PORTO RICO

porto rico has an area of 3,435 sq. m., and the census of 1922 gave the population as 1,346,623 or 392'14 per square mile. in consequence of this continued growth, education and health remain grave problems. the total enrol- ment in all schools supported by public funds was 227,267 in 1924: but the percentage of illiteracy in the island is large. the death rate for 1924 was 18-7 per 1,000 inhabitants as compared with 24:97 in 1911. but in 1920 tuberculosis, malaria and un- cinariasis (hookworm), together with infant mortality, still ac- counted for 60% of the total death rate, and even in 1924, deaths among children under five years of age constituted 45-3% of the general mortality. important preventive work has been carried on by the insular board of health, including an intensive campaign for the control of uncinariasis, in co-operation with the rockefeller foundation. but the influence of basic economic and social conditions is still felt. “ our population is one of the densest on earth,” the insular commissioner of health, himself a distinguished porto rican, wrote in 1920. “ more than 70% are in the country, badly housed and fed, ill in health and ignorant of the first principles of hygiene. until the people have learned to preserve and protect their health and have more ample means to provide themselves with better houses and food, so as to reduce their miseries, no positive result, no recompense for all our efforts can be obtained.” political history—important developments in the affairs of porto rico—political, economic, social—took place in the period 1910-25. politically, the organic law was first amended and later materially changed. economically, the agriculture and commerce of the island showed notable increase. social progress was shown in the improvement of living conditions, the spread of elementary education and the reduction of poverty and disease. the foraker act, approved by congress april 12 1900, under which the island had been administered for the first decade of its existence under the american flag, was amended by the olmsted act, approved by congress july 15 1909, which placed the supervision of porto rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department to be designated by the president. the president subsequently designated the war department. to prevent recurrent deadlocks over the insular budget, provision was made that if the legislature failed to pass the appropriation bill for an ensuing fiscal year, the sums authorised for the current year should be deemed to have been appropriated and might be lawfully expended. constitutional changes.—far more thorough-going were the changes affected by the passage of the jones act, approved by congress march 2 1917, which provided that citizens of porto rico should be deemed and held to be citizens of the united states. six executive departments were constituted: justice, finance, interior, education, agriculture, labour and health. the governor, the attorney-general and the commissioner of education are appointed by the president of the united states, subject to the approval of the u.s. senate; the heads of the re- maining departments by the governor of porto rico, subject to the approval of the porto rican senate. the law-making power is vested in a legislature consisting of a senate of 19 mem- bers and a house of representatives of 39 members, all elected by manhood suffrage for a term of four years. acts of the legisla- ture may be vetoed by the governor; but his veto may be over- ridden by a two-thirds vote. the president of the united states porto rico—portsmouth may nevertheless interpose a final veto. matters relating to franchises and concessions are vested in a public service com- mission consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the auditor and twoelected commissioners. a resident commissioner to the united states, paid by the federal govt., is elected by popular vote for a term of four years; he represents the island in the u.s. house of representatives, with a voice but without vote, and is recognised by all departments in washington. indusiry and trade—the economic experience of the years 1910-25 was the increased and more profitable production of sugar, tobacco, coffee and fruits, consequent in the first instance upon duty-free access to the american market, and aided by the completion of irrigation projects. the increase of exports was accompanied by larger imports, by a reversal of the island’s adverse trade balance, and by an appreciable, though unequal, diffusion of gain among the island’s population, the growers of sugar and tobacco being specially benefited. the commerce of the island more than doubled in the period, the combined value of imports and exports rising from $78,705,364 in 1911 to $176,- 456,497 in 1924. this amazing growth was uneven. the activity of ro1r1—2 was followed by reaction in 1913, accentuated by the dislocations consequent upon the outbreak of the world war. war demand for the island’s principal articles of commerce made itself sharply felt in 1916-7 but slackened in 1918-9. in 1920 came remarkable clevelopments, exports rising from $79,496,040 in the preceding year to $150,811,449 and imports from $62,400,360 to $96,388,- 534. the factor directly responsible was the world boom in sugar, and to a less degree in tobacco and coffee. sugar exports in tonnage were actually less in 1920 than in 1916 and in 1917, the price per ton rising from $75.81 in 1911 to $136.77 in 1919 and to $235.88 in 1920. the “ bubble” burst in 1921; but the succeeding years brought notable recovery, so that in 1924 both imports ($89,369,624) and exports ($87,086,873) were much be- yond those obtained during the world war period. the visible trade balance in favour of the island rose from a previous maxi- mum of $27,636,780 (1916) to $54,422,915 in 1920, and later became more normal at $10,627,820 (1923). the great bulk of this trade, 91% in 1924, was with the united states. there was marked improvement during the period in the island’s material equipment. new schools were erected and addi- tional roads and bridges constructed. even the remoter towns of the interior had in 1925 waterworks and electric lighting plants which had been made possible by loans from the treasury. the increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many fine residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities. finance.—the basis of the insular revenue system remained that put into operation with the establishment of civil govern- ment under the american flag by the hollander law, later modified and adapted to meet changing conditions. ordinary expenditures for the fiscal year 1924 were $12,431,724 as com- pared with $3,685,613 in 1911. the total assessed valuation of all property for purposes of taxation in 1924 was $312,384,305 as compared with $133,817,931 in 1911. the governors were george r. colton, 1909-13; arthur yager, 1913-21; e. mont reily, 1921-3; horace m. towner, 1923- brblrograpuy.—ss. bonsall, the american eh le. (1912) a. hyatt verrill, porto rico past and present (1914); l. jones, caribbean interests of the united siates (1916). j. h. ho.) portsmouth, england (see 22.132), with a population of 247,284 in 1921, and an area of 7,964 ac. (including 87 of water, 522 of tidal water and 1,377 of foreshore), was made a city in 1926. cosham was included in the borough in 1920. the parlia- mentary borough was divided into central, north and south divisions in 1918, each returning one member to parliament. in 1924 the foundation of a new diocese of portsmouth and the isle of wight, taken from that of winchester, was approved; a commission of inquiry recommended that the old parish church of portsmouth, st. thomas’, should be the pro-cathedral. new port talbot—portugal churches include st. alban’s, copnor road; st. saviour's, landport (1914); st. john’s (winchester college mission) and st. cuthbert’s, copnor (1916); and a roman catholic church at copnor (191£). the large church of st. matthew, which had been in process of erection for 22 years, was finished in 1924. a church has been built and a parish and cemetery made at milton. the portsmouth war memorial has taken the form of new wards, an administrative block and a gateway, at the royal ports- mouth hospital, and a cenotaph in the town hall square. large sums have been spent by the municipality on drainage schemes and esplanades, and southsea common has been taken over from the war office and laid out as a public pleasure-ground. ‘the fine castle of porchester, with remains from roman down to me- cieval times, came into the custody ef h.m. office of works, as an “ancient monument,” in 1926. portsmouth, besides being an important naval establishment and arsenal, has a considerable coastal trade, and a new industry, the refitting of liners, has been started. the historic “ victory ” wasin dock for repairs in 1923. port talbot, grlamorrgansiire, with a population (19021) of 40,039 and an area of 25,645 acres, was formed into a borough by the amalgamation in 1921 of the parishes of aberavon, mar- gam, michaelston lower, cwmavon lower and part of baglan lower. the borough, with three outlying parishes, forms the aberavon parliamentary division, returning one membcr. new municipal buildings and a public library were opened in 1915, and a general hospital in 1916. the church of st. agnes was built in 1910, and that of st. john in 1912. in r925 lord jersey gave 12 acres of land to be made into a seaside park, in order to provide work for the unemployed. the harbour has an area of about 250 ac., with go ac. of dock-space. portugal (see 22.134) has been a republic since oct. 1910. its area, including the azores and madeira, is 35,490 sq. miles, and the population, 6,399,355 (1920 census). i. political history the political history of portugal from the revolution of 1910, when the monarchy was overthrown, is a record of short-lived ministries and of revolutionary outbreaks during which the only stable periods where those associated with the control exercised by president paes, assassinated in dec. 1918, and with the ministry of senhor da silva, which lasted for 21 months. roy- alist invasions, the activities of the carbonarios, mutinies, strikes and outrages in lisbon and other towns, rendered the authority of successive administrations precarious in the extreme, and their difficulties were increased by the conflicts between church and state, the rise in prices, and the general unrest created by the war. the effects of the revolution fell most heavily on the poor of the country districts and, in consequence, emigration increased to an unprecedented extent, rising from 6-83 per 1,000 in 1910 to 14-85 per 1,000 in 1912. in the towns, discontent with the working of the republic was prevalent; lavish promises had aroused impossible hopes among the people, and by many the republic was regarded as but a first step towards a more radical workmen’s republic. socialism and syndicalism developed rapidly. the right to strike at 24 hours’ notice, conceded on dec. 7 1910, was followed by strikes of all kinds, including sev- eral serious railway strikes. the disorders culminated in the demonstration against parliament on aug. 2 ro11, and the general strike at lisbon on jan. 31 1912, when the city was placed under martial law and over 1,000 workmen suspected of syndicalism were arrested. the provisional govt. of the republic consisted of dr. theo- philo braga (1843-1924), president, dr. antonio jose de al- meida (home affairs), dr. alfonso costa (justice), col. correa barreto (war), dr. amaro azevedo gomes (marine), dr. bernardino machado (foreign affairs), dr. basilio telles and, later, dr. jose relvas (finance). dr. antonio luiz gomes and, later, dr. brito camacho (public works). it lasted till aug. 24 iqii. the constitutton.—on march 18 1ro11, the new electoral law came into force. it gave the vote to all portuguese over 21 107 years of age who could read or write, including priests and officers of the army or navy, but excluding naturalised portu- guese, officers on the active list and persons proscribed politically. lisbon and oporto (voting on the proportional system) were to return 1o deputies each, the other districts four and the colonies one each. by a modification of jan. 11 1915, lisbon received 20 deputies, oporto to, the remaining constituencies between one and four each. by a decree of march 11 1918, universal suffrage for all citizens over 2t was established, but illiterates (75% of the population) were again disfranchised in 1919. by the law of 1918 the number of deputies was reduced to 155, returned by 51 constituencies, of which lisbon returned 14, oporto 6. the representation in the senate, consisting of 77 members, was made regional and professional. by a decree of april 26 1918, soldiers and sailors on active service were allowed to vote. in the elec- tions held on may 28 to11 many of the candidates were nom- inated by the authorities without opposition and, even where there was an election, the government candidates were returned without difficulty, no royalists offering themselves. | the constitutional assembly was opened on june 19 1911, and a decree was passed declaring the monarchy abolished and the house of braganza forever banished. on aug. 20 the new constitution was voted. it provided for two chambers, that of the deputies, consisting of 163 members to be elected every three years, and the senate, consisting of 7: members. the presi- dent of the republic was to be elected by both chambers for four ° years and could not be re-elected. his salary was fixed at £3,600, with {1,200 for expenses. on feb. 19 1920, he was given the right to dissolve parliament, after consulting a special council appointed for this purpose. the first president under the new constitution was dr. manuel de arriaga (born in 1840, at horta, in the azores), who, on aug. 24 defeated the radical candidate, dr. bernardino machado, the conservative candidate, senhor braamcamp freire, having withdrawn. dr. jofo chagas (d. 1925) was premier and minister of home affairs in the first constitu- tional ministry. one of the first measures was to vote the pay- ment to each deputy of 17s. for each sitting of the assembly. congress in eb. 1926, approved a proposal for the revision of the constitution. church and state-—the anti-clerical policy of the provisional govt. had entailed serious difficulties. the bishops signed a pastoral letter of protest and on march 8 19011, the bishop of oporto was removed from his see. the religious orders had been expelled by the decree of oct. 8 roro, their property confiscated and the convents closed. by that of oct. 22 the teaching of religion in the primary schools was forbidden. marriage of priests became legal. the decree of separation between church and state was drawn up, under the date of april 20 1911, by dr. alfonso costa, then minister of justice. the roman catholic religion ceased to be that of the state, which recognised all creeds as of equal authority. this decree contributed towards alienating the north of portugal from the republic. the patriarch of lisbon and the bishop of guarda published a pastoral letter forbidding the clergy to accept salaries from the’ state. for consistent opposi- tion to the law of separation the bishop of guarda and the patriarch of lisbon were banished from their dioceses for two years. after the promulgation of the law of separation, the portu- guese legation at the vatican was suppressed july 10 ror3. the law was extended in nov. 1913 to the portuguese colonies, where the discouragement of portuguese missions later gave rise to serious fears of the denationalisation of the colonies! through the activity of foreign missionaries. when paes subsequently became president, one of his first acts was to redress some of the grievances suffered under the law of separation, and, by a decree of dec. 22 1917, banishment imposed on the priests was annulled, t administrative and financial autonomy was given to the colonies on aug. 15 1914. decrees regulating native labour in portuguese colonies in amplification of a fundamental law of may 27 igi1 were promulgated on oct. i 1913 and oct. [4 igf4. 198 and the cardinal patriarch returned to lisbon. relations with the vatican were resumed in 1918, and were maintained after president paes's death. the royalist invastous.—the main event of senhor chagas's premiership was the first royalist invasion, commanded by capt. paiva coucciro. small royalist risings had been sup- pressed during the summer of 1911, but capt. couceiro still threatened the northern frontier. successful representations were made by the republic to the spanish govt., which was itself suffering from the action of portuguese republicans in spain, and steamers were detained and war material seized. couceiro crossed the frontier on oct. 3 at the head of about t,000 men, not a quarter of whom were armed with riiles. he advanced in the direction of braganza, and took the small town of vinhaes, but evacuated it on oct. 6 and, after maintaining himself for a fortnight in the hills, recrossed the frontier. a royalist rising in oporto, timed to coincide with this invasion, was brought prematurely to a head by carbonarto agents on sept. 20. king manoel and the pretender dom miguel met at dover on feb. 6 r9r12. on july 7 couceiro again crossed the frontier, with a slightly larger force, but most of his arms and ammunition had been seized in belgium and galicia. the royalists’ attacks on valenca and chaves failed, and within a week they returned to spain. royalist risings in the northern provinces were speedily " suppressed, and great excitement prevailed in the south, where the carbonarios discovered a royalist plot at torres vedras. dr. jose de almeida and other prisoners of war were tried by a court-martial and confined in the lisbon penitenciaria. the political trials—the arrests after the invasions of rort and 1912 were very numerous. special tribunals were set up in lisbon and oporto in jan. tor1, to try cases of political con- spiracy, and in july ror2, parliament voted still more stringent laws of defence. thousands of persons were summarily arrested without the formulation of any definite charge and were con- fined for months in subterranean dungeons. the chief instru- ment of this widespread system of espionage was the organisa- tion of the carbonarios. this secret society, the jov. port. (young portugal), founded or revived by arthur duarte da luze almeida, forced through the revolution of toro before the politicians were prepare: for it. it assumed the functions of an unofficial police force, and at times proved itself strong enough to attack the republican govt. and the army. its members, who carried arms, were republicans of the most extreme type, and arrogated to themselves the right of summary arrest. chagas estimated that on oct. 23 ro1r there were 2,000 politi- cal prisoners awaiting trial, of whom 700 were innocent. reforms were opposed by the carbonarios and the radical republicans, and some of the worst outrages were committed under the weak government which succeeded that of chagas in nov. 1911, with dr. augusto de vasconcellos as premier, and under the third coalition ministry formed by dr. duarte leite in july r912. dr. afonso costa, the radical leader, came into power in jan. 1913, and under the pressure of public opinion, the minister of justice introduced a bill modifying the peniten- ciaria regime, but the general amnesty was delayed till feb. 1914. the situation had become one of growing unrest, and strikes were frequent. in april 1913, an attempted ultra-radical coup d’etat, in which a portion of the army and navy were im- plicated, was quelled, and in june the government decreed the suppression of the lisbon syndicalist club. in july a movement similar to that of april was marked at lisbon by attacks on the military barracks, and was followed by numerous arrests. dr. afonso costa, who gave much of his attention to finance, resigned on feb. 9 1914, and dr. bernardino machado became premier. he was in office when portugal definitely ranged her- self on the side of the allies during the world war. the world war.—at a special joint sitting of both chambers on auz. 7 1914, portugal proclaimed her loyalty to the british alliance, and on nov. 23 formally committed herself to partici- pation in military operations. she served the cause of the allies hy furnishing munitions, guns and a division of artillery, and portugal acted in close co-operation with great britain. on sept. 11 the first expedition of portuguese troops left for africa under the command of cols. alves rocadas and massano de amorim, and fresh contingents followed at intervals, 40,000 troops in all being dispatched for the defence of the colonies. germany had not waited to be at war with portugal in order to attack them. ‘as early as aug. 24 1914, a raid was made on the portuguese post of maziwa on the northern frontier of mozambique. on oct. 19 the germans attacked naulila (on the angola frontier), where more serious fighting occurred two months later, and on oct. 30 they stormed the fortress of kwangar and put the garri- son to the sword. on april 11 1916, portuguese troops occupied kionga (south of the rovuma river), which germany had seized in 1894, and on may 27 they crossed the rovuma river. they were still co-operating with the british in rounding up the germans when the war ended. the british govt. had depre- cated any unnecessary intervention of portugal in the war but agreed to the requisitioning of german ships lying in portuguese ports, and this was carried into effect in feb. 1916. consequently, germany retaliated by declaring war on portugal on march 9 and the declaration of war between por- tugal and austria followed on march 16. german submarines were active off the coast of portugal during the autumn, many ships being sunk in 1917. by a decree of jan. 17 1917, gen. fernando tamagnini de abreu (d. 1924) was given command of the portuguese expeditionary force, and by july there were over 40,000 portuguese troops on the western front, with 20,000 in portugal ready to reinforce them. on april 9 10918, on the lys river, the portuguese contingent were subjected to a formidable attack by the germans, and subsequently portu- guese troops took part in the entry into lille. politicul mfovements during the war—on dec. 13 1914, dr. machado was succeeded in the premiership by the democrat, senhor victor hugo de azevedo coutinho, president of the chamber of deputies, with a view to holding the elections fixed for march 7, but the government’s purpose was prevented by a military movement, and president arriaga appealed to gen. pimenta de castro to constitute a government representative of a wider body of opinion in the country; he formed a ministry on jan. 28 rgr5. the action of the new government was concilia- tory and had the support of the moderate republicans led by dr. antonio jose de almeida; foreign policy remained unchanged, but the activity of the carbonarios was checked, the so-called committee of public safety abolished and the refractory muni- cipal councils dissolved. the general election was now fixed for june 6 1915. in april an amnesty emptied the prisons. the democrats were, however, able to count on the support of the marines, and on may 14 the sailors mutinied, shot the captains of the ‘‘ almirante reis ” and ‘f vasco da gama” and bombarded lisbon, about 100 persons being killed. pimenta de castro resigned on may 15 and was arrested next day and transported to the azores. the revolutionary committee nominated chagas as premier, but on may 16 he was shot at and wounded in the train on his way to lisbon. chagas died a few days later, and was succeeded by dr. jose de castro. in a message addressed to parliament arriaga resigned the presidency as from may 29 (he died on march 5 1917); and after a short interim presidency under dr. theophilo braga, he was definitely succeeded as president on aug. 6 1915, by dr. bernardino machado. the govern- ment resigned in june, castro again becoming premier, but he re- signed in nov. and dr. costa returned to office. on dec. 5 1917, a revolution, directed against the internal policy of costa and the democrats, broke out at lisbon. the rebels entrenched themselves in the parque eduardo vii., and their artillery opened fire upon the fleet. after two days’ fight- ing, gen. norton de mattos and capt. leotte do rego took refuge on board a british ship in the tagus. dr. costa and dr. soares were arrested; president machado was placed under arrest, and on the 15th was banished. vice-adml. machado dos santos was released from prison, and with maj. sidenio paes, the leader of the movement, and capt. feliciano costa, formed portugal a revolutionary committee. a provisional government was now constituted, maj. paes becoming president and minister for war and foreign affairs. the radical sailors mutinied on jan. 8 1918, and bombarded lisbon, but the movement was easily quelled, and several hundreds were deported to africa. in march 1918, paes reconstructed his ministry, and the elections, on an enlarged franchise, were held on april 28. on the same day paes was elected president, and was proclaimed president on may o, the powers recognising the new regime. under a new system established in oct. the president became also premier and ministers were called secretaries of state. the first anniversary of the revolution was celebrated with national rejoicings on dec. 5-8 1918, but on dec. 14 president paes was shot at the rocio station by jose julio da costa and died a few minutes later. on dec. 16 adm}. jofio de canto e castro was provisionally elected president, and in jan. 1919, senhor tamagnini barbosa formed a ministry, reviving the of- fice of premier. the radical and carbonario elements, which had hoped to benefit by the murder of president paes, rapidly became impatient, and a democrat rising now broke out at santarem, but the town was besieged by government troops and the rebels surrendered. the royalists, too, were active, but the main result of their ill-timed risings was to fill the pris- ons and bring the radicals into power. dr. egas moniz (later replaced by dr. afonso costa) was appointed to represent portugal at the peace conference, and in jan. 1o10, at the in- stance of great britain, the number of delegates to the con- ference was increased to two. portugal came out of the war with a crushing debt, but her colonies were assured to her and her economic future was promising. the peace treaty was ratified on march 30 1920. at the spa conference in july 1920, por- tugal secured 0-75°%% as her share of the indemnity from ger- many, and also received kionga. on june 1, adml. canto e castro announced his intention of resigning the presidency, the democratic candidate, dr. antonio jose de almeida, being elected president on aug. 6. there followed a succession of short-lived ministries and on march 2 1921, a new coalition ministry, composed of off-shoots of the original republican democrat party, was formed, under the premiership of dr. bernardino. machado. a military pronun- ciamento on may 20 caused the resignation of dr. machado. he was succeeded by a liberal ministry under dr. barros queir- oz, who dissolved parliament and held a general election on july to. dr. barros queiroz was succeeded in the premiership by dr. antonio granjo. a solemn pledge had been taken to punish all who had sup- ported the moderate republican, president paes; in oct. 1921, the barbarities culminated in the murder in cold blood of the premier, dr. granjo, the founder of the republic, adml. machado santos, and other prominent persons. ‘the appearance of foreign battleships in the tagus made an impression, and brought the assassins to their senses for a time. capt. cunha leal formed a short-lived ministry and was succeeded in feb. 1922, by sr. antonio maria da silva, who, despite many difficulties and several revolutionary movements, remained in office for 21 months. a number of ministries, lasting two or three weeks apiece, followed his resignation, political instability being fur- ther increased by divisions in the democrat party. in the general election of jan. 1922, the most striking feature was the lisbon poll, the monarchist candidate, sr. carvalho da silva, obtaining 3,903 votes, only 470 less than the successful democrat candidate, dr. afonso costa. each succeeding year saw one or more revolutionary movements, which had become a regular political weapon and were attended by little loss of life. those of april and july 1925, were of a more conservative character and showed an inclination on the part of the army to expel the politicians from power. in aug. 1923, sr. teixeira gomes, portuguese minister in london, had been elected presi- dent of the republic in succession to dr. almeida, the first president to serve his full term of four years. the absence of a firm guiding hand had been especially felt after the murder of president paes, and successive governments 199 seemed to lose control over the finances. no government was strong enough to raise an internal loan, to revise the system of taxation, or levy a war-profits tax, and, while the taxes were paid in worthless paper money, the govt. had to buy wheat and pay the service on the debt in gold. social unrest was chronic; in march 1920, there was a general strike of civil and post and tclegraph servants; a railway strike which began on oct. 1 1920, lasted 7o days; and a newspaper strike in 1921 for over two months. the royalists showed themselves willing to exchange revolutionary for constitutional opposition, and king manocl had constantly deprecated any revolutionary movement. the death of his uncle, the duke of oporto, in 1920, left king manoel without an heir to the throne. don miguel, duke of viseu, and his father don miguel, duke of braganza, renounced their right to the throne of portugal in favour of don duarte nuno, the younger son of the latter, who was born sept. 23 1907. (a. f. g. b.) the elections of nov. 8 1925 gave a clear majority to the democrats, who numbcred 82 against 66 for all other parties, and it seemed at last that portugal might achieve a comparatively stable government. the resignation of the president had long been expected, and when it took effect (dec. 10) the election of his successor, dr. machado, took place without incident. the new democrat ministry formed on dec. 16 consisted of ex- perienced politicians, with sr. antonio da silva once more as premier. but on feb. 2 1926 a military revolt broke out in lisbon. it was rapidly quelled and the leaders deported. on may 30 a more scrious revolutionary attempt was made. the new movement was in fact a continuation of the two abortive revolts of april 18 and july 19 of 1925, and commander mendes cabecadas, leader of the july revolt, was one of the leaders. the other, general gomez da costa, had also been implicated in former risings. the outbreak of may 30 was a revolution led by the army and provoked by the corruption and inefficiency of successive governments. on june 1 the whole country was in the hands of the revolutionaries, the president resigned, and com. cabecadas formed a provisional government with gen. gomez da costa as minister of war. the may revolution was the 18th pronunciamento since the foundation of the republic and sr. da silva’s cabinet was the 40th to be overthrown in the same brief period. (ed. e.b.) education.—by the decree of march 29 1911, primary educa- tion became neutral, laic and compulsory. each parish was to have at least one boys’ and one girls’ school, the cost to be shared between the state and the town councils. in the two following years 991 new schools were decreed, but in march 1913, 556 were still non-existent. the sum of {40,o00, destined in 1913 for the building of primary schools, was apportioned among 180 schools. sy a decree of sept. 11 1913, in order to encourage industrial education and relieve the lyccums of lisbon, oporto and coim- bra, the number of students admissible to these latter was limited to a total of 4,850. secondary education was remodelled by decrees of july 14 and sept. 8 1918. in may ror4, a military school of aeronautics was created. defence.—on jan. 19 1911, a commission appointed to reor- ganise the navy recommendcd the acquisition from great britain of three battleships of the dreadnought type, similar to the “minas geraes ” of the brazilian navy. this recommendation was adopted in the new naval programme submitted by the minister of marine in dec. 1911, which involved the purchase of three battleships of 20,000 tons cach, three scouts of 3,000 tons, 12 torpedo-boats of 820 tons, and six submarines. on may 1 to12, a bill was introduced fixing the naval force at 4,500 men, as compared with 5,687 in 1910. on jan. 27 i913, a commission was appointed for the creation of a naval arsenal on the south bank of the tagus. brsliograpuy.—!a. ribeiro, a revolucdo-portugueza, 4 voll. (1913-5); a. f. bell, zn portugal (london, 1912); p. lebesque, la republique poritnguaise (1914); portugal; a monthly review of the country, its colonies, etc. (london 1915); f. lorenzo, portugal. tt portugal: ministero do fomento, direccao geral do commercio e industria; boletim do trabaihg industrial (lisbon, 1910, etc.) 200 cinco afios de repiiblica (1915); a. pestana, la educacien en por- fugal (madrid, 1915); a. herculano de carvalho e aranjo, //isteria de portugal, 8 vol. (1914-6); george young, portugal old and young (london, 1917); a. l. de almada negreiros, portugal na grande guerra (paris, 1917); hans meyer, das portugtesische kolo- nialreich der gegenwart (berlin, 1918); f. de homem christo, le portugal contre l' allemagne (1918); e. j. de carvalhoe vasconcel- - los, portugal colonial (1919); le portugal: it annales polit. et. litt, 81:397-400 (1923). (a. f. g. 3b.) h.. -economic. testor y population.—the population of continental portugal, which in- cludes the azores and nladeira, amounted, in 1920, to 6,399,355 compared with a population of 5,957,985 in i911. the colonies, which cover a total area of 804,841 sq. m., have a population of 9,675,000. emigration has tended to keep the population fairly stationary. in i919, emigrants mainly to the united states and brazil numbered 31,138, while between 1g12 and 1922 the total emigration was estimated at 700,000. according to the 1920 census, the population of the chief towns was as follows: lisbon, 486,372; oporto, 203,091; setubal, 37,074; braga, 21,970; coimbra, 20,841; evora, 16,148; covilha, 14,049; farg, 12,925; tavira, 11,043; portalegre, 11,171; elvas, 11,747; aveiro, 10,357. agriculture —portugal is primarily an agricultural country, 60% of the population being engaged in agricultural pursuits. the land is exceedingly fertile owing to its sunny but moist climate; yet more than a third of the whole country still awaits exploitation and, in- deed, between 1902 and 1921 there was an increase in the total amount of waste land from 43-1°) to 49-1°%. the principal handi- cap to agricultural development is the lack of adequate transport facilities. in many parts of the country, particularly in the south, the roads have deteriorated and the small sum of £8,000 sterling voted for their upkeep in the 1923 budget is insufficient. the state railways have also fallen into a serious state of disre- pair, and, consequently, it has been found cheaper to import wheat direct from the argentine than to send supplies to the north of portugal from the alemtejo. lack of fertilisers is another serious handicap; it is estimated that 20,000 tons of additional fertilisers are necessary in the alemtejo district alone, while other causes which check development are the excessive dependence on hand labour on the farms and, in the frontier districts, the tendency for labourers to cross into spain, owing to the higher purchasing power of the pescta compared with the escudo. the most valuable crop is wheat, the average yield being six to seven quarters an acre and the harvest averaging 230,000 tons annually. the country, however, is com- pelled to import between 100,000 to 150,000 tons of wheat annually, despite the efforts of successive governments to encourage wheat growing, and the payment of these imports constitutes a heavy charge on the nation’s finances. wine is the principal product of portugal, accounting for 50% of its exports; the vineyards employ 100,000 hands. england alone imports over 6,000,000 gal., valued in 1923 at £2,080,170, despite the fact that the vintage in the port region of the douro valley in that year was a poor one, table wines are produced all over the country, and are exported to [srazil and also to france. with the enforcement of prohibition in the united states, france, however, had no use for the portuguese red wine which was used for mixing with the bordeaux wine intended for american consumption, and the french efforts to prohibit the importation of portuguese wines led to a war of reprisals between the two countries. portugal is the third olive producing country in the world, her olive trees occupying an acreage of 750,000 and giving 12,760,000 gals. of oil, other crops grown on a large scale are maize, rye, oats and barley. about 200,000 tons of potatoes are produced, and there isa large export trade in fruit, mainly to england. livestock is about equal in number to the population and an important industry is the production of corks which reaches about 70,000 tons annually. commerce.—vortuguese trade has been considerably hampered by the political uncertainty and by the fall and instability of the escudo whose value at par is 4s. 51d. but which in 1925 was worth about 2!d. the war gave an impetus to the development of home manufactures, more particularly textiles, and, if the hopes of obtain- ing cheap power are realised, that impetus ought to continue. great britain is still portugal's best customer, buying the greater portion of her port and madeira, her fruit, cork, sardines and mineral ore. after wine, the most important export is canned sardines and tunny fish, the principal customers being great britain and the united states. the annual value of these exports amounts to about {1,000,000 annually. other exports are cork, pitprops, textiles (for angola) and copper. portugal is hampered by the necessity of having to buy abroad foodstuffs, particularly wheat and maize and fish (bought from newfoundland and norway). the value of the oil imported now exceeds that of coal which averaged before the war about 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 tons, almost entirely bought from great britain. cot- ton and woollen goods are also largely imported from great britain, agricultural machinery comes mainly from the united states and germany; and belgium supplies most of the railway material. asa result of the fall of the escudo, there has been a decline in anglo- portuguese east africa—portuguese literature portuguese trade, portugal’s exports to great britain falling from £9,747,000 in 1918 to £4,589,000 in 1922 and in the first nine months of 1923 to £2,890,415. the gencral fall in foreign trade would have been more noticeable, if it had not been for the large importations ot raw materials from portuguese colonies. _ manufactures.—as already stated, there has been a considerable increase in portuguese industries since the war, and dr. perez [rancoso, a former finance minister, has estimated that whereas before 1914 the number of those engaged in portuguese industrics other than agriculture was 60,000 or 1°, of the population, 10 years later the number had increased to 500,000 or nearly 10°; of the population. the principal manufacturing industry is the production of textiles, employing 45,000 workpeople, half of whom are in the cotton factories of oporto and district, the remainder being engaged in the wool, silk and linen industries. other industries are the mak- ing of tiles and the embroideries of madeira, the annual export. ot which to the united states alone amounts to {2,000,000 annually. wages have been increased between 20 and 30 times above the pre- war rates, in many cases more rapidly than the cost of living. most of the labour disputes occurred in overcrowded lisbon, though there were also troubles in oporto and covilha. many of these disputes affected shipping. the german mercantile marine is now the second largest carricr of portuguese overseas trade, and is gradually gaining on british shipping. finance.—portuguese financial difficultics are due to causes which may be summarised as follows: (1) the political and economic un- certainty caused by a series of weak and short-lived governments and by a number of costly strikes; (2) the tendency for the wealthy portuguese to send their capital abroad, these sums amounting, it 1s said, to some £75,000,000; (3) the hoarding habits of the peasantry; (4) the large purchases of foodstuffs and raw materials from abroad; (5) foreign liabilities like the debt to great britain which, however, is not yet funded; and (6) the increase in the number of civil servants and in their emoluments. the estimated deficit for the fiscal year 1924-5 was 333,023,545 escudos, and the accumulated deficits since the war up to that year had reached! 1,000,000 contos (a conto 1s 1,000 escudos). financial reforms carried included the raising of port dues and shipping taxes, making the postal and telegraph rates the highest in j:urope, and doubling the consular fees payable on all imported merchandise. by a series of prohibitions it was found possible to raise the exchange to ahout 2d. at which figure it is hoped it may remain. the bank of portugal was compelled to issue between an. and nov. 1923, notes to the amount of 238,699 contos, which increased the circulation beyond the legal limits of 1,160,000 contos. that excess was subsequently legalised and the limit increased. the uncertainty and speculation prevailing are further increased by the large number of small banks which cannot confine themselves to legitimate banking business. brnliograrny.—-british department of overseas trade, annual reports on portugal (london); <lnnuario lstalistico de portugal (lisbon). (n, i. g.) portuguese east africa: sce mozambique.