{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:portuguese literature:7e176b9956ad", "title": "PORTUGUESE LITERATURE", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "1952e31ed594feed91fa5477ee6d38422095bde3e7a1a2b33b6c07382ec43f75", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "constant political unrest has been prejudicial to letters in a small country without a numerous leisured class, and no distinguished literary figure arose during the years 1910-25, but even before 1910 a reaction had begun against revolutionary methods in politics and laxity, or agnosticism in religion, which may lead to a healthier national life. this movement showed itself in the later works of ec¢a de queriroz who had founded the naturalist school, in the return to the church of the prose writer ramalho ortigeo and of the great poet guerra junqueiro, whose book, poestus dispersas, dates from ro21, and it is found not only in the writers of the integralist school (a portuguese counterpart to the l’ action francaise) but even among men of advanced opinions like the novelist manuel ribeiro; most of the leading poets and prose writers are once more declared catholics and they have gone back to the people for inspiration, with happy results. nationalism and regionalism have taken the place of natural- ism and symbolism, which were copied from france and never commended themselves to portuguese feeling as a whole. the prevailing political and economic gloom has driven the intellt- genza to seek salvation in the spirit of the race, which is essen- tially catholic, and has survived in the hearts of the country dwellers, who form the vast majority of the population. the inability of 60°% of these to read, saved many of them from losing their ideals and character during the period when a lib- eral, destructive and anti-religious atmosphere permeated news- papers and books. under the influence of the movement referred to, and perhaps also of the 16th century, the golden age of letters, eugenio de castro, the doyen of living poets and once a rather artificial portuguese symbolist, developed a simple and natural manner in cuncocs desia negra vida (1922) containing the poignant song of a poor afan’s lamp and the witty seng of an old english clock, and in cravos de papel (1922), gentle satire runs through short descrip- tive poems, clearly cut and almost popular in form. his later publications include a mantilha de afedronhes (1923), impres- sions of spain, -1 caixinha de cem conchas (1923), quatrains on the most varied subjects, slightly malicious but true to life, and chamas de una candera vclha (1925). the titles are happily chosen and suggest the spirit of the contents. poets and poetry.—the most admired of the younger poets of this period, antonio correia de oliveira, continued to draw in- spiration from the soil and religion, as in the alwie das quatro estucgoes (1911) and pao nosso, vinho alegre, ascite de candcia (1922), but his works are marred by repetition and an incapacity for sustained thought. ‘the last defect is avoided in a minha ferra (1916) and in a creacdo, a series of poems in various metres on the genesis of things; some true poetry mingles with much vague rhetoric and the versification shows technical skill. au- gusto gil, a hardly less esteemed poet, published three books, sombra de juno (1915), alba plena (1916) hymns of tender de- votion on the life of the blessed virgin, and a frazta de cuna and he had the honour of a volume to himself in the anthology of agostinho de campos. teixeira de pascoaes, a sincere but neb- ulous pantheist, the inventor of what is called saudosismo, wrote a tragedy in verse on the late king carlos, devoid of dramatic situations but remarkable for its beautiful lyrics. not only portuguese but spanish critics have hailed him as a great poet and some of his compositions have been compared to those of wordsworth. love of nature distinguishes him, but he pays too little attention to form, though his verse has a music of its own. affonso lopes vicira, a writer of exquisite taste and sense of rhythm, translated the traditions of the race and the poetry of the sea in i/has de bruma (1918) and produced refacimentes of two works of world fame in his amadis and diana, marked by rare artistry and understanding of the originals. the last pub- lication of the republican politician joio de barros, prolific in verse and prose, is a poem sisife, in which he treats the classical legend in a novel way. prose writers.—the new manner is seen even more clearly in prose and especially in the novel, though it did not touch the austere republican and conscientious analyst of middle-class society teixeira de queiroz (d. 1919). following in the steps of oliveira martins, anthero de figueiredo has sought to com- bine history and art in d. pedroe d. ines (1913) and leonor telles (1916) and above all in d. sebastigo (1924), where he revives the figure of the last crusading king, and by the aid of contemporary accounts paints a picture of the times with abun- dant imagination. it is a frankly nationalistic book, but though the author at the close exhorts his countrymen to educate themselves and work, it is to be feared that his panegyric of the noble but headstrong monarch may have a contrary effect to the one intended. his espanha (1923), jornadas em portugal (1918) and senhora do amparo (1920) are regional works, in a glowing style, which in the second suffers from over elaboration. the lack of a sound classical education is too evident in mod- ern portuguese prose, and few dare to attempt the straight- forward narrative, sparing of adjectives and uncommon words, which is the chief attraction of the classics. raul brandao is an exception: his pescadores (1924), dedicated to “ my grandfather who died at sea,” tells of fisher folk and the tragedy of the ocean with poignant realism, and contains magnificent descriptions of the coast scenery from north to south, ending at sagres, the town of prince henry the navigator. the book is worthy of the author of os pobres (1921). the trilogy of manoel ribeiro, a cathedral, probably suggested by huysmans, o deserto and a resurreigao, constitute a remarkable performance in subject and atmosphere, without precedent in modern portuguese, and its popularity is not less remarkable. no better proof could be adduced of the changed times than these “ clerical ” books by a man of far from clerical ideas. at the close of this period he initiated a new trilogy with .1 colina sagrada (1926). the nat- literature uralism of eca de queiroz found a fresh interpreter in aquilino ribeiro, a novelist highly considered throughout the peninsula, whose works sold by the thousand. equal as a psychologist to his master and possessed of a rich vocabulary, no one can create characters or picture one side of country life so faithfully as he has done in «ll via sinnosa (1918). in to25 he produced filhus de babilonta, an unpleasant book, and estrudu de santiago. the voluminous jofio grave added gente pobre (1912), parsifal and a vida e paixdo da infanta to his hist of romances. sousa costa the novel romeu ec julieta, and a brilliant satire on contemporary political events is to be found in saude e fruternidade by campos monteiro. the gente de palmo e meio of augusto all contain delightful short stories. lhe drama—the drama is, as ever in portugal, the weak spot and there are few original plays of merit to record; the theatre continuing to live for the most part on versions from the french. julio dantas added to his repertory o repostciro verde (1912), a successful piece, and afariana, but they only confirmod and did not increase his reputation. among other pieces may be mentioned o herdciro and entre giestas of carlos selvagem, a talented prose writer, d. jodo e a mascara (t924) and the lyrical play diniz e isabel (1919) of antonio patricio, o gebo e a sombra (1923), a tragedy of unrelieved gloom and considerable power by raul brandao, and igas afonis (1918) by dr. jaime cortesao. augusto de lacerda, the dramatic critic, also a playwright, his tragic comedy, o pastellira de madrigal gaining a prize in 1924. the veteran henrique lopes de mendonca used his qualities as a dramatist and his knowledge of old portugal in the compo- sition of five stirring tales, lawcus 2 africa, cupa e mspada, pumoes da india, santos de casa and sanyne portugues (1921-5). the conde de sabugosa, lord chamberlain under the monarchy, published five volumes of historical studies between ro12 ancl 1924. to wide reading, made possible by his richly stocked library, and critical ability, he joined imagination and a sense of humour, a combination not very frequent anywhere. his most substantial work is «ll ratha d. leonor (1921). he dis- covered and edited the aufo du festa of gil vicente (1525) and the lueo da natural invencam (1550) (ed. 1917) of ribeiro chi- ado, two real contributions to letters and scholarship. another fidulgo, the visconde de santarem, printed the correspondence and re-issued some of the geographical and historical works of his famous namesake, including the //tstoria e theoria dus cortes geraes (1924). the integralist leader antonio sardinha (d. 1925) icft among other works -l alfianca peninsular, lo ritmo du um- pulheta and ao principo era o verbo, the last containing well doc- umented studies on gen. gomes freire, grand master of mason- ry, executed for conspiracy in 1817, and the unjustly abused d. carlota joaquina, wife of king john vi. they throw fresh light on these subjects and the author’s conclusions are likely to stand. other essays of his were, at this time, being reprinted in the review nvacdo portugucsa. tlippolito raposo and manuel murias belong to the same school. dr. m. goncalves cerejeira made his name by a work on the renaissance with versions of the letters of the humanist cleynarts; his last volume being -1 tyrejya co pensamento contemporanco. fistorical works.—pyrevious to this period there was no com- plete history of portugal worthy of the name, for such as existed were neither impartial, nor the work of men with critical ability and learning. a mass of fresh facts and documents were printed in reviews like the archivo hmistorico portugues and prof. for- tunato de almeida used these to compile his f/isterta de por- tugal, the third volume of which, carrying the narrative down to 1580, has appeared. the book marks a great advance on its predecessors, covers a wide field and is well supplied with notes. the same scholar published in four stout volumes a [fisforia da tgreja em portugal (1gto, etc.), equally well documented. the great historian gama barros (d. 1925) issued in 1922 the 4th volume of his monumental j?tstoria da administracao pub- lica em portugal nos seculos 12 a 15 and was engaged on a fifth at his death. j. lucio d’azevedo, the authority on pombal, produced an excellent biography of the 17th-century missionary, preacher and diplomat antonio vieira, s.j., and the first volume 201 202 of his cartas appeared in 1925. d’azevedo’s most notable book is the jzistoria dos christdos noves porlugueses (1922). edgar prestage wrote monographs on various embassies of the resto- ration period and in collaboration with pedro de azevedo under- took the publication of the correspondence of francisco de sousa coutinho, ambassador at the hague from 1644 to 1650. vol. 1 came out in 1920. the same editors were publishing the lisbon parochial registers of the 16th century. those of the church of sta. maria do castello appeared in 1913, and vol. 1 of those of the cathedral in 1924. the statesman jodo franco, last min- ister of king carlos, issued a number of autograph. letters re- ceived by him from the king shortly before his tragic death. his political opponents saw in the book a self defence rather than an attempt to set the king’s character in its true light and the publication provoked a controversy which is not ended. ationso de dornellas in genealogy and history and antonio ferrio in the latter have done considerable work. the revista de historia, edited by fidelino de figueiredo, which suspended publication after the 11th volume, began again to appear, and three new reviews lusitunta portugaltu and ar- guive de ifistoria, contain historical articles, but none attempt to fill the place of the excellent archivo histerico, which came to an end at the roth volume, on the death of its proprietor and editor braamcamp freire. to him we owe an edition of the first part of the cronica d'cl rei d. jodo i of ferneo lopes, a portly volume on the life and dramatic works of gil vicente and two learned genealogical tomes on the brasjes de cintra. he was joint editor with d. carolina michiiclis de vasconcellos (d. 1925) of the works of bernardim ribeiro and christovam falcio. this great romance scholar issued the 4th of her illuminating notas vicentinas in 1924, and among her other publications mention must be made of an edition of the tragedia de la insigne reijia isabel by the constable d. pedro. her husband joaquim de vasconcellos edited the de pintura antiga of francisco de hollanda, the friend of michael angelo. the lisbon academy of sciences was also active; it printed the livro du amfontaria of king john i., some dramatic works of the 16th century, the writings of king pedro v. and vol. 6 of the cartas de albuquerque. it celebrated the 5th centenary of the capture of ceuta and the 4th of the death of the great governor of india by a series including alguss ascendentes de albuquerque by antonio baiio, documentos das chancelartas reats by pedro d’azevedo, alarrocos e tres mestres da ordem de christo by vieira guimaraes and by editions of three old chronicles, hwistorta de la ciudad de ceuta of d. jeronymo de mascarenhas, anats de arsila and the cronica da tomada de ceuta of zurara. this and the livro da moutaria were prepared for the press by col. j. m. esteves pereira (d. 1924), better known abroad as an ethiopic scholar. his transcriptions of amharic texts are to be found in the bolctin: da segunda classe of the academy. the coimbra university press, under dr. joaquim de car- valho, author of ledo huebreu filosofo, began to issue reprints of the classics and the following had already come out: canctonetro de resende, § vol. in 1925, historia do descobrimento e conquista da india of castanheda, de rebus entmanuelis gestis of osorio and the comentarios of albuquerque. the useful anfologia of agostinho de campos now numbers 20 volumes and contains carefully annotated extracts from fernao lopes, joao de barros, camees, ‘trancoso, lucena and some modern authors. the critic fidelino de figueiredo established his position as the leading. literary historian, andl his terre de babel proves that he can excel also as a essayist, while sob a cinsa de tedio shows him as a psychologist. antonio sergio published some essays and the dispersos of oliveira martins and other posthumous publica- tions include sol de inverno by the poet antonio feije (d. 1917) and figuras de destague by the critic fialho de almeida (dl. 1911). the invaluable revista lusitina of dr. j. leite de vascon- cellos, which reached its 20th vol. in 1917, continues, and to dr. j. j. nunes, the philologist, we owe an edition of the cronica dos frades mcnores; he has also one of the caniigus d’ aimtgo in the press. the anais das bibliotecas e arquivos, is equal, 11 not superior, to any publication of the kind in europe. position finder—postal servicks brptiograryy.—a, f. bell, studies im portuguese literature (oxford 1914) and portuguese literature (oxford 1922); j. mendes dos remedios, /zistoria da litteratura portuguesa, 5th ed. (1924); fidelino de figuetredo, zzistorta da litterutura romantica portu- guesa (1913), «1 critica litterarta como sciencia, 3rd ed. (1920), his- loria da litteratura classica (1922) and ifisteria da literatura realisia (1924). (eo) -pr:) position finder: see range finder. postal services (sce 22.176).—the universal postal union (1874-1914) was formed by the covenant signed at berne on oct. 9 1874 and included at the outset all the european coun- trics, as well as the united states and egypt. the only non-— members of the union at the end of 1925 were the following countries and territories: in africa, nigeria and northern rhodesia; in asia, afghanistan, arabia, the malay states of johore and trengganu, the laccadive and maldive islands; and in oceania, tonga and the friendly islands. | war work of the postal union.—it was decided at the rome congtess of 1906 that the next congress of the international postal union should be held at madrid at the end of 1912 or during 1913. it was, however, postponed until sept. 1914, and was therefore interrupted by the outbreak of the world war. the war completely dislocated the international postal serv- icc, the international exchange of postal matter of all kinds being either interrupted or completely cut off. as an example of the difficulties encountered may be mentioned the special postmarks and labels of all kinds and colours which bore witness to every phase of the conflict. among these may be mentioned: ‘“ ouvert par il’autorite mili- taire ” (opened by the military authority); “ verihcato per censura (verified by censor); “aus militarischen griinden verzegert \"' (de- layed for military reasons); ‘ zurtick; neine beforderungsgelegen- heit ” (return; no communication possible); “retour a penvoyeur, licu de destination envahi ’’ (returned to sender; destination invad- ed); ‘‘ zone dangereuse. non distribuable (impossible to deliver; dangerous area); “livraison impossible 4 cause de la guerre”’ (delivery impossible for war reasons); ‘‘ renvoi par cause de blocus ” (returned; blockade); ‘incendie wagon-poste '’ (postal wagon burnt); ‘‘naufrage’ (shipwreck); ‘evacue.” (evacuated); “ re- patrie (repatriated); “ tue par l'ennemi ” (killed in action); “ pays recupere; non encore distribuable”’ (liberated area; delivery at prescnt impossible)! during the war years the union maintained indirect contact between the various belligerent countries. it was at the dis- posal of all the humanitarian missions undertaken for the relief of distress. the rome congress, in accordance with a recom- mendation made by the hague peace conference, had decided that postal correspondence, registered letters, postal orders and pre-paid postal parcels concerning prisoners of war should in future enjoy free entry. from the outbreak of hostilities, neutral countries were requested to serve as intermediaries for the trans- mission of postal matter to prisoners. this service reached enormous proportions. thus, from the beginning of war to the end of 1919, the swiss post transported on this service free of charge 714,500,000 postal packets to and from all countries.’ similarly, the swedish post, which worked the prisoners’ postal service between germany on the one side and russia, japan and great britain on the other, transported 12,500,000 packages in parcel post from 1914 to 1917, and sent on 1,726,000,000 postal orders between 1914 and 1916, to a total value of 21,000,000 swedish kroner.’ throughout the war the international union, in its capacity as a neutral organisation, maintained continual contact between the postal administrations of the belligerent countrics. as a matter of courtesy also it did its best to send on the innumerable private letters which it received every day. in these troubled 1stefan strowski: postal marks of the great war, amiens (1925) 2 if these postal dispatches had been stamped, it would have meant a revenue for switzerland of 61-8 million francs, and the transport of them occasioned an expenditure of 2-9 million frances. (cf. the postal service of interned civilians and prisoners of war, in the report af the swiss federal council on its work for 1919: “‘ postal administration,’” pp. 49-55). 3 after aug. 1916 the postal order work was entrusted to switzer- land (cf. the postal service and the war in sweden, in the postal union, 1916-9). posters prate i, sha ohh che orse att any characteristic examples of posters (1) i ii} i n (2) gi rman 3) ameri ond (4) italian poster times the reply-paid system gave excellent results, and was largely used by the public, as will be shown by the following figures :-— reply-paid coupons in 1913. 798,444 in 1917 . 1,371,486 in 1914. : » 854,802 in tg18\" . ; . 1,171,200 in 1915 . 1,614,457 in 1919 i, 116,302 in i916. 1,579,826 thus the union was, above all, an institution for the furtherance of peace, and it was impossible that it should disappear in the storm. on the contrary, it came out of the war stronger than ever. postal developments since the war.—after the armistice, postal relations were gradually re-established, and the madrid congress was able to meet in 1920. the congress had to consider 2,248 proposals.1 the economic systems of all countries had been entirely transformed, and account had to be taken of the new situation. the world currency crisis which followed the war had not yet been settled, and formed a serious obstacle to the proper working of the international post. the postal union took the first step in the re-establishment of sound finance by imposing for its own purposes a stable currency on all nations in the form of the gold franc. further, the old postal rates were now insufli- cient to cover the costs of the service, and it became necessary not only to give up the idea of adopting a uniform rate of ro centimes, as had been proposed at rome by new zealand, but to acquiesce in a considerable increase in all existing rates. for several years the administrations of the various countries had been experimenting for their inland post with registering ma- chines for stamping correspondence. ‘the use of these machines was, under certain conditions, extended to the international service. the enormous improvements introduced into aviation during the war made the aeroplane a very valuable ally of the post. the madrid congress included the aerial services already estab- lished between two or more countries in the category of the extraordinary postal services provided for by the universal postal convention, the conditions of transport of which are regulated by private arrangement between the administrations concerned. the old identity card, which dated from the lisbon congress, was replaced by a simple and practical card, which was also intended to serve as a certificate for postal operations. finally, a large number of countries signed a new arrangement which allowed any person who had a current post office account jn one of the contracting countries to order transfers to be made from his account to a current post office account mm any of the countries concerned. the madrid congress entrusted the nec- essary revision of the statutes of the union to a preparatory committee, which held two sessions, one at zermatt (from july 29 to aug. 22 1921), and the second at nice irom march 15 to april 14 1922. the stockholm congress—the stockholm congress wa inaugurated on july 4 1924, and celebrated the jubilee of the postal union on aug. 16. all the members of the union were represented at the congress except ecuador, guatemala, hon- duras, nicaragua and salvador. the congress was able to reduce transit charges and certain other rates. it authorised the insertion of objects liable to customs duty in packets dispatched at letter rates when the import of such objects by letter is allowed in the country of destination. it made special provisions con- cerning aerial services, increased the dimensions of postcards and samples and extended the employment of reply-paid coupons. under specially favourable conditions, which were to be voluntary for the administrations, it facilitated the dispatch of 1 at the rome congress there had been only 798 proposals. 2 attempts at the transport of the post by air had been made in 1909 after the crossing of the channel by blcriot; but the first regu- lar services would seem to have been established in british [ndia in feb. 1911, on the occasion of the allahabad exhibition of arts and crafts; then later, in sept. rgtr, in england, as part of the cere- monies connected with the coronation of george v. (cf. theodore champion, jfistorical and descriptive catalogue of aerial postage stamps, 4th ed. (paris, 1925); p. g, heurgren, the post in ancient und modern times (stockholm, 1925). pao newspapers, periodicals and books by publishers, together with the exchange of literary and scientific publications between learned institutions. table i. showing the progress of the international postal service in 1913 and 1924 s.c] 3 _.2%| _ 1913 em! 1924 ac _ : objects dispatched | 4°. see of | z 2.3 number of eke objects s&s] objects s| dispatched | 54 6| dispatched 4 7, correspondence! : 84 |2,439,000,000] 124 | 2,678,400,000 registered ictters and packets . ; 57 2,851,000 85 4,242,000 (value (value 4,578,000,000 1,812,300,000 fr.) fr.) parcel post ae’ a | 64,700,000] 118 37,500,000 postal orders. 63 33,000,000; 108 15,300,000, | (value (value | 2,330,000,000' 2,520,000,000 fr.) fr.) peconvrenents 13 346,000 1® | 1,319,000,000 t jie, administrations which supplied information. 2letters, postcards, printed matter, samples of goods and busie ness circulars. table il. showing seme ef the postal rates in force int the international services under the rome, afudrid and stockholm conventions rane _ madrid stockholm canon on convention | convention objects dispatched | (may 26 | cnoy.g0 | (aug. 28 906) | sa) cal centimes centimes centimes letters: (a) not ex- ceeding 20 gr. 253 50 20-40 (b) per 20 gr. or frac- tion of 20 gr. over andabove .. 15 25 12-24 postcards: (a) ordinary . ; 10 30 10-24 (b) reply paid 20 60 20-48 printed matter per 50 er. : 5 10 3-8 braille for the use of the blind sted 5 4-8 (per 500 gr.)|(per 1,000 gr.) 3usiness circulars 5 10 4-8 per 50 gr. (minimum) 25 50 20 samples ; ; 5 10 4-8 per 50 gr. (minimum) 10 20 8 registration feces 25 50 \"40 (maximum)| (maximum) reply-paid coupons (minimum) —. 28 50 40 11n certain cases the following rates may be collected: (1) a mar- itime surtax, which may not exceed 25 centimes per delivery for letters, 5 centimes per postcard and 5 centimes per 50 gr. for other objects. (2) an extraordinary surtax. 2’ the madrid rates could be lowered to the level of those adopted at rome. 3 in this case it was possible to maintain the washington rate, viz., 25 centimes per 15 gr. or fraction of 15 gr. this article has been prepared from material supplied by the international bureau of the universal postal union, berne. see also the sections on communications in the articles on the various countries. see also the 19 vol. of the documents of the congresses and conferences of the universal postal union (berne); and uni- versal postal convention, stockholm, aug. 28 1924 (london, 1925). (see great britain: contintunicutions.) poster (sce 22.106).—the designing and use of posters from 1900 to r914 became increasingly important commercially and a more definite part of the business of advertising. this was especially so in the united states, where a line of demarcation appeared, dividing the small posters issued by book and magazine publishers from the large outdoor posters used by advertisers of various commodities. a few of the outstanding american artists who represented in their work the best american poster design and technique during this period were edward penfield, c. b. 204 falls, louis fancher, f. n. abbott, j. c. levendecker, leon gordon, john e. sheridan, adolph treidler, robert wildhack and f. g. cooper. shortly before 1910, and reaching its greatest height imme- diatcly before the world war, poster designing in germany be- came remarkably active and other countries, especially america, showed for a time considcrable readiness to adopt the german poster technique as a predominating one. the principal char- acteristics of german posters of that period were vigour and mas- siveness of composition, with correspondingly broad painting and strong masses of colour. striking and unusual ideas were also charactcristic. of the german poster artists, ludwig hohl- wein unquestionably occupied the foremost place; other impor- tant germans at that time were karl kunst, bernhard and gipkens. | in england the poster continued, in a logical development, its earlier types, with, however, no such outstanding names as pryde and nicholson (‘‘ beggarstaff brothers ’’). aldin, itassall and pears exemplify the most characteristic type of english poster until the appearance of the striking posters issued by the london underground railways company. among artists commissioned to paint these were f. gregory brown, e. a. cox and e. mc- knight kauffer, the last being a young american painter working in england. | in italy the designing of posters has long been in the hands of brilliant artists, an extensive group of whom were working con- sistently and fruitfully throughout the period 1900-14. fore- most of these, and a poster artist as conspicuous in italy as cheret in france, was a. hohenstein, a master draughtsman and brilliant technician, equalled in draughtmanship only, perhaps, by alphonse mucha. some of the most essentially artistic posters ever painted are those of giuseppi palanti for verdi, mascagni and wagner operas. collectors recognise also the posters of g. m. mataloni, n. dudovitch, l. metlicovitz, n. mauzan, l.caldanzano, m. mazza, a. terzi, d. cambellotti, a. magrini and g. chini, all noteworthy contributors to the poster art of italy. many of the most notable of italian poster designers were trained by the old lithograph firm of g. ricordi, founded so long ago as 1808. the ricordi firm still produces most of the posters in italy. billboards are under municipal ownership and leased to posting companies. considerable poster talent has becn shown in switzerland for many years past, with recent designs char- acterised by a great deal of colour. cardineaux, hosch, giaco- metti and lauby are among the names of prominent swiss de- signers. billboards are privately owned in switzerland, unlike the municipally owned boards of italy, or those of austria, whcre the cities own a half-interest. posters in war time with the outbreak of the world war in r9or4 posters took on a new significance; as the struggle continued and the war needs became increasingly acute, posters multiplicd. artists as a class proved themselves highly patriotic, and the poster was at once recognised as the greatest available vehicle for nation-wide publicity and appeals for the varied activities connected with carrying on a great war. due to the conscription system, there was no necd of posters to stimulate recruiting in germany, france or belgium; but recruiting posters appeared first in england and her dominions and colonies, and, later, in america. in england posters were issued by the ministry of information, which was added to the parliamentary recruiting committee in 109135. even in the first stages of the war more than 2,500,000 posters, representing the work of over 100 artists, were posted in the british is. alone. among the more important men who con- tributed were frank brangwyn, bernard partridge, l. raven-hill, guy lipscombe and g. spencer-pryse. a certain sequence in the successive waves of posters that swept over the combatant countries was observable. first came the recruiting posters, except where conscription existed; next came the battle-cry to the civilian, calling upon him to subscribe to the loans, one loan after another—postcrs of which the message became increasingly urgent and imperative. ‘then, as the war poster continued, came the conservation posters and the posters of ap- peal to aid various organised enterprises engaged in wer work. this group comprised food and coal conservation, ship building, hospitals, milk funds, destitute dependent funds, the red cross, the y.m.c.a. and a number of other agencies, activitics and necds brought on by the war. a french war loan poster that was striking in its conception showed a french poilu in full cquipment going forward, with action in every line. he is looking back as he makes the fer- ward charge, flinging out his arm to lend emphasis to his shout: “on les aura!’— we'll get ’em!’—to the civilians implored to subscribe their share of the loans to win the war. it was the work of jules abel faivre, and one of the most celebrated of all war posters. another french loan poster—the work of georges scott—shows the heroic allegorical figure of france holding aloft a sword and a battle-scarred flag. behind her march the poilus with beating drums and a forest of flags. overhead airplanes are patrolling a war-wracked sky. four other french loan posters that attracted attention because of their effectiveness included “the loan of the last cartridges: one more cffort, people of france!” it was the work of an anonymous artist and showed an embattled soldier with his face to the enemy, gun in hand, holding out his hand to receive from a civilian and a small child a box of cartridges and a hand grenade. the second of these four french loan posters showed two figures in the traditional costumes of alsace and lorraine awaiting rescue by france. this poster was the work of auguste leroux. the third of these four posters, by faivre, who designed the “ we'll get ’em!” poster, is an appeal to the french people, showing a gigantic french gold piece crush- ing a german soldier, the gallic cock leaping from the design of the coin to make the attack more spirited. the appeal is “ for france: pour out your gold; gold fights for victory.” the fourth poster of this group is the work of lucien jonas and shows the american expeditionary force, arriving on the run, with the spirit of victory and determination on their faces. in the foreground are soldiers of the three allies, italy, france and england. in addition to these, on the roll of honor of france for poster designs, are the names of stcinlen, newman, poulbot and willette. when the united states entered the war there was at first considerable confusion in that country in the matter of assigning poster commissions, as had been the case in most of the other countries. in april 1917, however, charles dana gibson formed a committce of the most prominent artists and illustrators in and about new york; this committee was soon recognised by the government in washington as officially a part of the division of public information. it then became known oflicially as the division of pictorial publicity and unofficially as ‘ gibson’s committee.” the method by which the committee functioned was admi- rably efficient. the committee met regularly each week, and at each meeting frank d. casey reported the requests for post- ers, cartoons or illustrations received that weck from or through the government as well as from patriotic and charitable organi- sations throughout the country. each request was put in charge of a ‘‘ captain ” who made it his immediate business to see that idea-sketches were received promptly from such artists as were judged best fitted to carry out the assignment. the sketches were then passed through the commitice headquarters to wash- ington, and the finished paintings were made as soon as the sketches were approved. in the course of the committee’s work 700 different posters were made for the publicity needs of the government and for civilian war activities. among the 187 artists actively enrolled were 33 of the country’s most prominent cartoonists. thirty-seven artists and illustrators devoted their entire work to the needs of the navy, and c. b. falls specialised almost entirely on the marines. the following names constitute a partial roll of american artists whose work was of special signif- icance in the design of posters during the war: c. d. gibson, frank d. casey, c. b. falls, albert sterner, c. livingston bull, hwenry reuterdahl, august hutaff, e. m. ashe, henry raleigh, walter whitehead, charles sarka, f. g. cooper, crawford posters pirate ii. <= a ee k — oan ~ f if la | rion. la france f j versez votre or ['/} le . a souscrit n av ey 3° emprunt ‘ de ta defense nationale o% \" » = ~*~, banou sect ed a a ational ry £n province de credit e nationale pe copyright societe nouvelle des editions @art, devambez, paria french war posters pottery—pragmatism young, john e. sheridan, wallace morgan, george illian, a. e. foringer, harrison fisher, howard chandler christy, george wright, f. walter taylor, gordon grant, w. t. benda, edward penficld and james montgomery flagg. since the war the poster has naturally resumed its place throughout the world as an active branch of commercial adver- tising, with certain characteristics worthy of note in the coun- tries where posters are most extensively used. in england the london underground railways co. has continued to produce posters both artistic and effective, by a variety of artists, and commercial posters in general have shown a logical development of their trend before the interruption by the world war. one of the most important series was one done by g. spencer-pryse to commemorate the exhibition at wembley—a series showing the peoples and industries of the entire british empire, with its dominions and colonies. ‘the most radical departure from pre- war types of poster is to be seen in the “ expressionist ” posters of germany, which are a part of the general radical art move- ment that alfected painting, stage settings and many other art activities in germany. grotesque, bizarre, with virtually illegi- ble lettering and with violent vibrations of line and mass, this type of german poster art has not exerted in other countries the influence that characterised the posters of pre-war germany. in the united states great strides have recently been made in the development of the poster as an organised advertising me- dium. modern business has discarded the old-fashioned “‘ bill- board,”’ with its unkempt appearance and its posters of many sizes. in its place, due to the standards of practice of the poster advertising assn. (now renamed the general outdoor advertis- ing assn. of america) there has come the standard structure, a poster panel 25 ft. long and 12 ft. high which is surrounded by a green moulding as a frame for the poster. the standard com- mercial poster throughout the united states is the ‘‘ 24-sheet,”’ whose size is 8 ft. roin. in height and 19 ft. 8in. in length. mem- bers of the association take great pride in the appearance of their structures. when a poster panel is built on the ground green lattice is used to hide the braces and posts. the location is graded and sometimes planted with grass and shrubs. many of these structures are illuminated at night. the standards of practice of the outdoor advertising assn. require that members shall not erect poster panels on strictly residential streets, nor in locations where they will mar natural scenic beauty or prove dangerous to trallic. no poster is per- mitted which shall offend the moral sense of the public or which induces violation of the constitution of the united states or any laws or ordinances. the almost universal use of automobiles has given a great impetus to poster advertising, and the 24-sheet poster is now being used extensively in the advertisement of a wide variety of commodities. since the war there has also been a marked improvement in the general standard of commercial poster art in america. among the designers of this type of poster are: clarence underwood, f. nelson abbott, john i. sheridan, harry morse meyers, walter whitehead, j. c. leyendecker, norman rockwell, william oberhardt, mcclelland barclay, neysa mecmein, adolph treidler and linn ball. the death of edward penfield in 1925 deprived american poster design of one of its most able, conspicuous and significant artists. in the united states poster art and its industry are represented by a monthly publication in colours-—7%e poster which keeps in touch with all developments of poster advertising and posterart. (ai. pr.) pottery: sce ceramics. | poulsen, valdemar (1860- ), danish engineer, was born at copenhagen nov. 23 1869. he became an assistant in the technical section of the copenhagen telephone establishment and in 1898 he invented the telegraphone, an electro-magnetic phonograph capable of registering human speech by the alter- nating magnetisation of a wire. in 1903 poulsen invented the poulsen arch, a generator that produces continuous high tension currents, thus solving one of the greatest problems in the science of radio technique. the poulsen arches are used by numerous radio stations throughout the world. 205 pound, roscoe (1870- ), american jurist and educa- tionist, was born at lincoln, neb., oct. 27 1870. he graduated at the university of nebraska (a.b., 1888, a.mi., 1889), and studied law in the harvard law school 1889-90. on his admis- sion to the bar in 1890 he commenced practice in lincoln, ne- braska. he was assistant professor of law at the university of nebraska, 1899-1903, and dean of the law faculty, 1903-7; was professor of law at northwestern university 1907-9, and at the university of chicago, 1909-10. in roto he accepted the story professorship of law at the harvard law school, becoming carter professor of jurisprudence there in 1913, and dean in 1916. pound has written phyfogeography of nebraska (with f. e. cle- ments, 1898); readings on the iltstory and system of the common law (1904); readings on roman law (1g06); lectures on the philos- ophy of free-\\masonry (1915); the spirit of ihe common law (1921); criminal justice in the american city (1922): introduction to the philosophy of law (1922); interpretation of legal iistory (1923); and law and aforals (1924). power, sir william tyrone (1819-1911), british soldier and administrator (see 22.224), died july 24 rorr. poynter, sir edward john, bart. (1836-1919), british painter (see 22.239). died in london july 26 rorg. in 1919 he was created k.c.v.o. pragmatism (22.246).—assuming that the article in the tith edition of the fucvelopadia britannica has sufficiently outlined the rise of pragmatism and its history to the end of 1900, it remains to trace its subsequent developments in the years that have since elapsed. in aug. 1910 the pragmatist movement suffered a great loss by the death of its most effective and per- suasive initiator, william james, though for a number of years his works continued to appear or to be re-issued posthumously, from torr down to his fascinating letfers (2 vol., 1920). moreover, the period under review was not in general favour- able to the progress of philosophic reflection. for the first few years no doubt philosophic discussion proceeded upon normal lines, with pragmatism attacking absolutism and various sorts of realism assailing idealism, while these stood on the defensive and for the most part entrenched themselves behind their past achievements. at the fourth international congress of philos- ophv at bologna in rg1t the announcement of vaihinger’s “ philosophy of the as if” brought a valuable reinforcement to pragmatism, because it showed how greatly the use of “‘ fic- tions ”? conduced to the making of “ truth.” effects of the war.—but the outbreak of the world war in 1914 soon had a paralvsing effect, in philosophy also, on the progress of thought, and substituted propaganda for impartial inquiry, incidentally having some effect in impairing the vogue of german idealism. philosophically the years of the war are nearly a blank in europe, though research continued in america while america remained neutral. after the war the chief in- icllectual sensation, the verification of einstein’s theory of relativity, was scientific rather than philosophic and though some philosophers intervened in its discussion, it was not a very suitable subject for philosophic acumen. it really arose out of a highly technical problem of physical measurement and estab- lished its conclusions by very stiff mathematics. still the dis- credit thrown by this successful revolution in physics on the absolutes of measurement and on the familiar abstractions of space and time, could not but dispose men’s minds more favour- ably towards the complete philosophic relativity implied in the pragmatic conception of truth, and proclaimed so long ago in protagoras’s dictum that ‘‘ man is the measure of all things.” in central europe also the overthrow of so many highly authori- tarian social orders had a considerable effect in unsettling rigid ideas and proved conducive to a loss of complacency and to greater open-mindedness in academic circles. on the other hand economic conditions and the state of the book trade put great difficulties in the way of the publication of books that had little or no popular appeal. on the whole, therefore, it would be absurd to contend that philosophy in general and pragmatism in particular had made any marked progress in the period under review. still some 206 progress was made, rather of an unobtrusive sort, under all the four headings under which the influence of pragmatism has made itself felt. psychology.—in psychology (g.z.) the ‘ boom ” in psycho- analysis (g.v.) and in psychotherapeutic methods generally, which is directly traceable to the necessity under which many theoretic psychologists found themselves of either finding useful applications of their knowledge or going into the trenches, was a good example of the powerful impetus which scientific practice can give to scientific theory. but otherwise it can hardly be said to have developed or even affected, pragmatic doctrine. two other movements were more important. in the first place “ behaviourism,” though it is easily beguiled into explaining away the existence of mind altogether, at any rate makes it quite clear that action rather than speculation is the mind’s essential characteristic; so it is no wonder that (in america) many pragmatists, and notably dewey, have shown themselves decidedly sympathetic towards behaviourism. secondly, under the leadership of w. macdougall (outline of psychology, 1923) there is arising a school of psychologists who stress the biological significance and teleological character of mental life, and so naturally ally themselves with the pragmatic logicians who protest against the ignoring of the purposiveness of thought in the traditional logics. the interdependence of logic and psychol- ogy is thus once more attested, as it is by f. c.s. schiller’s study of the psychology of belief, problems of belief (1924) which is fitted to form a popular introduction to the whole subject. logical aspects.—it is, however, to the logical aspects of their doctrine that the chief pragmatists devoted most attention, and the fruitfulness of their inquiries showed that it was a mistake to take the disparagement of logic indulged in by both james and bergson as meaning more than a distaste for the futilities of intellectualistic logic (see locic.) dewey on the other hand has a long list of logical works to his credit. how we think was a brilliant little introduction to logic and, with the influence of darwin on philosophy, came out in 1910. essays in experi- mental logic followed in 1916. creative intelligence by dewey and seven of his friends and pupils (1917) was also largely logical in its interest, as were most of his abundant contributions to period- icals. finally in 1925 dewey brought out in nature and expert- ence a full and systematic exposition of his philosophy which, though as a whole it may perhaps be best classed as metaphysical, includes also a magisterial description of the nature and functions of thought. shortly before (in 1923) c. s. peirce’s early papers (which had long been unprocurable) were collected and brought out under the title chance, love and logic. alfred sidgwick continued to hammer away at logic, following up his a pplication of logic (1910) by an elementary logic (1914), which treats the traditional logic frankly as just a game with syllogisms. f.c. s. schiller set himself to elucidate the notions of “ error ’’ (which he holds no formal logic can discriminate from “ truth ’’) in the proceedings of the aristotelian society 1910-1, and of “‘ relevance ’’ (which he regards as the essential condition of truth rather than all-inclusiveness) in afind (1914), and to show that the possibility of defeating any universal rule by misapplying it to a special case (from which sidgwick had de- duced his fatal objection to the validity of the syllogism owing to the latent ambiguity of the middle term when any syllogism was used) had already been recognised by aristotle in certain cases. in his formal logic (1912) he produced a systematic criticism of the traditional logic, and traced all its embarrass- ments to its abstraction from real meaning, i.e., to its sub- stitution of the meaning of the words for the meaning of the man who used them, so that strictly speaking logic turned out to be a meaningless science, though in practice its doctrines all oscillated between verbalism and psychology. he also em- phasised the divergence between logical theory and the actual procedure of the sciences in two contributions to singer’s studies in the history and method of science (scientific discovery of logical proof, 1917 and hypothesis, 1921), but has not so far produced the systematic reconstruction of logic on voluntarist lines to which he is pledged. pragmatism in face of these criticisms the intellectudlist logicians thought it best to wrap themselves in a disdainful silence and to re-state their former doctrines. thus tf. h. bradley, in the second edition of his principles of logic (1922) reprinted his original text with annotations and terminal essays, in which he admitted that he had fallen into the errors of the copy-theory of truth, but only to give his adhesion to the coherence view and to represent logic as concerned exclusively with the ‘ all-embracing ”’ judg- ment and the “ seif-developing ” inference. this doctrine, how- ever, proved difficult to carry through in face of the entangle- ment of logic with psychology, and he had to admit that “ logic, being abstract, has, in order to exist, to take place in a world of psychical irrelevancy ” (p. 616), and to relegate to metaphysics the task of how the logical ideal of all-inclusiveness could be rendered compatible with its actual recognition of relevance and the practice of selection. no wonder there remained a final doubt “ as to how far in logic the claim of logic is made good ” (p. 601). moreover in his essays on truth and reality (1914) which are full of covert polemics against pragmatism, he had been driven to make so many concessions that, as schiller pointed out (in afind, july rots), the line separating him from pragma- tism had become invisible in many places, while the absolute had been reduced to a merely honorary position. ethical aspects —tin the field of ethics the pragmatists have not been very active. dewey’s human nature and conduct (1922) is almost the only notable publication. it is a systematic application of pragmatic principles as conceived by him, to the theory of conduct, and is full of memorable sayings. but l. p. jack’s writings also, though not academic in form and often cast in the form of parable and fiction, and especially his alchemy of thought (1910), are excellent pragmatism, with a strong moral flavour. religion and pragmatistism.—as regards religion the chief pragmatist writers on the psychology of religion passed away with william james and theodore flournoy, and the otherwise very active school of dewey somewhat conspicuously neglects this branch of pragmatism. on the other hand it can hardly be disputed that pragmatism has shown that up to a point the pro- cedure of the religious consciousness is everywhere pragmatic, and all writers on religion are now much more ready to recognise this fact. as good examples of the religious influence of pragma- tism i. king’s the development of religion (1910) and e. s. waterhouse’s philosophy of religious experience (1923) may be mentioned. conclusion.—in general pragmatism may now be said to have established itself as a definite method and permanent attitude towards the problems of philosophy which, though still resisted and resented in academic circles biased in favour of intellectual- ism by their mode of life, is never likely to disappear again com- pletely and under some social conditions e.g., in a country, like america, where the academic man is not allowed to seclude him- self and to lose touch with life altogether, is even hkely to become predominant. it has also made good its claim to be the correct account of a natural and widely prevalent method of knowing, though its opponents do not of course admit that it is the only method, or the best. this is admitted even by the more modern sorts of absolute idealist (croce, etc.) who, like bergson, are willing to concede science to pragmatism, though they still main- tain that philosophy can attain to absolute truth by “ pure ” thought. this compromise should perhaps satisfy the prag- matists, in view of the continued success of scientific knowing and its growing control of human activities and of the increasing self-refutation of “‘ puce thought”? by the dissensions of its exponents. controversy has in consequence largely died down, and the accounts of pragmatism given by non-pragmatists are no longer the grotesque caricatures they were, and are becoming quite intelligent and trustworthy. bibliography.— (1) posthumous books by william james-~ some problems of philosophy, an unfinished introduction to phil- osophy edited by his son henry (1911); afemories and studies, a collection of articles also edited by his son (1911); essays tn radical empiricism, also a collection of fames’s speculations on metaphysics from 1884 to 1905 (1912); collected essays and reviews (1920); prague—prayer book annotated bibliography of the writings of william james, edited, like most of the foregoing, by r. b. perry (1920); letters, edited by his son (1920). ¢2) books about w. james—r. b. perry, ‘‘ william ‘james \"in lfarvard graduates magazine (dec. 1910); introduction by h. bergson to the french translation of pragmatism: (1911); ke. boutroux, william james (19t1), eng. trans. (1912); t. flour- noy, la philosophie de william james (1911), eng. trans. (1917); j. royce, william james and other essays on the philosophy of life (rortj; if. reverdin, le notion d'experience d'apres william james (1913); hl. v. knox, the philosophy of willian james (1914). (3) histories of the pragmatic movement—f. b. muller, de kennisiecer van het anglo-amertkaansch pragmatisme, the hague (1913); fe. leroux, le prugmatisme americain et anglais, with an international bibliography (1923); j. wahl, the pluralist philosophies of england and america, eng. tr. (1925). (4) books by j. dewey and f. c. s. schiller: a, by j. dewey, educational essays (1910), german philosophy and politics (1915), democracy and education (1916), reconstruction in philosophy (1921); 6. by f.c. s. schiller, riddles of the sphinx, revised ed. (1910); ‘ why humanism \" in contempo- rary british philosophy, vol. 1 (1924); “‘ psychology and logic ” in psychology and the sciences, ed. dr. w. brown (1924); tantalus (1924); cassandra (1926); eugenics and politics (1926). dewey and schiller have both written a large number of articles in philosophic periodicals. (5) books by pragmatists about pragmatism— j. goldstein, wandlungen in der philosophie der gegenwart (1911); a. w. moore, pragmatism and its critics (1911); g. vailati, scrifti (1911); d. l. murray, pragmatism, with an introduction by schiller (1912), new ed. (1925); j. ik. russell, a first course of philosophy (1913); h. m. kallen, william james and henri bergson (1914); g. papini, sul pragniatismo, 2nd ed. (1920). (6) criticisms of pragmatism—iion. b. a. w. russell, philosophical essays (1910); l. j. walker, theories of knowledge, absolutism, pragmatism, realism (1910); vernon lee, vital lies, studies on some varieties of recent obscurantisn (1912); r. b. perry, present philosophical tendencies (1912); w. caldwell, pragmatism and idealism (1913); ff t. driscoll, pragmatism and the problem of the idea (1915); w. p. fontague, the ways of knowing (1925). (bcls: sy) prague (see 22.248), the capital of czechoslovakia, became the seat of an independent national body in 1918, when the austrian emperor’s dominions were falling away from him. it is a well-organised modern city, with a population in 1o2r of 676,657, largely czech. the german element, about 5% of the population, and german influence, are much disliked, but the business centres are bilingual, and there are both german and czech universities and polytechnics. there are also a czech national museum, an observatory and academy of science. the people evince great pride in the state, and in 1918 an im- posing congress was held in the city, at which czech, polish, italian, rumanian, slovak and yugoslav deputies gave pledges of mutual support. the bishop of prague is patriarch of the new czechoslovak church. prague has many manufacturing industries. an industrial fair is held twice a year, and a motor exhibition was revived in 1921. the vitava river was in process of improvement in 1924; it was then navigable for vessels of 1,000 tons to melnik, and 1s to be made usable for boats of 7oo tons to stechovice. a pro- gramme for the improvement and extension of the railways was passed by the national assembly in 1920, the pians include a new central goods depot, belt lines round the city, and electrifica- tion of all lines within a radius of 50 kilometres. the line to bratislava has been double-tracked. it is also planned to make prague an aviation centre for central europe. - a < |; «