PUNJAB, UNIVERSITY OF THE

-since 1919 m conformity with the wise policy of developing higher teaching the university, which had mainly been concerned with examina- tions, has instituted honours schools in arabic, persian, sanskrit, botany, zoology, mathematics and chemistry. nineteen institu- tions are affiliated to it in medicine, education, agriculture, rts and science. in 1924 the chemical laboratory, which cost rs. 450,000, was completed. ~ pupin, michaelidvorsky(1858- ), american inventor, was born in idvor, hungary, oct. 4 1858. he went to america in 1874, and graduated from columbia university in 1883. the first to hold the john tyndall fellowship at columbia 1886-8, he later studied physics and mathematics at cambridge university and under von helmholtz at the university of berlin (ph.d., 1889). he was instructor in mathematical phys- ics, at columbia, 1890; and was appointed adjunct professor of mechanics, 1892, becoming professor of electro-mechanics there in r901 and later director of the phoenix research labora- tories. by means of inductance coils placed at predetermined intervals of the transmitting wire, he greatly extended the range of long-distance telephony, particularly over telephone cables. the patent for this invention was acquired in 1gor by the bell telephone co. and by german telephone interests. he has made several other inventions in electrical wave propaga- tion, electrical resonance and multiplex telegraphy. he dis- covered secondary x-ray radiation in 1896 and invented in the same year means for short exposure x-ray photography by the interposition of a fluorescent screen. he was active during the world war aiding serbia and the united states. he wrote from immigrant to inventor (1923). putnik, radomir (1847-1917), serbian general, was born on jan. 25 1847 at kraguyevats. like many other prominent figures in the life of his country, he came of a family which had emigrated to the banat during the turkish conquest and re- turned to serbia after the expulsion of the turks. passing through the military school at belgrade (which afterwards became the serbian military academy), he obtained his commission in a line regiment. in 1876 he commanded a brigade in the war against turkey, and when war was renewed in 1877 became 207 chief-of-staff of the shumaja division. in the serbo-bulgarian war of 1885 he held a similar post in the danubian division, and in 1889 was made deputy-chief of the general staff, and taught as professor at the military academy in belgrade. in common with other brilliant officers, he suffered from the fa- vouritism which kings milan and alexander had introduced into ithe serbian army and from the consequent atmosphere of intrigue and personal rivalry. he was placed on the retired list, and it was only after the military revolution which destroyed the obrenovie dynasty in 1903 that he obtained his real opportunity of service. in that autumn he was appointed general and chief of the general staff. in 1906 he succeeded gen. gruie as minister of war, and again held that office in 1912, during the period when the military convention with bulgaria was negotiated. on the outbreak of war with turkey putnik was made votvede or marshal (being the first holder of that title) and commander- in-chief, and was responsible for the rapid success of the serbian ° arms at kumanovo, prilep and monastir. it was largely owing to his vigilance and foresight that the treacherous night attack by which the bulgarians opened the second balkan war (june 29 1913) was so complete a failure, and the battle of the bregal- nitsa was won. when the world war broke out, he was under- going a cure at an austrian watering place, and was at first placed under arrest, being later released by special order of the empcror francis joseph and conveyed to the rumanian frontier. his impaired health did not prevent him from resuming the position of serbian generalissimo and he inflicted upon the forces of gen. potiorek three successive defeats—the battles of the yadar (aug. 16~20), of the drina (sept. 8-19) and of rud- nik, which ended on dec. 14 1914 with an austrian rout and the complete evacuation of serbia. putnik retained the supreme command during the triple invasion of serbia by the german, austro-hungarian and bulgarian armies in nov. 1915, and shared the retreat of the serbs through albania. when, how- ever, the exiled government established itself at corfu, he and most of his staff were placed on the retired list. he himself withdrew to france. he died on may 17 1917 at nice. pyle, howard (1853-1911), american artist and writer (see 22.679), died in florence, italy, nov. 9 1911. 268 uantum theory.—the quantum theory is essentially a theory based upon the assumption that changes in a system with periodic motion are finite in magnitude, the steps being governed by empirical quantum rules, and the energy changes being in general multiples of a quantum of energy av, where / is a constant (planck’s constant) and v is the frequency of the (or an) associated motion. previous to its for- mulation it was thought that the energy of a vibrating electron or ofa vibrating atom, the energy of radiation emitted or ab- sorbed by an electron or by an atom, might have any value whatever. changes were regarded as taking place continuously and in infinitesimal amounts. the quantum theory, on the other hand, as far as it goes, assumes that any change when once it starts is not terminated until the transfer of a full quantum of energy is effected. the time necessary is very minute, but neither this nor the mechanism of the operation is known. if observed sufficiently minutely the process might, of course, appear as a continuous change, but by reason of its suddenness and the inevitable nature of its con- clusion, it is spoken of as a discontinuity. the continuities of the classical theory are thus on the quantum theory replaced by so-called discontinuities. such rules certainly apply to changes of a definite kind, but to regard them as universal in their applica- tion is a faith rather than a rational doctrine, for the evidence is that these rules are definitely limited in their application. ileat radiation—the theory originated in an attempt by planck to explain the constitution of heat radiation, 7.¢., to ex- plain the distribution of energy among the constituent wave- lengths in the radiation proceeding from hot “ black bodies.” classical theory has failed to do this, notably in that the possi- bility of continuous interchange of energy between vibrations in matter and vibrations (waves) in the surrounding ether, as as- sumed in the classical theory, could only result in the continuous pouring of energy into the ether with its infinite possibility of vibrations. this would happen even in a small volume of ether enclosed by matter; whereas experiment seems to show that an equilibrium state is arrived at, when the energy transferred from matter to the enclosed ether is just balancec! by the transfer of energy from the ether to matter. the enclosed radiation is then said to be at the temperature of the surrounding matter, 7.¢., there is statistical equilibrium with that matter. more precisely, as rayleigh and jeans showed, the energy stored at absolute tempcrature t in unit volume of the ether in the forms of waves of length between \ and a+dax should be ex- pressed by 87k ta~*da, that is kt for each of the 8ra~“dax inde- pendent vibrations, where 3£t is the average energy of mona- tomic molecules of a perfect gas at temperature t, 7.¢., 2&t for each degree of freedom. this expression shows that the greatest amount of energy would be found in the radiations of shortest wave-lengths. but measurement of the energy (by its heating effect) for a given small range of wave-length throughout the spectrum shows a definite maximum and a falling off in energy for both shorter and longer waves (lummer and pringsheim). endeavouring to find a system giving closer agreement with experiments, planck assumed that the oscillators in matter which emit heat radiation (electric waves) contain energy in definite quanta, the indivisible unit of energy in an oscillator being pro- portional to its frequency of oscillation, i.e... e=v. this unit, however, varies for oscillators of different frequency. what is fundamental to all is the constant #—a quantity which, dividect by the period of oscillation, gives the energy unit. planck’s in- divisible constant is thus a quantum of “ action ”—a quantity of the dimensions of angular momentum. the quantum of energy, however, may be infinitely small, if the frequency is infinitely small, so is not fundamentally atomic. imposing such an imaginary condition changes the average hv! kt energy of an oscillator from kt to of area eames va ? t.635 gay [kt t with quantum theory the result that the energy with the given range of wave-lengths d) becomes 8ra~4 a ; perfectly with the distribution of energy in the spectrum as found by lummer and pringsheim. the same formula has since been obtained from somewhat different assumptions, as by planck assuming continuous absorption but quantum emission; by einstein on the hypothesis that changes of energy in 4 mole- cule are only possible by a jump from one definite state to another, involving the absorption or liberation of energy equal to the difference between the energies of these states though these energies are not necessarily in quanta; others assume that an integral number of quanta exist in the radiation itself. but in general there appears somewhere the assumption of “ discon- tinuities ”’; and poincare has shown that the experimental dis- tribution of energy can be satisfied only by quantum laws. by comparison of the formula with experiment, # is found to be 6-55 x10? erg x second. this gives the value for a quan- tum of energy of visible light, say sodium light, as equal to the kinetic energy of 60 atoms of monatomic gas at o° c. and equal to the vibrational energy of about two atoms of a solid heated to emit yellow light most strongly. thus the quantum laws, while necessary and successful in explaining the features of black-body radiation, do not indicate the mechanism of an ener- gy change. that the process of heat radiation should be ex- plosive in nature and should occur in amounts av was certainly new and startling but not necessarily so revolutionary as to preclude the possibility of the process being perfectly continuous. specific heat.—the application of the quantum rules in the apparently unpromising region of the heat content of bodies themselves, particularly of solids, has had marked success. thus, observations show that the heat necessary to raise unit mass of an elementary substance through one degree of temperature (the specific heat) varies approximately inversely as the atomic weight of the element (dulong and petit’s law). this expresses the fact that the average heat absorbed per atom is independent of the mass of the atom. in addition, the heat absorbed per atom is found to be double that absorbed per atom of monatomic gas. this is explained by assuming that each atom of the solid 1s capable only of vibration as a whole, the average energy being double that for a monatomic gas on account of the potential energy of vibration being equal to the kinetic energy determining the temperature. thus n atoms of monatomic gas at absolute temperature t possess energy 3n&t, and n atoms of a solid possess energy 3nat where k is the molecular gas constant. the approximate laws are therefore in accord with the classical theory. it had been observed, however, that light elements as boron, diamond and silicon, especially at low temperatures, have a much lower specific heat than is given by the above law. nernst and lindemann more recently found that the specific heat of all substances diminishes rapidly at low temperatures, and this is most marked in light substances. but, as einstein showed, if the energy of vibration of atoms is governed by quantum laws the average encrgy of atoms depends on this frequency of vibration hv dx. this was found to agree almost from this it (vy) and the total energy becomes 3n ra c pp! follows that the specific heat diminishes with temperature in a manner similar to that found by experiment. the agreement, however, is not close. a great advance was made by debye by regarding the motions of all the atoms as due to superposed systems of waves through the solid—waves of compression and waves of distortion. he assumed each independent vibration into which the whole mo- tion could be resolved had energy as given by the quantum theory quantum laws above, and limited the number of such vibrations to the number of degrees of freedom of the constituent atoms. but the frequency equals velocity + wave-length, and as the velocity of waves depends upon elastic constants of the solid, these constants were introduced into the expression for the specific heat. quite good agreement was found between the calculated and the experimental results, and it was shown that at very low temperatures the specific heat c, should vary as the (absolute temperature), a result which was experimentally confirmed by kamerlingh onnes for temperatures approaching absolute zero. further, the variation in the specific heat of gases, particularly diatomic gases, has been explained in qualified measure, by as- suming that changes both in vibrational and rotational energy take place in precise quantities. spectra.—the greatest triumph of the quantum theory, how- ever, is in its application to spectra, especially those of the sim- plest atoms hydrogen and helium. rutherford had given good reasons for his theory that an atom consists of a highly concen- trated positively charged nucleus, with negative electrons cir- culating around it, and that the positive charge of the nucleus, expressed in fundamental units and the number of negative electrons outside, were alike and equal tothe atomic number, viz.: for hydrogen 1, helium 2, lithium 3. according to classical laws, if an electron rotates—if it is accelerated in any way—it emits a radiation in the form of electric waves, and by emission of energy its own energy diminishes. such an electron would thus approach nearer to the nucleus and its frequency of rota- tion would gradually increase. from a large number of atoms in different states, the frequencies would have all values between wide limits. this is contrary to experimental fact, for the line spectra of substances indicate definite unchanging fre- quencies, with wide intervals between, for which no frequencics are observed. here evidently was a chance for a quantum theory such as bohr provided in his quantum atom. first considering the hydrogen-like atom consisting of a positive nucleus with one electron rotating around it, he boldly assumed the follow- ing important facts:— that the electron obeys the ordinary dynamical laws during rotation in the circular orbit round the nucleus but does not radiate; that the orbit may change suddenly to an inner orbit of smaller energy; that when it does so change the mechanical energy lost is all emitted as monochromatic radiation; that the frequency of the radiation is governed by the quantum laws, 2.e., e,—ee=f/v, where fe; and ef, are the energies in the initial and final orbits; finally, that the possible orbits are limited to those in which the angular momentum is an integral multiple 7 of the constant #/27. this is equivalent to postulating an integral number of fundamental units of magnetic induction linked with the orbits (h. s. allen). these assumed numerical relations limiting the orbits and govern- ing the frequency, combined with the simple dynamics of a 1 4m*nee where m is the mass of the electron and e the electric charge on the nucleus of the atom. thus, only orbits of radii proportional to 7°, i.¢€., 1", 2", 3”, ete., are possible. and the frequency v of the radia- ae. ee am*mee? / i i tion is given by y= ( — — } where 7; and 72 are the he tt? t1" integers—the quantum numbers for the initial and final orbits. thus, also, only certain frequencies of radiation are possible. corresponding, for instance, to the fall of an electron from the 3rd, 4th or sth orbits into the 2nd orbit the frequency of radia- . . 2m*mere* 3 i tion 1s aya ; ae) - as for the hydrogen atom € h 7 ae ba et 8 =e, all the quantities in the above expression are known from independent measurements, and the theoretical frequencies of the spectral lines may be calculated with considerable precision. such a series of lines as the above is the well-known balmer scries. other series of lines corresponding to the falls from outer rotating particle, give the radius of the circular orbit as 269 orbits into those of quantum numbers 1, 3 and 4 have since been 2 4 me h with the rydberg constant which was found from spectroscopic observations long before the theory was put forward. similarly, spectral lines duc to ionised helium, i.¢., helium atoms with a nuclear charge 2e¢, with one electron rotating around it, have frequencies found by writing €= 2e in the above formula. a remarkabie extension of bohr’s theory was made by som- merfeld by assuming that the electronic orbits are in general elliptical in shape, like those of the planets round the sun with the nucleus at the focus. in this case, however, each orbit needs two quantum numbers to define it, one radial, the other azi- muthal, the total quantum being the sum of the two. this does not affect the above expressions for the frequency of the emitted radiation if 7, and 72 stand for the total quantum numbers, but it provides the possibility for a given spectral line being produced by the fall of the electron both from and to various alternative elliptical orbits. owing, however, to the relativity variation of mass with velocity, the energy of an electron in two orbits of the same total quantum number differs slightly, with the conse- quence that the change of energy from orbit to orbit, and thus the frequency of emitted radiation differs slightly among the various members of the system with the same initial and final total quantum numbers. each spectral line as given by the simpler theory therefore consists of a number of neighbouring spectral lines. such a fine structure of the lines has been ob- served by instruments of high resolving power in the spectrum of hydrogen, and the theory has been beautifully confirmed from measurements of the more clearly separated lines of the helium spectrum. the further extension of the theory of spectra to more comphi- cated cases is in general based upon the hypotheses of (a) sta- tionary states or energy levels, (b) bohr’s relation ky= ek, — ez for the frequency of the radiation emitted in transition from one state to another, (c) a general quantising relation applied to cach degree of freedom to determine the possible states (expressed fpdq=th, where q is a generalised co-ordinate and p the cor- responding momentum). a “ principle of selection’ is also introduced permitting only certain transitions between the sta- tionary states regarded as possible by the quantising rules. the selection principle or “ principle of correspondence ” of bohr assumes that for high quantum numbers the results obtained from the quantum theory for radiation emitted during transi- tion must merge into those obtained from the classical theory for radiation emitted during orbital motion. the effects of both electric and magnetic fields on the radiating atoms (stark and zeeman effects) can then be very satisfactorily explained. applications to x-ray spectra similar in nature have also had marked success. bohr’s theory of the atom was, of course, designed to agree with experiment, yet the assumptions made were simple and of a very general nature. to explain the complexity of spectra in great detail by such simple postulates, is an achievement which scems to indicate for the model some approximation to reality. yet it is merely a skeleton atom; the postulates are a convenient sum- mary of certain properties; they give no indication of the physi- cal processes by which the observed conclusions are reached; in- deed, there is little doubt that the actual atom has not the rigid or precise configuration which the model demands (see atom). whether the quantum phenomena will ever be explained with- out the discovery of further properties of electricity tosupple- ment those on which classical theory has been built is question- able. useful though the quantum rules are, their application has appeared to suffer from an inconsistency which success alone could partially justify. a new theory has, however, been formu- lated by heisenberg which, whether fruitful or not, promises to put quantum mechanics in much more logical form. its physical significance, however, is not apparent. to the physicist, quantum theory needs an infusion of new and simple experimental facts such as will, without doubt, be obtained in the near future. observed. the constant , as calculated, agrees perfectly 270 emission and absorption of radiationn—the most intimate acquaintance with the quantum rules is made in a study of the processes of excitation and of absorption of x-rays and of light, especially the former. thus, when x-rays are produced by shoot- ing electrons onto a target (anticathode), radiation of a particu- lar frequency v appears in the spectrum only when the kinetic energy of the generating electron is equal to or greater than one lig, yp h frequency. the emission of light of frequency » characteristic of a vapour, say meecury, can also be produced by the impact of electrons with energy $v" equal to hy, but not by more slowly moving electrons. to excite a characteristic x-radiation, con- sisting of a group of spectral lines, $ #12" must be just greater than one quantum of the highest frequency constituent. these rela- lions sccm to indicate that one electron generates one quantum of raciation. on bohr’s theory this is interpreted as that the energy of the moving electron must be sufficient to displace an electron in the atom from one orbit to another of greater energy. when this falls back, this energy is re-emitted as one quantum of radiation, to excite characteristic x-rays an electron must be moved from an inner ring, not to the next possible orbit, which is already occupied by other electrons, but to the surface of the atom; and various frequences are produced by electrons falling back from other energy levels. conversely, when x-radiation of frequency vy is absorbed it ejects electrons which, when measured have energies 4 mv? varv- ing from hv downwards, but with a number of w vel: defined encrgics #y—e,, where e, has one of a number of possible values for any particular element, being on bohr’s scheme the energy necessary to raise the electron from a definite energy level to the surface of the atom. it is presumed that all other velocities ob- tained are due to loss of energy in escaping from the matcrial experimented upon. (there is some doubt of this when ep is almost equal to hy.) the fact that the energy iv must be put into an atom to pro- duce radiation of frequency vp, and that an equal amount should reappear in an absorbing atom, is not so startling as that the num- ber of these energy units should seem to be the same. thus, the number of high-speed electrons ejected by a given beam has been found independent of distance from the source, independent of the absorbing substance, and unaffected even by the radiation being almost completely scattered in all directions. also, there is strong evidence that the number of electrons ejected by a char- acteristic x-radiation is equal to the number of atoms which emitted that radiation; and more particularly that one quantum of radiation from one atom can be visibly effective in only one atom, as appears from c. t. r. wilson’s condensation expert- ments. this suggests either that a spherical wave-train emitted by an atom (in the classical theory) is effective along only one definite ray, or alternatively that absorption at ay point renders the remainder ineffective. the latter is not in agreement with experiment when many such trains are present. such evidence leads directly to a quantum theory of radiation which postulates the existence of discrete particles of radiation, each moving along a single continuous path—j. j. thomson’s waves along discrete tubes of force, einstein’s light quanta, and j. j. thomson’s recent combined quantum-wave theory. on the other hand, the phenomena of scattering of x-rays and light, including all the interference phenomena of scattered radia- tions, are explicable only on the assumption that the potential activity of a wave spreads out in all directions. the energy, the distribution and the polarisation of the scattered x-rays are all precisely as predicted in the classical spreading wave theory and on no other. the theory is that every extra-nuclear electron in the matter traversed contributes its share of scattering not in quanta, but in almost infinitesimal amounts. the electrons, even in the quantum-atom, are thus radiators on the classical theory when the energy is supplied to them by the primary radia- tion and leaves the energy of the atom untapped. the “ quan- tum theory of scattering ’’ (unfortunately named) has been given by a. h. compton to explain not scattering but the production quantum of the radiation 7.e., 4a2’s hy. is the limiting quebec of a second (displaced) spectral line sometimes observed with the scattered x-radiation. he applies the principles of the con- servation of energy and of momentum to an incident quantum of radiation which, on encountering an atom, ejects an electron and causes the emission of a quantum of secondary radiation. this, having less energy than the incident quantum, has lower fre- ioe r ‘ quency for ba if such a phenomenon actually occurs it is 3 certainly subject to some unidentified condition (compare bark- la’s j phenomenon with compton’s quantum scattering theory). also, the phenomena of reilexion or diffraction of x-rays by crystals show that the secondary waves are not effective except in certain definite directions in which waves would be expected to reinforce one another. where waves interfere, there the ef- fects of radiation disappear. (similarly, in optical interference phenomena in which complicated intensity distribution is in- volved.) itis what may be called microscopic examination which shows definite amounts of energy to appear only at certain points, and the problem is to show how it arrives there in quanti- ties much greater than is carried by the waves passing over the absorbing atom. a natural assumption to make its that when an atom reaches a certain unstable state the properties of the surrounding medium are completely changed and energy pours into the atom from the surrounding region. theory makes no provision for this; nor is this surprising, for this is an unexplored region in which any- thing may happen. the subject is one for experimental study. but already we know—(j phenomenon)—that quanta of radia- tion are not independent entities in radiation, for a slight addi- tion to, or a slight elimination from, a complex x-radiation com- pletely changes the electron emission and absorption of that radiation. thus a quantum of radiation does not operate alone. there is thus neither need for, nor is there any room for a quan- tum of radiation as a distinct entity in addition to a quantum- atom. assuming the quantisation of electronic orbits or its equivalent, it is but a short step to the quantisation of atomic vibrations, for the bonds holding an atom are electronic bonds: quantised vibrations are probably inevitable. but the ccencep- tion of the rotational energy of a molecule changing in the pre- cise way governed by quantum rules is a difficult one, unless the duration of the energy transfer is at lcast comparable with the period of molecular rotation. though many other applications of quantum laws have been attempted, and with varying success, they contribute little to fundamental knowledge. the atom is certainly a quantum-atom; its internal structure and processes are governed by quantum-laws. for the present we can only accept these as empirical facts. bib_iocrarny.—j. h. jeans, report on radiation and the quan- tum theory, pub. london phys. soc. (1914); john mills, within the atom (1921): louis rougier, philosophy and the new ph ysis woes re: swindle, ouantum reactions and associations (1922); g, barkla, ‘ x-rays and the theory of radiation,” phil. trans. ee soc. (1917); f. reiche, the quantum theory (1922); e. p. adams, “* the quantum theory,” bull. of national research council of nat. acad, of sciences (1923); c. g. darwin, “ quantum theory” i sir r. glazebrook’s dictionary of applied physics, vol. 4 ‘(1923): a. sommerfeld, atomic structure and spectral lines (1923); c.t.r. wilson, proc. aes soe. ax); vol. 104 (1923); c. g. barkla, s. r, khastgir and g, . mackenzie, ‘ the j-phenomenon in x- -rays, phil. mag. oe 1925, and 1926); w. cy avg lewis, quantum theory (1924); j. j. thomson, “ the structure of light,” phil. mag. (1924- 5); vp. auger, jour. de physique (june 1925); p. a. m. dirac, ‘quantum mechanics,” proc. roy. soc., (a), vol. 109 (dec. 1925), vol. 110 (march 1926); w. heisenberg, zeits. f. phys., vol. 33 (1925); m. born, w. heisenberg and p. jordan, zerts. f. phys., sire « ad, quebec (city), canada (sce 22.727), had a population of 95,193 in 1921, estimated at 110,500 in 1924. nine-tenths of the popula- tion are french and roman catholic. quebec had for some years before 1914 been displaced by montreal in the shipping trade, but after 1911 the older port steadily improved its commercial and industrial position. as a manufacturing centre quebec has profited by the cheap electric power supplied from the shawinigan and montmorency falls. the harbour has been improved, and the largest drydock in the world has been built. quebec—queensland important factors contributing to the increased commercial importance of quebec were the successful completion of the quebec bridge and the building of the grand trunk pacific rail- way (now merged in the canadian national system), from prince rupert on the west coast of canada to quebec on the east. the distance from quebec to winnipeg by this railway is 145 m. shorter than that via montreal to winnipeg. the quebec bridge, connecting the north and south shores of the st. lawrence river at cap rouge, 9 m. from the centre of the city, was completed in 1917. this achievement marked the end of more than 10 years of effort, two accidents to portions of the huge structure having delayed the work in 1907 and jn 1917. the completion of the bridge made possible the running of six railways simultaneously into quebec from the south shore (see bridges). quebec has always been a base of supplies for a large region of mines, lumber camps and farms, but has gained further tmpor- tance owing to the rapid development of the water supplies of the province for purposes of electric power, particularly for the manu- facture of wood pulp. a large government technical school has been erected, and the basilica of notre-dame, the mother church of quebec, which was burnt down in 1922, has been rebuilt. a large area of the plains of abraham has been made into battle- fields park. the old portion of the chateau frontenac hotel was destroyed by fire in 1926. a war memorial cross has been erected in front of montcalm market, and a monument to hebert, the first settler of quebec, in city ifall square. quebec (province), a province of the dominion of can- ada (see 22.724). through the addition of ungava in 1912, its area was increased to a total of 706,834 square miles. the pop- ulation was 2,361,199 in 1921, an increase of 17% over i91t; about 906% are canadian born. in 10921, 1,889,277 were of french and 357,108 of british origin; the number of indians was 11,566. the chief cities and their populations in 1921 were: quebec, the capital, 95,193; montreal, 618,506; verdun, 25,000; i{ull, 24,117; sherbrooke, 23,515 and three rivers 22,367. the population of shawinigan falls, an important centre of power development, increased from 4,265 in 1911 to 10,625 in 1921. the government consists of a lieutenant-governor, a fegisla- tive council of 24 members appointed for life and a legislative assembly of 86 members elected for five years. quebec is the only canadian province in which women are not enfranchised. the province is represented in the federal parliament by 24 senators and 65 members of the house of commons. the legis- lative grants for higher education and elementary schools are apportioned according to population; of the grant for normal schools, however, the protestants receive one-third. the cle- mentary schoo! grant is supplemented by local municipal taxa- tion through trustees. after 1920 the provincial government, with the assistance of a federal grant, did much towards the development of technical education. production and industry —the leading field crops and their values in 1925 were: hay and clover, $58,517,000; oats, $32,- 946,000; and potatoes, $35,692,000; barley, wheat, rye, peas, buckwheat, beans, root crops, alfalfa and fodder corn are also grown. ‘the area under crops in 1925 was 6,828,700 ac.; the total value of field crops was $150,253,000. apples, plums and other fruits are produced in large quantities. between 1914 and 1925 the province spent a large amount annually on the develop- ment of the dairying industry, which showed marked expansion. the value of dairy products in 1925 was $26,527,647. in 1925 there were about 200,000 sq. m. of forest land in que- bec. of this enormous area but a small proportion has been cut over; the estimated cut for 1925-6 was 1,500 million feet. pulp and paper production are of growing importance: in 1924 pulp production was valued at $44,090,213, and paper produc- tion at $62,523,583. the maple sugar industry 1s of consiclerable importance, the average annual value of sugar and syrup pro- duced approximating $4,000,000. the forests, especially in the ar northern part, abound in game, both fur-bearing and otherwise: 174,000 sq. m. have been set apart for the preservation of fish and game by the provincial government. quebec ranked second to ontario in the value of its fur trade in 1923, which amounted to $3,049,656. the fisherics are important, the annual value of the catch being approximately $2,220,000. the mineral pro- duction of the province in 1924 was $18,429,872, a decline of nearly $3,000,000 from the preceding year. the decline was chiefly apparent in the production of asbestos, mica, magnesite and cement, but copper, zinc, lead and molybdenite showed an increase in production. manufactures and communications.—there were 7,142 manu- facturing establishments in the province in 1923, with a capital of §1,00g,898,982, employing 163,622 persons, and with a gross production value of $811,103,396. rapid expansion of the use of water power for commercial purposes, especially at shawini- gan and valleyfield, has contributed greatly to industrial pro- gress. ‘the chief manufactures are pulp and paper, textiles, boots and shoes, tobacco and cigars and machinery. quebec had 5,254 m. of steam and electric railway tn 1923. the headquarters of both the canadian national railway and the canadian pacific railway are in montreal. of the 45,374 m. of highways in 1924, 2,516 were of gravel and some 2,000 of macadam or concrete. (see canada.) (s. le.) queensland (see 22.732), a state of the australian common- wealth. area 670,500 square miles. in 1925 the population was 8cz,214, an inerease of 249,401 since rotr. brisbane, the capital and principal port, had on dec. 31 1924 a population of 245,015. political history.—queensland is one of the strongholds of the labour party, and labour governments were in power from 1915 to 1926. the legislative council was abolished in 1922. several state enterprises were established, including sheep and cattle stations, butchers’ shops, fish supply, a coal-mine and a state insurance department. much of the legislation passed was of an experimental nature. the primary producers organisation act, passed in 1922, aimed at the organisation of the agricultural industries in a completely unified national organisation, and under the primary products pools act 1922 power was given for the creation of boards to control the marketing of any com- modity. capital punishment was abolished in 1922. the lands act amendment act, passed in 1920, which was regarded as repudiating the conditions under which leases had been granted for pastoral development, was strongly criticised in great britain, queensland is the only australian state which has developed its railway system from several maritime centres instead of from one capital city. production and industries.—essentially a pastoral country, in 1924 the state carried 19,028,252 sheep and 6,454,653 cattle. there has been a considerable development in dairying, the pro- duction of butter having nearly doubled between 1913 and 1925. despite the “ white australia ” policy, the sugar industry has made great progress in north queensland. the labour employed is largely southern european, of which there was a considerable influx after the war. the output of sugar increased from 162,136 tons in 1919-20 to 519,017 tonsin 1925. ‘the action of the com- monwealth govt. in guaranteeing the price of the yield for the three years 1920-2 induced mill-owners to make additions to plant and farmers to put new areas under cane. after 1920 there was a revival of cotton-growing. in tor1g, 72 ac. were under cotton: in 1925 the acreage was 60,000, with a yield of 24,000,000 pounds. in order to encourage the industry, the commonwealth and queensland governments advanced up to 53d. per ib. on all seed cotton delivered at ginneries during the seasons 1923~4 and 1924-5. the production of ratoon or perennial cotton was at first prohibited, but later allowed under certain conditions. the value of the mineral production in 1924 was £2,305,963, uf which f985,542 represented coal, £380,025 copper, £450,710 gold, £167,469 silver and lead, and £175,509 tin. (see australia.) 272 rachs of aces of mankind.—the studv of the varieties of the human race has occupied the attention of thinkers from early times. two entirely different forms of classification have been employed, one based on the study of the skull, the second, and more generally used method, on superficial char- acters, such as skin and hair, which may be observed on the living man. to a certain extent these two methods have been combined in modern times. cranial form.—apart from sergi, who elaborated a method of classification based on cranial form, the shape being estimated by viewing the skull from on top, most anthropologists have pre- ferred to take measurements, especial importance being attached to the cephalic index—the percentage ratio of the length to the breadth—but numerous other measurements have been made, mostly of little value for classification. w. l. h. duckworth sug- gested the combination of three characters on the skull, the cranial capacity (which is obtained by filling the brain case with shot or rape seed and then pouring the seed into a graduated measure), the cephalic index and the degree of prognathism (measured by taking the angle which the most projecting part of the jaw makes with the forehead). on the basis of the possible combinations of these criteria duckworth divided mankind into seven different groups. | coefficient method.—karl pearson devised a method, termed the coefficient of racial likeness, which aims by a method of averaging at including a very large number of measurements in a single figure. the method is complex, and depends on the differ- ence between a series of measurements taken on a set of skulls belonging to one race, and those taken on a second set. there ts less difference in those closely allied than in those more distantly rclated, and the coefficient is correspondingly smaller or bigger. the rather complex mathematical processes involved are the chief disadvantage of the coefficient, which is still in the experi- mental stage. colour groups.—as regards the superficial characters ob- served on the living subject, certain criteria have found accept- ance for a considerable time, but opinions differ as to the relative value of these criteria. the oldest grouping of mankind, which is still in popular use, is that of skin colour. it has been sug- gested that the degrces in pigmentation of the human skin are due to the effects of environment, either to sunlight or humidity or a combination of both, the evolutionary changes which took place at an earlier date having become part of the heritage of the races we know to-day. although the darkest skins are to be found in the tropics, whereas the fairest occur in the temperate climate of western europe, attempts to correlate skin colour and environment break down when specific cases are considered. some exceptions can be explained by recent immigration, others again, especially in the individual, by racial admixture, for where races are mixed we may find members of the same family who are very differently pigmented. on the whole the average value of the skin colour in various groups is correlated with other criteria, which appear to be good bases for classification. one of the most important of these is the cephalic index. ‘taking the length as too, the proportion of the breadth seldom falls below 7o or over go, and it is usual to describe those peoples with an index below 75 as dolichocephalic (long-headed), those above 80 as bruchvcephalic (short-headed), the interme- diate group being mesocephalic. taken by itself, either in the individual or the race, the cephalic index is by no means a cer- tain guide. we find brachycephalic, mesocephalic and dolicho- cephalic groups in all the greater divisions of mankind. in the individual, a series of 6,000 japanese contained one man with an index of 69, and one of 96, and in a continuous series between these two extremes over 700 (about 12°%%) having indices be- tween 80 and 81, the average being just under the latter figure. of the characters generally in use, however, the cephalic index shows most consistently the lowest relative variation within mankind small groups. it is therefore of great value for classifving smaller units within the wider divisions, but deductions can only be drawn from the average of a reasonably large number of indi- viduals, at least 50 of the same sex. the practice of artificial deformation may to a certain extent obscure the true head form, and where it occurs the cephalic index is often of little value. usually long heads are associated with long faces and vice versa, the face being then termed harmonic. a certain use of this fact has been made for classificatory purposes. there are other features of facial form which appear to be characteristic of different races, but though often easily recognisable are dimcult to measure exactly. stature and nose form.—stature is a very variable character, depending on many conditions, of which food and habit seem to be the most important. in spite, however, of this variation in individual cases the average stature of a group is auseful criterion. the form of the nose is estimated by an index formed by taking the length from the root to the junction with the upper jip as roo anc expressing the breadth across the nostrils as a proportion of this. professor thomson, to whom the idea was originally due, and buxton have shown that the nasal index tends to be high in those countries where the air is moist and hot and low where it is cold and dry, the various combinations of these two factors being associated with corresponding nasal indices. the correlation is high with certain very marked exceptions, of which the most important is the australian aborigines. it seems probable that they migrated from a hot, moist climate, and that they have re- tained the form of nose most appropriate to such a climate. the evolution of any character needs the time factor, especially when, as in this case, evolution by elimination has played an important part. while the nasal index may be ultimately related to environment, it is still of considerable value for classification. ilair form.—on the basis of the form of the hair, mankind may be divided into straight-haired (letotrichous), woolly-haired (wlotrichous) and an intermediate group of wavy or curly- haired (cymotrichous). certain types are difficult to define, but usually the distinction is clear-cut. all types of hair may occur in the same population, where racial admixture has taken place, but normally the variation is slight in the same group. in sections the woolly hair is flat and ribbon-like, straight hair is round, wavy and curly hair showing an elliptical form. here also there may be a certain correlation with environment. the woolly hair occurs for the most part in the tropics and may form a protection against the sun, being associated with special sweat- glands. the evolution of the hair form has taken place at a com- paratively remote period, so that it remains the most convenient basis for the ultimate classification of the great groups of man, the other criteria being subordinated to it. in this classification physical criteria alone have been used; all cultural or linguistic terms have been avoided. owing to historical reasons certain peoples have been named after the languages they speak, and subsequently these terms have been applied to physical types. terms like malay, dravidian, mongol and bantu are used as if they could be applied to races and not merely to peoples speak- ing certain groups of languages. other classifications.—the classification given below is based on the anatomical characters already discussed; attention has, however, been recently directed towards certain physiological characters as a basisof racial differentiation. several criteria have been put forward, amongst them the different reactions of the blood sera in divergent races and the effect of the ductless glands on the macroscopical anatomical characters. although great stress has been jaid on the latter, especially by sir arthur keith, neither this nor other physiological criteria have to the present time been sufficiently investigated to form a basis for a novel classificatory method. rac es of m an plate fics. 1 and 4. papuo-melanesian. fics. 2 and 5. andamanese (male and female). fics. 3 and 6. australian (n.s.w.). fic. 7. negro. fic. 8. paroean (malay). fic. 9. southern chinese (female). fic. 10. modified nordic. fic. 11. eskimo (female). fic. 12. indian (hopi). (for acknowledgment of photos, see text.) races of mankind straight -haired groups.—the straight-haired peoples cor- respond to a large extent to the races called by some writers mongol or mongoloid, or ‘‘ the yellow-brown race.” all these peoples possess cheek-bones of a greater or lesser degree of prominence. in most cases the face is flattened, often markedly so. the skin is usually yellow, shading into a coppery yellow or brown on one side, and on the other, especially in women, a pale almost white yellow tinge. in asia the cephalic index tends to vary between mesocephaly and brachycephaly, with some marked cases of the latter form. in america the eskimo (fig. 11 on plate) are dolichocephalic and a wide range of mesocephaly and brachycephaly occurs among the other tribes. while haddon divides this race into three groups on the basis of a cephalic index, it is probably more convenient to adopt a primary geographical division and to separate the leiotrichi into an asiatic and american group, since the latter have been separated from their kinsmen in asia for a long time and have to a certain extent specialised. asiatic groups.—there are three groups in asia, a northern or arctic group, a central group, the pareoeans (the dwellers beside the dawn) and a southern or proto-malay, it being pos- sible that the two latter groups, formerly included under the term southern mongoloid, should be classed together. the northern group is rather indeterminate, and includes a number of tribes living in the circumpolar regions of asia and extending even as far west as northern scandinavia, where they are represented by the lapps. most of these peoples have mixed with other races, to which fact their diversity is due, but they certainly include a mesocephalic and a round-headed sub- division. in eastern asia at least there is a more northerly group, living in the most easterly extension of the continent and a more southerly group, but the difference is probably due to racial admixture, consequent on the intrusion of the peoples who brought in the turko-mongol culture from the west and thus divided the northern and central groups of the straight-haired peoples. in korea there is a narrow belt which forms a connecting link between the northern and the pareoean peoples. the latter differ most strikingly from their northern neighbours in having less prominent cheek-bones and a broadish nose. in the north of china they are often tall; in the south, where the type is found in greater purity, they are short and more stockily built (fg. 9 on plate). the japanese represent a special variety of this type; they have mixed considerably with the ainu, and this, at least in some cases, has altered their physical type. the southern extension of these peoples, the proto-malays, are widely spread in southeastern asia and in the islands. they are seldom found in an unmixed state, but have been brought so much in contact with the various other peoples of this region that it is often difficult to distinguish them except by their broader heads (sce fig. 8). the straight-haired peoples also extend into central asia, where they are known as turks and mongols. ‘these terms are cultural and linguistic, and cannot be used in a racial sense. great racial admixture has undoubtedly taken place in this region and much of the population is closely connected with the peoples of the west, but types frequently occur with straight hair, very prominent cheek-bones and folds over the corners of their eyes, all of which characters show affinities with the arctic group already discussed. most remote from the straight-haired peoples and showing certain relationships to them are the polynesians, who live on the islands of the pacific from samoa to easter 1. and hawai to new zealand. they probably represent an old mixture be- tween the proto-malays and a group of the curly-haired people called nesiots (islanders, see below), but other admixture has taken place and their position is difficult exactly to determine. the amerinds.—as regards the american aborigines, for whom the term amerind has become conventionalised, it has been disputed whether they should be considered to belong to one race or not. the eskimo, who to-day inhabit the arctic coast of america, with a western extension into asia, and an eastern into 273 greenland, once lived as far south as the coast of massachusetts, and survived near quebec till comparatively recent times. they differ from the other inhabitants of america in many respects notably in having extremely long skulls (the western eskimo differ somewhat in this respect), which are compressed laterally and are very high-pitched. they have broad faces, an unusual feature in people with a long skull, and very narrow noses. the jaws are exceptionally well-developed and the individual teeth are very large, possibly owing to the nature of their food (fig. 11 on plate). the amerinds themselves vary considerably in most of those characters usually considered to be of racial significance. hrd- licka, however, believes that they all belong to the same race. verneau has recently affirmed the concurrence of types akin to the melanesians, a view previously held by others also. haddon suggests with every degree of probability that side by side with the straight-haired peoples there is a cymotrichous type, which he has called palaeo-amerinds. the subdivisions of the true straight-haired amerinds are somewhat complicated and need not be discussed in great detail. the best basis for division is the cephalic index, but stature and other features must be taken into consideration. the nasal in- dex, it should be noted, increases towards the centre of the two continents (fig. 12 on plate). the peoples of the northwest coast are most closely allied to the inhabitants of asia, and are distinguished from the other amerinds by their lighter skin colour. east of the rockies and extending over the great plains and into the woodland area there is a group of tall tribes with mesocephalic heads, of whom the sioux are a typical example. on the east coast in ancient times there was a different type with longer, narrower heads. on the american plateau and extending into central and southern america there is a round-headed type, of short stature and with straight noses, to whom the maya of ancient times were akin. the aztecs were more long-headed and their relationship with the more northerly peoples can be traced through some of the inhabitants of northern mexico today. the ethnology of south america is as yet not fully estab- lished, but several types can be distinguished, one akin to the maya peoples and a different type, with a round head and tall stature, who live in patagonia, of whom the fuegians, familiar since darwin’s voyage of the beagle (1845) are a branch. side by side with those straight-haired peoples there exist traces of a curly-haired race, the significance of whose presence in south america is discussed below. with the exception of the palaeo- amerinds the distribution of the straight-haired peoples is con- tinuous, the bering strait forming the division between the asiatic and american branches. woolly-haired groups—the woolly-haired people have an extremely discontinuous distribution, namely, an eastern habitat which stretches from the continent of asia to fiji, and a western, the greater part of africa. attempts have been made to bridge this gap. hiising believes that in ancient times short dark curly- haired peoples occurred on the persian gulf in localities where negroes are still found. these negroes are, however, the de- scendants of imported slaves, and there is no information of a definite character to support hutsing’s contention. some of the jungle tribes of south india are said to have negroid characters, but at present no evidence has been collected to bridge the gap between the two groups, and the characters which link them may be due not to community of ancestry but to the effects of a tropical environment. in the absence, however, of any definite — proof of this contention the two groups may be linked together, with the caveat that the links which should connect them have as yet not been discovered. while the original centre of dispersion of these peoples is at present uncertain, there are almost certainly secondarycentresof dispersionin northeast africa and eastern asia. in addition to woolly hair all these peoples have the following characters in common: dark skins sometimes almost black, broad noses, usually a rather small brain in relation to their size, especially among the taller members of the group, with forearms and shins proportionately long. in the skeleton there is a smooth- 274 races of ness of contour which even in adults often recalls the bony form of a child, and among some members of the group the forehead has that prominent and smooth form which is so characteristic of the infant of our own race. in both eastern and western groups there is a division which includes some very small or pygmy peoples and another of medium or tall-statured tribes. eastern group.—the eastern group may be divided on this basis into the pygmy negritos and the taller papuans and melanesians. the former are all dark-skinned and have heads which are slightly rounded, the cephalic index varying from just under 80 to about 83. there are slight local differences due to the extreme isolation to which these peoples have been subjected. four separate geographical groups occur, one in the andaman islands (the andamanese), one in the central regions of the malay peninsula and eastern sumatra (the semang), a third in various parts of the philippine is., usually called after a well-known tribe, the aeta and a fourth group called after a tribe in the west- ern mountains of dutch new guinea, the tapiro, who have left traces in other parts of new guinea and probably also in parts of melanesia. all these groups are isolated from one an- other and occupy as it were almost the circumference of a circle. the andamanese occupy a very special position, both racially and geographically; they have been isolated for a long period and until recently were not in contact with any other race. such measurements as have been taken indicate that these people are remarkably true to type and show little variation from the average. they are probably the one human group which can be considered a “ pure ”’ race (figs. 2 and 3 on plate). the papuans and melanesians are distinguished from the negritos by their greater stature and narrower heads; the former probably represent the original stock. at one time they had a wide distribution throughout all melanesia, probably to australia, and the extinct tasmanian aborigines seem to have been a variety of this stock. to-day papuans are found in new guinea and in some of the most easterly of the indian archi- pelago islands. they may be distinguished from their kinsfolk by their retreating forehead, prominent brow-ridges and the form of their noses, which are often prominent and rounded, with a down-turned tip (figs. x and 4 on plate). 7 the melanesians are extremely variable and include a variety of racial elements, though the basis of the stock is papuan. the racial mixing which has taken place will account for the fact that, although they are usually woolly-haired, all varicties of hair are found. stature is equally variable, although the average height is under 5 ft. 3 inches. the prominent brow-ridges so char- acteristic of the papuans is not common and the nose is usually smaller than in these peoples. the melanesians have a wide distribution from the coastal regions of new guinea and the neighbouring islands to the pacific from new caledonia to the admiralty is., and as far eastwards as fiji; formerly they seem to have extended over most of the pacific. the bushmen.—the bushmen, who belong to the second group of the woolly-haired peoples, are also short, though not of pygmy stature; they differ from the other ulotrichi in having yellowish skins. now restricted to the kalahari desert, they formerly ranged over the whole of south africa and possibly over a much wider area. their hair is short and curls into little tufts like pepper-corns, giving the appearance of bald patches. the head is small and low and there is little or no forward projection of the jaw. the most distinctive character of the bushmen is a great development of the buttocks (steatopygia); this feature is specially developed in the women. the hottentots are closely allied to the bushmen and possess most of the characters already described. they represent a cross between the latter and other negroid stocks. . : , true negroes.—the true negroes inhabit the guinea coast, but their original range seems to have been over most of tropical africa. they are tall with black or dark brown skins, long nar- row heads and retreating foreheads and prominent jaws. the lips are thickened and everted and the nose is very broad. they have mixed with other elements and have produced hybrid stocks (fig. 7 on plate). in the upper nile valley numerous tribes, mankind called nilotes, are to be found; they are characterised by a very tall stature, a slender build and extremely narrow heads. there is also a more round-headed strain, due probably to an early admixture with some curly-haired people. most, if not all, of the nilotes have been considerably altered by contact with other non-negro peoples. in central and southern africa there are numerous negroid tribes characterised by a variety of physical form, due no doubt to racial admixture. the majority are long- headed with considerable variation in stature. the pygmies—lin the equatorial forests certain pygmy tribes live. these negrillos differ from the tall negroes not only in their stature but also in the lighter colour of their skin, which is often yellowish and covered by a light down, and in the more rounded form of the head; the nose is broader even than that of the negro. curly-haired groups.—the third great division of the human race, the curly-haired or cymotrichous, occupies in many ways an intermediate position between the other two groups. its distribution is world-wide, and it includes both undifferentiated and highly differentiated groups of mankind. the white races belong to this class. the centre of dispersion of the group was probably somewhere in asia, but the precise limits of this cradle land have not yet been determined. the hair varies from wavy to curly, and, whereas in other races it is, with but few exceptions, black or dark brown, in this group every shade occurs from a dead black to a fair straw colour; the brown, however, predominates. the skin colour is equally variable. most members of this race have a fairly large brain in relation to their body size, but some of the more primi- tive members are extremely small-brained. the forehead in the males has usually a well-marked prominence over the eyes, the so-called ‘ bar of michael angelo.” the face is never flattened nor are the lips everted. the stature is very variable, but no pygmy types are found. | every degree of cephalic index is found, and this still remains the most convenient method of simple classification. the race, however, contains certain sub-races which appear to be more primitive than others and the division into primitive and more advanced groups brings out certain points which may otherwise’ be overlooked. the primitive which survive are the proto- nordics, the proto-indics and the australian aborigines. the palaco-amerinds also probably belong to this class. the more advanced peoples include a dolichocephalic group,'a mesoce- phalic and a brachycephalic group. proto-nordics—the proto-nordics appear at one time to have had a wide distribution over northern asia. some of the present inhabitants of the turkoman steppes present this type in an undifferentiated form. the ainu, who have within comparatively recent times been driven out of the main islands of japan, and who still inhabit the northern island (hokkaido) saghalien, and to the south the riukiu islands. this curious people are of medium stature, very stockily built, with large heads and a marked bar across the forehead. they have an abundance of hair on the head and body and long, wavy beards. their eyes are straight as in europeans and their general appearance contrasts very strongly with the japanese who to-day live amongst them. proto-indics.—the proto-indics may beclassed geographically into three, possibly four, divisions: first, the jungle tribes of southern india (some of the more primitive tribes of northern india also have affinities with this stock); secondly, the vedda, the most primitive of the inhabitants of ceylon; and thirdly, some of the more primitive peoples of the southern part of the malay peninsula, of whom the best-known are the sakai and senoi. in sumatra and celebes and possibly elsewhere in the malay archipelago there survive tribes who may be considered as 2 fourth division of the proto-indics, but here they have for the most part been mixed with other stocks. in much of south- eastern asia there is a racial background of proto-indics who have been overlaid by other invaders, but the stock has survived in a relatively pure state in the places enumerated above. the proto-indics have curly hair, very dark and often nearly dead black skins, a short stature and extremely broad noses. racing—radek the ausiralian aboriginal —the australian aborigines almost certainly belong to the same stock, but they possess some spe- cial characteristics which may be due to the length of time they have been isolated from the parent stem. the skin is usually of a dark chocolate brown, the hair, which is somewhat variable but usually curly, is frequently very abundant on the face and body. the stature is medium, the nose very broad, and their most distinctive feature is the great bony development of the skull, including a great massing of bone over the eyes and a big development of the jaws and teeth (see figs. 3 and 6). whereas the proto-indics, notably the veddas, have extremely small skulls, those of the australians, though often containing an ex- tremely small brain-case, are always massively built, and the beetling brows, low forehead and projecting lower part of the face give the males a very characteristic appearance. advanced long-headed types.—the long-headed peoples of less primitive type can be divided into several groups, but it seems extremely probable that all belong to the same stock; most of them can be distinguished from the proto-indics by their greater stature, and all by the narrower form of the nose. local groups of these peoples have become separated into sub-races which breed true. _ eastern groups —the most easterly representatives ot these stocks in asia are the nestots, who are found mixed with the straight-haired, round-headed proto-malays in the malay archipelago, in the philippines, sporadically in southeastern asia and in the interior of southern china; the exact extension of these peoples is not yet fully known. in southern india a large proportion of the population belongs to a second group, chersiots (mainlanders, as opposed to nesiots, islanders). they are here much mixed with proto-indics and round-heads. in the northern part of india the proportion of the round-heads is much greater, and in the northwest the round-headed element predominates. in rajputana and in the punjab there is another group of long-heads, to be distinguished from the chersiots by their taller stature, fairer skins and narrower noses. | these hfaddon terms indo-afghans. western groups.—further west, in the horn of africa and the desert between the nile and the red sea, this stock is dominant in the population, though frequently mixed with negrocs. these iribes represent the modern descendants of the proto-egyptian population. among the groups of this stock with a white com- plexion several varieties may be distinguished: one, the eur- african, seems only to occur in isolated spots in north africa and western europe, including part of the british isles, another 1s met with among the bedouin arabs, while the third or mediter- ranean race forms the fringing population of the mediterranean sea and the western atlantic seaboard of europe. in the eastern mediterranean it is inextricably mixed with the armenoid peoples. - among the mesocephals haddon includes three groups; two, however, the pyrenean and the atlanto-mediterranean are prob- ably hybrids. the third, the nordic, is more clearly marked and is characterised by fair skin and hair, blue eyes and a tall stature .(fig. 10 on plate). to-day they form one element in the population of the british isles and northern france, belgium and holland, and northern germany. they predominate in scan- dinavia.’ | - the round-headed group.—the great round-headed branch of the cymotrichi is conveniently called eurasiatic. it extends all along the great mountain chain from the central plateau of france on the west to the himalayas on the east. the alpine branch of the family is distributed along the central massif of europe into central and even eastern asta, the armenoid or tllyrio-anatolian has a more limited range in southeastern europe and western asia. they may be distinguished by the extreme flatness and height of the head. in the pamirs, in persia, and extensively in central asia and in india, a separate branch of this race, the pamiri, is found, while locally in western europe isolated examples of two early groups, the prospectatores and the “ beaker folk ” still survive. they probably resulted from early crossing of round-heads with mediterranean and nordic man respectively. all these peoples are marked by the roundness 279 of their heads, their brown, auburn or biacx hair and somewhat sallow or olive skins. the eyes vary from brown to hazel, but blue eyes are found. most of the migratory movements which resulted in the pres- ent distribution of mankind took place too far back in history for us to estimate their exact course, but in all probability human stocks were evolved near the places where we first find them recorded in historic times. some migrations belong to the domain of ancient history, but it is very doubtful how far these movements have actually affected the physical type. in all probability ethnological history has consisted chiefly of the gradual extension of dominant types (sce a. c. haddon, races of mankind, 1924). (li hdb) figs. 1, 3, 4 and 6 ‘in the plate are reproduced by permission of a.c. haddon. figs. 2 and 5 by permission of e.h. man. figs. 7, 8,9 and 12 by permission of l. h. dudley buxton. fig. 11 by permission of the department of human anatomy, oxford. racing: sce horse racing. racquets (sce 22.780), a game which, although standing as high as ever in the estimation of players, is so expensive that, except at the public schools, the tendency is toward less play than formerly. indeed, more than one court has lately been con- verted into courts for the inexpensive game of squash racquets, which is becoming very popular. at the public schools, however, the number of racquets players is, if anything, increasing and the keenness is as great as ever. the world’s championship in toto was held by w. jansetji, the parsee player, but he was deprived of it soon afterwards by charles williams, then professional at harrow school. he, in his turn, was beaten shortly before the war by jock soutar, an english born player attached to the philadelphia club. soutar was the holder in 1925, having again defeated williams at phila- delphia and new york. the open championship of england was won in jan. 1925, by charles read, of queen’s club. the lead- ing amateur players in the period 1910-25 in england were e, m. baerlein, who has established a record by winning the amateur championship nine times, b.s. foster, h. w. leatham, hon. c. n. bruce, j. c. f. simpson and r. c. o. williams. as a double pair simpson and williams, who visited america to play matches in the spring of 1925, were particularly good. the british army has, during the same time, had several good players, notably gen. s. h. sheppard, col. w. e. wilson- johnston, maj. a. c. g. luther, capt. t. o. jameson and col. a. j. h. sloggett. c. c. pell and stanley mortimer have been the leading american amateurs. pell, on his visit to great britain in 1925, was successful, being the first american player to win the amateur championship. : | the public schools competition, at queen’s club, kensington, is the central event of the english season. the winners of this since 1910 have been as follows: 1910, 1912 and 1914, charter- house; 1911, 1923 and 1924, rugby; 1913 and 1921, wellington; 1919, marlborough; 1920, malvern; 1922, eton. the charter- house pair of 1910, h. w. leatham and h, a. denison, were one of the finest ever seen in the event, while d. s. milford of rugby in 1923 and 1924 was a brilliant individual player. ae the tennis and racquets association in 1923 undertook the remodelling of the rules of the game as played in the british isles. in america and canada there are some slight differences, the chief being that, whereas in the english rules two services are allowed, in the united states and canada a player who delivers a fault is put out at once. with a view to cheapening the game, various efforts have been made to produce composition balls and racquets with metal frames, but at present nothing has been found adequately to replace the old conditions. (e. b.n.) radek, karl (1885- ), russian politician, was born 1n lvov (austrian poland) and educated at the universities of cra- cow and berne. in 1904 he became a member of the social demo- cratic party of poland and lithuania. during the revolution of 1905 he spent a year in prison, and subsequently became a mem- ber of the editorial staff of social democratic newspapers in po- land, leipzig and bremen which supported the left wing of the german social democrats. during the world war, after some 276 months of illegal anti-militarist activity in germany, he had to leave that country and established himself in switzerland where he wrote for the berne yagedlati. he took part in the zimmer- wald and kienthal internationalist conferences in sept. 1915 and april 1916. after the russian revolution of march 1917 he crossed germany, together with lenin, zinoviev, martov and others and remained in stockholm as the representative of the central committee of the bolshevik party, issuing a weekly bulletin on the russian revolution in french and german. after the second revolution, in nov. 1917, he took part in the brest- litovsk peace negotiations. when the german revolution broke out in r918 he made his way illegally to germany, where as a representative of the central committee of the russian communist party he took a very active part in reorganising the german communist party, working in its central committee after the murders of karl liebkneckt and rosa luxemburg on jan. 16 191g. he was imprisoned in germany from feb. to dec. 1919. while still in prison in berlin he was visited by talaat pasha and as a consequence relations between russia and turkey were re- established. on his release from prison radek returned to russia, where he became one of the leading members of the praesidium of the communist international. he returned illegally to germany, however, and took part in the organisation of the joint congress of german communists and left independents. as delegate of the russian trades unions he attended the international confer- ence oftradesunions concerned with questions of the war. he was made a scapegoat for the failure of the german communists to seize power in the autumn of 1923, and, on account of his support of the “ right ”’ groups of the german communists, he lost his authority in the communist international, losing his place in its central committee and in the central committee of the russian communist party. he was a most prolific writer in the russian press on various questions of international politics. in 1925 he was appointed rector of the sun yat sen university for chinese students in moscow. radiation: see electric radiation. radio: see broadcasting; wireless.