of one of their most fervent patriots and of the best foreign minister of that time. the intransigeance of poincare made rathenau’s politics appear too lenient to the fanaticised eyes of his youthful murderers. the anti-semitism which is always wont to follow great upheavals contributed the rest. numerous threats had preceded the murder; rathenau knew too well to what dangers he was exposed during the whole of his public career as minister, and in the proud consciousness of the integrity of his intentions he declined every attempt of the chancellor and his friends to surround him with detectives. the space available is insufficient to deal with rathenau’s philosophy as expressed in his writings. he was, in the philo- sophical sense, an idealist. adopting the evolutionary theories of leibnitz and darwin, he saw the development of man’s pur- pose in three stages—first, prehistoric man wholly guided by instinct, then historical man led by intellect and conscious purpose, and lastly the man of the future whose fulfilment will be in the kingdom of the soul. ‘ the soul is no weapon, ” says rathenau. it thus stands in contrast to the whole spiritual world of the instinct and purpose resulting from the struggle of life. in the social world, whilst believing in an aristocracy of the mind, he realised that democracy was necessary to consoli- date the crumbling foundations of the society of his day. a capitalist by birth and training, without repudiating his creed he held that in countries like germany, carrying the burden of a dense population, “‘ consumption, like all enormous activities, is not an individual but a communal affair ’’; “ the equalisation of property and income is prescribed both by ethics and by economics’; ‘ the extant sources of wealth are: monopolies in the widest sense, speculation and inheritance”; “the restriction of the right of inheritance, in conjunction with the equalisation of popular education at a higher level, will throw down the barriers which now separate the economic classes of society, and will put an end to the hereditary enslavement of the lower classes.” rathenau’s collected works (5 vol.) were published in 1925, the following were not included and appeared separately: die nene wirtschaft (1918); cin deutschlunds jugend (1918); zeitliches (1918); nach der fiut (1919); der kaiser (1919); der nene siaat (1919) (eng. trans. the new society; krit. der dreifachen revalution (1919); die neue gesellschaft (1919); autonome wirtschaft (1919); was wird werden? (1920); denokr. entwickiung (1920); albert kollmann (1921); reden (1924); briefe (1926). the ruthenau stiftung (berlin), founded after his death, collects all bibliographical material. (ee si) rationing.—this is a term of military origin, indicating the apportionment to each member of a population or of an army of his due share of the available supplies. as usually understood, the process of ‘rationing ” is associated with the distribution of commodities in a time of shortage. it aims at just and eco- nomical distribution and the prevention of improvident con- sumption. during the world war most countries were com- pelled to ration foodstuffs in the public interest. nature of the operation.—a complete and effective system of rationing involved the control of commodities at every stage from the source of supply to the consumer. rationing proved to be a twofold problem, positive in the securing and conserving of supplics, negative in the prevention of injustice, waste and fraud. the consumer saw only a small part of a complex and far-reaching organisation. the economic order of the operations involved is: (1) supply; (2) distribution to localities; (3) dis- tribution to consumers or rationing. the experience of ration- ing schemes has led to the establishment of a fundamental rule, t.e., “that supply must precede the ration ’’; in other words, sup- rationing plies must be assured before scientific distribution can be at- tempted. during the world war two distinct rationing plans were evolved, by germany and great britain respectively. other countries adopted one or other of these schemes, with more or less modification. i. the central european systems in sept. ro14, the general commanding in brandenburg assumed control of all cereals, and, before the end of the year, bread cards had appeared in many german cities. by the early ‘days of rors, all bread cereals in germany were under official management. the method adopted to deal with supplies and distribution gives the keynote for all the central european efforts at rationing. the control of bread was quickly followed by that of practically every article of daily consumption. the german scheme was based on the local control of consumption, and this reposed on a supply in the main nationally controlled. dis- tribution and control were largely conditioned by the existing machinery of local government, with its regular gradation from the reich to the commune. the registration system already in use rendered it easy for the local authorities to determine the incidence of demand, and the management of actual ‘ ration- ing ”’ fell naturally into their hands. control of bread cereals—taking the control of bread cereals as an example, the system may be thus described: the consumer was provided with a card, with dated and numbered sections, and the appropriate section was cancelled by the retailer or official distrib- utor when the ration allotted by the local authority (kommunalver- band) was purchased. card sections were only valid as dated and numbered. this was to prevent fraud and sudden fluctuations in demand. bona-fide travellers used special cards. supplies were allotted to kommunalverbande on the basis of the amounts avail- able and the number of ‘‘ men ” to be fed. manual workers received slightly more than a “ man’s\" ration, and women and children less. the kommunalverband got its supplies either from local producers, or from the authorities of the kreis. these again indented on the next highest authority, and, step by step, the requisitions went on till they reached the central authority of all. this was a company formed, partly of business representatives, partly of government nominees, and capitalised partly by subscription and partly by government funds. beyond this central company, which controlled only the supplics of its own particular group of products, was the imperial food bureau, with corresponding ministries in most of the federal states. all supplies of breadstufts, except those allowed to the producers for their own sustenance, had to be held at the dis- posal of the central company, which, in the case of cereals, was the reichsgetreidestelle. the country’s supplies were thus centralised, and the require- ments of the various subordinate authorities were met in that de- gree which the national or local food policy made possible. flour and all corn products were of necessity included in the scheme. this complicated machinery resulted in faulty distribution, es- pecially as supplies became less plentiful. the central empires had to rely for their food supplies almost exclusively on home production. they had, therefore, to face the problem of obtaining the articles to be distributed from the actual producers. a special ration was allowed to “self sup- pliers’ (sclbstversorger), which, although small, was generally greater in amount than that allowed to other people. this was inevitably accompanied by evasion of regulations. if the self- supplier could conceal part of his output he could retain more than his official “ ration,”’ and this he usually succeeded in doing. as official rations dwindled, the practice of concealing output increased, and an extensive illicit trade (schleich-handel) came into being. the activities of this trade completely upset the calculations of the german and austrian food controllers, and by the middle of 1917 the rationing authorities themselves were obliged to have recourse to this eflicient and wide spread organisation. the german plan for rationing food was beginning to break down. ‘ill the end of the war the central european situation was one of increasing difliculty. il. the british system the british control of foodstuffs began to take shape in 1917. this system, as finally organised, depended principally on the 301 fact that the bulk of supplies was seaborne. nearly all articles. therefore, came naturally and easily under public control from the moment they entered the country. since britain met her problems after germany had been compelled to deal with similar difficulties, she had the advantage of the german experience. the british authorities had first of all to find out the real inci- dence of demand. this was accomplished indirectly by the first measures adopted to deal temporarily with the effects of shortage in the supply of sugar, and the movement of population occa- sioned by the concentrated effort to produce munitions of war. sugar supplics—in aug. 1914, a royal commission on sugar supplies was set up. by the end of 1916 sugar began to be in short supply. each trader, wholesale or retail, was then given 50° of his 1915 supply, and left to share this among his custom- ers as best he could. in june 1917, the cabinet decided upon a rationing scheme, under which each houscholder was invited to register with a particular retailer, to whom supplies were issued ait a given ration per head of registered customers. in order to work this first sugar rationing scheme, some 1,8co0 food control committees were appointed by local authorities. their expendi- ture was met from national funds, and they were supervised by 15 «divisional food commissioners. these commissioners were appointed by a special wartime ministry of food, at the head of which was the food controller. food committees established —the 1,800 food committees were appointed in aug. by the local authorities, and each set up its food office, appointed its executive officer and distributed to each household in its district a sugar card, showing the number of persons in the household and having a counterfoil for deposit with the retailer. thus, the whole population was completely registered by households, in each district. in oct. and the following months this scheme was revised, and household cards were exchanged for individual cards, which became the sole title to the sugar ration, on jan. 1 1918, the rationing of individuals began, and as meantime other food supplies (e.g., tea, margarine, bacon, cheese) had begun to run short, and there was no hope of a na- tional rationing scheme being made effective for some months, local food committees had, therefore, to arrange for the consumers under their charge as they best could. several of them, that of birmingham notably, began to use the powers of requisition granted to them by the ministry of food, and to distribute sup- plies to retailers, with whom consumers had to be registered. general provision for such schemes was made by an order of the food controller, dated dec. 22 1917. the same difficulty arose, however, as had been experienced in germany many months before; different action by the authoritics of adjacent districts led to confusion and discontent while some foods, such as marga- rine or frozen meat, were entirely unsuitable for local control. in london these diflicultics at once became pressing. rationing in force.—a rationing scheme, covering meat and fats, for london and the home counties, came into force on ireb. 25 1918. leach individual (about 10,000,000 were involved) received two cards, one with detachable coupons for meat, and one with numbered spaces, to be marked by the retailer, for butter and margarine. fach consumer was registered with one retailer, and each retailer was supplied with the appropriate quantity of rationed articles necessary for his regis- tered customers. by a very efficient system of control of supplies at the ports and of the local producers through government organisa- tions, operating with powers of requisitioning supplies at fixed prices, and (in the case of home-grown produce) by the careful demarcation of areas of surplus and deficit, it proved possible to balance quan- tities available against requirements, and to insure with astonishing success that the ration cards were honoured on presentation. just before the rationing scheme for london and the home counties was put into force, 500,000 people stood in food queues every, saturday in london. a month afterwards the queues had practically dis- appeared. a ; since local authorities could not wholly insure or control supply, they could not effectively ration meat, a national scheme for meat rationing was therefore introduced on april 7. the success was as great as that of the london scheme. on july 14 1918, each member of the public received a single book, with coupons for meat and bacon, fats, sugar and lard. the supply of these articles was nationally controlled; their distribution was arranged through the normal channels of trade; and an equitable and unbroken distribution was thus assured. jam was nationally rationed in nov. 1918, and some 302 food committees rationed tea and cheese locally. it never became necessary to ration bread in great britain. fodder stuffs were also controlled by the ministry of food, and a scheme for rationing them was coming into force when the war ended. after may 3 1919, coupons were abolished; and when sugar was decontrolled, in nov. 1920, the period of rationing was over. in ireland, the only rationing was a control over the distribution of sugar. the british method of rationing was this: each houschold had to send in an application form to the local food committee, and a ration book (with a validity, first of 16 weeks, and afterwards of six months) was then issued for each individual. the ration book con- tained differently coloured leaves for various foods. each leaf con- sisted of a counterfoil to be signed, and given to the retailer with whom the holder of the book wished to register, and coupons (to be detached by the retailer at the time of actual purchase) for cach weck’s supply. spare leaves were inserted, for use if other foods (such as bread) had to be rationed at short notice. special books were provided, entitling the holders to suitable rations for young children, growing lads, soldiers and sailors on leave, vegetarians, jews and other particular classes. the essence of the scheme lay in the fact that each customer was tied to a particular retailer, and that thereby not only was fraud prevented, but the food ministry was able to have accurate information both as to the total demand and as to its distribution at any time. no retailer could obtain jarger supplics than those to which he was entitled on the basis of the number of persons registered with him and the ration per head. in the case of some foods the ordinary machinery of the trade was maintained and the retailer got his permitted supplies by indenting on the wholesaler, who in turn had to send copies of the retailers’ indents to a primary supplier. supervising and controlling the whole organisation was the minis- try of food, which had to arrange for the importation and supply of foodstuffs in sufficient quantitics to meet the rations. special measures had to be taken in the case of meat and fats. the ordinary methods of distribution in the meat trade were transformed, farmers were tied to a particular market, each producing area had to deliver prescribed quotas of cattle, and a most elaborate control was set up at every stage of supply distribution. butchers’ mcat was rationed by value, not by weight. the consumer received three coupons, each entitling him to §d. worth of uncooked meat. the price of meat was elaborately controlled. all ‘‘ establishments ” of a public character, such as hotels, schools, teashops, asylums, etc., were classified, and specially treated, so that effectively their inmates or customers were on the same footing as other people. hi. conclusion the two systems contrastcd—the two types of european rationing systems are thus contrasted. in germany the essential idea was the administrative independence of.the local author- ity, which, within its limits, was jealously guarded. the whole organisation of food supply had to turn upon that which lay within the competence of the local power, namely, the actual distribution of the ration. in britain, and the countries which followed britain, the primary thought was the assurance of sup- ply, and its control. the ration was a consequence rather than an antecedent of the system. the difference is largely, but not wholly, to be explained by the economic effect on a nation at war of free access to the sea. in none of the other allicd countries was food rationing as complete or as successful as in great britain. both in france and italy the system was conditioned mainly by the allocations of the inter-allied programme committees (see control) and by the fact that the scheme was administered by local bureaucrats acting to a large extent independently, with the natural result of unco-ordinhated control and public indifference. among the neutral countries holland and sweden had the most efficient organisation, built up en german experience. rationing in these countries was due chicily to vicissitudes arising out of the allied blockade, supplies being regulated by agreement with the bellig- erent powers. united staftes—in the united states sugar and wheat flour were subjected to regulation. towards the end of 1917 the diver- sion of ships from the cuban trade made it necessary to reduce the supplies to confectioners and sweet-makers; and from july 1 1918, shipments of sugar to retailers were made on the authority of certificates issued by the food administration on the basis of the number of their customers. the restrictions placed on the sale of wheat flour were at first voluntary, but compulsory regula- tions were issued in jan. 1918. these were dictated solely by the necessity of maintaining export to the european allies. ravel—ravenstein bibliography.—bettrdge zur kriegswirtschaft (official, 40 vol., berlin, 1916, etc.); daily review of the foreign press, especially the food supplement (war office publication, london, 1917, etc.); i’. h. coller, la adventure in state trading (1925). (a. c. a.) ravel, maurice (1875- ), french musical composer, was born at ciboure, near st. jean de luz, basses-pyrenees, march 7 1875 and is the most distinctive voice in modern french music. more than that, he holds an assured place in that line of composers beginning with the clavecinistes of the 17th century, who had so powerful an influence on french instru- mental music. educated at the i'aris conservatoire, where his master in composition was gabriel faure, ravel won the second . prix de rome for composition in 1901. but he was not awarded the “f grand prix de rome,” and the judges were severely crit- icised for thus refusing to recognise his talent; the resignation of dubois from the directorship of the conservatoire was in fact attributed to this cause.| when ravel’s piano pieces began to be known, notably pavane pour une infante defunie and jeux dean, played in paris by ricardo vihes in 1902, a com- parison was made between him and debussy, whose pelleus et afelisande (opera-comique, 1902) was then arousing heated controversy. it was suggested that ravel was under the influence of the older man, but calmer retlection? showed that his technical methods were not those of debussy; and though their names were coupled as typical of an epoch, they nevertheless represent very different aspects of that epoch. it is true that such diverse minds as faure, chabrier, and erik satie® exercised an influence on ravel during his formative years, but his personality showed itself from the first. this personality became more clearly defined in his subsequent works, which included the string quartet in f, the three sch¢herazade melodies for voice and orchestra or piano (both 1904); the histotyes naturelles (1907); introduction and allegro (septet for harp, strings, flute and clarinet) and the rupsodie espagnole for orchestra (1907). for the piano he wrote afiroirs and sonatine (1905); gaspard de la nuit (3 pieces) (1909); afa alere l'ove (suite of five pieces) (1908); and valses nobles et sentimentales (igtt). the last two of these are best known in england as orchestrated by the composer. the qualities of imagination and satirical humour, combined with a vivid, and at times grotesque, sense of the picturesque are all held in poise by a clearness of vision and a sense of values and effect which are ravel’s leading characteristics. however daring ravel’s har- mony may appear, he is never experimental. ile has an unerring sense of direction and knows where he is going, even if he some- times seems to watch himself going there with a smile of amuse- ment. the cynical wit of his one-act opera, l’henure espagnole (opera-comique, 1011) and the conscious pose of the ballet daphnis ef chioe (chorcography by fokine and produced by diagphilev, 1912), emphasise in different ways the detached attitude of ravel towards his art. each work is an accomplish- ment in which he takes delight, and he satisfies himself by mas- tering each gezve in turn. as with many artists of his generation, ravel’s career was interrupted by the world war; but his subsequent works maintained, without materially adding to, his reputation. these included a sonata for violin and violon- cello and a trio for piano and strings (1922); la walse for orches- tra (1920) and tzigane (violin and orchestra). studies of ravel’s work and aims have been made by roland manuel in afaurice ravel et son oeuvre (1914) and l’oeurre de maurice ravel (1921), and by andre cocurnoy in la musigue francaise moderne (1922). (tc. cs\") ravenstein, ernst georg (1834-1913), british geog- rapher, of german origin, was born at frankfurt-on-main on dec. 30 1834, and was educated there. in 1852 he went to england, where he served in the topographical department of the war office from 1855 to 1872. his studies led mainly in the direction of the practice and history of cartography. he com- 1sce calvocoressi, afustcal times, p. 785 (dec. 1913). 2sce r. o. morris, afusic and letters, vol. 2, no. 3 p. 274 (july 1921) et seq. 3 see prud’homme, 4 dictionary of modern music and musicians, j. m. dent (1924). rawlinson—raw materials piled many original maps and atlases, bringing a fine critical faculty to bear upon the data where these were not of the first order of scientific accuracy, as in his series of eastern equa- torial africa, scale. 1:1,000,000 (1881-3), and of british east africa, 1:500,c00 (1889). one of his earliest writings was the russians on the amur (1861), but he was concerned mainly with the history of geography, as exemplified in his vasco da gama’s first voyage (1898) and murtin behaim, his life and his globe (1908). he was an active member of the royal geographical society and of the british association, over the geographical section of which he presided in 1890. he died at i[ofheim in the taunus, germany, march 16 10913. rawlinson, henry seymour rawlinson, rst baron (1864-1923), british soldier, was born feb. 20 1864, son of maj. gen. sir h. rawlinson, bart. he joined the army in 1884 and a year later became aide-de-camp to sir f. roberts in india on whose staff he served intermittently for some years. he took part in the burma operations in 1886-7 and on the nile in 1898; he had suc- ceeded to the baronetcy in 1891. he served throughout the south african war (1899-1902). some months after his return to england he became commandant of the staff college and from roto to may 1914 commanded the ard division. gen. raw- linson was in charge of the forces sent to assist antwerp in 1914, and took part in the first battles of ypres and in the neuve chapelle and the loos offensives. he commanded the iv. army during the battle of the somme (1916) achieving important suc- cesses. at the end of 1917 he was transferred temporarily to the command of the it. army during gen. plumer’s absence in italy, and in feb. and march ror8 he acted for some weeks as british representative on the supreme war council. resuming his command of the iv. army in april, his troops on aug. 8, in conjunction with the french, attacked the enemy near amiens and gained a signal victory, which heralded the general advance of the allies. after the war he was raised to the peerage as baron rawlinson of trent and received a grant of £30,000. in the latter part of 1919 he was sent to north russia to conduct the withdrawal of the allies from archangel and murman, and on his return he commanded at aldershot for a year. at the end of 1920 he went to india as commander-in-chief. he died at delhi march 28 1925 as the result of an operation for appendicitis. raw materials.—this term, borrowed from commerce, covers a variety of objects, classified with respect to their place in trade and industry, rather than with respect to their physical character. an object that may be classed with raw materials at one time may become a finished product at another, or vice versa. camphor and indigo were formerly classed as raw ma- terials in the chemical industry. since the invention of the synthetic processes for their manufacture they have come to be classed as finished products. coal tar, formerly a finished product of the distillation process, has now come to be the raw material for a great variety of chemical manufactures. an international pool—as modern industry developed in many countries after the middle of the 19th century, notably in the united states and germany, france, belgium, italy and japan, the principal raw matcrials became, as it were, an inter- national pool, distributed automatically among the consuming nations in proportions determined by what may be described in general terms as relative power of economic attraction; this power being based on a number of factors of fluctuating value, of which the chief are: (1) facilities for assembling materials in large masses; (2) facilities for distributing the manufactured product; (3) cheapness of fuel, or other sources of power, especially hydro- electric; (4) cheapness and above all efficiency of labour; (s) abundant liquid financial resources for carrying raw material stocks and finished products on their way to the consumer. old versus new countries ——the predominance of england as a market for raw materials in the first three-quarters of the roth century rested upon a relative superiority in all these factors. gradually other nations gained upon england in one factor or another; germany in fuel and labour, especially the highly trained labour of the chemical industries; the united states in fuel, particular kinds of labour, financial power; italy and 303 switzerland in hydroelectric power. in general, it may be said that the tendencies of the 50 years before the outbreak of the world war were in the direction of reducing the lead of the older industrial countries and sections in the power to attract raw materials. the disturbances of trade resulting from the war forced many countries to develop independent manu- facturing facilities, such as the cotton industries of china and of certain south american countries, with the consequence that the claimants upon the international pool of raw materials have become more numerous and more nearly on an even footing. under the regime of virtual freedom the trade in raw materials underwent an immense development. the demands of industry produced a great expansion in the production of raw materials, and this expansion, often outrunning demand, reacted upon industry and stimulated its development. science gives new resources.—in rare instances the progress of science and invention has freed industry from its dependence on the raw materials that figure in world trade. the development of aniline dyes cut severely into the trade in materials for the manufacture of vegetable dyes, and the rise in recent years of artificial silk, or rayon, has been regarded as a menace to the raw- silk industry. scientific and industrial progress has steadily increased the number of raw materials in trade and the volume consumed. the enormous increase in the consumption of pig- iron, copper, lead, tin, zinc; the rise of rubber, petroleum and aluminium industries; the extension of the paper industry, are outstanding examples of the effect of technical progress on the demand for raw materials. at the same time technical progress applied to the production of raw, materials themselves has greatly extended the range of possible sources. prior to the introduction of the flotation process in copper extraction, the minimum paying ore was about 3°43; 1°4 is profitable now. electric concentration has made available magnetic iron ores formerly regarded as too lean for working. the progress of plant-breeding is greatly extending the possibility of supplementing the limited natural production of long-staple cotton. the development of effective systems of plantation management has opened the whole tropical belt to the production of rubber, formerly confined to limited areas in the tropical forests. moreover, chemical science progresses steadily toward a stage when an increasing number of raw matcrials may be produced synthetically. increased consumption—the growth of industry and wealth has further affected the demand for raw materials by raising the standard of consumption. to this influence must be ascribed not only such striking instances as increase in the demand for raw silk, and the finer grades of wool and cotton, but also the growth in the consumption of a long array of articles of common use. the increase in the use of soap, for example, together with ad- vances in organic chemistry, have produced a demand for vast quantities of vegetable oils, ground nut, soya bean, cottonseed and palm oils. the increased purchasing power of the masses and the consequent demand for a more varied diet has produced a huge increase in the requirement of tin for preserving vege- tables, fruits and meats. the steady increase in the consump- tion of aluminium wares is another example of the effect of a rising standard of mass consumption. distribution of raw afaterials—most of the important raw materials are distributed widely over the world. hardly any considerable territory is entirely devoid of workable iron deposits, although the countries bordering on the pacific are meagrely supplied as compared with those bordering on the atlantic. cop- per deposits are almost as widely distributed; the most extensive being found in the americas. zine and lead are also widely distributed. tin in workable deposits occurs far more rarely, and a few limited areas have virtually a monopoly of it. wool, hides and skins are of universal production, but are more likely to yield a surplus for world trade where population is relatively sparse and great areas remain in pasture or forest. wood pulp comes from regions of extensive woodlands and cheap water power. rubber and the more important coarse fibres and some of the important vegetable oils are limited to the tropics. 304 murketing.—it is rarely the case that rich sources of raw materials coincide with the industrial equipment and the con- suming power requisite to their utilisation. they must, as a rule, seek distant markets, and therefore assume an important place in international trade. this trade is marked by serious fluctua- tions in both demand and supply. the production of raw materials of mineral origin is subject to shrinkage from the exhaustion of deposits and to expansion due to the discovery of new deposits. raw materials of vegetable and animal origin are subject to serious fluctuations under seasonal influences. the demand for many of these products is peculiarly responsive to the alternations of prosperity and depression in the centres of industry and population. in prosperous times the consumption of rubber in the manufacture of motor tyres is very active. copper is freely consumed in the replacement and extension of electric plants that would be left untouched in bad times. flyctuations of price —because of the wide fluctuations in the demand and supply of raw materials, rapid price fluctuations are characteristic of the whole field. in the case of raw materials that are relatively imperishable, like the textile fibres, metals and other minerals, the fluctuations are somewhat evened out by the accumulation of stocks in plethoric times, to be gradually released to trade in times of scarcity. this involves a com- plicated organisation of finance for carrying the stocks and for distributing the risks of price fluctuations. the physical aspects of the problem involve grading and storage—technically com- plicated processes, but seldom occasioning serious issues of policy. the financial aspects are more difficult, involving as they do the question of speculation. in general, it may be said that the carrying of raw material stocks is inherently speculative. where the producer holds the raw material until he can dispose of it directly to the manu- facturer, he carries the risk of price fluctuations himself. where the manufacturer accumulates large stocks for future use, the risk rests on him. if speculative markets are well developed, much of the risk may be transferred from the producer of raw materials to a specially trained body of men, whose business it is to study all the possible sources of supply and form forecasts as to the future. where such markets exist the manufacturer who makes a contract for the future delivery of goods, may safe- guard himself against fluctuations in raw material prices through buying “ futures;’? a manufacturer who is producing for the general market may safeguard himself against a fall resulting from falling prices of material by “ hedging,” or selling futures for an equivalent volume of raw material. from time to time the belief gains currency that the specula- tive markets are themselves responsible for price fluctuations in raw materials, and laws are passed for curbing their operations. while there are numcrous instances of price manipulation through “ corners,” the weight of experience seems to indicate that speculative operations which do not conform with underly- ing conditions of demand and supply are doomed, as a rule, to disaster. it also indicates that price fluctuations are most disastrous in those materials for which there is no organised spec- ulative market. ? the chicf markets.—the principal markets for dealing in raw materials are located at the financial centres that were originaily most closely related to the points of assembly and primary distribution. london has long been the predominant market for an extensive list of raw materials. alongside of the london market, independent markets are established wherever the business of handling materials becomes important. the various markets are closely interrelated. no very wide difference can long maintain itself in the prices on the london and the new york copper markets, for example. the initiative toward price changes may arise in either market; it will soon be reflected in the other. chief influence, however, rests with the market which represents the greater aggregation of trained speculative abilities combined with financial power. for this reason a market might retain its dominant position long after the immediate cause of its establishment, the concentration in the vicinity of material stocks for consumption, has disappeared. rayleigh—rays international control.—the world war brought to the atten- tion of the governments and the public the remarkable depend- ence of modern industrial countries upon the international movement of raw materials. tior the tremendous consumption of war the ordinary supplies of many raw matcrials were inade- quate. accordingly every belligerent nation adopted measures for conserving, rationing, stimulating the production or importa- tion of, or preventing the exportation of various raw materials. raw materials occupied the centre of wartime economic policy (see control). after the close of hostilities there was a flood of projects for the rationing among nations of the available stocks of raw materials, and for the working out of a permanent policy of international controls. all these projects fell to the ground because of the inherent difficulties of the problem. the world’s trade in raw materials returned for the most part to the system of automatic distribution under the principle of relative economic attractive power. but the idea of controlling raw materials in the nationalistic interest did not entirely disappear. various materials were in 1926 controlled by governments, or by private combinations un- der government auspices. among them were plantation rubber, egyptian long-staple cotton, iodine, nitrates, potash, mercury and sisal. some 20 or 30 more materials might be controlled by one government, or by a combination of two governments. the object of control is in cach case to maintain prices. while to a certain extent the maintenance of prices may be justified, any such policy of control lends itself readily to abuses, creating international friction and ill will. it is in effect a harking back to the early modern system of controlling raw materials in the supposed national interest. while it is not to be denied that in certain cases the policy of national control of raw materials may exert a perceptible effect on prices and for a limited period of time work a certain amount of mischief, in the way of fixing exorbitant prices, there are many reasons for doubting its practicability in the long run. a nation or a combination of two or three nations may appear to control the chief sources of the supply of a raw material. but the high prices offer a tremendous stimulus to the development of new sources elsewhere. the chilean nitrate monopoly, for example, is ex- posed to the remorseless progress of the technique of nitrogen fixation. the potash monopoly of the french and german producers is exposed to the progress of methods of recovering by-product potash. the plantation rubber of the east indies is exposed to the progress of rubber-planting in tropical america and africa. moreover, modern science grows more and more fertile in the development of synthetic products, or substitutes that allow the replacement of a controlled material or reduce its use to a minimum. (see coal; petroleum; rubber, etc.) bibliography.—c, gini, report on the problem of raw materials and foodstuffs: with annexes (league of nations, 1922); inter, labour office, uguete sur la production, 2 vol. (1923); j. m. keynes & r. 2b. lewis, stocks of staple commodities (london and cainbridge, icon. service. special memoranda. nos, i and vi., ay mye rayleigh, john william strutt, 3rp baron (1842- 1919), british physicist (see 22.933), died at witham, essex, june 30 1919. he was succeeded as 4th baron by his eldest son, robert john strutt (b.1875), also distinguished as a physicist and the author of numerous scientific papers in the royal soci- ety’s proceedings and elsewhere. rayon: sce artificial silk. rays.— most people are aware that the sun is the great source of energy, though probably few realise the implication of this: that they all live and move and have their being in a physical scnse entirely owing to the phenomenon of radiation. all things living, from man to the humble lichen, even the “ life ” of inanimate nature—fire and flood, tempest and waterfall— derive their animation from the same far-distant source and owe their every movement to rays. these wonderful messengers carry into every nook and cranny of our teeming-world supplies of energy, permits to continue to live, postponements from the oncoming of utter stagnation and death. do we scek other rays 305 approximate wave lengths in wave lengths in frequencies centimetres angstrom units a ss 0:0) 100.000 000000000 900 ¢00}-——0.000 000 0003 y li 7). me ee qo es [= 9) in spccosete ed in generation 25 600 000 000 000 000 000}-————\"9 000000 0012 oe eke acy emitted when atomic nucle: disintegrate. ee sree 3 octaves detection 6 140 000000 o00090 000} ——o-000 0000048 soceceeet 0-5 ——_t- as for x-rays hut more penetrating, less seen readily absorbed & generally more vigorous. . stelasetecs 1-4 j 1536 000.000 000 000.000} -——o-no0c000195 \\ beatin emitted by sudden stoppage of fast-moving electrons. 384 000 000 000 000 ooo} ——o-000 b00078 detection x-rays n materials. {c) chemical action. (d)lonisation of gases. (e)emissian | of electrons from hat bodies of the same nature as photo-electric 96 000 000 aoe can 000 0000 000 31 n effects. (f)diffracted if suitably reflected by a crystal: show no ordinary reflection or refraction. (g)penetrate all matter tac (a) photography. (b)phosphorescent effects with suitable l4 octaves 24 000000 000 <00 000} 000 001 2 ns lissa al ati severe i generation generation statotetes radiated fram very hot bodies & emitted by onisedgases. ultra- radioted frome 6 000 000 000 000 000 |_———-0-000 005 stetatstcs detection violet badies & emitted by seeatatety (o19 a)photography, (b)phosphorescent effects with rays ianised gases. g ls uitable materials. (c chemical action. octaves i, (cy d detection 1500 000 000 000 coo} 000 02 yy ieee ea es. (e) {a)produce sensation lz) ; visible 4000 of light. (e4photographg —_—_——— ee rays 375 000 000 000 000| 000008 <y8000 cia eect loctove nv souan eaoiarion seaeration gedcan be reflected & heat radictions fram hot body. refracted & diffracted by limiting wave lengths culed gratings. 94 000 000000 000} 0.000 32 \\ he i a (a)heating effects an thermo-couples & on bolometers. (b)byrise of infra-red aaetiion coo v00) 00 28 \\ =— 1 bentler 5 900.000 000 000}_———a00s ib (c) photographic effect. ial x slits (dican bevelacted i vaivocked a detaies we scone 1460 000 000 000} —————-0-0205 ee oeteteeet 6 y 4x0 366 000000 000} ————— 00819 y; camporatively coorsely ruled gratincs. 91500 000 30 0-328 yj 23 000000 oco}__—_—__.3) j generation short stop gcp discharge. oscillating triode-valve. hertzian detection . waves (a)coherer (b)spark across minute gapinresonant 17 octaves receiving circuit. (c)can be reflected, refracted & diffrocted. 5 730.000 000 “1430000 000} 21 0 u 358 000 000}—__—-33 9 ba 000 000} ———-336 22 400 00a} —__— 1342 y 5590 000}—5369 7 ectignation spork-gop discharge. oscillating trinode-valve. omi 12 b.8.c.range ————— used in 5xi0 ~f po eahicrer ey conyaision wireless 350 000}-———85 900 yy eit a then bederece 4 |w octaves 41.6, 10'°—chelmsford or measured. (by rectification, wit wit +“ duning” 87 300}___—— 343 600 y & gr aduction of audible oi telephone signals. 21800 1374 ood $460} ————-5 498 o00| generation n coit rotating in magnetic field. slow oscillations 4 ———22 ocd 000 detection corresponding to very ee (a)mcchanical. (b)electrical. (c)magnetic. long waves (d) thermal effects of alternating currents. 34! /—— 88 000 000 \\ g5|—__352 ovo cool 3-5x10'° na ge ey) \\ bid ad . hertzian waves 28 octaves approximate wave lengths in wave lengths in frequencies centimetres ngstrom units fic. 1.—diagram showing range of electromagnetic waves. 62 octaves; uniform velocity of 30,000,000,000 centimetres per second. from phases of afodern scterce. by permission of the royal socicty. 306 supplies? we kindle the log fire as the nights draw in and there leaps into life again the sunshine of by-gone summers. we delve into the earth for coal and oil to augment the parsimony of the northern climate and stumble into a civilisation of steam and gas and electricity, such as the world has not before seen. but the glow of its furnaces is again that of the sunshine when the world was young, stored by the giant tree-ferns of the carbonii- erous era, ages before there was sucha thing as man. in the last analysis the chariots of science are still harnessed to the same steeds as those that boadicea flung against the roman legions. but though unharnessed as yet and in the keeping of the future as regards their application, there are now known to theoretical science the higher powers that command and equip the chariots of the suns. radiation and life-—ia the whole economy of nature there seems to be one only door through which the prodigal outpour- ings of energy from the sun can find their way into the world of life. it is through chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of the leaves of all plants. the ordinary processes of destructive metabolism are the same as those of combustion and may be written after the manner of a chemical equation:— carbon compounds with hydrogen + oxygen= carbon dioxide + water + energy. in the presence of chlorophyll illuminated by the sun’s rays, this process is reversed and the energy of the light is stored up in the form of the carbohydrates—cellulose, starch, dextrin and sugar—produced in the tissues of the plant out of the carbon dioxide and moisture of the air. a forest in sunshine is storing energy at the rate of some 5,000 h.p. persq. m., recoverable when the timber is burnt. but this is but a minute fraction compared with that which eludes the vigilance of life. the solar radiation between latitudes 45° n. and s. of the equator corresponds on the average to 1 h.p. per 4 sq. ft., or 7,000,000 h.p. per sq. m., so that a very tiny fraction of it would suffice to do all the mechani- cal work of the world thousands of times over. actually, in practice, experimental solar radiation engines have been con- structed developing 1 h.p. per 100 sq. ft. of heating surface. rays, old and new —the subject of rays divides itself naturally into the old and the new. the older known rays are all of the one type, being electromagnetic rays travelling through empty space radially outward from their source at the uniform speed of light, 185,000 m. (or 3101 cm.) per second. some of the more recently discovered rays are of the same type as light, with either very much longer waves and lower fre- quencies—the hertzian waves—or very much shorter waves and higher frequencies—rontgen or x-rays, the y-rays of radium and the most recent of all, which may be termed millikan rays. others of the newer rays—the a- and §-rays of radioactive sub- stances and the cathode rays and positive rays of the vacuum tube, are not waves at all but radiant particles carrying an electric charge. when the radiated particle is a negative electron, as is the case for the cathode and b-rays, it generates rays of the first or wave type on impact with matter, much as a stone thrown into water generates waves in the water. the relation, however, as is so often the case with electrical phenomena, is reciprocal, and electromagnetic waves will liberate electrons from (i.e., “‘ionise ’’) the atoms of matter in their path, and these liberated electrons may, under suitable conditions, act as cathode rays. the a-rays consist of the flight of atoms of helium, carrying two positive. charges, and the only justification for calling them a-rays as well as a particles, both terms being in use, is that they are propagated radially from their source. the positive rays, similarly, are positively charged atoms, and like cathode rays generated inside vacuum tubes, they follow the lines of electric force in the tube. so for these there is not even this justification for calling them rays. the most consistent definition of the term ‘“‘ ray ” would perhaps be any carrier of physical energy across empty space, but this would include a meteor and exclude a sound wave. hlectromagnetic radiation—the whole gamut of electro- magnetic radiation is well set forth in the accompanying chart, rays prepared by the british empire exhibition committee of the royal society and reproduced here by their courtesy. the wave-length in centimetres, multiplied by the frequency, which is defined as the number of waves per sec., obviously gives the distance travelled in one sec., or velocity of the rays. as this is uniform for all electromagnetic waves, it follows that the wave- length is inversely proportional to the frequency, and if one is known the other is also. the wave-length, or distance measured from crest to crest of the wave, is usually expressed in terms of the angstrom unit (a) which is 1/t00,000,000 of a centimetre (ro® cm.). the known rays range from an estimated wave- length of 4/10,000 of an angstrom unit and a frequency of 10” to wave-lengths of many miles and frequencies of the order of 10,000. by analogy with sound, the frequency may be well ex- pressed in octaves. it is doubled in one octave, quadrupled in two, multiplied by eight in three and so on. in the chart each octave is shown of the same length from the left-hand end of excessively high frequency and very long wave-length. the numerical details are set forth in the chart so that we may con- centrate on the more important characteristics and uses of this vast range cf radiation. light.—all that the 18th century handed on to the roth was the visible region of the solar spectrum from violet to red, which is about one octave out of 62 shown in the chart, which does not include the new millikan rays at the extreme top. it would be difficult to find in science another example of a set of phe- nomena apparently so diverse being comprehended under essentially the same cause, the only difference being the fre- quency or “‘ pitch ” of the vibrations. immediately on either side of the visible spectrum are the invisible ultra-violet and infra-red rays. the former, called also the photographic or actinic rays, are chiefly responsible for the chemical, physiological and therapcutic actions of light, as in photography, the photochemical synthesis of carbohydrates by vegetation already dealt with, sunburn and the pigmentation of the negroid races, and the modern methods of health culture and treatment of ailments by sun-baths, are ight and mercury vapour lamps. the shorter wave-lengths ionise the air and make it a conductor of the electric current, and on this account they play a large part in meteorological phenomena such as the electrification of the atmosphere, the condensation into rain, thunderstorms and, indirectly, of the aurora. though in- visible, they produce powerful visible fluorescent effects in a variety of crystalline substances, notably the platinocyanides. absorption of ulira-violet light in the atmos phere.—in passing from the red end of the spectrum into the ultra-violet, a gradual and continuous change comes over the general penetrat- ing power of the rays, which is reversed when we get beyond the ultra-violet into the region of x-rays. the redness of sunrise and sunset, when the rays tangentially striking the earth have to pass the maximum thickness of air in their path, shows that the red rays are less absorbed than those of shorter wave-length. on ascending a mountain and leaving the atmosphere more and more beneath our feet, the light becomes richer and richer in ultra-violet rays. above 18,000 ft., the greater part of the atmosphere has been left behind, but long before this the well- known burning action of the sun on the skin makes itself felt. it needs something of a coarser texture than a gas like air—the suspension of liquid and solid particles which constitutes smoke, fog and cloud—to stop the visible rays. but in a fog, if the sun shows at all it is usually red. a much smaller pollution of the atmosphere by smoke than is necessary to stop the visible rays suflices completely to absorb the health-giving ultra-violet, so that it becomes of vital importance to the national health, especially in northern latitudes, to deal with the smoke problem which is one of the penalties attaching to the new coal-and-oil civilisation. sometimes, however, when there is great uniformity of size in the particles causing the fog or smoke, curious selective absorption effects occur. the writer once saw for several days together in the rockies, during forest fires of exceptional extent even for that region and which were causing an enormous amount of smoke, a pure violet sun. rays absorption of y-rays—the transparency and opacity of matter to radiations of the range dealt with in optics are highly specific properties of the substances themselves, though outside of this range in both directions these specific differences dis- appear. we think it natural that most gases are colourless and transparent, whilst most solids are opaque, and the power of the x-rays and y-rays to pass through opaque solids seems ex- traordinary. the y-rays of radium can still be detected after passing through 20 cm. (8 in.) of solid lead or liquid mercury, yet if the sun were made of pure radium not a detectable trace of the radiation would survive absorption at a height of 18,000 it. above sea-level, for the absorption of the air would there be due to the equivalent of half the total atmosphere, 7.e., 38 cm. of mercury, and this would reduce the y-rays of radium to one million-millionth (10-”)of their original value. in this region of very short wave-length the differences of transparency, so marked for substances with light, have totally disappeared and all substances absorb a homogeneous radiation of very short wave- length to the first approximation simply according to the weight of the matter in the path of the beam. in this respect ordinary light, which reaches us so abundantly from the sun through a weight of air corresponding with 76 cm. of mercury, is far more penetrating than the y-rays. the region between light and x-rays—as we proceed from the red to the far ultra-violet, air becomes less and less trans- parent until we reach a point at a wave-length of 1,700 a: when air and other gases are ionised by the light rays just as they are by x-rays and radium rays, and air becomes so opaque to the rays that further progress in their investigation can only be pursued in a vacuum. ordinary glass is opaque to waves shorter than 3,500 and longer than 30,000 a., whereas quartz will transmit between 1,800 and 70,000 and fluorite between 1,000 and 95,000 angstrom units. for the investigation of the schumann and lyman rays, which lic between 1,700 and 500 ., not only is a vacuum essential but also specially sensitised plates containing hardly any gelatin which is strongly opaque. the necessity for totally excluding the air beyond this range makes it exceedingly difficult to excite the spectrum, because the electric discharge will not ordinarily pass through a perfect vacuum. under these circumstances, millikan in 1920 succeeded in reaching 200 a. in the spectrum of nickel by the use of very powerful short sparks, which produced also x-rays. so that the gap between light and the x-rays may be regarded as bridged (see spectroscopy). we are here approaching the maximum opacity of gases where the wave-length is diminishing to molec- ular magnitude and the frequency increasing to that of the natural periods of vibration of the electrons in the individual molecules and atoms. the x-rays are generated by the collision of high-speed cathode rays with platinum, tungsten or other heavy metal targets in a vacuum, in the well-known x-ray tube. tor these x-rays the penetrating power, not only for gases and transparent sub- stances, but for all substances increases rapidly as the wave- length decreases, right up to the shortest wave-lengths known. the reaction between the electrical and optical projections of matier.—for any substance to be transparent it must be an insu- lator. the absorption of the waves is due to their communicating their energy to the electrons in matter and if these are free from, or only loosely associated with, the atoms the substance will conduct electricity. a gold-leaf which is so excessively thin that it will transmit green light becomes quite transparent by anneal- ing and then loses its power to conduct an electric current. air is rendered a conductor by schumann rays and so is opaque to them. ebonite, a splendid electrical insulator, is practically transparent to all rays of longer wave-length than the visible, and acts as an almost perfect filter of the dark heat or infra-red rays from light. it is indeed just transparent to the extreme red, as may be tried by looking at the sun through a very thin ebonite sheet, when it will be distinctly seen as a deep red ball. the writer noticed this in testing the light-tightness of a photo- graphic shutter, of all things in the world, the leaves of which were made of this material, and so ran to earth the cause of a suc- 397] cession of mysterious failures with his camera when isochromatic plates were employed! in modern thought the chemical and physical activity of light coming into evidence in photography and fluorescence are traced primarily to the ionising action of the rays and to the electrons temporarily ‘‘ jerked out ” of the atoms and molecules of matter by the passage among them of waves of light in tune with their natural periods. dark-heat rays.—in the infra-red region, rock salt is by far the most transparent optical material, and the spectrum can readily be explored by photography up to 10,000 a., using plates sensitised with dicyanin. beyond this they must be investigated by their thermal effects, usually by some adaptation of the thermopile which converts the heat into electric energy. the very shortest hertzian waves which can be electrically generated have a wave-length of about 2 mm. (20,000,000 a.) but heat waves as long as o-3 mm. have been detected in the radiation from the welsbach gas-mantle, so that the gap here also is prac- tically bridged. quartz refracts these very long waves far more strongly than the others, and by the simple plan (termed “ focal isolation ”’) of passing the rays through a quartz lens furnished with a central circular disk of black paper, the long waves may be brought to a focus under conditions that leave the others di- vergent, the device acting as a perfect filter for this extreme heat radiation. wood, to whom, with rubens, this is due, made the further very interesting observation that a “ dew ” of mercury globules of diameter from o-o1 to 0-03 mm., condensed on a quartz surface from the vapour, though opaque to ght and or- dinary heat waves, will still transmit the longest waves of all. wave-length and molecular magnitude —this is a good ex- ample of how the behaviour of matter to radiation is dominated largely by the condition whether or not it is “in tune ” with the rays. we get the most interesting results when the order of fine- ness of the material structure corresponds with the wave-length. the ruby glass of the photographer owes its beautiful pure red tint to the merest trace of metallic gold, the particles of which are of such a size as to resonate with red light but to damp out and destroy other frequencies. in microscopy this consideration is again of the utmost importance, for the resolving power of lenses is properly expressed in terms of the wave-length of the light employed. to get higher resolving power than is at present possible—as an example, to reveal the still sub-microscopic world wherein it is suspected reside the bacterial agents responsi- ble for many discases that baffle the physician—the only possible line of further improvement of the existing methods is by work- ing entirely by photography in the far ultra-violet region, with objectives compounded for use with these short wave-lengths. the limit of resolvability with visible light has been already reached. | some apblications—by photographing the lunar surface through screens capable of transmitting only yellow, violet and ultra-violet light respectively a sort of lunar survey by colour has been attempted. it revealed a remarkable deposit round one oi the craters, aristarchus, which in all probability is due to sulphur, screens transmitting ultra-violet light with hardly any of the visible rays produce the most revealing effects on the human countenance, distinguishing instantly false teeth from real and skin from cosmetics by their different fluorescent power. under radiations of short wave-lengths including the x-rays and y-rays, many natural gems, such as the diamond, shine brilliantly by fluorescence, whilst imitations remain dark, and this simple test serves to distinguish the false from the true. the laws of radiation.—the most important laws concerning radiation are those connecting the quantity and quality of radia- tion with the temperature of the radiator. they are strictly true only for perfect radiators or “ black bodies,’”’ but are applicable under certain conditions to all bodies: for example, when they are heated in a closed furnace and their radiation examined through asmall hole in the wall. stefan’s law states that the total quantity of energy radiated freely to outer space by a body is proportional to the fourth power of the absclute temperature. wien’s displacement law states that as the temperature increases, the region of maximum radiation shifts along the spectrum from 308 longer to shorter wave-length, the maximum energy is radiated at a wave-length which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, and the quantity of energy radiated at this maximum is proportional to the fifth power of the absolute temperature. the latter law states in exact form the familiar fact that a body when treated first glows red, and that as its temperature is in- creased the colour changes through yellow ultimately to white. below red heat, the maximum of energy emission occurs in the infra-red region, and the hotter the body the further is the maxt- mum displaced towards the violet. in this way the surface tem- peratures of the sun and stars have been estimated. the red stars, like betelgcuse, are comparatively cool with a temperature of about 3,000°c., which is about that of the carbon arc, the highest attainable on the earth, whilst blue-white stars like sirius have temperatures at least four and perhaps to times as great. the surface temperature of the sun is estimated at about 6,000° c.., and the maximum of energy emission at this temperature occurs at the yellow-green. it is probably by no means mere coincidence that this is also the most vivid colour, in the sense that light energy of this colour is perceived by the eye in smaller amount than that of any other. probably the eye has adapted itself through the ages to make the most of that which there is most of in the sunlight. if so, and in the course of time the sun cools, people, if any were still alive, would see red most vividly. our violet would have faded out and become ultra-violet, and our infra-red heat rays would have become visible as light. -. the structure of afatier—to understand the mode in which electromagnetic radiation originates it is necessary to be ac- quainted with the modern theories of the nature of matter. matter is regarded as intrinsically positively charged, 7.e., it carries a positive charge of electricity as an essential quality. in the neutral atom, this charge is exactly neutralised by a corre- sponding number of separate electrons or atoms of negative electricity. the atom is regarded as a miniature solar system with a positive material nucleus as the sun and the individual electrons as planets. the number of units of positive electricity on the nucleus and the number of revolving electrons both differ by unity in passing from one element of the periodic table to the next. this number is called the atomic number, or moseley number, after the brilliant young oxford physicist who fell at gallipoli shortly after his researches on the characteristic x-rays of the elements, from which this conclusion was drawn. the atomic or moseley number is one for hydrogen, two for helium, three for lithium and so on through the periodic table of the elements up to uranium, the last and: 92nd, for which it 1s 92. but these numbers really represent the net positive charge of the nucleus, the difference between its gross positive charge and a smaller number of nuclear electrons, for all atomic nuclei except hydrogen contain some electrons. the hydrogen nucleus is re- garded as the pure positive sub- constituent of all matter, and is called sometimes the ‘‘proton.”” when for two atoms the nett charge is the same, but the gross charges (positive minws nega- tive) different, we get elements identical in chemical character but of different atomic weight, called isotopes (q.z.). so far as wave radiation is concerned, we deal with the electrons external to the nucleus, but the 8-rays of radioactive substances are elec- {rons ejected from the nucleus of the atom. the external elec- trons are regarded as arranged in sets of “ shells ” at different “levels ” or distances from the nucleus, whilst the odd ones over are the outermost of all and are relatively far removed from the central nucleus. they are called the valency electrons, as it is they alone that confer on the atom its chemical aflinities or valencies. the others constitute with the nucleus a more self- satisfied economy, which, however, entirely controls the con- figuration of the outer electrons and therefore the chemical character of the atom. the most complex elements, jike ura- nium with 88 “ shell ’? electrons and four valency electrons, are regarded as having many shells, called as we go outward the k, l, m ... shells, whilst the lightest element with a complete shell, helium, has only the k shell. the origin of radiation. —electromagnetic radiation arises whenever an electron alters its previous mode of coexistence with rays matter sufficiently abruptly. beyond the range of frequency even of the longest hertzian waves, with wave-lengths of many miles and frequencies of the order of 10,000, we come to the frequencies of the ordinary alternating electric current of com- merce, given by a dynamo, and ranging from 15 to 100 or so a second. in the conductors carrying such a current the electrons | are surging back and forth at these low frequencies, but the motion is too leisurely to excite any external radiation. besides, the wave-length for a frequency of 15 would be 15 times the earth’s diameter. hertzian waves —in the spark that occurs when a condenser or leyden jar js discharged, or in the lightning flash, alternating currents of precisely the same kind, but with the frequency of the order of a million are sect up. the frequency is completely con- trolled by the resistance, self-induction and capacity of the oscil- lating circuit. the electrons surging backward and forward through the circuit set up waves of their own period, which carry outward through space some of the energy of the electric current as hertzian waves. in general the smaller the dimensions of the oscillating circuit, the higher the frequency and the shorter the wave-length. as we pass along the gamut, beginning with this artificially excited surging, through the aerial and antennae of a transmitting station, to the infra-red rays, we pass to the natural motions of the electrons in the molecules of matter at their own proper periods, which are excited by heat. spectrum lines.—at first there is probably no very close con- nection between the vibrating electrons and the individual atoms and molecules. as in the transmission of the ordinary electric current, the electrons concerned in producing radiant heat are probably those associated loosely with aggregates of matter rather than with single atoms and molecules. but the higher frequencies result from the constituent electrons of the individual atoms of matter moving with their natural periods around the nucleus in definite orbits, each orbit giving a sharp line in the spectrum (q.v.) of the element. the break between ultra- violet light and the x-rays occurs at the valency electrons, opti- cal spectra result from the outermost electrons, and x-ray spectra from one or other of the inner completed shells. the actual emission of radiation is depicted as due to the “* falling in ” of an electron towards the nucleus, after some previ- ous disturbance has ejected it. in the series spectra in which the lines of the series are mathematically related, which line of the series is emitted depends upon which of many possible orbits the falling electron ends up at. there are for each electron a large number of possible ‘f non-radiating ”’ orbits in any one of which it may revolve indefinitely without radiating energy, if undis- turbed, but if it falls from an outer to an inner orbit, the atomic system as a whole loses energy, which is emitted as radiation. the frequency is a function of the amount of energy so lost (see quantum theory). different types of spectra—should the initial disturbance which precedes the emission of radiation eject the electron alto- gether from the sphere of influence of the parent atom the latter is ionised; that is, it becomes a positive ion, and the electron, if it has sufficient velocity, may come into evidence as the cathode- ray. without going too far into the details, we may broadly re- gard the emission of radiation as accompanying in general the reunion of electron and positive ion. not only one, but two, three or even four of the valency electrons may be ejected from an atom and the positive ion may be singly, doubly, trebly or quadruply charged. this gives the explanation of the fact that certain elements give different spectra according to the mode of excitation, whether by heat as in the flame or electric arc, or by electrical agencies as in the electric spark. it has been ascer- tained that the arc spectrum signalises the union of the electron with the singly charged, or as the chemist would say, monovalent, positive ion, to yicld the neutral atom, whereas the spark spectra signify that a multiply charged or polyvalent ion has united with an electron to form a positive ion with one charge less than be- fore. these phenomena are the spectroscopic equivalent of the changes with which the chemist is familiar in the reactions of rays salts, bases and acids, as distinct from those of organic com- pounds and other non-electrolytes, or non-ionised substances. ferrous iron, fet*, resembles magnesium, mg*t,in its chemistry, whereas ferric iron, fet*++, resembles aluminium, al*++t, the element next to magnesium in the periodic table. so the spark spectrum of a metal, whilst totally different from the spark spectrum of the same metal, often bears a very close resem- blance in its series relationships to the arc spectrum of the metal next preceding it in the periodic table. the spark spectrum of magnesium, due to the change mgt+—me_t, is analogous to the arc spectrum of sodium, due to the change na*—-na. sodium, magnesium, aluminium and silicon are successive elements in the periodic table. so we find aluminium giving, in addition to the are spectrum, two spark spectra due to the changes al*+t+t—al*+ and al*+—al‘, the first of which is analogous to the are spec- trum of sodium and the spark spectrum of magnesium, and the second to the arc spectrum of magnesium. similarly, silicon, in addition to its arc spectrum, possesses three spark spectra (1) sit+++—sitt*+, analogous to the arc spectrum of sodium, the spark spectrum of magnesium, and the second spark spectrum of aluminium, (2) sit*+->si'+, analogous to the arc spectrum of magnesium and the first spark spectrum of aluminium, and (3) sitt— sit analogous to the arc spectrum of aluminium. stellar spectra.—in some of the hotter stars the sparks or, as they are sometimes called, the enhanced lines, are found un- accompanied by the arc lines of the element. this is never the case for artificially generated spectra. norman lockyer ascribed their origin to veritable transmutations of the elements into simpler “ proto-clements ”? due to the intensely high tempera- tures. we now know that they are of electrical rather than thermal origin, and are due to precisely the same changes as we are familiar with in the chemistry of elements capable of acting with more than one valency. x-ray spectra.—in the x-ray spectra the inner shells of elec- trons are concerned, and although these correspond with changes of a deeper character than chemical—the material counterpart of which remains unknown—yet even these are not transmuta- tional. these spectra are characterised by relatively great sim- plicity. a beam of x-rays is diffracted by a crystal. the regular spacing of the atoms in the crystal is of the same order of magni- tude as the wave-length of the x-rays and several thousand times finer than the finest diffraction gratings ruled by the divid- ing engine, which are used 1o produce optical spectra. the production of x-rays is, like that of hertzian waves, an arti- ficial rather than a natural process. the electron ejected from the cathode of a vacuum tube under high electric potentials acquires great speed and becomes the cathode-ray (the radiant matter of sir w. crookes). if speedy enough, it can penetrate into the deep- er electronic orbits and ionise the atoms in its path. if it dis- turbs the deepest level of all, an x-ray of the k series is gen- erated. these are of the highest frequency and shortest wave- length, and consist for each element of a pair of doublets, one strong and one weak, which alter their frequency with the utmost regularity in passing from element to element in the periodic table (moseley’s law). so that the wave-length may be calculated for any element even if the clement is not known, and in this way several new elements, notably hafnium, have recently been dis- covered. what has happened is that we are now so near the nucleus that its + charge, altering integrally from element to element, alone controls the periodicity of the k electrons. the outer ll, m, n levels neutralise one another’s effects, much for the same reason as that there is no effect of an external charge in- side a hollow closed conductor. the l, m, n scries of x-ray spectra arc not so simple as the k series, but they are still sim- plicity itself compared with optical spectra. they are excited by electrons of far less velocity than the k series and require for their generation only moderate voltages. but it 1s impossible to generate artificially the k series of the heaviest elements, 7.c., to impress on the electron sufficient energy to carry it beyond the l level. fortunately, here nature comes to our aid. the penetrating -y-rays of the radioactive substances are the k series of the heaviest elements. 309 as we pass outward from the k to the n series, the x-rays be- come of increasing wave-length and decreasing frequency and penetrating power, until progress can only be further made by working in a complete vacuum as for the shortest ultra-violet rays owing to the absorption of the air. the rays of radioactive substances —in the other direction, when we pass the k level and enter the “ holy of holies ” of the atom—the atomic nucleus—we come to the region of radio- active phenomena. yrom the artificial hertz waves to natural heat and light rays we passed on to the artificial x-rays, but now we are back again to a natural process—withal a recently dis- covered one—confined to the last and most complex elements of the periodic table. so far it has proved itself one which our ut- most electrical potentials are quite unable to imitate or affect in the slightest degree. radioactivity is essentially a nuclear ex- plosion, in which either a 8 or an a particle is violently expelled, the former at speeds ranging nearly up to that of light and the latter at speeds between 1/14th and r/20th of light. as the 8 particle rushes outwards from the nucleus it may play havoc even with the kk economy, which in the most complex elements is too deep to be disturbed by any available artificial agency. the most penetrating y-rays are emitted as these k electrons resume their orbits, but there are also other and less penetrating types of y-rays emiited, corresponding with the l and possibly other orbits. medical uses —on account of their unique penetrating power and powerful ‘ burning ” therapeutic action, the x-rays and y- rays are employed—quite apart from the well-known application of the former to surgical diagnosis—as medical agents especially in the treatment of deep-seated cancers. it appears that young and developing cells especially are most sensitive to and easily destroyed by these agents and this explains their use in this field and also their alleged action in producing sterility both in the male and female. in america, especially, the technique of radium therapy has been ingeniously developed as an accessory in the surgical treatment of cancer. the radium emanation, which is the first gascous product of the disintegration of radium—the y-rays being emitted in the fourth change—is sealed up in capil- lary glass—or more recently gold—iubes, capable of being in- serted by a surgical needle into the growing periphery of the cancer, after the excision of the main growth. the tubes, hardly thicker than a hair, are left in place. the radium emanation decays jn the course of a few days, whilst the original radium from which it was derived generates a fresh crop for use again. this treatment has its legitimate niche in therapeutics, but it has been grossly exploited to augment the market price of radium. the most penetrating x-rays it is possible to produce by the most powerful appliances are only one-twentieth as penetrating as the most penetrating y-rays, being quite undetachable after passage through 1 cm. (3¢ ths of an inch) of lead and for all practi- cal purposes completely absorbed by 4 millimetres. they belong to the l series of tungsten, platinum or iridium, according to the metal used for the anticathode of the x-ray bulb. on the other hand, in regard to intensity or quantity of energy, the y-rays cannot be compared with the x-rays. the output of power from an ordinary x-ray tube is vastly greater than from any quantity of radium normally obtainable. as in so many other cases, the problem in the use of these agents in medicine is to adjust their strength to the correct quantity to inflict the greatest damage on diseased tissue with the least to the healthy tissue. the a-rays.—the a-rays of radioactive substances, our knowl- edge of which is mainly due to the long and brilliant series of researches upon them by sir ernest rutherford, can only be mentioned incidentally as they are sufiiciently important to deserve separate treatment. though possessing by far the greater part of the total energy radiated by the raclioactive substances they are of relatively slight penetration, being stopped by a few centimetres of air. indeed it is a new and most significant phe- nomenon to find atoms of matter capable of passing through matter at ali, but, like the other rays, they are stopped by matter irrespec- tive of its chemical or optical nature, and mainly according to the weight in the path of the beam, they are exceptional in that 310 they have a very definite range, depending only on their velocity, which causes them to continue in unchanged numbers during absorption and suddenly to stop all together. this is well seen in the microscopic halos, called pleochroic halos, sometimes en- countered in clear mica. the a-rays have the power of darken- ing mica, and these halos surround infinitesimal specks of radio- active materials in the mica. under the microscope they are seen to be perfectly sphcrical, of diameter o-o3 mm. in the case of the uranium halos and 0.04 mm. for those due to thorium, and they often possess a clear structure consisting of a number of concentric rings, the diameters of which correspond to the ranges of the various a-rays involved. the mica has, through the ages, integrated and recorded in minute detail the properties of the a-rays from quantities of material too infinitesimal to be detected even by the most delicate direct radioactive tests. similarly, the a-tays possess a definite though minute range of penetration in glass, very similar to that in mica, and capillary glass tubes can be drawn so excessively thin in the wall as to allow the a particles to go through. such tubes are completely impervious to ordinary gases, but if filled with radium emanation which emits a-rays aclinm is produced outside the tube in quantity sufficient to be detected by the spectroscope. this constituted the final step in the long chain of proof that the a-rays are radiant helium nuclei, z.e., helium atoms shorn of their 2 k electrons, and each carrying therefore two positive charges. the exploration of the atom by a-rays.—the central nucleus of the atom was originally put into evidence by a careful examina- tion of the trajectories of the a particles during their passage through matter. like errant suns invading other solar systems, it is only rarely that they make a full head-on collision with the centre of the atomic solar system invaded. ‘they scatter the electrons in their way almost as though they were not there, but a minute proportion of the impinging a particles are turned abrupt- ly out of their paths and may even be returned the way they came. these are the ones which have passed sufficiently near to the central nucleus of the atom collided with, to be sensibly de- flected from their headlong path. in some cases it has been established that the nucleus struck by the a particle suffers actual disruption, a hydrogen nucleus being detached from it and going off as a separate “ h-particle,” having similar properties to the original particle. this constitutes a secondary transmutation consequent on the natural one of the radioactive substance itself. artificial transmutation.—to drive the positively charged helium nucleus up against the very highly positive charged nu- cleus of a heavy atom demands great energy, whereas a negatively charged 8 particle or cathode ray, provided it has sufficient energy to overcome the repulsion of the cloud of electrons sur- rounding the nucleus of an atom, will, once it has got through them, tend to rush into the nucleus. if it stayed there, the atom struck would itself be transmuted into an atom of the element preceding it in the periodic table; for example, lead into thallium, thallium into mercury or mercury into gold. in the radioactive change in which a @ particle is expelled from the nucleus we have the exact converse. the atom from which the # particle is ejected constitutes an atom of the element succeeding the original in the periodic table. its atomic number has been increased by one by the loss of a negative charge, and therefore the element moves up one place in the periodic system. in the a-ray change, in which the atomic nucleus loses two positive charges, the ele- ment moves down two places. for example, from uranium we get - an isotope of thorium, and from thorium an isotope of radium. altogether apart from theory, miethe of charlottenburg has recently claimed to have efiected an infinitesimal transmutation of mercury into gold, by its use in the mercury vapour lamp and in the turbine interrupters employed with x-ray coils. since then (1926) smits and karrsen of amsterdam, using a lamp with molten lead instead of mercury, have obtained the clearest spec- troscopic evidence of the production of mercury, and to a lesser extent thallium, in the process. these results, if established by further experiments, constitute the first clear achievement of an artificial transmutation process. they are quite in keeping with modern ideas of atomic structure, always on the assumption rays that the actual proportion of element so transmuted is excessively minute. it is only the infinitesimal proportion of the impinging rays accurately aligned upon the minute central nucleus that can be effective. in rutherford’s experiments with the a particle, it was estimated that only 10 in a million million of the collisions in the most favourable cases effected the disruption of the nucleus. millikan rays.—lit has been known since 1903 that the atmos- phere was traversed by very penetrating rays similar to those given by radium but extremely fecble in intensity, and it was natural to attribute these to the small amount of radium, (q.v.) billionths of the whole, known to be present in rocks and other materials of the earth’s crust. no doubt part of the effect is due to this cause. but in 1912-4 gockel and other german physicists, investigating this penetrating radiation in the atmosphere from balloons, made the remarkable discovery that it increased on ascending, slowly at first but rapidly above 10,000 feet. millikan, in the united states, sent up recording instruments in balloons to the height of 10 m. and, though he confirmed the increase, found that it was much too small to be explained by ordinary y-rays reaching the earth from outer space. he then sunk his instruments in the deep lakes fed with pure glacier water found at high altitudes in the rockies and (1925) completely estab- lished the existence of an entirely new radiation reaching the carth from the outside, capable of penetrating 68 ft. of water, or over 6 it. of lead, before being completely absorbed. ‘the whole thickness of the atmosphere, though it would much enieeble a radiation of this penetrating power, would not completely stop it. the intensity of this new cosmical radiation is not affected by day or night, so that it does not come from the sun, and most of the ordinary y-like radiation of the atmosphere appears to be a secondary result of this new radiation being scattered and trans- formed in passing through the air. the new rays are about as much more penetrating than the most penctrating radium -rays as the latter are with reference to the most penetrating x-rays, and their wave-length is estimated at 0o-o004 angstrom unit. by their discovery some 4} octaves are added to the ‘extreme top of those shown in the chart. the origin of radiant encrgy.—their existence gives weight to some very far-reaching cosmogonical speculations to account for the primary source of cosmical energy which have recently been put forward by jeans. the quantity of energy that the sun and stars appear to be perennially pouring out is so great that no known process, not even radioactivity, can account for it. it must, however, be remembered that there is no actual proof that radiation is really propagated uniformly in all direc- tions. of recent years there has been a tendency to believe that this may be an illusion due to our being completely surrounded by matter, the air above and the earth beneath. an alternative view that has been gaining ground during the present century is that radiation can only travel along lines or tubes joining separated portions of matter. if this, just possible, point of view should prevail there would then be no great difficulty in account- ing for cosmical energy. if the sun only radiated to the earth and other worlds surrounding it, the emission of energy would be only a tiny fraction of what it must be if it is radiating to an equal extent in all directions of space. however that may be, jeans has supposed that the primary source of cosmical energy is a veritable annihilation of matter. the doctrine of relativity points to an equivalence between energy and matter, and blends the twin laws of conservation into one. matter is conserved when energy is, and energy is con- served when matter is, but the real relation is that the sum of matter and energy is conserved, though matter may be trans- formed into energy and energy into matter at a definite exchange ratio. according to this theory, the annihilation of matter would result in the appearance of energy equal to that possessed by twice the mass annihilated moving with the speed of light. thus from a very minute amount of matter an almost incredible amount of energy would be generated. in all the processes we have considered, proton and electron maintain their separate identities, though powerfully attracting one another, by actions identical in type with those which keep rea—reading apart satellites from planets and planets from suns in cosmical systems. whereas if proton and electron fell into one another so that their opposite charges neutralised each other, there would in all probability be nothing but the energy of the system left, and this, from analogy with the known cases of electromagnetic radiation, would be radiated outward, at a very high frequency corresponding with the colossal quantity of energy involved. the estimated wave-length and frequency of the millikan rays is just about of the order to be expected from the actual falling in of an electron into a proton, and for the total annihilation of the mass by transformation into radiant energy. this gives this otherwise extremely speculative and bold theory greater im- portance. such a process would satisfy the demands of the cos- mogonist for energy over almost infinite periods of time. it may be taking place in some stages of the evolution of stars. that it cannot be a complete explanation in itself seems to be indicated by the fact that our sun at jeast does not appear to be emitting these new radiations. so science is advancing into ever wider horizons and the 2oth century bids fair to hand over to its suc- cessor realms as vastly greater than it received as were the realms the 19th handed on to us. see also astronomy; atom; atomic wricnts; caxncer rr- search; cuwemistry; crystallography; gases, electrical properties of; heat; isctopes; matrrer; microscory; pioarogc- raphy; puysics; pustic h&alutin; quaxrum tnkory; rapio- activity; radio-therapy; rabrum; smoke prevention; solar energy; spectroscopy ; spectrum; transmutation of elements. bibliography.—a. ei. gibson, natural sources of energy (1913); e. fournier d’albe, the /tlectron theory (1918); s. p. thompson, sight, visible and fivistole (1919); h, a. kramers and h. holst, the atom and the bohr theory of its structure (1923); j. a. crowther, fons, electrons and jonising raditations (1924); articles on ‘‘ cos- mogony ” and “‘ physics and chemistry ” in evolution in the light of modern knowledge, a collective work (1925). (f.s.*) rea, samuel (1855- ) american railway official, was born at hollidaysburg, pa., sept 21 1855. in 1871 he worked for the pennsylvania railway as chain and rod man. trom 1875 to 1877 he was assistant engineer on construction of the monongahela river bridge at pittsburgh. he was next appointed assistant construction engineer for the pittsburgh and lake erie, returning to the pennsylvania lines in 1879. in 1880 he joined the baltimore and ohio, being chief engineer for construction of the belt-line tunnel under baltimore. in 1892 he was appointed an assistant to the president of the pennsylvania railway, rising through the various grades to first vice-president in rorr. in 1913 he was elected president. he was in charge of the construc- tion of the pennsylvania station in new york city (completed in rot), the connecting tunnel under the hudson river, the new york connecting railway, and hell gate bridge over the east river (opened in 1917). in 1917 he became a member of the special commission on national defence of the railroads war board. he was director of the department of railroads, electric railways, highways and waterways of the committee of public safety of pennsylvania. in 1918, when the railways were taken over by the government as a war measure, he was replaced as operating head of his road, but remained in charge of its cor- porate affairs. he retired from the presidency of the railway sept. 1925. he was the author of the railways terminating in london (1888). reading, rufus daniel isaacs, ist marquess of (1860- __+), british statesman, was born in london oct. 10 1860, the second son of joseph isaacs, merchant of the city of london. we was educated at university college school, london, and abroad. this education was truncated by his adventurous spirit, which caused him to run away to sea at the age of 14 and to serve for two years before the mast in a sailing ship; and it was as ship’s boy scrubbing the deck that he first saw india where he afterwards ruled as viceroy. he entered subsequently the commercial world on the stock exchange, but here also his adventurous spirit resulted in complete failure. undaunted by these early disasters he proceeded to read for the bar, was called in 1887 and became a bencher of the middle temple in 1904. in 1887 he married miss alice cohen. his legal career was one of unbroken and immediate success, through indefatigable ati capacity for work, great personal popularity and a method of advocacy which relied on quickness and subtlety of intellect and enormous tenacity of memory. perhaps the most sensational of his cases was the prosecution of whittaker wright for fraud, which was followed by the defendant’s suicide, after a conviction obtained despite the published and declared opinion of the law officers of the crown that no prosecution had any chance of success. ile rose by a succession of triumphs to the position of the most distinguished advocate and verdict getter of his generation. ile entered parliament as a liberal imperialist, winning a seat for his party at reading in a bye election in 1904, a seat which he retained in numerous successive elections until he was trans- ferred to the house of lords. in political oratory, although an cifective speaker in the country, he failed, as so many great lawyers have failed, to impress the house of commons; being far more inclined to address his opponents as a jury with a view to their conversion than to stimulate enthusiasm for the policy of his own party. from the beginning, however, his extraor- dinary power of sane judgment was recognised, even belore his appointment as attorney general in rgr10; and the high regard entertained for him by the leaders of the liberal party was openly recognised, in defiance of all precedents, by the giving to him of aseat inthe cabinet in june 1912, while he held that office. ifis career of unbroken success was clouded for a time by a fierce and bitter attack upon him for having purchased from his brother some shares in the american marconi company at a time when the british marconi company was making a con- tract with the british government; and as he had sold a few of these shares to the chancellor of the exchequer, mr. lloyd george, he had to bear the brunt of an onslaught concerning a transaction in which he had been merely careless, stimulated in the main by anti-semitic prejudice and by partisan efforts to destroy the reputation of mr. lloyd george. after nearly a year, however, of heated deliberations by a committce of the house of commons and violent attack and abuse, his honour was decisively vindicated by the verdict of the committee which was endorsed by parliament, and a few months later (oct. 20 1913) he was raised to the position of lord chief justice of england, and a short time afterwards was created baron reading of erleigh. as attorney general he only once personally undertook prosecution for murder (in the seddon poisoning case) and al- though he obtained a verdict with his usual ability in this historic criminal trial, he consistently refused to undertake such work again. he distinguished himself mainly in his high judicial office by humanity in the conduct of criminal cases, and by the deliberate establishment of the principle that the court of crimina) appea) should act as a real court of revision, upsetting verdicts or re- ducing sentences even of the individual high court judges. the most historical of the trials over which he presided occurred during the world war. this was his trial of sir roger casement for treason in connection with the irish rebellion, in which he exhibited, with the granting of every kind of opportunity to the advocates of the prisoner in a political trial, an historical example of the dignity and impartiality of british justice in face of an outburst of national feeling. after the outbreak of the war in aug. 1914 the government utilised his soundness of judgment and knowledge of finance in matters altogether apart from the high court of justice. he as- sisted the bankers in the drafting and the administration of those measures which saved england from financial and in consequence economic ruin. the most sensational of these was the granting of the british guarantce to the great accepting houses, to bijls amounting to many hundred millions of pounds, without which neither food nor munitions could have been moved from their foreign places of origin to this country. this bold and daring measure not only saved britain from starvation riots and the great firms of the city of london from bankruptcy, it also resulted in the end in the government losing nothing by the transaction. 312 in the next two years, lord reading was occupied in the inner councils of the government, especially on all questions connected with finance, and in endeavours to reconcile the growing friction between various parties in the cabinet and between the cabinet and the great newspapers outside. in 1915 he was president of the anglo-i'rench loan commission to the united states, where he won universal popularity and succeeded in accomplishing the most difficult of all tasks, the flotation of a great war loan in america, which was at that time less sympathetic to the allies than at any other time during the war. on june 26 1916 he was created viscount reading of erleigh. his efforts at conciliation and sympathetic action failed, however, to prevent the breaking up of the coalition government of 1916. but the newly-formed administration under mr. lloyd george was not so foolish as to leave unutilised his extraordinary capacity for sound judgment, placating opposition and manipulating the minds of men towards decisions vital to the welfare of his country. in 1917 he was appointed high commissioner and _ special envoy to the united states, perhaps the most important posi- tion for winning success in the world war, and in dec. of that year was created an earl. in 1918 he was appointed high commissioner and special ambassador at washington. — it would be difficult to overestimate the services rendered on so critical an occasion by that capacity of judgment which distinguished his whole public career, combined with serenity of temper, impersonal devotion to the public welfare, and a charm which created innumerable friendships and persuaded men to modify their preconceived notions and to endeavour to fall in with his desires. it was obvious that these quali- ties were exactly those demanded on the war’s conclusion, in the troubled and unhealthy state of india, which had been created partly by prolonged development of resentment against the absolute dictatorship of british rule, and partly by the reverberations of the war. in a condition which was highly disturbed, the appointment of the earl of, reading to the office of viceroy and governor general of india was acclaimed by men of all parties as an appointment of the man most qualified of all living statesmen to reduce the chaos and discontent to some method of loyalty, order and peace. lord reading’s term as viceroy and governor general of india marked an epoch in the history of that imperial continent. he was faced immediately by four almost insoluble problems. first the diarchy system of the montagu-chelmsford govt. of india act devised as a step in advance towards complete self-government, was definitely rejected by the leaders of the united hindu and mahommedan educated population, who in the movement known as swaraj had resolved to make it un- workable. the second was the influence of mahatma gandhi, one of the most remarkable men of all time, who had inflamed millions of indians to a boycott of the west by the east anda kind of gigantic movement of passive resistance, in which both english products and english govt. were to be alike re- jected. the third was that the national temper of india had been aroused by prohibitions and indignities put upon indians in other parts of the empire. the fourth, the ghastly story of the punjab rebellion and the slaughter at amritsar in roro, with the support of general dycr’s action there by the governing classes in england had excited a feeling of such fierce resentment throughout the length and breadth of the peninsula as might well have caused a gencral uprising. formerly, as the new viceroy said to a friend, the disaffection was confined to the articulate classes. amritsar spread it among the villagers and peasants. one may add to this, the general impoverishment created by the vast war expenditure and by the enormous fluctuations in currency reflected in india from similar changes in the world of international affairs. lord reading set himself, with patience, flexibility and loyalty to india which he had been called upon to represent, to endeavour to alleviate these sources of discontent. in dealing with the revolt against the diarchy, he found himself compelled to imprison the two mahommedan leaders, the brothers ali. and although he was able before the end to establish some kind reading of self-government in most of the local provinces and even something like friendly co-operation in the central legislative council the constitution broke down in the central provinces and had to be suspended in bengal, with a return to complete autocratic government. in the case of the boycott of the west and of western govt., the viceroy after several attempts at reconciliation with gandhi—attempts that were condemned by some anglo-indian opinion—found himself compelled to authorise his prosecution for inciting to mass civil disobedi- ence which resulted in a sentence of six years’ imprisonment, although the mahatma was released on the grounds of il health after two years. in the matter of the treatment of indian immigrants in other parts of the empire, lord reading showed himself as determined in assertion of the rights of india as could any elected native prime minister; challenging both the home government and the government of the dominions in the rights of indians as in the ancient days of the rights of ‘‘ citizens of rome. ” in the case of amritsar and the memories of the rebellion he could only exhibit his sympathy with the indian population and work for the healing influences of time. his difhculties were further increased by a problem altogether outside india, the struggle between turkey and the christian populations which was inter- preted as an attempt to annihilate the mahommedan religion. his messages on this subject to the secretary for india, published without authorisation by mr. montagu, produced the dismissal of the latter; but probably assisted the viceroy in his exhibition of sympathy with the people whom he represented. in the struggle for financial stability he was compelled to exercise the power of certification by the viceroy against the assembly of the much-hated salt tax. but he saw, and acqui- esced in, india, like many other of the dominions, converting itself from a free trade into a protectionist country, a change produced partly by a passionate nationalism which rejected the excise cotton duties, and partly by the need for compensating revenue by a big import duty on iron and steel. the happy result of a stabilised budget was the raising of a new loan for national development of railways and canals, the voluntary acceptance by the indian representatives in the legislative council of the prohibition of the export of opium in conformity with the desire of the league of nations, the substantial reduc- tion of the military expenditure, combined with the establish- ment, if on the smallest scale, of an indian navy, designed as a step forward in the realisation of the indian demand to be treated as one of the great dominions and not as a subject race. that he could exercise sternness when required as well as sym-° pathy was shown by his action towards the maharajah of indore, who was compelled to abdicate as an alternative to trial by his peers for the murder of an indian merchant who had protected a dancing girl who had escaped from his harem. while it would be idle to assert that lord reading’s rule had solved all the difhiculuies of the almost insoluble problem of india’s future, no one can deny that that rule will stand in history as the great advance in conciliation, largely created by the per- sonal popularity of himsclf and his wife and by his ability to convince the leaders of indian educated opinion that his sole desire was to promote the welfare and fulfil the legitimate aspira- tions of a proud, self-conscious, if bewildered people. on relin- quishing his office on thursday march 26 1926, he addressed both houses of the legislature at delhi in a speech which was received with an ovation. ‘ the differences which have occurred” he then asserted, ‘‘ have arisen from honest divergencies of opinion. there has been no difference in purpose; we have striven to attain the same end—the prosperity and happiness of india. ” he emphasised the whole object of his actions, not merely economic prosperity, but advance to new status and dig- nity, to enable india steadily to bud up her own responsible institutions within the commonwealth of nations forming the empire. he could assert with truth that since the years of his accession to oflice there has been a great change in the atmos- phere: ‘‘ peace reigns on our borders; internal disturbances have been set at rest; law and order have been vindicated and reading—recall established; the financial situation has been stabilised, with beneficent reactions on the nation-building activities of the reformed constitution. conditions have been created which give a fair prospect to the development of india’s resources, and the anxieties of the indian moslem population have been al- layed.” this is no bombastic summary of a wholehearted in- telligent and devoted work with a predominant sense of responsi- bility towards the people whom lord reading was called upon to rule, and it is probable that the modest catalogue of achieve- ments, for which he was prepared to give all the credit to others, will come to be the verdict of time and credited to his own great jabours. upon his return to england in april, it was announced that lord reading had been raised to the rank of marquess. (see inp1a.) (c.f. g. dl) reading, england (sce 22.939), had a population of 92,278 in 1921. since rgit parts of theale, tilehurst and caversham have been included in the borough, which has now an area of 9,105 acres. a new parish, that of st. luke’s, was created on the redlands estate in 1912, and a church, st. andrew’s, built at caversham in 1911. among new buildings are the shire hall, in forbury, and the post-office. a new bridge over the thames to caversham was opened in 1923, and the old one close by closed for rebuilding in t925. it will have two arches of unequal span, the centre pier resting on an island in the river, where the remains of an ancient bridge and a 14th century chapel have been found. reading, penn.., u.s.a. (see 22.940), annexed several tracts between 1910 and 1920, increasing its area from 3,975 to 6,090 acres. the population increased 12-2°5, to 107,784; and to 112,- 707 in 1925 according to the census bureau estimate. reading kept its place as the third industrial city of the state, and as an important distributing centre for anthracite shipments and agri- cultural produce. trolley and bus lines were developed in every direction, and daily motor-truck service was established to new york, philadelphia and other points. schuylkill canal, after nearly a century of service, was abandoned. reading is the centre of pennsylvania's first super-power sys- tem, which furnishes electric current from harrisburg to new jersey. the value of factory products within the city limits was $51,135,000 in 1909; $141,561,000 in 1919; $134,501,690 in 1923, when there were 395 establishments, several of them the largest of their kind in the world. among the leading manufactures (1925) were hosiery, silk underwear, narrow fabrics, wrought- iron pipe, goggles, hats, children’s shoes, candy, builders’ hard- ware and machinery. by 1925 the public school system had been enlarged and diversified; extensive improvements had been made in the sewage systems; the water supply had been doubled and improved by municipal control of the watersheds, and a bond issue had been approved by the voters (1920) for the construc- tion of additional impounding reservoirs. the construction of a new city hall and a new court house were authorised in 1925. reading, university of.—on march 17 1926 a charter of incorporation was conferred on the university. accommoda- tion for 400 students is provided in the halls of residence, to which a sanatorium is attached. the faculties are letters, science, agriculture and horticulture in association with the national institute for research in dairying and the british dairy institute. the progress of this institution since 1902, when it became the university college of reading, has been un- interrupted in every respect. it has a capital endowment of £250,000 and in 1924 received £20,000 for endowing the hbrary. in 1924 an exchange of professors was arranged with bristol university and members of the professional staff attended the world’s dairy congress at washington and philadelphia. reality: sce logic. recall.—the recall is a method whereby public officials may be removed from office by popular vote prior to the normal end of their term. in european states —an early instance is afforded by the abberufung, an institution of considerable antiquity, which still survives in the constitutional texts of several swiss cantons, although there is no record of its use during the present genera- 313 tion. the abdherufung provided that upon petition signed by a certain percentage of voters a popular vote should be taken upon the continuance in office of the legislature as a whole. if a ma- jority of the voters showed themselves hostile to the sitting house it was dissolved and elections were held for a new legislature. curiously enough, although the «al bderufung is moribund in switz- erland, an institution closely similar to it has been written into the new constitutions, dating from r919 and 1920, of the greater states of the german reich—prussia, bavaria, wiirttemberg and baden, also the new constitution of estonia (1920) provides that the legislature shall be dissolved in case it is defeated by the people on an initiative or referendum vote. inthe united states —it is in the united states, however, that the recall has found the widest favour recently. unlike the initia- tive and referendum (qg.v.) this development was inaugurated in ignorance of swiss models. also unlike the latter the recall, as invented anew in america, is designed for attack upon a single official, although some of the laws on the subject permit it to be directed against a number of officials at the same time. intro- duced first in the municipal charter of los angeles (1903), this feature has been copied widely by city governments operating under the commission or commission-manager plans, of which there are now some 4oo in all parts of the united states. by constitutional amendment in 1908, oregon made the recall appli- cable to elective state officials as well as to elective officials in counties, cities and other local government units. between 1908 and 1920, ro other states adopted the state-wide recall, among them california, colorado, kansas and louisiana. with the single exception of michigan all the recall states lie west of the mississippi. constitutional and charter provisions on the subject usually exempt officials from recall during the earlier part of their terms —as a rule for the first six months of a term of two years or longer. to be effective petitions for recall must be signed by a certain percentage of the voters of the district or state, such requirements ranging from 10 to 55%, the most common being %. withi s followi he fii { d 25°. within from 20 to 90 days following the filing of an ade- quate petilion a special election is held, at which, in most cases, the elector is asked to vote, first, on the question of the recall of the official under fire; and, second, on the choice of a possible successor from among the candidates presenting themselves for that purpose. the greatest controversy over the recall in the united states turned upon its use against judges. opponents held that such use would destroy the independence of the courts. on the other hand it was asserted that judicial officials, hike all others, might become too subservient to political machines or to corporate influence, and that occasional reminders of their dependence upon the people would be a serviceable corrective. that the opposition was effective in part appears from the fact that of the 11 states having the state- wide recall, four (idaho, michigan, washington and loutsiana) expressly exempt judicial officials. in connection with the recall of judges may be mentioned the proposal for the recall of judicial decisions, which attracted a large share of attention during the prest- dential campaign of 1912, being advocated in the roosevelt pro- gressive platform of that year. it was destined to be stillborn, how- ever. one state only, colorado, attempted to adopt the recall of judicial decisions (1913), but noemployment was made of the device, and in 1921 the state supreme court of the united states declared it unconstitutional. unlike the initiative and referendum which have been employed actively and generally, the recall has been used,in sporactic cases only, chieily against local officials such as mayors, police magis- trates and county judges. no higher state judicial officials have been removed by it, and no state-wide officials of other kinds with the single exception of the north dakota case of 1920, when a sovernor and two other administrative officers were removed. the recall is no longer regarded as a dangerously radical mnovation; indeed it is considered rather ineffective as a cautionary measure against ‘‘ the never-ending audacity of elected persons.’” one posi- tive beneficial result may be ascribed to the recall. it has reduced appreciably popular antipathy against centralising the powers and lengthening the terms of elective officials, without which necessary reforms in this direction, particularly the movement for commission and commission-manager government for cities, could not have made such great progress. (r. c. b.) j. d. barnett, in the operation of the intiiative, refcrendum and recall in oregon contains an excellent detailed study of the operation of the recall in that state. (see also initiative; referendum.) 314 recife (see 22.953), is sometimes known by the name of the state, pernambuco. the population in 1925 was 356,000, an increase of 126,000 in 1s years. federal, state and municipal govts. by co-operation with the rockefeller foundation (1919), the erection of modern hospitals, a new water system (1917) and the extension of sanitation have improved health conditions. the death-rate has been reduced to about 34 per 1,000. yellow fever and smallpox have been practically eradicated. paving of old and narrow streets has advanced and in the newer parts of recife wide modern avenues are extending. among new public buildings are fine municipal and state offices, a law college, a commercial museum, schools and theatres. new business build- ings and private homes add to the city’s attractiveness. electric light and street car services have extended further into the sub- urbs. good roads are multiplying and the use of motor cars is growing. textile (one silk) mills, shoe, oil, soap and lock facto- ries, better electric light equipment, modern homes for workmen, are a few of the industrial and civic advances. port construction, now well advanced, has already cost $20,000,000; additional construction is in progress, including a new light system (1925) and the deepening of the inner harbour. recife exports sugar, cotton, lumber, tobacco and fruits. it ranks fourth in brazilian exports of foods and raw materials and third as regards imports of forcign goods. the total commerce handled in a recent year amounted to 363,000 tons. more than 1,000 m. of railways radiate to interior regions, providing outlet through recife. (w. a. r). reclamation: see coast protection, | red cross (see 1.801), the national and international organi- sation for the care of the sick and wounded in war, the assistance of prisoners-of-war, and other humanitarian purposes. i. the international movement and the national societies the international red cross committee, founded in 1863 by henri dunant and a group of prominent citizens of geneva, promoted two diplomatic conferences which drew up the geneva convention of aug. 22 1864 (revised july 6 1906) and supplied the international legal basis to the work of the red cross. the international committee was constituted to supervise the ob- servance of the geneva convention, to found and develop red cross societies throughout the world, to act as an intermediary between governments, peoples and groups of various nationalities for mutual assistance and relief for victims of war, sickness, etc. the various societies mect at intervals in international confer- ences. the oth conference, held at washington in rgr2, dealt chiefly with relief for prisoners of war. the red cross emblem (red cross on a white background) displays the arms of switzer- land reversed, and was adopted in honour of that country. the work of the red cross during the wars which have oc- curred since its foundation has been steadily extended. the war of ror4 necessitated a very great development, especially as regards collaboration with the various military medical serv- ices; care of the wounded, formation of hospitals and detach- ments of nurses; relief for prisoners-of-war and their families; building of hospitals; supplies; hospital transport; canteens, relief for war victims in the various countries; relicf of civilians in distress and of refugees, etc. national organisations during the war—the belligerent countries naturally made great efforts on behalf of their own nationals. the british and american services are dealt with separately at the end of this article. perhaps the most remarkable of the other efforts was that of germany, where the red cross mobilised a total auxiliary medical service of 250,770 persons, and organised 85 hospital trains and floating ambulances, 3,470 hospitals and convalescent homes, 500 portable decker barracks, 508 homes for the troops, 490 supply stations and 421 hospital posts for men on leave. the italian red cross treated close on 700,000 wounded and collected funds amounting to 51,000,000 lire. nearly 18,000,000 parcels were sent to italian prisoners-of- war. of the neutrals, the danish red cross organised a large serv- ice for the transmission of letters and parcels to prisoners of recife—red cross war in austria, germany and russia, and for distributing litera- ture to internment camps. the prisoners bureau at copenhagen had branches at berlin, moscow, vienna, paris, etc. the danish red cross played an important part in the prisoners of war conference between russia, rumania and the central powers at copenhagen in 1917. the dutch red cross gave much assist- ance to belgian refugees, and assisted interned prisoners and the exchange of invalids and health personnel. the swedish accom- plished much relicf work, especially regarding germany and rus- sia. the swiss organised the repatriation through switzerland of severely wounded prisoners (80,377 men) and the internment in switzerland of sick prisoners. international commitice during the war.—in 10914, the inter- national red cross committee set up at geneva the inter- national prisoners-of-war agency, with departments of prison- ers-of-war and missing men of the entente countries (12 sections, dealing with 30 countries); prisoners-of-war and missing of the central powers (4 sections); and interned and deported civilians, hospital staff, hostages and refugees. between 1914-8, more than 20,000 people came in person to geneva to obtain informa- tion. the daily post varied between 2,000 and 15,000 letters. the total number of index cards was over 5 million. there was a special department for naval prisoners-of-war, or men missing at sea. further, the international agency made enquiries about men missing on the field, dealt with the trans- mission of relief to and the repatriation of families in the invaded areas, with the repatriation of deported workers from reprisal camps, and of members of the ambulance corps. the inter- national red cross committee sent numerous delegates to in- spect prisoners-of-war and civilian internment camps in europe, asia and northern africa. tinted reports on these visits were issued regularly. further, the international committee made the necessary protests against violations of the geneva conven- tion. thus, on sept. 21 1914, it reminded belligerents of their duty strictly to observe the 1906 convention concerning the care of sick and wounded without distinction of nationality. it also drew attention to the neutrality of the ambulance staff, to the desirability for suspending hostilities for the identification and burial of corpses, to the question of the bombardment of hospi- tals and the illegal treatment of sanitary or red cross staff; the question of reprisals; the protection to be afforded to hospital ships. asaresult of steps taken by the international committee, the swiss govt. proposed the negotiations between belligerent countries for the repatriation of invalid prisoners-of-war. in feb. rors, the international committee took steps also to secure the internment in neutral countries of sick prisoners. international committee after the war.—among the activities of the red cross societies in repairing the effects of the war may be mentioned: repatriation (with assistance of the league of nations) of 300,000 russian prisoners stranded in germany, and 150,000 german and austro-hungarian prisoners detained in russia and siberia; delegations for distribution of emergency relief and protection of hospitals and charitable institutions and of aliens during the civil wars in russia (1918), hungary (19109), upper silesia (1921); visits to political prisoners in the ruhr (1923), ireland (1923), poland (1924), montenegro (1925); relief to starving populations in poland, austria, ifungary (1919-22), anatolia (1922), germany (1923-4), albania (1925), syria (1925); the maintenance of a central office in vienna to fight epidemics, co-ordinating with work in poland, galicia, the ukraine, rumania and austria; work in the ukraine against spotted typhus (1919-20); anti-malarial work and general medi- cal study in georgia (1923); relief for the 1,500,000 russian refugees in europe (1920), assisting the league of nations when it took over this question in 1921; relief and hospital work among greek refugees from asia minor (1922)—commission for the exchange of prisoners-of-war between greece and turkey; and evacuation of russian refugees in manchuria, in collabora- tion with the international labour office (1925). activities after the war—special work was undertaken by national societies, including the work of french, belgian, british and american societies, in re-establishing sanitary conditions in red cross the devastated regions of france and belgium; similar work in the baltic states, poland, the ukraine, asia minor; first aid and medical treatment to distressed populations in austria, hungary, germany, russia, asia minor and china (during the famine); work against epidemics; co-ordinated measures against exanthe- matic and recurrent typhus in the ukraine; against malaria (italian red cross); a tropical institute for prevention of malaria (georgia); summer hospitals (china); campaign against epidem- ics among the natives (siam, dutch east indies, congo). many societies organised relief for the sufferers from special clisasters, notably: cyclones and fires (america); cyclones, fires, burst dams (holland); floods (china); earthquakes and cyclones (central and south america); eruptions, earthquakes, fires (italy); earthquakes, especially that of tokye, sept. 1923 (japan). still another branch of activity was the evacuation of the wounded in case of accidents, disasters, civil war, revolutions in various countries (portugal, germany, russia, china, central and south america). the system of training nurses and hospital helpers was reor- ganised and directed mainly towards intensifving health propa- ganda and performing emergency relief work. in germany, nurses were especially trained for campaigns against epidemics and tuberculosis; in france for work with occupying troops in rhineland, upper silesia, morocco, tongking, syria; in the french devastated areas, against tuberculosis and for protection of children; in england as visiting nurses in slum areas, national societies also established special hospitals, sanatoria, preventive institutes, orphanages and dispensaries; they conducted propa- ganda for the increase of red cross membership, especially among young persons; they organised social hygiene courses and lectures to encourage campaigns against tuberculosis, can- cer, venereal clisease and further hygiene in general. many homes for children and colonies for sick children have been established to combat tuberculosis. lessons in hygiene have been organised in schools; the italian red cross alone has given assistance to over 50,000 children. league of red cross sociefies—in to19, on the proposal of mr. h. p. davison, president of the american red cross, the american, british, french, italian and japanese red cross societies founded the league of red cross societies, to encourage in all countries the development of a duly authorised national red cross organisation, the object of which is to improve health conditions, to prevent discase, to contribute to the general well- being by placing new scientific discoveries at the disposal of everyone, and to act as an intermediary for the co-ordination of various relief works 1n the event of disasters, national or inter- national. the league is managed by a general council and a board of governors, and since 1922 its headquarters have been at paris. it includes departments dealing with international relief, propa- ganda, publications on hygiene, tuberculosis, venereal disease, the protection of children, visiting nurses, the junior red cross, etc. the league has adopted as a symbol the red cross in a star with five points, symbolical of the five red cross societies which founded it. international conferences.—international red cross confer- ences were again convened from 1g21 onwards. the 1oth con- ference (geneva, march 30 to april 7 1921), surveyed the activ- ity of the various national red cross societies during the war, and drew up a programme for the future. it also adopted resolu- tions concerning the limitation of war, the preparation of a diplomatic convention concerning prisoners-of-war, civil war, and the international organisation of the red cross; and prepared a draft revision of the geneva convention. the eleventh conference (geneva, aug. 28 to sept. 1 1923) considered the situation of civilians in the power of the enemy, and drew up a scheme of international relief for populations stricken by disasters. this report was drawn up by senator ciraolo, president of the italian red cross, and after having been submitted to the council and assembly of the league of nations in 1925, is now being considered by a special committee of enquiry. 3 be the r2th conference (geneva, oct. 7 to 10 1925) which was attended by 170 delegates representing 39 governments, 44 red cross societies and 20 other institutions, drew up the present programme for the work of the red cross societies, confirming, on the basis of past experience, the work of the national societies in time of war, and laying down general principles for the devel- opment of red cross work in new fields. the resolutions adopted at this conference were concerned with chemical warfare, the relations between military medical services and the red cross societies, measures for diminishing the number of missing in war time, the situation of non-combat- ants on enemy territory, the immunity of hospital air-planes, relief for members of foreign legions, the work of the red cross in the event of the application of article 16 of the covenant of the league of nations, relief for refugees, relief for red cross volunteers in the event of accidents or disasters, the creation of an identity card for members of red cross societies travelling abroad, the standardisation of sanitary material and the inter- national organisation of the red cross. further, an international institute to consider the question of sanitary material was proposed, which should collect the various types of material in use in the various countries and organise competitions with a view to perfecting and standardising, as far as possible, such equipment as stretchers and other means of transporting the wounded. new red cross secietics —in 1912 the number of national red cross societies was 38. between 1o14 and 1925 the international red cross committee officially recognised the following new societies: luxembourg (1914); poland, czechoslovakia (1919); finland, siam (1920); soviet russia (1921); costa rica, colom- bia, paraguay, estonia, danzig (1922); bolivia, latvia, ecua- dor, albania, guatemala, lithuania (1923); egypt, panama, persia (1924); iceland, san salvador (1925). various previously existing red cross societies have either ceased to function or have been replaced by others. the socie- ties of wiirttemberg, prussia, hesse, saxony, baden and bavaria have amalgamated into a single german red cross; in monte- negro, the society has ceased to exist; the congo has become a part of the belgian red cross; and the russian red cross has been replaced by a new society. bibliography.—paul des gouttes, le rele et p'action du comite international de la croix-rouge pendant la guerre europeenne, de 1914 @ 1916 (geneva, 1916); rapports des delegues du comite inter- national sur leurs visites aux camps de prisonniers (17 series, geneva, 1915-9); l’agence internationale des prisonniers de guerre (geneva, 1919); paul des gouttes, lacrotx-rouge tnternationale avant, pen- dant et apres la guerre mondiale (paris, 1923); compte rendu de la nxeme conference internationale de la croix-rouge (geneva, 1921); compte rendu de la xteme conference internationale de la crotx- rouge (geneva 1923); compte rendu de la x ileme conference interna- tionale de la croix-rouge (geneva, 1925). see also reports of the national red cross societies. if. the british and american red cross british.—al\\ existing british red cross societies were amal- gamated in 1905 into the british red cross society, with the aim of preparing in time of peace for rendering first aid to the sick and wounded in war. the war office undertook to receive all offers of such help only through the b.r.c.s. when the terri- torial force was formed in 1908, the war office invited the soci- etv to form voluntary aid detachments for work with the territorial troops. both the b.r.c.s. and the order of st. john set about organising these v.a.d.s for first aid work and assist- ance of the regular medical units during military operations. in fact, under the stress of the war, the red cross undertook much work which belonged strictly to the army medical service. on the outbreak of war the b.r.c.s. and the order of st. john appealed for funds. a joint war committee of the two organisations was formed, all subscriptions were pooled, and this committee carried out almost all war work undertaken in britain. scotland acted separately, and the dominions, notably canada, australia, south africa and egypt, sent their own detachments to the theatres of war. the times fund for the british red cross realised over £16,500,000 316 in the course of the war, the four annual empire “ our day ” collections producing over £8,500,000, of which more than five- eighths came from overseas. there were, besides, gifts of stores and gifts to local hospitals. the latter, which were in connection with military centres and controlled by a trained nursing staff and local medical men, <assisted by v.a.d. nurses, were formed out of private houses, schools, etc., and usually received minor or convalescent cases. they were supported by local subscrip- tion with, when necessary, assistance from red cross ihead- quarters and a government capitation fee per patient. over 3,200 auxiliary home hospitals were opened during the war; large sums were also spent on equipping and maintaining hospi- tals abroad, special hospitals at home and convalescent homes. the stores department covered a great variety of items and in- volved extensive business arrangements with all the machinery of a large commercial organisation. the central prisoners of war committee administered a sum of over £4,000,000 and regularly despatched parcels to the pris- oners’ camps. enquiries for wounded and missing were under- taken in 1915; 384,000 reports were obtained. care was taken for interned prisoners in iolland and switzerland. particular attention was paid to the after-treatment of wounded or dis- abled men; both accommodation for convalescents and institu- tional treatment for patients suffering from neurasthenia, epilep- sy, tuberculosis, paralysis and the effects of wounds. the first red cross detachment went to france aug. 1914, the last to vladivostok, oct. tor8. the v.a.d. detachments before the armistice numbered 4,083 with a personnel of 125,993. the total staff of the joint committee alone numbered 9,234. although the gencral direction was in the hands of men, the outstanding feature—which every patient will remember till his death—was the self-sacrificing work of the women. american.—the american red cross, founded in 1881 under the name of the “‘ american association of the red cross,” was incorporated and nationalised in t905 as the national red cross; the president of the united states became its president, and the war department its auditor. early in the world war the red cross offered through the state department the aid of its trained personnel and contributors of hospital supplies to every belligerent country. this offer was accepted by almost all belligerents. a public appeal was made for funds, and soon large quantities of hospital supplies and about 200 nurses were sent to england, belgium, france, germany, austria, serbia and russia. seventy-one physicians and surgeons were also sent, and a special sanitary commission went to siberia to fight the typhus plague there. the value of relicf supplies sent to furope-by the red cross before the united states entered the war was over $1,500,000, of which about $350,000 worth went to germany and austria. | in may 1917 after america’s entry into the war, president wil- son appointed a special red cross war council under mr. hh. p. davison, to direct the activities of the organisation during the war. a popular campaign for a special war fund realised $100,- 000,000 in a week. the service was reorganised and quickly expanded from 500,000 members in 500 chapters to over 16,000,- ooo members. a further week’s drive in may 1918 realised §170,- 000,000, and the grand total 1917-8 exceeded $400,000,000. the american red cross recruited, organised and equipped hospitals and ambulance units, assisted in the care of the sick and wounded in emergencies, and provided nurses for the army and navy. it supplied comforts, clothing, medical supplies, surgical dressings; ran canteens, assisted the families of soldiers and sailors, photographed graves, etc. it supported! 50 base hos- pital units, 40 overseas ambulance companies, over 23,000 trained nurses, a women’s volunteer motor corps of 1.4,000 members, 92 convalescent homes in the training and embarka- tion camps, 130 canteens, 24 military hospitals and 12 convales- cent hospitals in france, 33 canteens in italy, 28 military hos- pitals and 82 canteens in belgium. the “ civilian relief abroad ” to the european populations was on a vast scale. $1,000,000 a month were spent on relief to french and relgian refugees in france, including help to over 150 national and local redesdale—redmond trench organisations. over 30,000 tuberculosis patients were helped and a large children’s welfare movement run. substantial assistance was given in russia; also in belgium, italy, rumania, serbia and greece. the relief expenses included $28,978,000 in america, $57,207,000 in france, $63,841,000 elsewhere overseas. a total of ror,o00 tons of relief supplies were sent overseas; 3,780 french and over 1,500 italian hospitals assisted. the value of the relicf articles produced by volunteer workers during the war was estimated at nearly $100,000,000. (g. an.) redesdale, algernon bertram freeman-mitford, 1st baron (1837-1916), british politician and writer (see 22.968), died at batsford park, glos., aug. 17 t916. he was succeeded as second baron by his second son, david bertram ogilvy free- man-mitford (b. 1877). red indians: sce indians, north american, redmond, john edward (1851-10918), irish political leader (see 22.968), obtained for the first time a position of real power in parliament after the general election in jan. roto. though he had amalgamated the two irish nationalist parties under his own lead in 1900, he had never hitherto been able, owing to the large unionist majority of 1900 and the liberal majority of 1906, to hold that balance of power in the house of commons which had proved such a formidable weapon in the hands first of o’connell and then of parnell. but the great reduction of the liberal forces in jan. t910 made it impossible that mr. asquith’s government should long continue unless it found favour with mr. redmond. the first use which he made of this new authority was to insist that mr. lloyd george’s famous budget of 1909, on which the dissolution had turned, but which was not in itself greatly to the taste of the irish party, should be postponed till after the con- stitutional resolutions directed against the house of lords— his one object being to remove the veto of the upper house, which was the main barrier against ilome rule. this order of procedure was also demanded by the labour party and by the radicals; and the government complied. but redmond did not trust them completely, and pressed for an assurance that the royal prerogative would be at the prime minister’s dis- posal to overbear any rejection by the lords of the veto resolu- tions. he was impatient at the constitutional conference called in the summer at the beginning of king george’s reign to en- deavour to discover a solution by consent, and went to america to secure sympathy and funds. the conference having broken down, he conducted a strenuous campaign on behalf of the minis- terial programme for the second general election of the year, in spite of a harassing movement on his flank by a small party of independent nationalists under mr. o'brien and mr. healy, who accused him of having sold the irish vote to the government. when the result of the polling had confirmed mr. redmond in his tenure of the balance of parliamentary power, he forwarded the progress of the parliament bill in rorz by the steady vote of his party rather than by speech. in the autumn he was regularly consulted on the details of the forthcoming home rule bill, and when the bill was introduced, in april 1912, he wel- comed it as an adequate measure, and procured an enthusiastic acceptance of it from a nationalist convention in ireland. his speeches during its passage through parliament were, on the whole, moderate; he disclaimed separation but denounced any attempt to take ulster out of the bill as a mutilation of ireland. in token of the unton of feeling between nationalists and liberals, he attended the meeting of the national liberal federation at nottingham in nov. 1912, and spoke for the first time on the same platform as mr. asquith. when the determined attitude of ulster began to suggest to the libcrals the advis- ability of compromise, redmond was very loth to agree, de- nouncing the unionists and ulster as engaged in “a gigantic game of bluff and blackmail.” he insisted that mr. asquith’s county option scheme was the extreme limit of concess‘on. he was being pressed in ireland by the rising power of sinn feiners and other extremists who had raised, in reply to ulster, a great body of 100,000 nationalist volunteers, over whom mr. redmond only obtained control in june 1914 after a sharp struggle. redwood—referendum nevertheless he took part, at the end of july, in spite of nation- alist criticism, in the abortive buckingham palace conference. then came the world war, and in the debate succeeding sir e. grey’s famous declaration on bank holiday, aug. 3, red- mond created a profound sensation by a speech in which he declared that the events of recent years had completely altered the nationalist feeling towards great britain. the government, he said, might withdraw its troops from ireland, whose coasts would be defended by her own sons, nationalist volunteers join- ing with ulster volunteers in the task. this generous attitude was met by the decision of the government to pass the home rule bill into law, suspending its operation till after the war. redmond took an active part in promoting recruiting in ire- land, and stood on the platform in dublin mansion jtiouse on sept. 25 by the side of the prime minister and the lord lieu- tenant. unfortunately, owing partly to the anti-recruiting agitation promoted by sinn fein, and partly to red tape at the war office, his efforts were only moderately successful. but he refused mr. asquith’s offer to join the first coalition govern- ment, and he successfully opposed all attempts to apply con- scription to ireland. it was a stunning blow to him when the smouldering dissatisfaction of southern ireland broke out into a blaze in the dublin rebellion of easter 1916. he expressed in the house of commons his detestation of the crime, and lent his assistance to the attempt which was made by the government in the summer through mr. llovd george to arrange an agreed settlement of the irish question. but the effort failed, and mr. duke, k.c., a unionist, was appointed chief secretary; and redmond treated the whole transaction as a fresh outrage on ireland, moving on oct. 18 a resolution (which was, of course, rejected) charging ministers with maintaining a system of government in that country in- consistent with the principles for which the allies were fighting in europe. next year he threatened a return of his party to the old obstructionist opposition; but when in may 1917 mr. llovd george, as prime minister, suggested an irish convention to produce a scheme of scli-government, redmond agreed; and in the convention he played a prominent and conciliatory part, making in particular a favgurable impression on the southern unionists. during its sittings, however, his health failed. he died of heart failure in london on march 6 10618.- john redmond’s younger brother, william hoey krarney repmond (1861-1917), intended, as a young man, to adopt the army as his profession, and in 1881 he was a lieutenant in the co. wexford militia battalion of the royal irish regiment. but he resigned his commission to take part in the land league move- ment and was imprisoned as a ‘ suspect ” in kilmainham. he was returned for wexford borough in 1883, and sat in parlia- ment, though for different constituencies, from that time till his death. he was of an ardent and ebullicnt temper, which resulted in his spending three months in wexford gaol in 1888 for inciting, at an eviction, to resistance to the sheriff, and in many agitated scenes at different times in the house of com- mons, where, however, he was personally very popular. like his brother, in the nationalist split he adhered to parnell, and, also like his brother, on the outbreak of the world war he instantly recognised the duty of ireland to fling herself into it on the side of the allies. though 53 years old, he joined at once the irish division, receiving a commission in the royal irish regiment. he was promoted major for services at the front and men- tioned in dispatches. in his intervals of service he made two thrilling speeches in the house of commons, advocating con- ciliation, and a new start, between england and ircland. he died of wounds in france on june 7 1917. (g. e. b.) redwood, sir boverton (1846-19109), british chemist, was born april 26 1846, and educated at university college school, london. he was trained as a pharmacist, but early specialised in the study of petroleum, becoming in 1869 secretary of the petroleum association and subsequently studying oil conditions at first hand in many parts of the world (1883-6). he served on several important government commissions both before and dur- ing the world war. founder of the society of petroleum tech- ol/ nologists, he became its first president 1913-4 and he was also a member of many other socicties in pure and applied science. he was knighted in 1905, was made a baronet in ro11 and died in london on june 4 191g. sir boverton wrote some standard books on his subject, including petroleum, 3 vol. (1913); and many articles and pamphlets.",
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