PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

-the period from 1910 to 1926 marked some of the greatest developments of this university in 185 years. the standards of admission to all schools were raised, and the number of students was definitely limited in most of the schools. the law, medical and graduate schools now require academic degrees for admission, and the dental school at least two years of academic training. in 1925 the engineering schools adopted a new system of admission, requiring two years of academic training; and subsequently required two years of intensive study in engineering subjects for the technical degree. admission to all other undergraduate schools has been restricted almost entirely to applicants who have graduated from the upper half of a standard four-year approved high school, and no students are admitted on condition. the courses in veterinary medicine and dentistry have been increased to four years. | new developments—during this period the following schools and departments have been added to the university. in 1910 74 the henry phipps institute was transferred to the university. in ror2 the original college department was divided into the towne scientific school, the wharton school of finance and com- merce and the college; and the dental school was merged with the thomas w. evans museum and dental institute. in 1914 a school of education was founded and schoolmen’s week estab- lished. in 1916 the medico-chirurgical college and hospital were merged with the university. in 1917 the department of military science was established. in 1918 the philadelphia polyclinic and college for graduates in medicine were merged with the university. in 1919 the graduate school of medicine was founded. in 1920 the laboratory of hygiene was organised as a school of hygiene and public health; and the school of fine arts, including architecture and music, was established. in 1921 a department of dental hygiene was instituted, and in 1923 the moore school of electrical engineering. dr. josiah h. penniman was acting provost from 1921 to 1923, when the position of president was created and dr. penniman became both president and provost, which positions he was occupying in 1926. for the sessions of 1925-6 there were in the university of pennsylvania 17,509 students; of these, 4,215 were women. the students were distributed as follows: college, including arts and science, biology and college courses for teachers, 2,815; sum- mer school, 2,230; towne scientific school, including mechanical, civil and chemicalengineering, 166; moore school of electrical and engineering, 93; fine arts, including schools of architecture, music, 442; wharton school, 2,677; various extension schools, 4,597; school of education, 1,508; graduate school, 1,393; school of medicine, 472; hygiene, 2; graduate medicine, 130; law school, 342; dental school, 542; dental hygiene, 42; veterinary school, 58. during 1910-25 many new buildings were added to the cam- pus, among them several dormitory houses, including one for women students; a new surgical pavilion and other additions to the hospital groups; the duhring stack and the henry c. lea wing were added to the library, and several wings to the untver- sity museum; bennett hall; the school of education and the graduate school; zoological building; the evans dental institute; and a university stadium scating cighty thousand persons. ground was also broken for a new gymnasium, an anatomical laboratory building, irvine hall, auditorium building, ctc. the university plant, with these new structures, will consist of 110 ac. and approximately 75 buildings. the treasurer's report of june 30 1924 shows the total asscts of the university to be about $33,000,000, including grounds, buildings and endowment. the buildings, grounds and univer- sity plant are valued at about $18,000,000. not included in these figures are several plants affihated with the university such as the evans dental institute, the wistar institute of anatomy, etc., the values of which are more than $3,000,000. there are also 130 fraternities, of which 93 operate houses, and of these 60 own property valued at more than $3,000,000. the total annual receipts in 1925 were approximately $4,000,000. the sum of $1,803,560 was spent on cducational salaries and $919,477 on other salaries. on may 1 1925 there was organised the “ uni- versity of pennsylvania fund,’ the object of which is to secure at least $45,650,000 before the 20oth anniversary of the univer- sity in 1940; more than $5,500,000 had been subscribed by 1926. (e. f. ss.) ” pensions.—in most civilised countries a considerable portion of the working population can look forward to pensions in their old age, while great britain and her dominions, the united states and other countries provide pensions fo1 those who were disabled during the world war. pensions are also given to officers and men who have served in the army, navy or air force. further, germany, great britain and other countries have state schemes for providing old-age pensions, and in addition many business firms have pension schemes. i. great britain great britain has an elaboiate national scheme which pro- vides pensions for all who attain the age of 70, and also for widows, blind persons and certain others who are under that pensions age. these form part of the national system of social insurance and are described in this work in that connection (see insur- ance, social). pensions are given to civil servants, these being calculated at so much for each year of service up to a maximum of half the salary. in addition, a lump sum, equal to a year or more of salary, is paid on retirement. municipal authorities, banks and many business firms have pension schemes for their employees. these vary very much in character, but most of them are contributory, the employee paying a certain percent- age, perhaps 23%, of his annual salary and the firm contribut- ing a like amount. great britain has also civil list pensions, as they are called. the government provides {£1,200 each year, which is spent in giving pensions to literary men and their de- pendants, and others whose circumstances are impaired. war pensions.—the world war made necessary a vast expend- iture on pensions, and in great britain a large organisation was set up to control this. the ministry of pensions came into existence in dec. 1916, but it did not take over the administra- tion for pensions for long service, which still remain under the war office, the admiralty or the air ministry. its headquar- ters are at 2 sanctuary buildings, 18 great smith street, west- minster, london, s.w. 1, and under it are five regional districts. much of the work is done through local committees. the amount of work carried on by the ministry just after the con- clusion of the war was so enormous that at one time it employed 32,000 persons. as, however, claims were settled and the pen- sioners began to die off, the amount was reduced. in 1924-5 its expenditure, mainly on pensions, was £66,947,000. pension rates —pensions are granted to all those who have been disabled, wholly or partially in the war, and to their dependants; also to the dependants of those who were killed. a disablement pension is usually first granted on a temporary basis for 12 months, afterwards being made final when the disablement is sufficiently stable. such pensions are reckoned on a per- centage basis—a total disablement being taken as 100 % . the lowest figure entitling to a pension for disablement is 20%. thus, if a disablement is assessed at 50%, the man would receive so% of the full rate of pension and his wife and chil- dren, if eligible, 50% of the allowances. disablement assessed at less than 20% is compensated for by a gratuity or an allow- ance for a stated number of weeks. a grant of this kind, how- ever, must not exceed a maximum of £200. the rates of pensions in force in 1926 are as follows: for 100 %o disablement a private receives 4os. a week and his wife ros. 7/6 is paid for the first child and 6/3 for each other child. a widow over 4o receives 26s. 8d. and a widow under 40 20s. a week. from the beginning of the war to march 31 1925 the total number of pensions paid to officers and their relatives was as follows:— officers . 59,787 widows 11,616 children ; 12,844 other dependants 8,028 nurses . 2,415 the number of pensions paid to non- coenasiteone stiicedt and men and their relatives to the same date was as follows:— men ; 1,269,706 children 1,015,271 widows 248,367 children of widows 399,349 other dependants 410,988 on march 31 1925 the aubiber ai seein in receipt of pen- sions was as follows:— officers . ; we we & 25,500 widows of officers e : . 9,100 children of officers. ‘ ‘ 8,500 depenuants of officers 6,400 nurses ; : 1,100 men 472,000 widows of men 148,000 dependants of men 3.46,000 motherless children 18,000 the estimated cost of pensions ant her admiviatration during the financial year 1925-6 was £63,504,900. (a. w. h.*) pensions, ministry of—periodicals il. the united states pensions prior to the world war.—during the period 1910- 26 various amendments and additions to the u.s. war pen- sion laws were made by congress, including provision in 1915 for a double pension in case of death or disability resulting from an aviation accident. the most recent amendment was contained in an act, approved may 5 1926, increasing the pen- sions of those who have lost limbs or been totally disabled or become totally blind in the military or naval service of the united states. ’ the following table shows the number of pensioners on the roll and the total disbursements for pensions during the period 1qio-25:— a detailed specification of the pensioners on the roll, june 30 1925 was as follows: civil war—soldiers, 126,566; widows, etc., 241,193; nurses, 60; war with spain—soldiers, 101,702; widows, etc., 18,363; nurses, 169; regular army—soldiers, 12,399; widows, etc., 3,762; indian wars—soldiers, 3,924; wid- ows, 3,034; war with mexico—soldicrs, 17; widows, 1,257; world war—soldiers, 49; widows, etc., 21; war of 1812— widows, 21. world war compensation.—the first provision for pensions arising out of casualtics of the world war was made by act of congress, oct. 6 1917, which provided for compensation for death or disability arising from personal injury suffered or disease contracted of all persons in service, including women in the army and navy nursing corps in line of duty in the war. the death compensation varied with the relationship of the recipient and the number of dependants. compensation for disability depended upon its seriousness and duration. the act also provided that in addition an injured person should be fur- nished such medical and hospital service and medical supplies and appliances as should be reasonably necessary and, in cases of permanent disability, courses of rehabilitation, re-education and vocational training. provision was also made for allowances to families and dependants of all enlisted men and insurance at peace-time rates to any person, man or woman, in active mili- tary or naval service. the administration of the various parts of the act was committed to three organisations: the bureau of war risk insurance, the united states public health service and the federal board for vocational education. by act of congress, aug. 9 1921, all the world war veteran’s relief activities were consolidated in the united states veteran’s bureau, and this resulted in great economy in administration and a correspondingly greater efficiency. by act of congress, june 7 1924, the “ world war veterans act, 1924,” a consolida- tion and revision of the previous legislation was accomplished, and under this statute with minor amendments, the u.s. pro- vision for world war pensions or ‘“‘ compensation,” insurance and other forms of assistance to world war veterans and their dependants has been administered. | up to june 30 1925 1,001,931 compensation claims had been filed, 490,258 of which were allowed, 497,103 disallowed and 14,570 were pending. at that date compensation payments were being made on 277,035 claims and the total disbursements for death and disability compensation had amounted to $730,107,- 49.20. pensions, ministry of.—this department of the british govt. was set up by act of parliament in dec. 1916, to deal with pensions arising out of services during the world war. the act transferred to a minister, responsible to parliament, the powers and duties of the admiralty, the war office and the chelsea fiscal soldiers on widows on total disbursements year roll roll for pensions i9io 602,180 318,903 $159,974,0560.08 1920 285,110 299,363 213,295,314.00 1921 267,713 290,955 258,715,842.54 1922 256,828 282,965 253,807,583.37 1923 253,605 278,700 263,01 2,500.00 1924 248,049 270,194 229,994,777 00 1925 244,657 260,382 217,150,602.00 72 commissioners, “in respect of the payment of pensions and grants to officers and men, to their widows, children and depen- dents and to persons in the nursing services of the naval and military forces.”” the administration of pensions for services in the army, navy and air force was left with the departments responsible for the general administration. the work of the ministry grew enormously during the war period, and just afterwards. in 1921 it had a staff of 26,000 persons, and at the end of 1920 it was paying pensions to over 1,800,000 men, women and children, the total number of persons benefiting being estimated at nearly 3,500,000. the medical work of the ministry was on a correspondingly large scale. it had many hospitals and a large staff of medical men, who at one time examined over 20,000 cases each weck. the supply and repair of artificial limbs was an important branch of the work. after the war the work of the ministry was decentralised and ber was afterwards reduced to seven. these seven are london, birmingham, manchester, bristol, newcastle-upon-tyne, edin- burgh and cardiff. each is governed by a director, assisted by a commissioner of medical services and others, who carry on— (1) medical examinations; (2) awards of pensions; (3) control of hospitals; (4) supervision of local pension committees. the headquarters of the ministry are at 2, sanctuary buildings, great smith street, london, s.w.1r. and in 1923-4 it disbursed in salaries and expenses over £73,000,000. perez galdos, benito (1845-1920), spanish novelist (see 21.139), died at madrid jan. 4 1920. periodicals (see 21.151}.—this article deals with the new reviews which have appeared since 1912 treating of language, literature, politics, art, fiction and topic subjects. for the most part only those periodicals which are still being issued are re- corded and the year of their first appearance is given. naturally the economic strain of the world war caused the collapse of many publications which might have survived in more prosperous times. even apart from wars the appearance and speedy disappearance of new reviews is a common‘event of the publishing world, and has been no less common in the last dozen years. an example of a periodical which was killed by the war is blast (1914). to-day, a literary review, ran from 10917 to 1923, life and letters appeared in 1923 and 1924 only, while the anglo-french review, which began in 1919, had an equally short career. i. the british empire the appeal to popular tastes ——the period is remarkable for the growth of new periodicals appealing to the popular taste rather than for its more solid and learned reviews. to give lists at all approaching completeness of this class of publication would be impossible within the space allotted to this article. a few examples will be given taken from such subjects as the cinema, wireless, motoring, dancing, popular fiction, domestic economy, etc. among periodicals concerned with the cinema stage are the cine-musician (1925); cinema pte (1919); cine-shows (19109); cinema chat (1919-20), continued as home news (10920). reviews treating of the recent developments of wireless teleg- raphy are tie radio review (1919); the broadcaster and wtre- less retailer (1922); the wireless magazine (1925); the wireless constructor (1924); brighter wireless (1925). in the automobile world in addition to a large number of trade and advertising journals there are many reviews intended for the amateur, such as the aztocycle (1913) and the afotor owner (1919). the popu- larity of dancing is responsible for dancing life (1921); dance- land (1922); dancing annual (1923) among others. fiction and domestic economy—-the magazines devoted en- tirely to popular fiction are possibly more numerous than those of any other class. among them are the premier magazine (1914); home mirror (1919) short stories (1920); gaiety (1921); choice story magazine (1923), true love-story magazine (1924); merry magazine (1924); standard stories (1925). the contrast between the gay appearance of these periodicals and the sobriety of the fiction magazines of the roth century is striking. these 76 magazines are to a great extent taking the place of the carlier monthly miscellanies, the family magazines. the popular peri- odical of the 19th century was largely devoted to fiction, but also contained a certain amount of instructive matter; its tone was eminently serious. the present-day popular journal, on the other hand, is devoted entirely to light fiction, has frankly no other object than that of amusement, nor is there any attempt to convey moral instruction under the guise of fiction. the change may be in part accounted for by the existence of a wider reading public, embracing less educated classes. equally striking is the change which has taken place in the form of the periodicals concerned with domestic economy and the life of women, of which the best examples are good house- keeping (1922) and woman (1924) and woman’s pictorial. these journals have been influenced by the american woman’s magazine vogue, which appears to circulate throughout the english- speaking world. they have a distinctly artistic standard and are not content with the mere fashion-plate. they are remark- able also for the advantage which they take of modern devel- opments in colour printing. the increased attention paid to advertising has enabled these and similar magazines to be more lavish in the manner of their production, while the advertisers or advertising agents have themselves devoted especial care to mat- ters of typography and the lay-out of the printed matter. this is reflected also in magazines intended for children, a class of perioci- cal which has much increased its numbers. the jferry-go- round (oxford, 1923) is the best example of a well printed chil- dren’s magazine. others are toby and wonderful playthings (1921), my magazine (1914), which developed from the chi- dren’s encyclopaedia, and the children’s companion (1923). literature —turning to the more serious periodicals we find that the gencral review, a publication dealing with politics, literature and the arts, etc., is less frequent than the more spec- ialised review. the majority of the new journals are definitely political, literary or artistic. dealing with english literature and language we have the review of english studtes (1925) and the london mercury (1919), of which the first treats mainly of earlier english literature, while the second is chietly devoted to con- temporary literary criticisms. the poetry review (1909) is con- cerned with the criticism of poetry and also contains original verse. of literary reviews which publish original fiction and verse there are the adel phi (1923); the bermondsey book (1923); the calendar of modern letters (1925); the new criterion (1926), originally founded as the criterion (1922); the new coterte (1925). one well-known literary review, the afhenacum (1828), has joined forces since 1921 with the nation (1890), and thus become one of those literary weeklies which must be classed as newspapers. of this class there has been one new journal of note, the new statesman (1913), which appears to have become well- established. on the whole the weekly review of politics and lit- erature is losing ground between the more specialised monthlies and quarterlies on the one hand and the sunday newspapers on the other hand. such papers as the observer (1791), and the sunday times (1904), besides being definitely newspapers, are to all intents and purposes general weekly reviews. politics —of periodicals which are mainly political there are the new europe (1916-20); the round table, a quarterly re- view of the politics of the british commonwealth (1910); the conservative review (1925); the labour monthly (1921); the polish review (1917), and twentieth-century russia and anglo- russian review (1915), both discontinued; the balkan review, now eastern europe (1919); the anglo-iialian review (1918), now discontinued; africa and orient review (1920); the com- monweal, a monthly magazine of enlightenment and progress (1925). here may be recorded the league of nations official journal (1922). of periodicals devoted to the arts there are a polle, a journal of the arts (1925); the aris gasetie (1919); art- work (1924), celour (1914), an art journal which is remarkable for its reproduction in colour. theology, education, etc—theological journals are theology, a monthly journal of historic christianity (1920); the venturer, a monthly journal of christian thought (1915; new series, periodicals 1919-21) and the pilgrim, a review of christian politics and religion (1920). educational journals are education for the new era, continued as the new era (1920); the torchbearer, a review of education (birmingham, 1924). other specialised reviews are the cambridge historical journal (1923) and the psychic re- search quarterly (1920), now psyche (1921). 7 ypography.—throughout the period here considered there has been a continued advance in the standard of typography and book production in periodical literature, as well as in the book proper. several reviews devote space to purely typographical criticism, while in their form many of them show a great im- provement on their predecessors of the last century. most coun- tries have their periodicals devoted to the study of typography, some of which are mentioned below. in england 7he imprint (1913) survived less than one year. it was followed in 1923 by the fleuron, a journal of a very high standard devoted entirely to the art of printing. several advertising journals connected with the trades of printing and publishing are noteworthy for their form, e.g., the linotype record, the monotype recorder, magazines issued by typefounding companies, and the 7/e book- mark (1925), and now and then, a periodical of books, periodicals issued by the publishing houses of dent and jonathan cape respectively. university publications —almost all these journals are pub- lished in london, where the book trade tends to be centred more and more. in england almost the only exceptions are a few periodicals issued in connection with, if not by, the universities. such are for example two reviews dealing with modern languages, the french quarterly (manchester, 1919) and the bulletin of spanish studies (liverpool, 1923). scotland.—in scotland there are two new general, mainly literary, reviews, the northern review (edinburgh, 1924) and the scots magazine (glasgow, 1924). treland.—in ireland, since the formation of the free state, there has been considerable activity in periodical publications. already, in 1912, we had studies, an irish quarterly review of letters, philosophy and the sciences. we now have the dublin magazine (1923), a general non-political periodical. a popular magazine entitled baba lasted for two years only, 1921 and 1922. an branar, also, a journal written in irish, which began in 1919, has been discontinued. overseas dominions and india.—in this section there is but little new work to record. canada has a number of popular magazines which show the influence of the united states. the canadian forum, a monthly journal of literature and public affairs (toronto, 1920) is the chief review of a more ambitious class. artin australia, a quarterly magazine, published at syd- ney, appears to have come to an end in 1923. south africa has two new reviews, the cape, an independent review of south african life and politics (cape town, 1915), and the south african quarterly (johannesberg, 1919); the eastern illustrated review, a quarterly (1918) and the malayan chronicle (1923) are both published at singapore. at calcutta is published au- pum, an illustrated quarterly journal of oriental art (1920). of other indian journals issued in english the hindu review (cal- cutta, 1913-4) and the new review ( bombay, 1917-9) both had a short existence. ii. other countries united states -—the number of periodicals published to-day in the united states is certainly much larger than in any other country, and especially in the class of popular magazines. all that has been written above about these journals in england applies with much greater force to the united states; indeed in the style and scope of these magazines england is mainly an imitator. if the art of advertising has changed the appearance of journals in this country, its effect has been still more pro- nounced in america. no lists need here be given. almost equally numerous are the technical and scientific periodicals, which cannot be dealt with here. | of new reviews in our restricted sense there are two of par- ticular importance, the american mercury (new york, 1924), a periodicals monthly review, mainly literary, and foreign affairs (new york, 1922), a political journal. other literary reviews are 7/e afodern review (boston, 1922), a quarterly; the unpopular review (1914) now discontinued; poeiry, a magazine of verse (chicago, 1912), containing besides original verse some criti- cism; a journal entitled 7924, which began in july of that year. another political journal concerned with european affairs is the adriatic review (boston, 1918). art magazines are the print connoisseur (new york, 1920), a quarterly, and are in america (new york, 1918). of journals concerned with philol- ogy, the romantic review (new york, 1910), a quarterly and the international journal of american linguistics (new york, 1917), devoted to the study of the language of the american indians, are of importance. other specialised reviews are the hispanic american historical review (baltimore, 1918-22); the anglican theological review (new york, 1918); the psychoanalytical review (new york, 1914); the american jour- nal of physical anthropology (washington, 1918). naturally the great majority of specialised journals are issued by learned societies and are therefore outside our scope; it should be remembered, however, that such publications are extremely numerous in the united states, a country which is showing a teutonic industry in research, with the advantage of more abundant financial support. finally it follows from the fact that a second revival of print- ing has taken place in america, that a host of journals connected with the printing trade have been issued, including one first class review concerned with typographical history, ars typo- graphica, which took on a new and enlarged form with its second volume in 1925. france.—the position of paris as the literary centre of france and perhaps the most important nterary centre in the world is reflected in the publication of new periodicals. of reviews devoted to literary criticism and history we have the chronique des lettres francgaises (1923); la connaissance, revue des lettres (1920); les nouvelles litteraires (1922); les feunilles libres (1918); revue de litterature compare (1920); etudes italiennes (1919); and la nouvelle revue francaise (1919). of more general reviews, dealing with political affairs as well as literary, we have exrope (1923); l’ esprit nouveau, revue internationale illustree (1920); les lettres (1919); la minerve francaise (1919); le navire d’ argent (1928); la revue belge (1918); la revue anglo-americaine (1923); la revue du siecle (1925); la revue europeenne (1923); la revue universelle (1920); transatlantic review (1924). re- views dealing mainly with serious fiction are commerce (1924); demain (1924); and action. cahiers, individualistes de philoso- phie et d'art (1920). the chief new political reviews are annuaire du monde musulman (1923); le monde libre (1919); la nation tcheque (1915); la voix de ? armenie (1918). of periodicals dealing with the arts, there are areiiuse, revue d’art et d’arche- ologie (1923); beaux arts (1923); l’ art vivant, revue bi-mensuelle des amateurs et des artistes (1925); revue des arts asialiqnues (1924); revue d'art oriental (1920); l’ acropole, revue du monde hellenique (1925), a classical journal. historical reviews are archives de la grande guerre (1919) and the revue des eiudes napoleoniennes (1912). finally we record two periodicals which treat especially of book production and typography, bydlts, miroir des arts du livre et de ’estampe (1921) and le livre et l’ estampe (1923). all these are issued at paris. the revue du lyonnais (lyons, 1921), is an important review published in the provinces. germany.—for the large number of periodicals, mainly illus- trated and popular, issued in germany during the world war, the reader is referred to the bibliographics of war literature. the majority of the serious and important german reviews have survived the war and the critical years following. as to the new publications they appear to have suffered, if not in number, at any rate in form, many of those here recorded being but slender publications. new general reviews, mainly literary, are die hilfe (berlin, 1914); freie deutsche biihne (1919), now das blaue heft (berlin, 1921); die neue schaubtiiine (dresden, 1919); die neue biicherschau (munich, 1919); der piperbote (munich, sf 1924); furopdische revue (leipzig, 1925); neue deutsche beitrage (munich, 1922); deutsche vierteljahrschrift fiir literaturwissen- schaft (halle, 1923); der neue aflerkur (munich, 1017); vers und prosa (berlin, 1924). more political are der jude (berlin, 1916); nene ukraine (berlin, 1923, published in russian); osi. europa, zeitschrift fiir gesamtfragen des europiischen ostens (konigsberg, 1925). reviews of art are das kunsithlalt (pots- dam, 1917); faust (berlin, 1921); aunst und antiquariat, zeitschrift fiir kunst und biicherfreunde (munich, 1925). two reviews deal with oriental art, ostasiatische zeitschrift (berlin, 1912) and artibus astae (dresden, 1925}. treating of classical antiquity there are gnomon (berlin, 1925) and die antike (10928). more specialised periodicals are the zeitschrift fiir slavische philologie (leipzig, 1924); zeitschrift fiir individual psvchologie (munich, 1914); volk und rasse (munich, 1926), an ethnological journal, even before 1912 germany had a number of reviews devoted to the history of printing and typography; to these have been added monatshefte fiir biicherfreunde und graphik- sammier (leipzig, 1925); and die biicherstube (munich, 1920). italy —the new italian reviews are bilychnis, rivista di studi religiosi (rome, 1913); nuovt studi medicvali (bologna, 1923); rivista indo-greco-halica di filologia, lingua, antichitd (naples, 1917); archivum romaiicum, nuova rivista di filologia romanza (1917), and i/ nuevo giornal dantesco (1917), both published at florence; dedalo, rassegua d’arta (1920); j? cozvegno, a literary review started since the war; aecgypfus (1920), an archaeological journal; musica d’oggi (1922), all published at milan. this growth of periodical literature in the chief indus- trial town of italy is significant. spain.—the most important of the few new reviews of note is ifermes (1917), a literary periodical published at bilbao. madrid has had two new literary reviews, cervanfes (1916) con- tinued as cervantes, revista hispano-amcricana (1918-20, but no longer published), and the revista de occidente (1923). belgium.—congo (1920) is a political review, la revue belge (1924), a general political and litcrary magazine. there is also buzavtion, revue internationale des etudes byzantines (1924), and a bibliographical curiosity of the war, la libre belgique (1915), secretly produced during the german occupation. all these are published at brussels. holland —de kronik (hague, 1914); de stem (arnheim, 1920), an annual; jet getij? (amsterdam, 1915); aakatoe (amsterdam, 1915) and the haagsche maanblad (hague, 1924), are mainly literary reviews. afaunblad voor beeldende kunsten (amsterdam, 1924), isanart journal. i2ct boek (1912), formerly the vijdschrift voor bockwezen, now published at the hague, is practically a new pcriodicat, and is one of the chief continental journals concerned with the history of printing. lvglish studies (amsterdam, 1919) ts also worthy of mention. scandinavian countrics—det nya sverige (stockholm, 1918), den nve literatur (copenhagen, 1919), and edda, nordisk lidsskrift for literaturforskning (oslo, 1914), are all literary re- views. lholberg aurbog (copenhagen and oslo, 1920), is an annual concerned with the dramatist holberg. the nordisk tidskrift for bok-och biblioteks-visen (stockholm, 1914), is an important review devoted to typographical matters. switzerland —la revue de gentve (1920) is a general, political and literary journal. bibliograpiy.—the value of indexes as a guide to the mass of important material which is often to be found only in the pages of periodicals has long been recognised. well-established periodicals meet this want by issuing their own indexes and by reviewing what- ever has appeared on thcir subject in other periodicals. a good review on any particular subject is itself the best guide to the current literature of the subject. in addition to this, two classes of publica- tions embrace the bibliography of reviews: first, lists of periodicals and secondly subject-indexes. of lists in 1925 appeared lhe world list of scientific periodicals, which records more than 20,000 current scientific and technical journals. a second volume is to follow, which will be a guide to the libraries containing these journals. the times has published the tercentenary itandlist of english and welsh news- papers, magazines and reviews, 1620-1920. the fourth edition of severance’s guide to the current periodicals and sertals of the u.s.a, and canada appeared in 1920. willing’s press guide, the writers’ and artists’ year-book, the literary year book and other similar 78 annuals contain lists of periodicals written in english. the american newspaper annual is a comprehensive work for the united states. france has an annuaire des journaux, revues et publications periodi- gues. germany has produced two comprehensive subject indexes, the bibliographie der deutschen zeitschriften-literatur and the bibliographic der' fremdsprachigcen zeitschriften-literatur, the second of which appears to have come to an end in 1915. the athenaeum subject-index, now the subject index to periodicals, published by the london library association is the most important index pro- duced in england. the readers’ guide te periodical literature, now the international index, is an american publication. faxon’s annual magazine subject-index, a subject-index to a selected list of american and english periodicals, is issued at boston. in the new guide to reference books, published by the ‘‘ american library association ’’ (chicago, 1923), there is a valuable chapter on the bibliography of periodicals. finally in italy the ‘‘ biblioteca della camera dei deputati" has issued a catalogo metodico degli scritti contenutt nelle publicaziont gi bagelaped qtaliane e straniere, a uscful index for certain subjects, but extending only to 1914. (see also newspapers.) (a. f. j.) periscope, an optical instrument used in land warfare and in submarine navigation to enable an observer to sce his sur- roundings while remaining under cover or submerged. it invart- ably includes among its optical elements two mirrors or reflec:ing prisms to change the direction in which the light travels, the first to divert it down the interior of a tube which norma!ly forms the frame of the instrument, and the second to guide it into a direc- tion convenient for observation. in addition there is usually a more or less complex telesconic system, and in some types devices are added for taking ranges, for measuring the speeds with which ovjects are moving, or for searching the whole sky, to which may be added means for varying the magnifying power of the tele- scone. some of these devices are necessarily complex. the simplest type of periscope, consisting of a tube and two mirrors at its ends placed parallel to one another and at an angle of 45° with the axis of the tube, is not of recent origin, but the great developments which have been made in modern times are due to requirements for submarine navigation. these develop- ments secure a large angular field of view when the tube is of con- siderable length and yet of restricted diameter and give an en- jarged image. as in other military instruments, clear vision through the periscope even under adverse conditions is of great importance, and the beam of light brought to the observer’s eye must there‘ore be of a diameter large enough to fill his pupil when it is somewhat widely opened. these various conditions tend to be opposed to one another, so that the design of each instrument represents a compromise which may vary over a considerable range as more or less importance is attached to one or other of these requirements. a typical submarine periscope consists externally of a tube about 30 ft. long and 6 in. in diameter except for a length of from two to three feet at the top, where the diameter may be reduced to two inches or even less. at the lower end a length of several fect of the full diameter is required for passing through the long stuffing box where the instrument enters the hull of the sub- mirine. a diameter of about six inches is needed to resist the bending movements caused by the resistance of the water as the submarine advances; an increase in the diameter adds to the resistance offered by the periscope to the boat’s progress. the narrowing at the top is introduced to make the part which pro- jects above the surface of the water less conspicuous. the optical e‘fects of this constricted portion are so pronounced that the dimensions assigned to this part determine the design of the instrument. it is debatable whether the tendency has not been to attach too much importance to this reduction in the diameter of the tube. if an observer looks through a series of tubes of the same dia- meter but of different lengths, placing his eye close to the end of the tube, his field of view will be smaller with a long tube than with a short one. the factor governing the extent of the field of vision is obviously the proximity of his eye to the front end of the tube. thus in a periscope the only way of increasing the field of view is to locate the eye virtually near the top of the tube by inserting therein a system of lenses which, in addition to satisfy- ing other conditions, will form an image of the observer’s eye in periscope the required position. these further conditions ensure the trans- mission to the real eye of all the light (assuming for the moment that all losses of light on refraction through the lenses of the in- strument may be neglected) that reaches the virtual eye position: roughly, they involve.the insertion in the tube of a lens at inter- vals proportional to the distance of the virtual eye from the open end of the tube. thus if the field of view is to be doubled the number of lenses needed in a tube of given length and diameter must be doubled. consider now two tubes, the length and dia- meter of one being twice that of the other. if they are both used to accommodate optical systems giving the same field of view, the distance of the virtual eye position from the open end will be twice as great with the large tube as with the smaller, and this will be secured with the same number of lenses in each instru- ment. but another factor enters which modifies this result: if the smaller instrument gives all the illumination necessary, 7.¢., fills the observer’s pupil with light, the larger instrument will fill with light a pupil of twice this diameter. the transmission down the larze tube of beams of this width will be useless, and since diameter of beam and angular field are reciprocally proportional, the angular field] may be doubled in the large tube for a fixed number of lenses without reducing the illumination below that obtained with the smaller tube. another way of stating this result is that for a given angular field and a given diameter of emergent beam the number of lenses required is proportional to the length of the tube and in- versely proportional to the square of its diameter. as an illus- tration, the number of lenses required to transmit a given beam down a tube three fect long and two inches in diameter will trans- mit the same beam down a tube 27 feet long if the diameter 1s increased to six inches. the chief objection to an increase in the number of lenses in an instrument is the reduction in the brightness and clearness of the image it involves. the brightness suffers because the amount of licht transmitted through the instrument is decreased owing to reflection, absorption and scattering; the clearness is dimin- ished because, of the transmitted light, a decreasing proportion is concerned with the formation of the real image, the rest form- ing spurious images or appearing as mere fog. when these addi- tional lenses belong to a narrow part of the instrument, their powers, being inversely proportional to the interval between successive lenses—that is, proportional to the inverse square of the diameter of the tube—are high, and their effects in introduc- ing irremovable aberrations, such as chromatic aberration and curvature of field, are correspondingly great. from the optical point of view that narrowness in the tube, even for a short length, is very detrimental to the production of a good instrument. the optical system in a periscope is intended to give a view roughly similar to that obtained by direct vision, and is thus telescopic; that is to say, it has an infinitely great focal length, and exhibits objects with a constant angular magnification. objects viewed through a tube present an illusive appearance of being less than their natural size, and to compensate for this it is usual to provide an angular magnification of one and a half times as the equivalent of a naked eye view. with this magnification an angular field of about 40° js ordinarily attained, with an emer- gent beam of diameter 4 or 5 millimetres. the use of a simple telescope in addition to the top and bottom reflectors would not allow such a field of view to be attained ina periscope of normal length. the typical method of developing more complex telescopes to meet the conditions consists in add- ing one telescope to another, the combination being itself of course necessarily telescopic. if two telescopes of the astro- nomical type are combined, pointing—in the astronomical sense —in the same direction, a large magnifying power results and the illumination is feeble. if, however, they are pointed in opposite directions, with their objectives facing one another, the resulting magnifying power will be the ratio of the magnifying powers of the component telescopes, and therefore may be kept down to the low value desired, while at the same time the leading lenses, which constitute the eyepiece of the first telescope, will be of the small diameter needed for the leading portion of the system. a . periscope system of this kind will yield satisfactory images near the axis whatever the separation of the two objectives may be; but in the outer parts of the field, owing to the obliquity of the correspond- ing beams between these lenses, the brightness of the image is reduced as the separation isincreased. the brightness accepted in the outer parts of the field is considerably less than that at the centre, but it may not be reduced beyond the point at which the change—which is gradual from the centre outwards—becomes obvious to the observer. there is thus a limit to the length attainable by the use of two telescopes, but the addition of more telescopes gives correspondingly greater lengths. in many periscopes a higher power than one and a half, nearly always six, can be introduced instantly in place of the lower power without any change in the focus or displacement of the centre of the field of view. in order to avoid loss of light or reduc- tion of the field as seen by the observer (the ‘‘ apparent ”’ field), the change of power must be effected at the top of the instrument, that is in the narrow portion of the tube. this requirement of course adds to the difficulties inseparable from a narrow tube. of the many diflerent means of changing the power employed by different makers only one will be illustrated. when it is required to search the complete sky, the top re- flector must consist of a prism, or alternatively of two prisms . ae ses utd agi mn = — | ——— co pig p ") sogn: =| camere | e a elt ll fic, 1.—diagram showing how light from different altitudes is directed down the periscope tube. fic. 2.—general principle of type of submarine periscope (see text). fic. 3.—upper end of sky- searching type. fic. 4.—lower end of same. placed with their reflecting bases close together and parallel to | one another. the way in which light from different altitudes is directed down the tube is evident from fig. 1. principles of construction the accompanying series of illustrations (figs. 2 to 4) show the general principles of construction, together with the appearance -79 of the two ends, in one of the many patterns of submarine periscope that are made by messrs. barr and stroud. fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of the optical parts in a bifocal periscope giving a field of view of 40° with a power of 13 and a field of 10° with a power of 6.1 the system will be considered first as a high power instrument. light enters through the plane parallel plate a, which is sealed into the tube, making a watertight joint; immediately afterwards it is re- flected downwards by the prism e, and is then refracted in turn by the lenses c¢, fand g, which constitute an inverted astronomical telescope. of these lenses e corresponds to the eye lens, f to the fieldl lens of the eyepicce and g to the object glass. this telescope is followed by a second, comprising four lenses, 4, k, m and 2: his the objective, & a collector lens, which may be moved along the axis of the tube for focusing and the remaining pair m and n together constitute the cyepiece of the periscope. the lower reflector is the prism /, to which the lens m of the eyepicce is cemented. the first telescope produces an angular magnification meas- ured by the ratio of the focal lengths of eand g. since the instru- ment is used with the eyepiece and object in the reverse of the usual order, the image formed appears to be diminished instead of magnified, and, of course, is inverted. the second telescope magnifies this diminished image in a ratio depending on the rela- tion of the focal length of the pair of lenses # and & to that of the eyepiece m and ». by a proper selection of these focal lengths it is evident that a power of six can be obtained without imposing any inconvenient restrictions on any of the lenses. moreover, the inverted image formed by the first telescope is reinverted by the second, so that objects viewed through the periscope present their natural appearance. to obtain a power of one and a half with a correspondingly augmented field, messrs. barr and stroud introduce a galilean telescope in front of the system just described. since such a telescope gives an upright image, no inversion results from, the introduction of the addi- tional lenses, and no change in the position of the real image plane of distant objects occurs if these lenses are in correct tele- scopic adjustment. since a diminished angular magnification is to be obtained, the eye lens—that is, the negative lens c of the galilean telescope—precedes the objective d. when the high power is in use the lenses ¢ and d are swung to one side, as at c, and d;, against the side of the tube. fig. 2 shows the paths of two beams through the low power system, that along the axis having the full cross section admitted by the lenses g and & and the other from a point at the edge of the field showing by its smaller cross section the diminution in illumination which takes place. lig. 3 shows the upper end of a barr and stroud periscope of the sky-searching type. the window ts inclined to the axis of the tube to give the large angular field required. within the window may be seen the prism by the rotation of which about a horizontal axis the direction of sight may be varied from the zenith to below the horizon according to the principle illustrated in fig. 1. the lower end of the periscope is illustrated in fig. 4. the handles are used to rotate the instrument about its axis, and so enable the line of sight to be directed to any part of the horizon as required. the bearing of any object to which the periscope is directed may be read on the scale seen in the upper part of this figure. when the instrument is not in use the handles may be folded into a vertical position out of the way. the eye- piece, surrounded by a rubber eye-guard, is seen between and slightly above the handles. in focus with the image of external objects are seen the graduations of vertical and horizontal scales. these correspond to suitable angular intervals by means of which the apparent sizes of objects may be obtained with fair accuracy, and from this an estimate of distance, for example, may be derived. inset in the top of the field of view, so as to be visible without taking the eye from the eyepiece, is a view of a portion of the bearings scale, which is projected into the field of view by means of a small prismatic telescope. 1this page is much too short to enable a drawing to scale to be printed thereon. 80, perkin—permanent court of international justickh in addition to reading the bearing it is important that the observer should be able to bring any object into the centre of the held of view without removing his eye from the eyepiece. this involves control over the angle of elevation of the line of sight, ability to adjust the focus and possibly the power of introducing coloured screens before the eye. in this periscope the top prism may be adjusted for elevation as required by rotating one of the handles about its axis, and the focusing adjustment and the light filters are controlled by means of the two milled heads seen projecting from the bottom of the periscope in fig. 4. the change of power is effected by rotating the second handle. all these con- trols are placed conveniently for the observer. the coloured glasses are placed within the tube and lie close to the eye lens. in ordinary use the low power telescope is emploved, and a change is only made to the high power when it is desired to ob- serve an object that has been sighted more minutely than is pos- sible with the low power. by using the low power, which em- braces an angular area sixteen times as great as the high power, large regions can be observed much more rapidly than with the high power with its smaller field of view. means are provided, but not illustrated, for raising and lowering the periscope rapidly. the recognised method of use is to break the surface for a series of rapid observations rather than keep the top above water, since the continuous trail made at the surface as the submarine travels under the water betrays her presence to an enemy. special provision has to be made for desiccating the air in the interior of the periscope from time to time. as material for the tubes bronze has been used on account of its non-magnetic character—a most important requirement; also nickel steel, which is only slightly magnetic. the latter material is somewhat corrod- ible by sea-water. very slight action of this kind is serious, since it causes the tube to work shiftily in its watertight gland. messrs. barr and stroud use immadium bronze, which they find preferable in all respects to the earlier materials. the principles of construction of periscopes for use on land are the same as those described for naval instruments. the con- ditions to be satisfied are in general less stringent than in sub- marine periscopes, and in the absence of important special fea- tures it is unnecessary to give illustrations of these instruments. see the article “ periscope” in dictionary of applied physics, vol. 4. (t. sa.) perkin, william henry (1860- }, british chemist (see 21.173), was in 1912 appointed waynflete professor of chemistry at oxford. his numerous investigations on the con- stitution of the terpenes and of various alkaloids and natural colouring matters, which are described in a very brilliant and numerous series of papers in the transactions of the chemical society, were carried out with great skill and originality. these investigations formed the scientific basis of the great synthetic dye industry, in the development of which germany played the leacling part. . permanent court of international justice.—the permanent court of international justice was created by an international agreement concluded at geneva, dec. 16 1920, and consisting of a statute for the establishment of the court and a protocol of signature by which 48 states declared their acceptance of the statute and of the jurisdiction of the court. at the close of 1925 this protocol had been ratified by 37 of the 48 signatories, including all the principal powers, except ger- many, russia and the united states of america. on jan. 28 1926 the senate of the united states, upon the formal initiative of the president, advised and consented that the united states adhere to the protocol of dec. 16 1920, with certain reservations designed to put the united states upon an equal footing in respect of the court with the several members of the league of nations. germany applied in 1926 for membership in the league of nations, and, if admitted, it is reasonable to assume will adhere to the court protocol. i. constitution and jurisdiction _ judges-——the court consists of 11 judges and four deputy judges, who are elected for terms of nine years and may be re- elected. the seat of the court is at the hague. it holds regular annual sessions, and, unless otherwise provided by rules of the court, the regular session begins on june 15 of each year and continues as long as may be deemed necessary to finish the cases on the list. it elects its own president and vice-president, ap- points its own registrar and makes its own rules regulating pro- cedure. the president and registrar are required to reside at the seat of the court. if at any time the full number of 11 judges cannot be present, the deputy judges are called upon to make up the number; nine judges being necessary to make a quorum. the statute requires that the members of the court shall be a body of independent judges elected regardless of their nationality from amongst persons of high mora! character who possess the quali- fications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices or are jurisconsults of recognised com- petence in international law. not more than one national of any state at one time may be member of the court. the members receive regular salaries and are not permitted to exercise any political or administrative function, or to act as agent, counsel or advocate in any case of an international nature. every member is required, before taking up his duties, to make a solemn declaration in open court that he will exercise his powers impartially and conscien- tiously. litigants.—only states or members of the league of nations can be parties to cases before the court. the rights of a private person, therefore, can be brought before the court only by the government of the state or quasi-state of which he is a citizen. the court is open unconditionally to the members of the league of nations and also to the states mentioned in the annexe to the league covenant, and it is open to other states upon condition of their accepting the jurisdiction of the court and undertaking to carry out in good faith its decisions and not to resort to war against a state complying therewith. the jurisdiction of the court comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force. there was much discussion whether this jurisdiction should be made generally compulsory, so that whenever one party to any international controversy wished to bring the case into court, the other party would be bound to submit to the jurisdic- tion. many states being unwilling to subject themselves to so comprehensive an obligation, the question was disposed of by including in the protocol and statute an optional clause, which the several states were at liberty to sign or refrain from signing, and under which the states signing recognised as compulsory, in relation to each other, the jurisdiction of the court in legal disputes concerning (a) the interpretation of a treaty, (b) any question of international law, (c} the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of an international ob- ligation (d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation. at the close of the year 1925 this optional clause had been signed by 23 states. i'rance was the only great power included in this list. since the court began its work, its jurisdiction under the head of ‘ mat- ters specially provided for in treaties and conventions ” has been enlarged by many new treaties and conventions providing that disputes between the parties shall be submitted to the court. procedure and practice-—the statute requires the court to apply in its decisions (1) international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognised by | the contesting states; (2) international] custom as evilence of a general practice accepted as law; (3) the general principles of law recognised by civilised nations; (4) judicial decisions and the teaching of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, not as binding, but as subsidiary means for the deter- mination of rules of law. . | the official languages of the court are french and english. the hearings are public. every decision is by a majority of the judges present at the hearing. the judgments are required to state the reasons on which the decisions are based. they are delivered in open court, and are printed and published in a regu- permanent court of international justice lar series of reports. they are final and without appeal, but a judgment is binding only between the parties and in the particu- lar case. dissenting judges are entitled to deliver separate opinions. special chambers of five judges each are appointed by the court for three years to hear and determine labour cases arising under pt. xiii. of the treaty of versailles and cases relating to transit and communications under pt. xii. of the treaty of versailles. in such cases the judges are assisted by technical assessors. with a view to the speedy dispatch of business, the court forms annually a chamber of three judges, who, at the request of the contesting parties, may hear and determine cases by summary procedure. special pains are taken in the statute to ensure that in each case there shall be in the court some judge familiar with the jaws, customs and peculiarities of each country which is a party to the controversy, and if in any case there is no member of the court coming from the country which is a party litigant, that party may name an additional judge to sit in the court in that case. for this purpose several parties in the same interest are reckoned as one party only. advisory opinions-——the court has provided by rules for giving an advisory opinion upon written request from the assembly or the council of the league of nations containing an exact statement of the question accompanied by all docu- ments likely to throw light upon it. when such a request is received, the registrar is required to give notice to the members of the court, to the members of the league of nations, to the states mentioned in the annexe to the covenant and to any international organisations which are likely to be able to furnish information on the question. opinions are given only after hearing all parties concerned and after deliberation by the full court; and the requests and opinions are printed and published in a special collection of reports. il election of judges the judges and deputy judges of the court are elected by separate concurrent votes of the council and the assembly of the league of nations, a majority vote of the members of each ‘of those bodies being necessary to an election. the voting is confined to a list of eligible candidates nominated by the mem- bers of the old permanent court of arbitration at the hague established by the hague conferences of 1899 and 1907. that court of arbitration was made up by each power signatory to the hague convention for the pacific settlement of interna- tional disputes sclecting not more than four persons who were required to be ‘of known competency in questions of inter- national law, of the highest moral reputation and disposed to accept the duties of arbitrators.” the persons thus selected were inscribed as members of the court of arbitration in a list which was sent to all the contracting powers. when a controversy was to be brought before the court of arbitration, five persons were to be selected from this list by the parties to constitute the tribunal to hear and determine the case. the list of members of the court of arbitration accord- ingly really constitutes a panel from which in each case the arbitral tribunal is selected, and this panel is composed of as many little national groups as there were states signing the hague convention and making appointments under it. under the statute of 1920 creating the permanent court of inter- national justice, when a judge of the new court is to be elected, each of these national groups in the old court is called upon to nominate not more than four candidates, not more than two being of their own nationality. all the nominations thus made are entered in a single list to which the votes of the council and the assembly for the new judges are confined. the experience of many years has shown that the character of the men appointed to the old court of arbitration was such as to withdraw them to a great degree from the most disturbing influences of local politics and to make them specially familiar with the persons who would be fitted for judges of the new court, and the statute confcrring the power of nomination upon them si contains an express provision that “ before making these nom- inations, each national group is recommended to consult its highest court of justice, its legal faculties and schools of law, and its national academies and national sections of international academies devoted to the study of law.”’ the statute creating the new court also lays down for the guidance of the assembly and council in casting their votes the following rule: “‘ at every election the electors shall bear in mind that not only should all the persons appointed as members of the court possess the qualifications required, but the whole body also should repre- sent the main forms of civilisation and the principal legal sys- tems of the world.” if after three meetings there remains a vacancy for which no candidate shall have obtained an absolute majority of votes both in the assembly and in the council, then a joint conference committee is provided for, which shall endeavour to agree and report upon a candidate, and the conference committee may, by unanimous agreement, go out of the list of nominations for a candidate. if the conference fails, then the judges of the court already elected may proceed to fill the vacancy by selection from amongst the candidates voted en in the assembly or in the council. ill. organisation and working the first election of judges to constitute the court was held at geneva sept. 14-6 1921. the list of eligible candidates proposed by the members of the old court of arbitration included 89 names, and from this list 14 judges and three deputy judges were elected by concurrent ballots of the council and assembly, and a fourth deputy judge was chosen upon the report of a conference committee accepted by both bodies. the judges elected were respectively citizens of france, great britain, spain, denmark, the netherlands, switzerland, italy, japan, brazil, cuba and the united states of america. the deputy judges were citizens of norway, ru- mania, the serb-croat-slovene state and china. the members elected met at the hague on jan. 30 1922. and proceeded to organise the court by electing judge loder (holland) as presi- dent and judge weiss (france) as vice-president, appointing mr. ake hammarskjold (norway) as registrar, and adopting rules regulating the constitution and working of the court and procedure before it. the first session for the transaction of judicial business opened on june 15 1922. the regular sessions provided for were held henceforward and during the years 1922~5 there were nine extraor- dinary sessions. during the same period the court heard, considered and gave decisions in six contested international cases and upon 12 requests for advisory opinions, most of the questions passed upon were novel, difficult and important, and many of them presented differences of opinion which required an authoritative decision if the establishment of peace and order in europe on a reasonable working basis was to proceed after the extensive re-arrangements caused by the treaty of ver- sailles. the 18 judgments and opinions rendered were accepted as final. the existence of the court is manifestly beginning to affect international discussion of disputes and to be recognised as affording a means of escape from those international dead- locks which have seemed insoluble because neither party felt willing to humiliate itself by surrendering its position. iv. evolution of the court the permanent court of international justice is not a product of any one mind or group or negotiation. it isa growth of many years during which a multitude of men familiar with inter- national affairs have collaborated in an effort to adapt to the conditions of international controversy the idea of justice under which in civilised communities judicial decision has superseded private war. many projects designed to accomplish this result were devised and published by individuals from the 16th down to the close of the roth century without much apparent effect. in the meantime, however, provisions for arbitration became more frequent in international treatics and the practice of 82 settling international disputes by arbitration increased. nine- teen international arbitrations are registered during the first half of the 19th century and 117 during the sccond half. the hague conference of 1809 greatly facilitated the practice of international arbitration by providing a gencral system with well considered forms of procedure, an established secretariat and an available list of suitable arbitrators. justiciable and non-justiciable questions.—the next step in development was a realisation of the distinction between the arbitration of controversics between nations and the judicial decision of justiciable questions. arbitrators selected ad hoc by the parties for the decision of a controversy proved quite likely to negotiate a settlement. men of the highest character in such a position had a tendency to act under a sense of diplomatic obligation, according to which the legal rights of the parties were merely elements in determining what it would be wise to do. by the time the second hague conference of 1907 met, a considerable opinion had arisen that for the decision of inter- national questions of legal right it was necessary to create a permanent tribunal composed of judges who were judicial officers and nothing else, and who would devote their entire time to the trial and decision of international causes by judicial methods and under a sense of judicial responsibility, and who were so sclected that the different systems of law and procedure should be fairly represented. after very full discussion, the conference of 1907 declared itself in favour of this view. it adopted a draft project for such a court which, however, remained incomplete because it proved impossible to reach an agreement on the mode of selecting the permanent judges. the numerous smaller powers were insistent upon their rights of equal and independent sovercignty and upon an equal voice in the selection of judges as a logical in- cident to that sovereignty. the great powers were unwilling to agree to a court in the constitution of which they would have practically no voice commensurate with their populations and interests, as against the overwhelming majority of smaller states. throughout the conference and during the seven years that elapsed between 1907 and the outbreak of the world war, there were constant but unavailing negotiations for an agree- ment upon some mode of electing the judges. at the close of the war, the fourteenth article of the covenant of the league of nations required the newly created council of the league to resume this effort and to formulate and submit to the members of the league for adoption plans for the establishment of a permanent court of international justice. in pursuance of that instruction, 12 international lawyers, resident in as many different countries, were invited by the council to act as a committee to prepare plans for the estab- lishment of the proposed court. upon this invitation such a committee met at the hague on june 16 1920, consisting of members from great britain, france, spain, belgium, holland norway, italy, japan, brazil and the united states. after long discussion, this committee, on july 24 1920, reported a plan con- taining the arrangements for the election of judges above described. with some amendments in the council and assem- bly, particularly regarding jurisdiction, that plan was incorpo- rated in the statute of dec. 16 1920. many of the provisions embodied in the statute creating this court had their origins during these long years of discussion in the necessity -of reconciling the opinions of a great number of nations differing in their circumstances, in their modes of thought and feeling and in their conceptions of what would contribute to international justice. the statute probably does not con- form to what would be produced in any single country, but it probably does include substantially all the useful provisions upon which the members of the community of nations were willing to agree in the year 1920. bisntiograpnuy.—h. w. v. temperley, a history of the peace conference of paris, vol. 6, pp. 481-499 (london, 1924); permanent court of international justice, draft scheme to the institution of the (special supplement to the official journal of the league of nations no. 2, sept. 1920); the permanent court of international justice (descriptive booklet, league of nations serics); <a. p. fachiri, pernambuco—pershing the permanent court of international justice: its constitution, procedure and work (london and oxford, 1925); m. o. hudson, the permanent court of international justice and the question of american participation (harvard univ. press, 1925); antonio sanchez de bustamante, the world court (london, 1925). several pamphlets on the court were issued by the world peace foundation between- 1920 and 1926, (e. ro.) pernambuco: see recife. pernerstorfer, engelbert (1850-1918), austrian poli- tician, was born in vienria april 27 1850. acquainted since child- hood with viktor adler, pernerstorfer studied and sympathised with the young austrian labour movement since his earliest days as a teacher. in 1870, together with adler, friedjung, the historian, and others, he formed a league for the study of social movements. his first political activities were, however, linked with schenerer’s extreme german nationalist movement. he was one of the authors of the german nationalist liner pro- gramm (1880), but he left this party and entered parliament in 1889 as an independent. as deputy he enjoyed the right of free speech and began to act as the mouthpiece of the social demo- crat party, to which he was of the greatest service. he joined the party in 1896, and sat for it in parliament from rgoz until his death, in latter days being president of its parliamentary fraction and vice-president of the house (1909, 1911). perner- storfer was rather an advanced liberal, who adopted socialism from love of humanity and hatred of absolutism and clericalism. his own principal interests were literary and educational. his fearless and generous personality did much for the poorer classes of his fellow men in days when they were practically political and social outcasts. he died in vienna jan. 6 1918. perry, bliss (1860- ), american author, was born at williamstown, mass., nov. 25 1860. he graduated from wil- liams college in 1881 (a.m., 1883), continuing his studies at the universities of berlin and strasbourg. he was professor of english at williams college, 1886-93, and professor of oratory and aesthetic criticism at princeton university, 1893~1900. in 1907 he became professor of english literature at harvard university, and was harvard lecturer at the university of paris, 1909-10. he was the editor of the allantic monthly 1899-1909. among his published works are the broughton house (1890); the powers at play (1899); a study of prose fiction (1902); the amateur spirit (1904); walt whitman (1906); carlyle (1913); the american spirit in literature (1915); a study of poetry (1920); life and letters of henry lee higginson (1921), and the praise of folly (1923). pershing, john joseph (1860— \, american soldier, was born near laclede, mo., sept. 13 1860. he studied at the kirks- ville (mo.) normal school; graduated from the u.s. military academy in 1886; was commissioned second-licutenant and assigned to the 6th cavalry in a campaign against the apaches in arizona. in 1890, during an uprising of the sioux, he served in dakota, in charge of the indian scouts. in 1891 he was appointed military instructor at the university of nebraska, remaining there four years. he entered the law school and re- ceived the degree of ll.b. in 1893. in 1897 he was appointed instructor in tactics at the u.s. military academy. he served in cuba through the santiago campaign (1898), was appointed ordnance officer with the rank of major of volunteers, and in june 1899, assistant adjutant-general. he organised the bureau of insular affairs in the war department, of which he was head for several months. in nov. 1899 he was sent to the philippines as adjutant-general of the department of mindanao, and in 1901 was made captain in the regular army and later conducted a campaign against the moros, which he completed with success in 1903. he then returned to the states and was appointed a member of the general staff. in 1905 he went to japan as military attache to the u.s. embassy, and during the russo-japanese war spent several months as military observer with the japanese army in manchuria. as a reward for his success in the philippines, president roosevelt in 1906 appointed him brigadier-general from the grade of captain, passing him over 862 senior officers. afterwards he returned to the philippines as commander of the department of mindanao and governor of the moro province. persia in 1913 pershing was placed in command of the 8th brigade at san francisco, which was soon after sent to the mexican border. in march 1916 he commanded the punitive expedi- tion into mexico against francisco villa, and the same year was made major-general. after the death of maj.-gen. funston in 1917 he succeeded him as commander on the mexi- can border. on america’s entrance into the world war he was chosen to command the american expeditionary force in europe. with his staff he reached england june 9 1917 and four days later landed in france. in oct. 1917 he was made general. from the start gen. pershing insisted upon the in- tegrity of the american army being preserved. he was con- vinced that the presence of an independent american army would be a serious blow to german morale. as commander- in-chief of the a.e.f. he urged the american attack at the marne salient in 1918, and planned american operations at st. mihiel and in the meuse-argonne. his management of the a.e.f. is clearly described in his succinct final report (less than roo pages), issued by the government printing office, washington, dec. 1919. his nomination by president wilson to the permanent rank of general, a grade held previously by only four americans—washington, gtant, sherman and sheridan, was confirmed unanimously by the u.s. senate sept. 1 1919. in 1921 he was appointed chief-of-staff. he was given the g.c.b. by king george v. he was head of the u.s. deputation which attended the celebration in peru on dec. g 1924 of the centenary of the battle of ayacucho, visiting also chile, ar- gentina, brazil and venezuela. appointed by president cool- idge as the u.s. representative and ex-officio head of the com- mission to supervise the plebiscite under the tacna-arica arbitration award, he went to arica in july 1925 to take up his duties, but, owing to his health becoming impaired, had to resign. he returned to the united states in feb. 1926. (see tacna-arica.) persia (iran) (see 21.187), an asiatic state under a shah. its area is about 628,000 sq. m. and the population is estimated at 10,000,000. i. political changes 190g-14.—the autumn of 1909 was a turning point in persian history. the despotic mahommed ‘ali had abdicated in favour of his young son sultan ahmed, thus ending the struggle against absolutism. great britain and russia were sympathetic, the latter power not only appointing a minister with liberal ideas, but withdrawing her troops from kazvin and tabriz. the field was clear, and persia seemed to have every chance of setting her house in order. but, a year later, the situation again changed, and nasir el mulk, who had been elected regent, reached tehran at a critical time. the ex-shah, who had settled at odessa, crossed russia with the connivance of russian officials, and landed near asterabad with a band of adherents and a quantity of munitions. the turkoman rallied to him and marched on tehran, where at first they caused a panic, but were defeated mainly owing to the able handling of a machine gun by a european instructor. the salar ed dauleh, brother of the ex-shah, who had advanced on the capital from kermanshah with a force of tribesmen, was also defeated. finally, the ex-shah retired to russia because great britain refused to consider the question of his return to the throne, which was favoured by russia. in march ror2 russia committed a singularly disgraceful and foolish act at the shrine of the im4m riza, the chief centre of pilgrimage in persia. the russian consul-general took advan- tage of minor local disturbances to call in a large russian force. an agent provocateur collected large crowds at the shrine to listen to his incendiary speeches. the russians then bombarded the shrine. many innocent men and women were killed or wounded; the sacred tomb-chamber in which lie the remains of persia’s saint was repeatedly struck by shell-fire; the treasury, containing the gifts of countless pilgrims, was removed, and when restored was not intact. the outrage excited intense indignation and was the chief cause of persia’s hatred against 83 russia. to cope with the general anarchy, the persian govt. engaged a staff of swedish officers, who began, in the face of great difficulties, to raise a force of gendarmerie. their first recruits were largely loafers, but they gradually made progress, especially in the capital and in shiraz. during the world war the force was incorporated with and superseded by the south persia rifles raised by sir percy sykes. events in persia during the war period, r914—-8, form the subject of a separate article (see persia, campaigns in). events of t919 and 1920.—when news of the armistice reached tehran, the persian govt. hastened to congratulate the vic- tors. in 1919 a persian delegation reached paris to lay ex- travagant claims for territorial expansion before the peace conference, but was refused a hearing on the ground that persia, not having taken the side of the entente in the war, could not be represented at the conference. shortly afterwards, negotiations were conducted between great britain and persia for a convention, which was signed in aug. 1919. by its terms, great britain agreed to help persia with a loan, with financial advisers and with military offcers. it was honestly intended to benefit persia, but the convention was considered to threaten her independence, and was opposed by the nationalist party, which was supported by certain allied legations. as a result, when the convention came before the majlis, it was denounced, and the british incurred much unjust odium, which did little credit to persia. in may 1920 the bolshevist fleet from baku bombarded enzeli and occupied resht, where a provisional govt. was formed under kuchik khan. at tehran there was a panic, , and the british were blamed for not protecting persia. the persian cossack division recaptured resht some months later, but was finally defeated by the bolshevists, and took refuge inside the british lines. the corrupt and inefficient russian officers were dismissed, and were temporarily replaced by british instructors. rise of riza khan and expulsion of the qajar dynasty—in the winter of 1920-1 a coup d’etai was organised by a persian journalist; the cossack division marched on tehran and seized the government without opposition in feb. 1921. their leader was a senior officer, riza khan, who had risen from the ranks and was of humble origin. he became commander-in-chief and also minister of war, and from this date practically ruled persia. he used the money that reached the treasury primarily for the regular payment of his troops, who realised that their interests were being looked after as never before. he also restored order with the result that persia became safer than for many years past. for a while riza khan contented himself with being the virtual head of the government but, in the autumn of 1923, he became prime minister and drove the faineant shah out of the country. in the spring of 1924, follow- ing the precedent established by mustafa kemal in neighbouring turkey, he attempted to establish a republic with himself as president. this scheme failed, mainly owing to the opposition of the mullas, who had noted with deep concern that the estab- lishment of a republic in turkey was followed by the abolition of the caliphate. riza khan’s position was only temporarily shaken by this failure and, in the autumn of 1925, he was able to dethrone the shah and was elected to the vacant throne by a practically unanimous vote of the majlis. thus fell the qajar dynasty which had ruled persia for nearly a century and a half. since the death of nasir ud din in 1896, their rule had been hopelessly corrupt and inefficient. it seemed possible that under shah riza pahlevi, persia might regain her prosperity and strength. he had organised a well-trained force of all arms, 40,000 strong, with which he defeated and reduced to submission the nomad tribes who, of late years, had been virtually independent of the government. he then set about disarming the entire population, a step calculated to help materially towards the restoration of order and prosperity. it might be thought that the hostility of the qajar princes would be too strong for the new shah, but this did not prove the case. sultan ahmad had alienated the sympathy of his 84 relations, many of whom have believed that the bloodless revolution that had taken place was more likely to guarantee them the possession of their wealth than the steady drift towards a break-up that characterised the old order. the chief danger facing the new shah was that of bolshevik propaganda, and this was the more grave in that the improved situation depended on the single life of its author. he was also faced with troubles due to the scarcity of bread and the interference with military at elections, which events led, june 1926, to the resignation of the prime minister. ii. economic conditions communications. —pdersia is cut off from the rest of the world by her rugged mountains and lack of modern communications. a metalled road was constructed during the war by the british from railhead at khanaqin to kermanshah and hamadan, where it joined a russian built road running to kazvin and the caspian. again, the british opened up routes from bushire to shiraz and isfahan; and from duzdap, on the border of persian baluchistan, to meshed. these latter roads are not metalled and would not stand heavy traffic. other routes available for wheeled traffic were opened by the british in southern persia, but persia remains deplorably deficient in roads. under her american advisers, an effort is being made to grapple with this problem, although the available amount of money is very small. the new shah is deeply interested in developing a route from mohammerah via ahwaz, khurramabad and sultanabad to tehran. this all-persian route runs through fertile districts and it seems probable that it will be selected as the alignment of the first persian railway. the main road in 1926 was that running from baghdad to tehran, and it was being developed by the eastern transport company, which had established a weekly service of cars and lorries from khanaqin to tehran, in connection with their service from london to baghdad tia beirut. thanks to this service, passengers reach tehran in three days from baghdad and machinery only takes one month from london, instead of five or six under the old conditions. with the exception of the almost derelict line from julfa there are no railways in persia, whose communications are actually deteriorating relatively to progress in neighbouring countries. indeed, until a railway programme is carried out, persia will remain a mediaeval land. persians hope to finance railway construction by extra taxes on tea and sugar, but the sums raised would not be sufficient for the purpose. railways would not pay in persia and will have to be subsidised by the government. the persian army is developing an air service of its own, which has helped materially in the restoration of internal order. the country is particularly suitable for transit by air and the important british commercial air service that is being organised between baghdad and karachi will follow down the shores of the persian gulf. a german company has been granted the privilege of establishing an air service in persia. persia is well served by telegraphs. the indo-european trunk lines run from julfa to tabriz, tehran and kashan. at this town, one line runs due south to bushire and thence by cable to jask and by land line to karachi, while a second line runs through yezd and kerman and across baluchistan to karachi. other lines also exist. wireless installations are being con- structed in the vicinity of tehran and it is intended to erect smaller installations at other centres. telephones are installed in the chief towns. agriculture.—tersia is essentially an agricultural country. the main crops are wheat, barley, millet, cotton, opium, lucerne and tobacco. sesame and other oil seeds grow everywhere, as do onions and turnips. rice and maize are chiefly produced in the caspian provinces. potatoes, beans, peas, cabbages, toma- toes, cucumbers, spinach, lettuces and radishes are the chief vegetables, but many of them, potatoes for example, are only grown near the larger towns. persia is rich in fruit, which grows to considerable perfection in spite of the lack of scientific cultivation. apples, pears, quinces, apricots, plums, peaches, persia nectarines, cherries and mulberries grow everywhere in great abundance. figs, pomegranates, almonds and pistachio nuts grow better in the warmer districts, while the date-palm, orange and lime are, generally speaking, confined to the gurmsir or “hot country.’’ the grapes and melons of persia are famous. the barren mountains produce an edible thistle, rhubarb and a large mushroom. the delicious manna exudes from a species of tamarisk, while valuable gums are tapped from stunted trees. tea planting was started some years ago in the caspian prov- inces and is making some progress, while the silk industry is capable of considerable development. generally speaking, agri- culture has been utterly neglected, and although it may be difficult to increase the supply of irrigation water on the plateau, the value and output of the crops could be considerably increased by the application of modern methods. finance.—with the help of her american advisers, persia is now producing honest budgets. for the year 1923-4 the revenue was {£5,128,000, customs representing 33%, direct taxation 16°, and oil royalties 10 per cent. the expenditure was £5,700,000, of which 40°% was taken by the war ministry. for the year 1924-5 the incomplete accounts show that this deficit had been practically ‘wiped out. after the war the boalshevist government cancelled all debts due by persia and all russian concessions. these debts had been larger than the sums owed to the british government and to the imperial bank of persia, which amount to about £2,600,000. this small debt, to some extent, represents advances which are repaid during the year. tpersia has kept faith with her creditors, thereby strengthening her financial position against the day when she will need to float a large loan for the reconstruction of the country. the imperial bank of persia, a british institution, is the state bank, receiving revenues and remitting government funds without charge. it also accommodates the treasury with advances and in many other ways. it possesses the monopoly of issuing notes and pays the government 6% of its profits. the imperial ottoman bank has several branches in persia, and banking is also carried on in a small way by tersian sarrafs. the standard coin is the silver kran, the conversion rate used in this article being krs. 45 to £1. gold is also minted, but has no fixed prices and fluctuates considerably in value. it is especially high at the persian new year (march 21), at which season gold coins are given as presents. trade.—persian imports for 1923-4, aggregating krans 604,251,000, consist of manufactured products 54%, and food and drink 33 per cent. exports valued at krans 768,392,000 include raw or semi-manufactured materials 72°%, and manu- factured articles 17 per cent. the above figures prove the undeveloped state of persia, dependent on foreign countrics for her manufactured articles, a large proportion of which are tex- tiles, tea and sugar. of her exports, mineral oil constitutes one-half, followed by opium, carpets, cotton and wool. before the war, the trade of russia reached 60% of the total trade, as against 21°, for the british empire. to-day the position is reversed, great britain’s share being 57°% and that of russia 18 per cent. anglo-persian oil company.—persia possesses considerable mineral wealth but, owing to lack of railways, water, fuel and technical skill, it remains undeveloped. the notable exception is the british oil concession which includes all persia except the five northern provinces. the royalties derived from the com- pany constitute 10°, of the revenue, and mineral oil forms one-half of the exports. moreover, the company spends over {2,000,000 in persia and trains some 40,000 persians to habits of industry. opium is grown in almost every province and comprises about one-fourth of the export trade. the persian government is prepared to limit the export, but the question bristles with difficulties. the league of nations is sending a commission to inquire into the whole question, but it is unlikely that they will be able to recommend the substitution of other crops owing to the absence of railways. to conclude, there is great need for modern means of transport and for education of persia, campaigns in every sort, without which persia must inevitably remain a poor and undeveloped country. bistiocrarny.—a. v. williams jackson, persza past and present (1906); e. g. browne, the persian revolution of 1905-1909 (1910); sir p. sykes, the glory of the shia world (1910); h. r. ifall, an- cient history of the near east (1913); sir p. sykes, history of persia (2nd ed.) (1921). (p. m.s.) persia, campaigns in.—for many years before the world war germany had been making strenuous efforts to increase her influence and interests in persia. at tehran a college was opened, staffed by german professors and subsidised by the persian government. in the persian gulf the firm of wonck- haus began to deal in mother-of-pearl at lingeh in 1896; in 1897 a german vice-consulate was opened at bushire. in 1900 germany attempted to purchase a site for the terminus of the baghdad railway at al kuwait, but sheik mubarak had pre- viously concluded a secret treaty with great britain agreeing, in return for protection, not to sell or lease any of his territory without her consent. other german efforts, made in collusion with turkey, mem- bers of mubarak’s family and the wahabis, failed; but turkey established‘ and held posts on mubarak’s territory in hor ‘abdullah, an inlet running from behind bubiyan island to within 30 m. of basra. in 10902 the firm of wonckhaus at- tempted to gain control of the pearl fisheries around hulul, then of the red oxide deposits of abu musa and finally of a piece of land along the river bank at mohammerah. these attempts were foiled by sir percy cox, the british resident. in 1906 the hamburg-amerika co. started a service to the persian gulf. at the outbreak of war great britain was engaged in negotiations with germany which would have given that power a strong position at basra, the destined terminus of the baghdad railway; and had acknowledged turkey’s suzerainty over al kuwait. 1. the menace to india in july ror4 the regency terminated with the coronation of the young shah, who had hardly taken up his duties when hostilities commenced. his majesty summoned the majlis, and duly proclaimed the neutrality of persia. the position was, however, a difficult one. the grandees werc, in many cases, only anxious to receive money from one or both sides; the masses hated the russians and mistrusted the british for being the friends of their enemies. there was sympathy in some quarters for the turks, and “let the christians devour one another’? was frequently heard. but persia was powerless. her military forces included the cossack brigade 8,000 strong, the swedish gendarmerie 7,0c0 strong and the useless persian army. german policy in persia——at first sight it would seem un- likely that remote persia should become a war theatre, but there is no doubt that germany had prepared her plans for attacking the indian empire across persia, using the turkish army as her instrument. before turkey declared war, the government of india took the precaution of despatching a brigade of indian troops to the bahrein islands. after the outbreak of hostilities this force, increased to a division, defeated the turks at sahil, and occupied basra on nov. 21, thus etfectually protecting the oil refineries of the anglo-persian oil co. to protect the pipe-line, 150m. long, running through ahwaz to the oilfields at maidan-i- naftan, which the tribesmen had breached and fired in several places, operations were undertaken, as a result of which persian soil was cleared of a turkish force that threatened ahwaz; the local tribes then submitted to the indian troops and the pipe- line was repaired. germany hoped to embarrass russia, and still more, great britain, by forcing persia and afghanistan into the war on her own side and creating disturbances in india and on her frontiers. if persia would come in, the claim that islam was on the side of the central powers might have brought in afghanistan. ger- many was able to divert forces to persia at a small cost; for india was weakly held, and the ‘‘ emden”? was causing some uneasiness. a turkish force marching across persia to afghan- 85 istan could have forced its amir to join an invasion of india. agents well furnished with arms and money were sent to en- list levies and march across central and southern persia, mur- dering or expelling the british. these groups formed supports to missions destined for afghanistan and baluchistan, which bore official letters to the amir and indian princes and car- ried on an anti-christian propaganda in the name of the hajji wilhelm.” | the chief german agent was wassmuss, formerly consul at bushire, who organised an anti-british confederacy at tangistan, dashti and dashtistan, bought over the swedish officers of the gendarmerie at shiraz and secured control of their force. the british vice-consul was murdered, the consul and entire colony arrested and taken to the coast, quawam el mulk, the chief of the arab tribes, who was acting governor-general, was driven out, and wassmuss reigned supreme in fars. in kermanshah, turks and germans expelled the british in april rors; at isfahan the germans were equally successful, and later at yezd and kerman. at the end of 1915 seven out of the 17 branches of the imperial bank of persia (a british company) were in enemy hands, and the british colonies had been expelled from central and southern tersia, except the gulf ports. in the north the position was different. the russians landed troops at enzeli, which marched on tehran. this action drove the enemy ministers to quit the capital. they tried, in vain, to induce the shah to accompany them. they used the force they had collected, mainly composed of escaped prisoners-of-war, for somewhat aimless raiding, but it was easily dispersed by the russians who moved south and occupied kashan. one of the dangers to be guarded against was that of german missions to afghanistan and baluchistan. efforts were made to intercept such parties, but it took time to make the necessary arrangements, and it was not until 1916 that the eastern persian cordon was in working order with the russians patrolling the frontier as far south as kain, from which centre the british, with some regular troops and a number of locally raised levies, were responsible to the borders of baluchistan. persia being a land of vast distances, it is not surprising that a german mission was able, by means of very long marches, to reach herat in sufety. it was received with every honour, but displayed extraordinary lack of tact by openly decrying everything of afghan manufacture, the arms manufactured at the arsenal at the capital, for instance, being criticised contemptuously. at kabul too, the same behaviour brought the mission into trouble. the amir, who had received it courteously, played for time by summoning a council representative of all the tribes and by lengthy meetings with the mission and his own advisers. the germans gradually realised that, without a turkish force, their efforts were wasted. they were finally dismissed, the amir pointing out that he could hardly break with the british until a large, well-equipped army reached kabul from the west. the mission broke up into small parties, most of which suc- cessfully evaded the cordon. | in 1916 the ebb and flow of the struggle were very marked. at first the turks, shortly after the retreat of the british from ctesiphon, occupied kermanshah and pushed forward towards hamadan. the russians in their turn, justly elated at their astounding feat of arms at erzerum, advanced and drove the enemy off the plateau, while a second force swept the hostile bakhtiaris out of isfahan and brought back the british and russian communities. the capture of kut again transformed the military situation and, in the summer, the turks, 16,000 strong with 54 guns, gradually drove back the russians who could only oppose them with 12,000 men and 19 guns. kerman- shah was evacuated and then hamadan, the retreat continuing as far as the sultan bulag range which covered kazvin and threatened a force marching on tehran. this situation remained unchanged until december. , the south persia rijles—in 1916 it was decided, in con- sultation with the persian govt., to organise a force of per- sian troops to restore order in southern persia and take the place of the swedish gendarmerie. this force was to be 11,000 86 strong, and the cossack brigade was to be raised to a similar strength. brig.-gen. sir percy sykes, who had spent many years in southern persia, was appointed to undertake this task, and landed at bandar ‘abbas in march, with three other british officers and a few indian instructors. the state of affairs was most unfavourable as, apart from the defeat of qoawam, the british agent and his escort were assassinated at lingch, and two british officers were assassinated in makran about the same time, both murders being due to german in- stigation; and finally this terrible month of april saw the grave disaster of kut al imara. many experienced officials expected a wave of fanaticism to sweep across persia and there was certainly cause for deep anxicty, especially in makran, but british coolness undoubtedly saved the situation. recruiting operations at bandar ‘abbas were started immediately after landing and, in spite of a strong anti-british party, men were rapidly enlisted, and, before the end of a month, the persian flag was hoisted with ceremony over a camp. the force, handled with much tact and patience by its british and indian instruc- tors, never looked back, and was soon able to protect bandar ‘abbas and an important section of the caravan route from the raiding tribesmen. qawam was aided by the british with money and munitions, and an exaggerated report of the means placed at his disposal led to the rebel arab headmen kissing his feet. with their aid he defeated the swedish gendarmerie, and was marching in tri- umph to shiraz when he was killed by a fall from his horse. his son, a man of 28, was, however, able to restore persian authority in fars. the success of qawam and the landing of the mission at bandar ‘abbas made the position of the german parties at kermin decidedly insecure. the governor-general became hostile to them, and they decided to retire westwards to fars, the route farther north being dangerous owing to the russian advance southwards. they fled in two parties, and after suffer- ing some losses from attacks on the road, they were all captured by qawam and imprisoned at shiraz. the lit¢le band consisted of 60 germans and austrians, a dozen turks and a few afghans. a small force of indian troops, consisting of a section of moun- tain guns, a squadron of cavalry and 5oori.les, was sent to bandar “abbas, and sir percy sykes marched inland a distance of 280 m. to kerman, where he was received with much cordiality. the various pro-german elements who had created a state of in- security fled, the bank and telegraph offices were reopened, and the normal state of affairs was quickly re-established. the column then marched to yezd, where the british colony had just returned. news being received of the turkish advance and of a probable attack on isfahan, the column made a forced march to that city where it joined the extreme left of the russian army, represented by 600 cossacks. the turks, hearing of the arrival of the british at isfahan, stopped at a village some six miles distant, and then retired. when it became evident that the danger had passed, the column marched south to shiraz, which it reached in nov., thereby completing a march of 1,000 m. through the heart of persia. at shiraz the question of the gendarmerie had to be settled. the persian govt. had not actually given its consent to its being incorporated in the south persia rifles, but it was unable to pay or equip the force. spread over the route for a distance of 200 m. from the borders of fars in the north, to kazerun in the south, and numbering some 3,000 men, the problem which confronted sir percy sykes was one of extreme difficulty. he had no staff to administer or train such large numbers, and he was aware that it was this force which had seized the british consul only a year previously and that many of the officers were pro-german in sentiment. but he also realised that, if the gendarmerie broke up into well-armed bands of robbers and devastated the country, few supplies would reach shiraz. ie consequently decided to take over the entire body, and the force gradually developed and helped to restore order in south persia. (sce world war; world war: brsliocraruy.) persia, campaigns in ii. the british in persia during the winter, however, the positions in mesopotamia entirely changed. instead of weak, ill-equipped columns, severely handicapped by unfavourable climate conditions, failing before kut al imara, there was the pleasant picture of overwhelming forces under the inspiring leadership of gen. sir stanley maude recapturing kut in feb. 1917 and following this up by the signal success of the capture of baghdad. the position of the turks in persia became more and more difficult as the british advanced. on the day baghdad was occupied they evacuated kermanshah and, pursued by the russians, reached the persian frontier at qasr-i-shirin on march 31, worn out and hungry but not wholly demoralised. but during the succeeding winter, the russian army disintegrated. its collapse opened up to the enemy a completed line of northern advance across the caucasus and the caspian sea to ‘ashqabad, merv (the junction for kushk, within striking distance of herat), bukhara, samarqand and tashkent, the administrative centre of russian turkistan. over 100,000 german and austrian prisoners were in central asia and if through com- munication had been established, it would have been casy to reorganise these veterans and march on kabul, with an invi- tation to the afghans to share in the plunder of india. in sept. 1917 georgia and armenia decided to claim their independence, and a third state came into being under the title of the republic of azerbaijan, with baku as its capital. in connection with the efforts made to ward off the danger to india involved in the russian collapse, british troops entered western persia. the dunsterville amfission—it was out of the question to dispatch large bodies of troops to support the gcorglans or armenians, as baghdad was 800 m. distant from baku. the authorities therefore, decided to dispatch a military mission to reorganise the sound elements of the country into a force that would prevent the turks and their german masters from reaching baku. it was hoped that these small states would fizht for their homes, but the armenians absolutely failed to do this. maj.-gen. l. c. dunsterville was appointed to command this mission, and, in feb. 1918, he started off from baghdad with a party of officers in 40 cars to cross northwest persia. enzeli was his objective, and he hoped from that port to be able to proceed to baku and tillis. he reached enzeli only to find that the port and its shipping were in the hands of hostile bolsheviks, while the neighbourhood was dominated by mirza kuchik khan, an ambitious brigand who had recruited some 4,000 followers, nicknamed jangalis or “ forest dwellers,” to the cry of “ persia for the persians,” and who robbed his countrymen if they re- fused to join him. dunsterville quickly realised the situation, and, before his opponents had concerted their plans and had overcome their fear of the armoured motor-car, the mission had retired to kazvin and hamadan, which latter city became its headquarters. during this period, dunsterville was brought into close re- lations with the russian generals baratov and bicherakov. the former had commanded the russian troops in northern persia and was now helplessly watching their disintegration. the latter, on the contrary, had kept his command of 1,200 men practically intact. by march the last of baratov’s men had left, but dunsterville had been able to keep bicherakov’s command at his side. without its aid, the jangalis, elated by the retire- ment of the mission, which was magnified into a great victory over a british army, would have been able to march on the capital. there they would probably have introduced a reign of anarchy and have forced persia into the war on the side of the central powers, with whom kuchik khan had close relations; he also had german, austrian and turkish instructors well supplied with machine-guns. when the jangalis marched on kazvin, bicherakov forestalled them, and drove them back to the forests with heavy losses. he then embarked at enzeli. dunsterville, who had reccived reinforcements consisting of a regiment of cavalry, a battery and two regiments of infantry, followed behind bicherakov and took over the road. the jangalis, under their european officers, attacked a detachment persian gulf at resht, but suffered heavy losses, and kuchik khan made terms and became a contractor for supplies. about this time the bolshevik govt. at baku was overthrown and replaced by the central-caspian dictatorship, which asked for british assist- ance. dunsterville took his force to baku, held it for some wecks against overwhelming turkish numbers, denying the use of the oil wells to the enemy, whom he also kept away from the caspian sea, and finally evacuated the town and returned to enzeli, thus ending a very gallant episode of the war. investment of shiraz by the kashgais——in the spring of 1918 the persian govt., in reply to a british note, denounced the south persia rifles as a forcign force and a threat to persian in- dependence and integrity. it also expressed the hope that the british govt. would withdraw its troops and allow [persia to commence her cherished reforms. the cabinet was under the impression that germany was winning the world war or such a curt note would never have been penned. this reply was published all over southern persia; and the results were speedily shown in serious desertions from the south persia rifles and culminated in the formation of a confedcracy under the kashgai chief, solat-u-daulah, to annihilate the british in southern persia. he had at his dis- posal 4,500 kashgais and 1,500 kazerunis and this number was reinforced by contingents from dashti, dashtistan and else- where, and reached about 8,000 fighting men. the tribesmen were well armed with mausers, had plenty of ammunition, and fought both bravely and cunningly. the british force at shiraz was 2,200 strong, one-third being recruits. the south persia rifles slightly outnumbered the indian troops and, owing to propaganda and the proclaimed hostility of the persian govt., were a danger to the british. the detachments in the outposts mutinied and surrendered or deserted. qawam had collected 2,000 arabs in and about shiraz, who were ready to attack the beaten side. on may 24 the column marched out 1,600 strong and defeated the kashgais in the hilly country to the west of the city. about 10 days later the enemy returned in still larger numbers, and the kazerunis occupied the garden quarter, which almost touched the fortified perimeter constructed by the british outside shiraz. the inhabitants of shiraz were incited against the british by the mz//as, some of whom preached jihad or holy war. sir percy sykes learned that the kashgais were preparing to unite with the townspeople in a combined attack on june 17, and he determined to forestall them. accordingly, on june 16, the column sallied out and again inflicted considerable losses on the enemy. on the following day, shiraz rose, its inhabitants attacking everyone suspected of being friendly to the british. but the kashgais did not come to the support of the townspeople, who were overawed by the seizure at midnight of various key- positions by the british. the tide then turned. the governor- general appointed a new j/kkani or ‘‘ paramount chief ” in place of solat, whose followers began to break away, influenced by the heavy losses they had suffered. qawam declared in favour of the new ilkhani, and his example was followed by a brother of solat and by perhaps one-quarter of the tribe. ‘the column marched out again, and solat fled a broken man, pursued by qawam, the new iikhani, and most of the kashgai tribe. the expedition is described by l. c. dunsterville, the adzvcntures of dunsterforce, 1920. (p. m.s.)