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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:paris:d920438dfef5",
    "title": "PARIS",
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    "verified_text": "in modern times paris has grown rapidly, and had, in 1921, a population of 2,906,472. in 1910 it counted nearly 90,000 houses while the built-over surface had increased to 2,775 hectares, the area of gardens, yards and unoccupied ground having somewhat diminished. the public transport serv- ices carried 994,000,000 passengers in 1912 as against 552,000,000 in 1901, while 29,000,000 passengers used the ceinture railways and the auteuil line, and 100,000,000 passed through the paris railway termini. during this period paris was not yet the industrial centre of france that it became after the war. in 1911 it produced one- sixth of the total production (excluding agricultural) of france. on jan. 1 ro11 paris proper had only 14,075 factories, though there were many more in adjacent districts. nevertheless, by 1914, paris was among the leading producers of the metal, chemi- cal, pottery, glass, hides and leather, food and timber industries. all great french commercial, banking and industrial businesses have their headquarters there, or at least maintain an office, and many foreign enterprises are represented. paris represents. an enormous concentration of wealth from every source, mainly localised in the west end and in contrast to the great areas of poverty in the east end and on the outskirts of the districts on the left bank of the scine, and many places in the suburbs which paris have grown up chaotically and in defiance of hygiene and of town-planning. by 1913 motors had superseded horse transport for practically every purpose in the public transport system. in 1912 the boulevard jules-ferry was opened, and in 1913 the boulevard raspail, which had been begun under napoleon iii. in 1913 also the reconstruction of the bridge of notre-dame was begun, to be finished during the war. the square of parc- royal was opened in 1913; the square jules-ferry in 1922 and saint-severin in 1923. the palais de justice was completed by the southeast wing ror1, the new hopital de la pitie was opened, in 1917 2 model lycee was built (the lycee jules ferry in the rue de douai), and the cour des comptes was opened. tue city dvurring the worrld war immediately on outbreak of war the theatres were closed aug. 3 (1914), cafes and restaurants were closed after 8 p.m. aug. 4; women at once began to take the places of men in occu- pations such as public transport. refugees poured in from the invaded districts; on the other hand many parisians left the city, and the govt. withdrew temporarily to bordeaux. on sept. 3 the bourse was closed. the same day was placarded the procla- mation of the new governor of paris, gen. gallieni, promising to defend the city to the last. after the victory of the marne the danger passed. theatres partially reopened at the end of nov., the bourse on dec. 7; on dec. 10 the govt. returned. paris gradually became an immense arsenal; the working- class population, including foreigners and women, rose to 61,000 in jan. 1915, to 144,000 in april 1916, then to 300,000 in nov. 1918. factories like those of renault and citroen were characteristic of this war-time stimulus to industry. taubes had flown over the city on aug. 30 1914; in march 1915 zeppelins appeared; they bombarded paris jan. 2g 1916. then came the first restriction—that on coal, begun in the winter of 1916-7. queucs for milk, chocolate, etc., became features of paris streets. ration cards were introduced with war bread, frozen meat, saccharine for sugar. in jan. 1917 restaurant menus were cut down and in feb. confectioners, pastry-cooks and tea-rooms were partially closed. in may meatless days were introduced. prices began to rise. to keep them down, municipal butchers’ shops were opened in may 1918. bombardments became more intense in 1918; during this year gothas dropped bombs 14 times. on march 23 the long-distance gun, nicknamed ‘“ big bertha,’”’ began to play its part and on march 29, good friday, killed 88 persons in the church of s. gervais and wounded 68. long-distance guns bombarded paris and its suburbs on 44 days, killing 256 persons and wounding 625. in consequence of the frequent air raids, street lighting was reduced at night to a minimum. works of art were protected with sand-bags. on nov. 11, at 11 o’clock, salvos and carillons announced the armistice. the crowd held joyful demonstrations along the great boulevards and on the place de la concorde, decorated with war trophies. a pendant to this occasion was july t4 1919, when the triumphal procession of victorious troops passed under the arc de triomphe de |’etoile. but the economic consequences of the war continued. bread cards were only abolished on june i 1g19, coal cards on jan. 13 1921. the municipality had to fight the high cost of living; in feb. rgrg it established a kitchen at billancourt to supply cheap meals and on march 6 it opened the first vilgrain stalls where foodstuffs were sold below market prices. during the period 1919-21 no less than 164 stalls were opened and for the same purpose restaurants for the masses of the people were opened in various parts of the city. paris after the war paris was greatly changed by the war. many of the immi- grants remained; war industrics remained and were adapted to peace purposes. thus a large new industrial population had to be housed. the old fortified enceinte was abolished in 1919, its area was set apart for cheap dwellings or barracks or, with cer- tain limitations, for private building. the 250 metre-wide zone round it was reserved for parks and playgrounds, the obsolete 53 forts of the first line of defence and the site of the second line of jorts left open to provide reservoirs of air. on aug. 1 1919 a competition was opened for a plan for the laying out and exten- sion of paris. in 1923 the conseil general de la seine acquired the park of the ancient chateau des sceaux for recreation and building purposes; the pelouse d’avron for building sites; and a vast site near the courneuve and bourget where a new town will be built. many of the new suburban houses are on the garden city model. a university “ cite ’’ for students has been built near the montsouris park. overcrowding ts worst in the suburbs and outskirts of paris. the population of the central arrondissements has declined owing to offices replacing dwellings; the total population of paris increased by only 18,362 between i911 and 1921 (2,888,110 and 2,906,472, respectively), while that of /'arrondissement of saint-denis rose by 139,869 and of sceaux by 99,418. the total population of the department, including paris, was 4,567,690 in 1926, an increase of 224,344 since 1921. the growing suburbs are now connected with paris. the population of the seine included 300,000 foreigners in 1921, that of paris, 170,000 in 1925. the intense shortage of houses has accentuated the need for a housing policy. the public office for cheap houses for paris was created in jan. 1914; for the dept. of the seine, july 1915. by march 31 1922, the city, the department, their offices and the assistance publique had built 2,731 dwellings, 935 more were nearly completed 5,110 under con- struction and 4,052 projected. public surface transport in paris was amalgamated in 1921. in 1924 1,070,000,000 passengers were carried by these vehicles; 575,000,000 on the metropolitain and the nord- sud railways. the vastly increased traffic (which caused 60,000 accidents in paris in 1920) necessitated many regulations. the gyratory system has been adopted at suitable points; that of one-way traffic for certain parallel streets. mechanical signals allow momen- tary halts to enable foot-passengers to cross the streets, slow vehic- ular traffic is prohibited in certain streets at the rush hours. fresh undertakings of the municipality are the completion of the boulevard haussmann, the reconstruction of the old bridge of la tournelle and the transference of the morgue to the outskirts of paris: new undertakings of the government of france are the grave of the un- known soldier and the exhibition of decorative arts of 1925. the port.—the port of paris, which, independently of the seine, in- cludes the three canals of the ourcq, saint-denis and saint-martin, which unite in the dock of la villette, is being enlarged; three im- portant ports are under construction at bonneuil, gennevilliers and pantin; a port is to be established at bobigny and connected with the future canal between pantin and saint-denis; docks are also pro- jected at several points in the old fortified encejnte, the deepening of the seine is also proposed. a canal to unite the marne from d’an- net to the seine in the neighbourhood of saint-denis is intended to protect paris from inundation. a bureau for employment and labour statistics was created in 1915 for the department of the seine, labour bureaux already in existence in the mayoral divisions of paris were linked up with it in 1919. in 1924 the bureau found work for 308,000. the same de- partment founded in 1918 the public bureau of social hygiene, whose principal object is to ight against tuberculosis; it has established dis- pensaries and controls sanatoriums; it has instituted fresh air schools and preventoriums; it also sends children to the country. yhe average figure of mortality from pulmonary tuberculosis in paris, which from 1894 to 1898 was 3-62 per 1,000 inhabitants was reduced to 2-31 in 1920, similar progress has been made in the pro- vision of municipal baths, the bathing establishment of the butte- aux-cailles and the stadium at the rue des tourelles are new fea- tures for paris. electric power has been centralised for paris since 1914 by the compagnie parisienne de distribution d’electricit¢e, which has rented the electric cable from the municipality and supplies the city from its stations at saint-ouen and issy-les-moulineaux. the number of customers, which on jan. i 1914 was 132,000, rose on jan. i 1924 to 379,000. with all this the municipal budget has not risen since the war, if account be taken of the depreciation of the franc; expen- diture was 494,000,000 in i9ii and i,55v,000,000 in 1925. mean- while new ficlds are constantly opening for its activities with the gencral use of reinforced concrete, with the new architectural forms which it introduces, and the spread of mechanical devices. the new social city seems about to succeed the old princely city. bibliography.—le livre foncier de rorr, issued by the city of paris (1911); ordonnance generale concernant la circulation, issued by the prefecture of police (1925); il. sellier, la crise du logement et pintervention publique en matiere d'habitation populaire dans l'agglo- meration parisienne (1921); vie urbaine (periodical since ig919); bulletin municipal (officiel) de ta ville de paris, appearing since 191t; ix. mareuse, “ chronique de lannee ig11 ” and subsequent vears, in the bulletin de la societe de i'histotre de paris et de i'fle de france; ministry of commerce; evolution dela production d’apres les renseignements fournis par les chambres de commerce, ro1o, et les stutistiques administratives, 1972 (1917), and rapport general sur l'industrie francaise (1919). (m. po). 54 paris, conference of.—the conference for framing the treaties which ended the war was held in paris in 1919~20. i, preliminaries the pre-armistice agreemeniti—germany faced complete defeat and unconditional surrender when, one after the other, her allies bulgaria, turkey and austria-hungary broke under the strain of war in sept. and oct. 1918, and sought terms with the enemy. germany saw her best chance in overtures to the president of the united states, whose speeches during months past had underlined the principles necessary to the restoration and preservation of world peace (see fourtfeen poinrts). accordingly on oct. 4 the german govt. despatched a note to wilson through the swiss govt. requesting an armistice. in reply, president wilson jaid down the stipulations that before negotiations for peace could be opened: (1) germany must accept without qualification the principles of the fourteen points, leaving for discussion only the practical detatls of the?r application; (2) the german armies must be withdrawn from all territories of the allies under the direction of the allied military authorities so that there could be no question of the military supremacy of the armies of the allies and of the united states in the field; (3) germany must cease all illegal and inhuman practices and abandon unlimited submarine warfare, before an armistice could be granted; and (4) the german nation must free itself of the arbitrary govt. which had conducted the war. the german authorities were reluctant to accept such terms for the cessation of hostilities. gen. ludendorff resigned rather than accede to those conditions, but the civil govt., although it protested against the charges of illegal and inhuman practices, dispatched a note on oct. 20 accepting the stipulations of presi- dent wilson as preliminary to an armistice. with germany committed to a programme, wilson then presented the matter to the allies. the president had already sent col. edward m. house to paris as american representative on the supreme war council. he met with the allicd leaders, lloyd george, clemen- ceau and orlando, to discuss, first, whether an armistice should be granted, and second, whether germany’s request that the fourteen points be used as the basis of peace should be accepted. president wilson has been much criticised on the ground that he was responsible for too early a peace, and that had it not been for him terms would have been dictated to berlin. this is far from the truth. the allied council agreed to grant the armis- tice on the recommendation of the military leaders; the ameri- cans were in fact less eager than the french and the british for the cessation of hostilities. to be certain of allied sentiment regarding the armistice, house asked marshal foch directly whether or not from a purely military point of view he would prefer to have hostilities cease on the terms proposed. foch replied that, since the terms demanded of germany were prac- tically the same as those that would be demanded at berlin, he was opposed to the useless sacrifice of another life. “ on ne fait la guerre que pour ses resultats.” the allied leaders were more doubtful as to whether president wilson’s fourteen points should be taken as the basis of the peace, as germany asked. clemenceau, lloyd george, hymans and orlando each raised objections. they finally agreed, how- ever, upon the strong insistence of col. house, to accept the fourteen points with two reservations regarding the freedom of the seas and restoration of invaded territory. acknowledging these reservations, wilson on nov. 5 communicated the reply of the allies to the german government. this note is of vital importance. “ it constitutes the formal and written offer of the allied and associated states to conclude with germany {u) an armistice convention and (d) a treaty of peace. this offer, it is conceived, was accepted by germany by the act of sending representatives through military channels, to meet marshal foch for the purpose of arranging an armistice. by the accep- tance of the offer a solemn agreement was reached which served, both morally and legally, as the basis of the armistice convention and the treaty of peace.’’! 1tempecrley, a fzistery of the peace conference of paris, j., 382. paris, conference of the note of nov. 5, in which wilson stated that marshal foch would communicate the conditions of an armistice, con- tained the text of the memorandum of observations by the allied governments on the correspondence between president wilson and germany. in this memorandum those governments “declare their willingness to make peace with the govt. of germany on the terms of peace laid down in the president’s address of jan. 8 1918 (the fourteen points), and the principles of settlement enunciated in his subsequent addresses,” subject to two qualifications. these reserved complete liberty, as regards the ‘‘ freedom of the seas,” and interpreted “ restora- tion of invaded territory ”’ as meaning that ‘‘ compensation will be made by germany for all damage done to the civilian popula- tion of the allies and their property by the aggression of ger- many by land, by sea and from the air.” both the allied and associated powers and the germans accepted this pre-armistice agreement as the basis of the peace. the protests of the german delegation against the versailles treaty in may 1919 were based upon their allegation that the treaty was not in accord with the principles of the agreement. the allied and associated powers, although they denied the validity of the allegation, explicitly acknowledged the validity of the basis: ‘‘ the allied and associated powers are in com- plete accord with the german delegation in their insistence that the basis for the negotiation of the treaty of peace is to be found in the correspondence which immediately preceded the signing of the armistice of nov. 11 1918.’’* organisation of peace conference——the question whether the president of the united states should come in person to europe and participate in the negotiations was one of the first 1mpor- tance. the statesmen of france and great britain had reason to fear for the satisfaction of their particular interests if the creator of the idealistic programme were there to apply his prin- ciples to practical details. their misgivings, perhaps, were somewhat allayed by the assurance that the french premier, clemenceau, would preside over the conference. they decided to welcome president wilson and to take their chances with his point of view. representatives of the chief allied and associated powers— france, great britain, italy, japan and the united states—held consultations in dec., and the first plenary session of the peace conference did not take place until jan. 181919. president wilson did not reach europe until dec. 13 1918. the british prime minis- ter, lloyd george, was detained at home by the political uncertain- ties of a general election until after new year. so important to any negotiations was the participation of these two heads of governments that nothing definite could be attempted until their arrival. in the meantime, the smaller powers which had been overrun by the armies of germany had time to reorganise their governments and to send plenipotentiarics to the con- ference who could speak with responsibility. the peace conference was called by the five principal powers to assemble at paris. geneva had been suggested as a neutral meeting-place for victors and vanquished, but the opinion pre- vaifed that the enemy should be excluded from the conference until summoned to hear the terms which must be accepted. brussels also was suggested in appreciation of belgium’s heroic rele in the war, but the honour was finally given to france. the war against the central powers had been directed from france; there sat the supreme war council of the allies, and upon this the structure of the peace conference could most readily be erected. even while in the throes of war, and by no means certain of victory, the allies had begun te study the problems of peace. departments of the french govt. had prepared plans. the british foreign office had established an organisation in 1917 to examine the issues for settlement. in the united states col. edward m. house at the request of president wilson had or- ganised “ the inquiry,” a body of experts under the chairman- ship of dr. sidney e. mezes of the college of the city of new 2 reply of the allied and associated powers to the observations of the german delegation on the conditions of peace. paris, conference of york for gathering statistics and correlating necessary data. other nations also had begun to prepare their cases against the central powers for presentation before the high tribunal of the forthcoming peace conference. in no case, however, had re- sponsible heads of states made as yet the adjustments necessary between the facts of the past—economic, political and diplo- matic—and the requirements for the international order of the future. despite the fact that early in the war the leading powers had realised the necessity of technical information and special- ised knowledge, the peace conference was faced with the task of working crude materials into an intricate design for peace. ii. organisation of the conference the council of ten.—upon the arrival of lloyd george in paris, a meeting of the supreme war council was. held, jan. 12 at the quai d’orsay. france was represented by clemenceau and pichon, great britain by lloyd george and balfour, italy by orlando and sonnino, the united states by wilson and lan- sing. though ostensibly an informal conversation among pleni- potentiaries of the four leading powers, the meeting was the occasion of the significant decision to add only the representa- tives of japan to the supreme council and to exclude all others from the major decisions of the peace conference. thus the council of ten sprang from the supreme war council. there also came to paris the representatives of belgium, serbia, ru- mania, greece and the other states—32 in all—which had fought against the central powers or had broken off diplomatic rela- tions with them. obviously it was impossible for all to have equal part in determining the conditions of peace. to each, seats and a vote were allotted in the plenary sessions of the con- ference. representatives of those states which had remained neutral during the war, and yet had interests to safeguard or to advance at the peace conference, were permitted to attend only those sessions which were arranged for discussion of their claims, whenever they were specially summoned by the five chief powers. it had been the intention of the latter, at first to put on the same footing the new states which were rising from the ruins of the central powers. before the first plenary session, poland and czechoslovakia were conceded representation in the conference; but yugoslavia—including serbia, montenegro and the south slav provinces of austria-hungary—was not officially recognised until the end of may, chiefly because of the opposi- tion of italy. the delegates—outstanding among the delegates from the smaller powers were hymans, foreign minister of belgium; paderewski, premier of poland, and his foreign minister dmowski; and bratianu, premier of rumania. for serbia and the south slavs came pasitch, vesnitch and trumbitch. veni- selos came to speak for greece. for czechoslovakia came its premier, kramarsz, and the brilliant young foreign minister, benes. the new kingdom of the hedjaz was represented by the emir feisal, in striking arab robes. these were but a few of the many dignitaries from every part of the world who soon crowded the hotels of paris. it was easily recognised that all who came to represent their countries could not be included even in the plenary assembly of the conference. the number of pleni- potentiaries for each state was, to be sure, merely a matter of sentiment, for no power could have more than one vote. but there was considerable dispute before the five principal powers finally assigned places in the conference to each state in accordance with its military strength and its share in the war. five seats were given to each of the five chief powers; three apiece were assigned to belgium, serbia and brazil; two each to canada, australia, south africa, india, china, czechoslovakia, poland, greece, the hedjaz, portugal, rumania and siam; one each to new zealand, bolivia, cuba, ecuador, guatemala, haiti, honduras, liberia, nicaragua, panama, peru and uru- guay. many delegates were thus left out, but the panel system was adopted so that all powers could use their plenipotentiarics in rotation if they desired. representatives of the british do- minions, for example, more than once shared in important deci- sions of the supreme council by reason of their membership in 39 the panel of the british empire. other important work was found later for excess members of several delegations on com- missions and subcommittees. when the plenary assembly of the conference met for the first time on jan. 18 it proved to be only a body of approval merely passing upon actions that had already been determined in the supreme council. clemenceau was elected president of the conference. a secretariat-general previously selected by the supreme council was appointed. a drafting committee was approved, on which had been placed only representatives of the five chief powers. the smaller powers endeavoured to protest against such rigid control by the five. but at the second plenary session on jan. 25 clemenceau bluntly dismissed their objections with allusion to the 12,000,000 soldiers behind the authority of the five powers. having the greatest interests at stake, they were determined to keep political decisions well in their grasp. the smaller powers could turn their energies into labour upon the technical commissions. administrative work—with this matter of authority arbi- trarily arranged, the peace conference settled to the work of constructing a peace. peace-making, however, was not to be its sole task. it was obliged also to assume executive duties of tremendous consequence. it must direct the allied armistice commission at spa. it must set up and control the supreme economic council at paris. it had to maintain its own authority over poland, germany, hungary, czechoslovakia and rumania. the supreme council of the conference administered the ar- mistice by instructions to marshal foch, who in turn forwarded them to the international commission at spa. the allied mem- bers of the commission consequently had no authority to make any decision beyond their instructions. they did have full power to explain and to stress important points in the allied interpretation of the armistice and, by personal intercourse, to prevail upon the german representatives to accept the decisions of the supreme council at paris. the matters that chiefly con- cerned the armistice commission were: the withdrawal of ger- man forces from the territory of the allies and their demobilisa- tion, the repatriation of prisoners interned in germany, surrender by germany of the required amounts of arms, airplanes, mer- cantile and agricultural machinery, locomotives and railroad equipment, and the delivery of other commodities stipulated in the armistice. there were accompanying financial and com- mercial questions to perplex the allied representatives and to jeopardise the renewal of the armistice until the conference had prepared terms for peace. supreme economic council—at the instance of president wilson on feb. 8 the supreme council resolved to create a supreme economic council of five members each from interested powers. it was to advise the conference upon the temporary economic measures necessary pending the completion of negoti- ations for peace. during the war, several inter-allied organisa- tions had grown up to deal with the problems of purchase, transportation and distribution of foodstuffs, nitrates, copper, petroleum and war materials of all sorts. in addition, there had been organised various programme committees, a supreme blockade council, a supreme council of supply and relief, and the like (see control, inter-allied). at its first meeting on feb. 17 the supreme economic council decided to co-ordinate the work of all these war boards and to direct them as sections of its own organisation. as a result, matters of food and relief were placed under herbert hoover of the united states as director-general; matters of finance, under norman davis of the united states; the problems of communi- | cations were ultimately assigned to brig.-gen. h. o. maine of great britain; raw materials, to loucheur of france; problems of blockade, to vance mccormick of the united states; and shipping to cooke of great britain. the supreme economic council endeavoured to supply dev- astated areas with materials necessary for reconstruction and to revive the economic activity of those countries which were victims of the war. it was especially concerned with the prob- lem of relieving the famine-stricken areas of eastern europe—a 56 situation recognised as dangerous to political stability and likely to encourage the spread of bolshevism. it arranged the brussels agreement by which germany was provided with foodstuffs, to carry out that provision in the armistice which pledged the allies to revictual germany in return for cash payments. it delegated to a sub-committee the special task of economic ad- ministration in the territories of germany occupied by allied armies. it carried on direct negotiations with the german finance commission, studied the economic effects of the allied blockades of bolshevist russia and hungary, and urged the supreme council of the conference to relax those blockades for the benefit of the peoples of other states near by. it relaxed the blockade against germany and reorganised the transportation systems of austria, hungary and poland. in short, the supreme economic council under the honorary chairmanship of lord robert cecil, although established only as a temporary commission to administer economic affairs until the advent of peace, became one of the most important inter- national bodies directing the reorganisation of europe. after the treaty of versailles had been signed, it continued to act as agent for the allies, to secure foodstuffs in america and to supply austria with coal. the importance of some common economic body until the league of nations should get under way was beyond question. the supreme council of the conference there- fore decided to request that the supreme economic council should continue at work, with some changes in its organisation. political opposition interfered with the proper development of the council into an international economic council, but before its last meeting at rome, nov. 21 1919, it had drawn up signifi- cant proposals for co-operative purchase and dlistribution of foodstuffs, coal and raw materials by the nations of europe. hostililties on eastern fronis—the authority of the peace conference was menaced seriously not only by the hostility of the enemy, germany, but by the resistance of the ally, rumania, and the new governments of poland and czechoslovakia. early in nov. 1918 hostilities had broken out between the poles and the ruthenians in east galicia, where polish proprietors con- stituted a landed minority, and ruthenian peasants, closely related to the ukrainians in russia, were in a majority. during feb. 1919 an allied mission intervened, but the ukrainian commander refused to accept the proposed truce. in march the supreme council of the peace conference arranged another truce with the ukrainian commander, and on april 2 set up an inter-allied commission at paris to arrange the terms of an armistice concerning eastern galicia. the polish delegation rejected this armistice on the ground that poland's safety re- quired military occupation of east galicia. in the end the supreme council sanctioned the polish occupation. the ulti- mate status of eastern galicia was left for later decision. to safeguard poland on its western border, the peace con- ference imposed an obligation upon germany that had not been stipulated in the armistice. in posen, where germans consti- tuted in large part the class of landed proprietors and poles were the peasants, local conflicts developed during dec. 1918 between garrisons and polish volunteer forces. the peace conference finally in jan. 1919 despatched an inter-allicd commission to stop these hostilities and served notice of that intention upon germany through marshal foch. germany protested, but practically accepted the provisional line of demarcation as laid down by the allied commission until the boundaries of germany and poland should be determined by treaty (sce versailles, treaty of). germany also objected strongly to the transport of gen. haller’s polish army from france to poland via dan- zig, on the ground that its presence would prejudice the ultimate disposition of danzig. the conference forced germany to admit the technical right of the allies to use danzig as such a port of entry to poland, but allowed germany to route haller’s army via railroad without touching danzig. the peace conference was further annoyed by germany's delay in withdrawing the forces under gen. von der goltz from the baltic states where they were holding a line by agreement with soviet russia (see brest-litovsk, treaty of). paris, conference of still more vexatious to the peace conference, perhaps, was the situation that developed in hungary after the establishment of a bolshevist regime under bela kun. the armistice of nov. 3 1918 had been concluded between the italian supreme com- mand and the command of what was theoretically still the army of austria-hungary. but poles, czechs, jugoslavs had already declared themselves independent. the german austrians and the magyars also had dissolved their old union. it was a real question, therefore, whether the terms of an armistice in behalf of a state no longer in existence bound the new govt. of hun- gary. on nov. 13, accordingly, franchet d'esperey signed a military convention with the delegates of the hungarian gov- ernment. on march 19 1919 the french officer heading the military mission in budapest presented to the karolyi govt. a demand that all hungarian forces be withdrawn behind a line corresponding to that fixed by the rumanian treaty of aug. 13 1916. karolyi seized the opportunity to distort the demand and to resign power to the hungarian proletariat and bela kun. on april 1 the supreme council of the conference dispatched gen. smuts to budapest to find out whether bela kun’s govt. would recognise the validity of the military convention and would accept temporary military occupation by allied troops of the zone between hungary and rumania as marked by the lines laid down by the allied powers. bela kun’s govt. agreed to withdraw its troops if rumania would withdraw to a line further east than that temporarily fixed by the conference in feb., and if allied troops occupied the entire area in dispute. smuts rejected this suggestion. thereupon hungarian troops moved out to meet czechoslovakian and rumanian forces that had already advanced into the disputed region. the czechoslovaks had occupied important coal areas. bela kun decided to attack them first, breaking their liaison with the rumanians and per- haps opening a way for bolshevist forces to come over the car- pathian mts. from russia. . the hungarian army penetrated into czechoslovakia before the peace conference intervened. on june 13 the conference summoned rumania and czechoslovakia to withdraw their troops behind the new frontiers which they were to be allotted. bela kun then ordered the hungarian forces to withdraw from czechoslovakia and, in turn, called upon the peace conference to make the rumanians withdraw from hungarian territory. but the rumanian govt. declined to do so until the hungarian army had been reduced to the six infantry and two cavalry divisions stipulated in the armistice. on july 17 the allied commander in southeastern europe, gen. franchet d'esperey, under orders from paris, demanded that bela kun’s govt. retire in favour of one chosen by the hungarian people. a wire- less message from the peace conference on july 25 declared its willingness to negotiate with such a government. in the meantime, bela kun thought to win favour with the hungarian people by defying d’esperey and by launching an attack upon the rumanian forces. the rumanian army, how- ever, resisted so successfully that by aug. 8 it had rolled back the hungarian army and was in occupation not only of most of hungarian territory cast of the danube but of budapest itself. the peace conference meanwhile had sent a mission of allied generals to carry out the agreements of the armistice. rumania resisted the direction of the supreme council, and issued an ultimatum demanding a third of available farm ani- mals and machinery, half of the railroad equipment, large quan- {ities of munitions and river shipping. the peace conference protested repeatedly against rumanian actions and, securing the resignation of the hungarian govt. which had been estab- lished upon rumanian approval, finally succeeded in getting rumania to withdraw its troops and to accept those goods which it had exacted from hungary as part of its share of reparations. still other matters to distract the supreme council of the peace conference from its major task of peace-making were the sharp controversies between czechoslovakia and poland over teschen and between austria and yugoslavia over klagenfurt. the situation in russia caused much discussion during the first paris, conference of days. decision was reached on jan. 22 that all the russian factions should be summoned into consultation on the island of prinkipo, in order to determine who was to be responsible for russian interests at the peace conference. but nothing came of the effort. neither the old tsarist order, the revolutionary govt. of kerensky, nor the bolshevist regime of lenin were represented at the peace conference. nor were the new baltic states—finland, estonia, latvia, lithuania—which were breaking away from the old russian empire. in view of such difficulties, it would seem remarkable that the statesmen at paris ever reached common ground for any settle- ment. but, harassed as it was by executive duties, the peace conference went steadily forward with its peace programme. oficial language -—two preliminary questions of procedure for a time disturbed the plenipotentiaries at paris. what was to be the official language of the conference? should its proceed- ings be made public? it was decided that french and english texts, of equal authority, should be presented in the treaty with germany which included the covenant. italian texts, along with english and french, were presented in the austrian, hun- garian and bulgarian treaties; and in all these the french version was declared to prevail in case of divergence. the languages of the enemy states were denied admission to the texts of the treaties. with regard to publicity for the actions of the confer- ence, the decision was reached to withhold details of discussions as much as possible until definite understandings had been secured. the sessions of the supreme council, the commissions and committees must be in secret; for obviously, diverse interests could only be reconciled by compromise. it was better that the public concerned should not know the details of the bargaining, if there was to be future satisfaction with the settlement. in addition to its burden of executive duties, the supreme council had to listen for hours to the special pleas of rumanians, greeks, czechoslovaks, arabs, belgians, syrians and druses, serbs and croats, and slovenes, danes, albanians, armenians, zionists. the council soon realised that under such circum- stances it could not make rapid progress toward an effective settlement unless other agents were put at work on the multi- tude of complex issues. the conference, therefore, was organised into commissions and sub-committees, over 50 in all, to study assigned problems, to hear expert testimony, to weigh opposing claims of interested parties, to debate rival policies, and to report to the supreme council, with which remained the final decision. reference has been made above to the councils and missions employed for executive duties. special commissions —among the special agents established to assist in making a peace were commissions on: (1) responsi- bility for war and guarantees, with lansing of the united states as president, and sub-committees on criminal acts, re- sponsibility for war, responsibility for violation of laws and customs of war; (2) reparation for damage, with klotz of france presiding and sub-committees on estimation of damages, financial capacity of the enemy, and means of payment and reparation; (3) international labour legislation, with gompers of the united states presiding (see international labour); (4) international control of ports, waterways and railways, with crespi of italy as president and sub-committees on transit and control of routes of communication; (5) financial questions, with montagu of great britain presiding, and sub-committees on financial problems preliminary to peace, on monetary ques- tions, encmy debts and so on; (6) economic questions, with clementel of france as president and sub-committees on perma- nent commercial relations, tariffs and customs, navigation, in- dustrial property and others; (7) aeronautics, with colonel dhe of france as president; (8) inter-allied naval and military affairs, under the presidency of marshal foch, which with other associated committees constructed the military and naval and air terms for presentation to the encmy; and (9) the central commission on territorial questions, over which tardieu of france presided, to co-ordinate the work of the committees and commissions that had been assigned from time to time to the difficult tasks of examining the complex problems of czecho- a7 | slovakia, poland, rumania, yugoslavia, greece, albania, bel- gium, denmark, the saar valley and alsace-lorraine. as it proved, these territorial commissions could do little more than recommend that the peace conference accept and main- tain the situation of each area practically as the war had left it. so deep were prejudices, hatreds and interests, that rebuilding of the states of europe as the result of purely disinterested and scientific investigation was impossible. in all of these agencies of the peace conference the five allied and associated powers kept for themselves either the entire membership or at least a majority over the representatives of the smaller powers which were included. it. covenant of the league first and most important of all was the commission on the league of nations, chosen on jan. 25 at the second plenary session of the conference upon the recommendation of the su- preme council. the membership of this commission was drawn from the political leaders of 14 nations. among them were lord robert cecil and gen. smuts of the british empire, bourgeois of france, orlando of italy, hymans of belgium, veniselos of greece, vesnich of serbia, wilson and house of the united states. the commission met on feb. 3, and after daily sessions in the hotel crillon (held at hours that did not conflict with the meetings of the council of ten) presented to the pler ary session of the conference on feb. 14 the first draft of the covenant. theusual procedure at the conference, of translating into french when eng- lish was used and into english when french was spoken, lengthened the sittings twofold and, while necessary, consumed much time. on the other hand, at the meetings of the commission to form the covenant for the league of nations, interpreters sitting by those who did not speak both languages, kept them informed in an undertone of the progress of the discussion. it was agreed by the commission to use as a basis for discussion the american plan for the covenant prepared by wilson and house, which had, by consent, been put into legal phraseology by sir cecil hurst and david hunter miller, legal advisers respectively of the british and american delegations. there were several diff- cult problems to solve, one or two of them causing some rancour. of these the question of political equality and that of having a league with an army at its command to enforce its decisions, advocated by the japanese and french respectively, caused the most acrimonious debates. these finally were settled to the satisfaction of a large majority of the commission, although - there was a small and resentful minority against the decisions reached. the debate in the plenary session—the one important discus- sion in that body throughout the period of the conference— resulted in approval of the principle of the covenant and brought forward various suggestions for amendment. president wilson left on the following day for necessary executive dutics in the united states. the covenant as first drafted met stubborn resistance from the leaders of the republican party in the united states. they argued that article x., which committed each member of the league to respect and to preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all other members, encroached upon the exclu- sive right to declare war which had been given to congress by the constitution of the united states. they declared that the league would destroy the monroe doctrine. they insisted that a state should be allowed, without sinister implication, to with- draw from the league if it saw fit. these, and many others, were objections raised in america. the covenant was revised by the commission and finally approved by the fifth plenary session of the conference on april 28, without change of a single word. it is to be doubted whether there were many sitting at that historic table who realised that with the acceptance of the covenant a new phase of civilisation had begun and that the league of nations was its keystone. the covenant specifically provided for safeguarding the monroe doctrine against actions by the league; it contained a clause to permit any state to withdraw upon giving notice of its intention 58 two years in advance. a japanese proposal for a clause in the covenant declaring the equality of members of the league with- out respect to race or colour, was vetoed through the insistence of premier hughes of australia. a french proposal to provide the league with a general military staff and with power to su- pervise disarmament also failed to win the approval of the com- mission. an american proposal to forbid discrimination in fiscal and economic regulations between one nation and another —a plan to eliminate zoflzerctus and imperial prefererice—was likewise discarded. finally, the chief objection to the covenant raised in america was passed over. with the full support of president wilson, article x., so obnoxious to some republicans in the united states, was retained in the covenant. iv. progress of peace making council of four—four days after president wilson left for the united states, clemenceau was shot by a fanatic. although not dangerously wounded, he was confined to his home. col. house, who had been delegated to take wilson’s place, came to meet him there and, with the return of lloyd george from eng- land, the same group was reformed which had worked with celerity and success during the armistice proceedings. thus the council of four took form. the japanese plenipotentiary, marquis saionji, might well have claimed the right to attend also, but he held to the japanese policy of standing off when japanese interests were not concerned, especially when the matters under discussion pertained purely to a european problem. upon wilson’s return to paris, march 14, he replaced house in these informal conferences. the four heads of states aban- doned the council of ten. it was reduced to the five foreign ministers. whenever they desired, the four assumed the au- thority of the ten as the supreme council of the peace confer- ence and drew apart to confer in private. the ministers of foreign aflairs continued to sit as a council of five, although they were concerned chiefly with minor executive duties and other matters of routine. but, while the four were still engrossed in negotiation with the recalcitrant german delegation, the five went ahead with discussion of the terms to be given to austria. the power of the peace conference, however, had been drawn into the hands of four men, and moreover, in the last resort, the italian, orlando, found that final decision belonged really to the three—clemenceau, lloyd george and wilson. no one listened to the arguments of the four except their interpreter, capt. paul mantoux, and later their secretary, sir maurice hankey, who rendered invaluable service by keeping the minutes of their discussions and by drafting the resolutions upon which they agreed. on occasion, experts were summoned to give data and technical advice; inter-allied commissions were formed directly by the four and ordered to report to them; but speeches, special pleas, formal audiences and other time-con- suming devices were thrust aside. national claims.—when wilson returned to paris, march 14, the problem of meeting the claims of france, italy, belgium and japan immediately became acute. the french asked for continued occupation by the allies of the rhineland and the bridgeheads of cologne, coblenz and mainz. unauthorised demands were made for the permanent separation from the reich of german territory on the left bank of the rhine. france asked further for complete sovereignty over the saar valley, as compensation for its own mines which had been deliberately ruined by the german forces. the french representatives pressed vehemently for ‘integral reparation,’ assessment of actual damages done by the enemy and exaction of the total amount in reparation. france supported poland’s claim to complete sovereignty over danzig and the approaches to that city. although at one time (april 7) president wilson threatened to break off negotiations over these questions and return to the united states without finishing the task of peace-making, com- promises that he could accept were found one after another. the scheme for a republic on the rhine was repudiated, but agreement was reached that the left bank of the rhine, and a paris, conference of wide strip on the right bank, should be demilitarised and all fortifications razed, and that the allies should maintain their joint military occupation for 15 years. it was to be continued if france, in the opinion of the allies, was not then sufficiently secured against an unprovoked attack. the decision to prohibit union of germany with austria, described by tardieu as one of clemenceau’s fundamentals, was taken in the second week of april, inserted in the first draft of the german treaty in may and remained there in the definite text of june 28. as for the french claim to the saar valley, the compromise was reached that france should have full ownership of the coal mines but that, on account of the 650,coo german inhabitants, government of the region should not be given to i’rance but should be put under the control of the league for 15 years. at the end of that time, the inhabitants resident prior to this ar- rangement should vote for one of three settlements: the status guo under the league, union with france or return to germany. in case they voted for return to germany, france was to give back the mines and to receive compensation from germany or the reparations commission which was to be created by the treaty with germany. reparations —the problem of reparation was not effectively solved by the council of four. many english and american advisers, thinking of germany’s exhaustion, the danger of mak- ing the german people desperate and the mistaken policy of asking that a blank cheque be signed and handed over for the allies to fill in, urged that germany be cleared of charges for reparation by payment at once of whatever amount it could produce. the debate ramified into the uncertainties of ger- many’s capacity to pay and the largest sum for which germany might be held liable. the french view prevailed. it was agreed that germany should be held liable to pay to the last cent. the demands of the british and french that pensions should be included in the reparations bill were first opposed by wilson, but he finally yielded (see reparations). the deadlock over danzig was broken by lloyd george who sought and found a way between wilson’s thirteenth point that poland should have free and secure access to the sea, and british fears that a ger- manta irredenta with 2,000,000 inhabitants might be created. danzig was to be a free city under the protection of the league of nations, but polancl was to have access through polish terri- tory to the baltic sea and virtual control over danzig’s interests abroad. within a week after president wilson had threatened to leave the conference, these differences had been ironed out so well that the representatives of germany were invited to appear at versailles on april 25. crises over national claims—but another crisis suddenly appeared. the italians threatened to withdraw from the con- ference unless their claims to austro-hungarian territories were met before the germans signed the treaty. these claims were grounded upon promises given by france and great britain in the secret treaty of london (apmill 26 ro15). orlando went further, however, to claim the city and port of fiume which had not been allotted to italy by the secret treaty. in this case he argued for the principle of self-determination, although he had opposed the application of that principle to the german popu- lation in the tyrol south of the brenner pass. wilson gave way to orlando’s contention to the extent of agreeing that italy’s northern frontier should be extended to the brenner. but he resisted the italian pretensions on the eastern shore of the adriatic; for they were advanced at the expense of yugoslavia and albania. fiume had a large slav population and a purely slav hinterland. it was the natural seaport of the slav and mag- yar regions totheeast. wilson rejected the suggestion that fiume should be given to italy in exchange for the italian renunciation of claims upon dalmatia under the treaty of london. on april 23 wilson publicly declared his reasons for opposing italian claims. orlando and his foreign minister, sonnino, left paris for rome, but returned after the conference determined to proceed with the german treaty regardless. they reached paris on may 7, a day too late for the sixth plenary session, which approved the draft of the treaty, and only a few hours before it was handed paris, conference of to the germans at versailles. the italians were back in the conference, but the question of the adriatic was not settled. meanwhile the claims of belgium, yugoslavia and japan fur- ther complicated the situation for the council of four. hymans appeared on april 29 to demand that, as belgium had been first to suffer in the war, she should be first to receive compensation for war costs. she had been promised as much in the armistice. he asked that belgium be given a prior lien upon $500,000,000 of the first cash receipts from germany and complete settlement of the belgian account within ro years. eventually the amer- ican view prevailed, that belgium’s case was diffcrent from all others. belgium was practically assured payment of her war costs by receiving a special issue of german bonds and priority on the half-billion cash receipts. serbia immediately asked for $400,000,000, but the council of four dismissed that claim summarily, the japanese issue, however, could not be settled so easily as the belgian or the serbian claims. the japanese representa- tives took exception to the suggestion that the german area in shantung should be handed back directly to the chinese. japan claimed shantung on several grounds. by the treaties with china in 1915, following the “‘ twenty-one demands,” japan had gained rights in shantung, even if the chinese authorities had continued to insist that those rights had been exacted by superior force. further, a secret agreement in 1917 with the european allies against germany had assured japan that those allies would offer no objection to japanese claims in shantung, although the united states had never been a party to the agree- ment. wilson resisted the japanese claims to shantung, but finally accepted a compromise on aoril 30. the italian crisis was threatening to disrupt the conference, and an understanding with japan was more than ever necessary. it was to the effect that the japanese were to keep kiaochow and its adjacent district, with rights also to exploit the mines and railways in the peninsula; but that chinese sovereignty would be restored over the peninsula of shantung “as soon as pos- sible.’ the american president expressed faith in the oral promise of the japanese that japan would eventually evacuate shantung in favour of china and retain there only commercial concessions. the chinese representatives at the peace confer- ence did not have such faith. they refused to sign the treaty with germany. but they gained a place in the league of na- tions for china by signing the subsequent treaty with austria. v. treaty of versailles with these crises over national claims passed, the draft of the treaty with germany was handed to its chief representative, count brockdorfi-rantzau, on may 7 1919 at the trianon. without rising from his chair, the german hurled sharp words at the representatives of the allies for their dilatory methods. in the past six months, he declared, the blockade had caused the deaths of hundreds of thousands in germany. ‘* think of that,” he said, “* when you speak of guilt and punishment.” he and his countrymen would accept the liabilities to which they were committed by the armistice under the terms of president wilson. they were prepared to play their part in restoring belgium and the devastated areas of france. but they and their nation did not hope for a just peace. “‘ we know,” he said, “ the power of the hatred that we encounter here.”’ german objections —the germans were given 15 days, and then an extension of time, in which to present their objections to the terms of the treaty. they complained that the allied plan for reparations was too severe and claimed the right of appeal from the assessment of the reparations commission to some neutral arbitrator. they demanded a plebiscite in alsace- lorraine. in place of the allied arrangement for the saar valley, they offered fixed annual supplies of coal 1o france until the french mines should be restored. instead of giving up danzig, memel and west poland, they offered to make danzig, memel and koenigsberg free ports under german sovereignty. they demanded that germany’s claim to its colonies should be referred to arbitration. they asked for reciprocity with regard to com- 59 merce and goods in transit. they offered to negotiate concerning the league of nations, provided germany were admitted imme- diately, the members of the league were pledged against waging economic war and the allied powers also should abolish com- pulsory military service within two years and disarm themselves. they desired that the armies of occupation should leave german territory within six months after the signing of the treaty. they summed up their criticisms with the charge that the treaty as a whole was inconsistent with the terms of the pre-armistice agreement. such an imputation was angrily rejected by the allies, but suggestions were made in the supreme council of the conference that the terms of the treaty should be softened. movement for revision.—lloyd george, backed by members of the british ministry and representatives of the british do- minions, led the movement for revision. he protested against maintaining for a considerable period of time a large army of occupation. he now favoured a fixed indemnity in place of the plan for reparations. mr. lloyd george advocated plebiscites for upper silesia, allenstein and marienwerder to meet german objections and also urged some changes in the polish frontier. he wished to grant early admission of germany into the league. but the dangers of further delay were apparent. it was hardly possible at so late a date to rewrite the treaty. the movement for revision came to an end on june 13 with the only consequence that some concessions were made to germany on minor points. the allics maintained their position with regard to repara- tions and the armies of occupation. they conceded some changes in the polish frontier, to make it more consistent with ethno- graphic divisions. they agreed to a plebiscite in upper silesia. they withdrew the provision for making the kiel canal an international waterway. they intimated that they would open negotiations at once looking toward reduction of their own arm- aments. they promised to admit germany into the league, if germany complied with the terms of the treaty. they invited from germany an offer (hedged round with many conditions), within four months of the signing of the treaty, of a lump sum to settle the whole bill for reparations. this suggestion was not accepted by germany. there was suspense as count brockdorff-rantzau presented the final terms of the allies to the german govt. at weimar. the allied armies of occupation prepared for a general advance into germany if the germans should refuse to sign the treaty. the scheidemann ministry resigned on june 20, and the rew premier, bauer, offered on the next day to sign the treaty with- out its articles requiring the surrender of war criminals and declaring germany solcly responsible for causing the war. the allies refused. in this tense situation, the crews of the german battle-fleet scuttled their ships in scapa flow. but on june 22 bauer obtained the permission of the weimar national assembly to sign without conditions, and the new german minister of foreign affairs, miller, with his colleague, dr. bell, at last on june 28 signed the treaty in the salle des glaces at versailles. subsidiary agreements.—dependent upon the treaty of ver- sailles, although apparently the result of separate negotiations among the interested powers, were several other treaties and international agreements: (1) two defensive treaties, each signed by france, first with great britain, and next, with the united states. the two latter powers bound themselves to come to the aid of france in case of an unprovoked aggression by germary any time within the next 10 years. great britain made her rati- fication dependent on that of the united states. the latter refused to ratify, and so both treatics became nugatory; (2) a protocol defining certain ambiguities in the treaty of versailles; (3) an agreement among the united states, belgium, the british empire, france and germany to define the nature of the mili- tary occupation of the rhineland; (4) a treaty between poland and the allies to assure protection of life and liberty to all in- habitants of poland without distinction as to birth, nationality, language, race or religion. similar protection was later secured by the allied powers for minorities in czechoslovakia, rumania and yugoslavia, provisions which were not applied to italy (sce minorities; st. germain, treaty of). 60 ratificationthe treaty of versailles was ratified on july 9 by germany, and by oct. great britain, france, italy and japan also had ratified. the exchange of ratifications was delayed for two reasons. first, it was hoped that the senate of the united states would ratify at least with reservations. second, germany must make amends for the destruction oi its fleet in violation of the armistice. on nov. 19 1919 the american senate failed to ratify; but on jan. 10 1920 germany finally signed a protocol to give compensation for scuttling the ifleet. then the exchange of rati- fications was made at paris between the european allies and germany, and on jan. 16 1920 the league of nations was for- mally inaugurated. vi. other treaties after the germans had signed the treaty of versailles on june 28 1919 the peace conference turned to the problems of austria, hungary, bulgaria and turkey, over which many of its commissions had been labouring for months. chiefs of state began to resume their political tasks. foreign ministers one by one left for home. power to act in behalf of the respective states, however, was delegated to lesser dignitaries. the organ- isation of the conference remained intact to complete negotia- tions with the former allies of germany. austria was presented with terms drawn on lines similar to those granted to germany. her representatives signed at saint germain-en-laye on sept. io 1919 (see saint germain, treaty of). and in jan. 1920, hungary, freed from its communist regime and from rumanian control, was accorded terms varying from the austrian hardly more than in minor details. the hungarians signed on june 4 1920 (sce trianon, treaty of the). vor bulgaria, a delegation headed by teodoroff, the prime minister, arrived in paris on july 26 1919 but did not receive the draft of the treaty until sept. 19. the bulgarians delayed their reply more than a month to frame objections; but other than the promise for speedy admission into the league, they got no concessions from the peace conference. further remon- strance from the bulgarians jed clemenceau to give them 10 days to accept or to reject. by this time teodoroff had lost power in bulgaria, and stambuliisky, head of the agrarian party, had taken control of the bulgarian government. on nov. 27 1919, at neuilly-sur-seine, stambuliisky signed the treaty as the sole representative of bulgaria (sce neuilly, treaty of). following the establishment of the league of nations on jan. 16 1920 the peace conference came to an end. several issues of first importance remained for disposal, among them the problem of the adriatic and the settlement with turkey. the plenipo- tentiaries left these matters, however, to the conference of am- bassadors or to negotiation among the interested states. (sce ambassadors, conference of.) italy continued to press her claims to fiume and strategic points on the eastern shore of the adriatic. great britain and france, though recognising their obligations under the secret treaty of london, endeavoured to satisfy italy with a compromise short of those obligations so as to gain the approval of the american government. but wilson persisted in opposition for the sake of the interests of yugoslavia and albania. the upshot of the controversy was that italy secured the island of sasseno outside the port of valona, the port remaining in albanian hands, and at a later date reached an agree- ment with yugoslavia. albania maintained her independence and on dec. 17 1920 gained admission to the league of nations. the turkish settlement—the turkish question had been dis- cussed at paris in may and june 1919 and a turkish deputation had visited the conference, but the drafting of the treaty was not taken seriously in hand until the london conference of feb. 1920. the delay was due in part to the hope that the united states would join in signing the treaty, but there were also great dithculties involved in the assignment of mandates over the national minorities in the turkish empire. wilson’s twelfth point had stipulated that these territories should reccive ‘ un- molested opportunity of autonomous development.” an article in the treaty of versailles indicated that some of them at least paris, conferenct of would be recognised as independent states, under such manda- tories as they chose to accept. but there had been understandings among the allies that ran counter to the principle of self-determination. in may 1916 france and great britain had made the sykes-picot agreement with regard to their respective spheres of influence in turkey. the french sphere was to include cilicia, southern armenia and syria. the british area was to include haifa and mesopotamia. palestine was to be international territory. greece claimed the whole of turkish thrace, the aegean is. and smyrna, which greek forces occupied in may roro, with the approval of the supreme council of the peace conference. italy claimed the dodecanese, which it had helcl since the war with turkey in ror2, and a sphere of intluence on the adjacent mainland. both france and the hedjaz desired the arab districts of syria. the dispo- sition of constantinople also was uncertain. on feb. 16 1920 the london conference of the allies an- nounced that constantinople would remain the capital of tur- key; but a month later the allies informed turkey that this concession depended upon its good behaviour. constantinople had been occupied by allied troops under the command of sir g. f. milne before the end of 1918. oj april 25, at the confer- ence of san remo, mandates were given to france for syria, cilicia and the lebanon; to great britain for palestine and mesopotamia, but the mandate over armenia was declined both by the league of nations and by the united states. finally, on may 11 1920 the draft of a treaty similar in many respects to the treaty of versailles was handed to the turkish representa- tives at sevres. it was signed on aug. 10 1920. (see sevres, treaty of.) thus the task of constructing terms of peace for the last of the enemies of the allied and associated powers was brought to an end. real peace, however, had not yet come to the world. vii. summary critique of the conference the peace conference should have sat immediately after the conclusion of the armistice, and should have made a preliminary peace to be followed later by a permanent peace. the belliger- ent nations had been so shattered by the war that the need for bringing about a resumption of normal conditions as soon as possible was imperative. ‘the armistice was signed nov. 11 and, if the peace conference had convened by nov. 20, a preliminary peace might have been signed by christmas t91t8. there was no necessity for the preliminary peace to cover more than three general conditions relating to the final settlement: the terms relating to military and naval affairs, the sum to be exacted for reparations and the delineation of german boundaries. the army and navy terms need not have been essentially ditferent from those contained in the armistice agreement. the delinea- tion of territorial concessions might have been given broadly as not exceeding certain lines, and the sum to be fixed for repara- tions likewise should have been flexible, both a maximum and minimum sum being stated. much of the distress and many of the disasters which have overtaken europe since 1918 might have been avoided by an early preliminary peace. there need have been nothing controversial in 1t and the senate of the united states would have ratified it and, having ratified it, would probably have committed itself to the permanent treaty which might have been written at leisure. president wilson’s position.—it will always be a question of historical interest whether it was wise for president wilson to go to paris and venture himself into the controversies certain to arise. some contend that without his influence the liberal part of the peace would not have been written, nor would the league of nations have come into being. there are those who believe he should have remained the “ god on the mountain ” at wash- ington and allowed others to negotiate for the american war aims, he having at all times a veto power and being beyond the reach of those who tried to use his influence in behalf of their own particular measures. that is in the realm of speculation, and no one may say with certitude which contention is nght or which is wrong. paris, conference of clemenceau and lloyd george at first did not look with favour upon his sitting in the conference. the reason they gave was that he was the head of a state and, if he participated in the conference, the kings of england, italy and belgium and the president of france might claim similar privileges. president wilson was impressed by the argument when presented to him after he reached paris, and indicated a willingness to be guided by it. one day, soon after the president’s arrival, clemenceau shifted his position and not only consented to his sitting in the conference, but even expressed a hope that he would do so. he undertook to guarantee that lloyd george would also change his position and welcome the president as a colleague. it may be that after investigation they found that the sovereigns men- tioned and president poincare would not press their claims to be present, or it may be that they concluded that if president wil- son entered the debating arena of the conference with them, he would descend from his high position and become as common clay. or, clemenceau, alarmed by the attitude of lloyd george after the armistice, may have felt he needed support from a strong and disinterested source to carry through what he had in mind for the safety and rehabilitation of france. the delay in the meeting of the conference was less the fault of president wilson than that of his principal colleagues. presi- dent wilson might have come to europe immediately after the armistice was concluded, for his excuse that he had to remain in washington for the purpose of delivering his message to congress fails to carry conviction. he easily might have written the message and sent it to congress, as was customary before he became president. but even if he had come immediately to europe, it is to be doubted whether he could have hastened the date for the convening of the conference. col. louse urged an early convocation of the warring states and, had this come about, president wilson would have responded and been present. as it was, when he did arrive on dec. 14 1918, he found no one of his colleagues ready to begin. his visits to england and to italy were made not to meet his personal desire to make them then but to fill in the time between his arrival and the earliest date he could obtain consent for the parleys to begin. there- fore, no more blame rightfully could be attached to him for this delay than for delaying, as was later charged, the conclusions of the conference by his insistence that the league of nations’ covenant should be a part of the versailles treaty. the com- mission for the making of the covenant worked mainly at night and at odd hours, and was the first committee to finish its duties and report to the conference, and it takes a large measure of imagination to bring so unjust a criticism against the president. subjects for discussion.—when the conference first got down to work there was much confusion as to method and also as to the precedence to be given the subjects to be discussed. there should have been a well-defined programme laid out in advance so as to form a basis for discussion, as was done when the cov- enant was formed. the lack of this caused the conference to waste time, and it resulted in the setting up of the ineffective council of ten which was, indeed, a council of 30 or 40 when the secretaries, experts and representatives of states interested were included in the meetings. the time of the council was largely taken up in listening to those who came to paris to plead for certain boundaries affecting their countries. there were few on the council able to follow their arguments, and much time was wasted to no purpose. if the council had reached its own conclusions under advice of its experts, and then called in those interested to explain why such conclusions should not become part of the treaty, progress might have been made. after wasting many weeks tn this futile endeavour to get at the facts and having failed, the council of four was substituted for the council of ten. decisions then came rapidly. it was unfor- tunate that no one of the so-called big four possessed much organising ability; otherwise even greater progress might have been made. reparations and security —the question of reparations was the one great stumbling block of the conference, and the dis- agreements that arose in connection with it were the most 61 potent cause of the delay in the making of the treaty. there was common agreement that germany should pay to the full extent of her capacity, but there was a wide difference of opinion as to what her capacity was. the heads of the british and french delegations demanded of germany the entire cost of the war on land and sea. the american commission dcemed this impossible, and sought to have a sum named which germany might reasonably be expected to pay. after weeks and months of fruitless discussion, president wilson finally agreed to a com- promise which amounted to germany’s signing a blank cheque to be filled in later. he consented to this because it was thought that the reparations commission which the treaty provided, would, of necessity, name a sum which could be met. no one then considered the possibility of the united states senate refusing to ratify the treaty, and thereby bringing about the disastrous deadlock which has so seriously impeded europe’s economic recovery. the question of french security ran through the discussions at paris and finally was met by compromise. president wilson and lloyd george agreed on behalf of the united states and great britain respectively to come to the assistance of france in the event of an unwarranted invasion by germany. the terms of the treaty were’ somewhat indefinite, but they were the best that clemenceau, after long negotiation, was able to secure. wilson and lloyd george were adamant in refusing all proposals regarding the left bank of the rhine as a permanent line. cle- menceau has been criticised for believing that the united states senate would accept such a treaty, as indeed have all the allied leaders for believing that the senate would accept mem- bership in the league of nations. as a matter of fact, if the versailles treaty had been ac- cepted, the franco-american security treaty also would have, in all probability, gone through; and the versailles treaty would have been ratified by the senate provided president wilson had been willing to accept the lodge reservations. the versailles treaty failed by six votes of getting the necessary two-thirds; twenty-odd democrats who were ardently for the treaty voted against it, because of the reservations. as with the league of nations, the importance of the french security treaty was not realised at paris in the making of the peace. it has been the crux of nearly all the troubles which have beset europe since the armistice was signed on nov. 11 1918. if the french had been assured of protection, their attitude toward germany, toward reparations and toward disarmament undoubtedly would have been more in keeping with the public opinion of the world. (see security.) it is only in retrospect that historic events are seen at their just value. those who are making history oftentimes exagger- ate the importance of some things and underestimate the im- portance of others. at paris undue stress was laid on questions of enemy disarmament and reparations—both matters of tem- porary interest and susceptible of quick solution. within a few decades they pass from view; but questions like the league of nations and the security of france reach to the heart of peace and war, and are vital if western civilisation 1s to live. it has taken europe seven long years to realise this. if it had been seen at paris, untold hardships might have been averted. the heavy losses incurred by the allies during the war blurred, in a way, their sense of proportion. they could not realise that the costs of victory were so great that it was impossible to make the conventional treaty of peace, awarding to themselves damages and territories which might measurably recompense them for the | sacrifices made. it was a time to forget rancour and to strive to make another such holocaust improbable and remote. if such a treaty had been framed at versailles, the years following the war indicate that it would have been more satisfactory and profitable than the one actually made. the so-called secret treaties were mischievous elements in making decisions, particularly regarding the italian frontier. great britain and trance entered the conference with their hands tied by promises made to italy in order to induce her to enter the war on the side of the allies. the united states was. 62 free to act as seemed best, but even so the task proved beyond her capabilities. few, if any, disinterested observers believed that the tyrol as far north as the brenner should have been wrenched from austria under the pretext of making safe italy’s northern boundaries.'! italy’s claim to trieste and to some islands of the adriatic was much clearer, the fight between wilson on the one hand and orlando and sonnino on the other produced the most acute crisis of the conference. the yugo- slavs were ill-advised in not meeting the concessions the italians were ready to make. they were counting on wilson’s coercing orlando and sonnino, but they failed to reckon on what might happen if the peace conference adjourned without a settlement being reached. the breaking-point came when wilson gave out his statement of april 23 1919. this infuriated the italians and they left paris with the threat never to return. wilson bore the brunt of the criticism which this rift in the conference caused, but he was by no means solely responsible. he was encouraged to do what he did do by members of both the french and british delegations. shantung.—at this moment feeling regarding shantung ran high. no direct threat was made by the japanese delegates, but it was in the air that if the conference refused their request they too would withdraw. they did not ask to keep shantung, but merely that it should be returned to china through them. here again wilson bore the brunt of the fight, and the taunts of the liberals throughout the world were levelled at him. even his associate commissioners from the united states, with the excep- tion of col. edward m. house, protested against his acceding to the japanese request. however, he and house had personal assurance from baron makino and viscount chinda that the province would be returned. they were men of the highest character and integrity, and their word, which has since been fully kept, was accepted without question, much to the chagrin of the chinese commissioners. the chinese were advised by house to accept the decision in good faith and to compliment the japanese upon their willing- ness to place the matter on such a high moral plane, thus mark- ing a new era in international obligations. but they refused this advice. the bitterness of their defeat made them resentful and they gave notice that they would not sign the treaty; and they did not. the belgians also were dissatisfied at this period of the conference. suggestions of withdrawal were made and, with italy gone, for the moment at least, it would have been fatal to the conference if japan had left because her pledged word to restore shantung to china was not accepted. it was a critical period of the conference, and the subsequent action of japan has shown the wisdom of meeting her request. the saar vailey—the demand of the french for the saar valley came rather late in the proceedings and was at first offered timidly. they tried to present an historical claim to it, but finally based their arguments upon the justice of their case, the germans had wantonly wrecked the coal-mines of north- eastern france and, it was said at the time, had rendered them useless for along period of years. the extent of the damage has since been proved not to be so great as was first estimated, but it was sufficient to warrant a modified yielding to the french claim. the difficulty was to arrange it in a way not to do vio- lence to the almost wholly german population of the territory occupied, that it has worked out so well is due to the sagacity of the french in placing in charge engineers and officers who speak german fluently. another helping factor was the superior value of the franc over the mark during the first trying period of occupation. for a time the german workmen in the saar mines received on this account a much greater compensation for the same work than their fellow-miners in other parts of germany. self-determination.—during the war, when president wilson announced his theory of self-determination, it stirred the dor- 1this is true with regard to the northern part of the region, south tyrol, but many disinterested observers believed that the remaining and larger part, the trentino, emphatically italian, should be transferred to italy.—ed. e.b. paris, conference of mant hopes of many peoples and did much to break the disci- pline in the central powers behind the lines. this declaration of our war aims brought to paris many and diverse delegations from europe, asia and africa. they were the most picturesque as well as the most ill-informed and unreasoning of all those who gathered around the historic centre where the peace was made. this noble sentiment, carried to its logical conclusion, would have wrecked the governmental machinery of the world. ‘the conference has received unjustified blame for dividing up the austrian empire, but it must be remembered that the empire had already fallen apart before the peace conference met. the questions which came before the conference involved the boun- daries of states in process of formation, and not the creation of such states themselves. had the conference undertaken to curb the demand for national independence, its authority to do so would have been denied and another war would have begun— war springing from the bowels of the old one and even more fierce and bitter. what was done had, of necessity, to be done. there was no other way. no such human upheaval as occurred during the years 1914-8 could be composed in exact justice to all—and that it was not done in this instance is no matter of surprise. the polish frontiers —the delineation of the frontiers of the new poland was a task fraught with the gravest dangers, both for the moment and for the future. the reason for this was that her still great and powerful neighbour, germany, was forced to yield a considerable part of her territory in order that there should be a national poland and, further, that she should be given an outlet to the sea. germany has never been reconciled either to silesian boundaries or to the corridor to danzig. she gave up the rich provinces of alsace and lorraine with scarcely a murmur, for when the tide of war went against her she realised that one of the penalties of defeat would be the restoration of territory taken from france in 1871. but the losses on her eastern frontier came as a shock, and cut deep into her national pride and consciousness. it may be that in time, and with wise and considerate treatment on the part of poland, an adjustment of their differences may be reached. it is not an insoluble prob- lem, but it is one that calls for patience and a high order of statesmanship. with better trade relations between the two countries and with germany in the league of nations, there may come a feeling of mutual dependence; and a yielding here and there by each may accomplish the miracle. the rectification of the belgian-prussian frontier was a matter less serious, but the gain to belgium is so slight that some day belgium may feel it to be good policy to return to germany the prussian part of moresnet as well as eupen and malmedy. while this district has some forests of value, there are less than 75,000 people involved, and their voluntary return to germany would be a beau geste which would yield a far greater return in goodwill. mandates——the acceptance of the principle of mandates was one of the most far-reaching decisions of the conference. it was a new venture in the government of backward peoples, and one destined to play a large part in the affairs of many nations. it gave an excuse and a method for taking over the german colonies by the several countries interested. the german colonial empire, built up painstakingly and at great cost, van- ished overnight. it was one of the hardest blows which her national pride received, and one which she resents with passion- ate fervour. so strong is this feeling in the germany of to-day that even some of the french are seriously considering the ad- visability of giving germany a mandate over a part of the lost territory. the british protested during the war that they desired no new territory, but the insistence of south africa, australia and new zealand made it impossible not to heed their demands. all of these countries resented the implied threat which the retention by germany of her colonies might prove to be. japan and france were equally determined, with the result that the vast colonial estate, which lay chiefly in africa, was divided between the claimants according to their geographical situation. paris, university of the policy of control based on mandates is a new departure in international polity; it involves the recognition that all na- tions have economic and other interests in backward regions. until now, backward countries generally have been controlled or exploited by some power for its own selfish purposes, and the good that has come from such control or exploitation has been merely incident thereto, and where a single control has not existed, backward communities have been a constant source of friction between the more civilised states, because of a desire to obtain control of their resources; this friction has oftentimes resulted in war. until the paris conference there had been no attempt to reach a general understanding or fixed policy between the more powerful civilised nations regarding the control or betterment of such states or territories. however, the system hitherto prac- tised was admittedly so bad that when the conference came to the disposition of the late german colonies, there was general agreement that a more enlightened policy should be inaugurated. in furtherance of this desire article 22 was incorporated in the covenant of the league of nations, and subsequently a com- mission was appointed to sit in london during the summer of 191g for the purpose of preparing the terms of the mandates. upon this commission were lord milner, who had as his adviser lord robert cecil; m. simon, french minister for the colonies; viscount chinda of japan; signor marconi for italy; and col. house for the united states, with mr. george louis beer as adviser (see mandates). the acceptance by the members of the league of nations of this new principle, in the difficult matter of the control of back- ward countries, was a long step forward. a mandatory power was to accept trusteeship, not for the benefit of itself but for the benefit of the natives, and, incidentally, to permit other countries to share in the development of the state over which it exercised the mandate. the fact that hereafter each power holding such a mandate will be under close observation will have a tendency to promote the best administration possible. the report which must be given each year to the council of the league will in itself stimulate rivalry, and the power giving the best account of its stewardship will be the one to hold the highest place in the esteem of the world. bibliography.—the standard history of the peace conference is a ittstory of the peace conference in paris, 6 vol., ed. 11. w. v. temperley (1920-4). it is written chiefly by british experts, many of whom took part in the conference, but its point of view ts objective. the texts of the treaties are to be found in the treaty series of the british foreign office, published by ii.m. stationery office (1920). there is a special volume, the treaty of peace between the allied and associated powers and germany (with amendments) and other treaty engagements signed at versailles june 28 1919, together with the reply of the allied and associated powers to the observations of the german delegation on the conditions of peace (1925). comments by the german delegation on the conditions of peace and the reply of the allied and associated powers are published by the american associa- tion for internationa) conciliation (1919) and the covering letter in the american journal of international law (july 1919). sce also deutscher geschichtskalender, vom waffensiilstand zum frieden von versailles, pp. 565 seq. (leipzig, 1918). important confidential documents are contained in r. s. baker, woodrow wilson and world setilement (1922). important memoirs have been written by participants in the peace conference, especially andre tardieu, the truth about the treaty (1921); b. mi. baruch, the making of the reparation and economic sections of the treaty (1920); robert lansing, the peace negotiations (1921); see also j. m. keynes, the economic consequences of the peace (1920); e. m. elouse and c. seymour, what really happened at paris (1921), a_ series of essays written by american delegates. (e. m. ho.) viii. later conferences in paris after the conclusion of the important conference already cle- scribed, three meetings of allied statesmen were held in paris to consider matters arising out of the execution of the treaty of versailles. jan. 24-30 1921.—a meeting to consider proposals put for- ward by allied experts as a result of a meeting between them and german experts at brussels from dec. 16-22 1920, in con- tinuation of the conference of spa (see spa, conference of). 63 the allied statesmen adopted the experts’ proposal for two german annuities, one fixed and the other on a sliding scale, but they proposed to saddle germany with a far heavier burden than the experts had considered reasonable. the allied govts.’ proposals as formulated by their representatives at taris were rejected by germany. aug. 8-13 1921.—a meeting of the supreme council of the allied powers to take action upon the results of the plebiscite in upper silesia (see siresia, upper). after failing to agree upon a line of partition between germany and poland, the rep- resentatives of the principal allied powers decided unanimously to refer the question to the council of the league of nations, under article 13 of the covenant. the council accepted the task, and eventually made a recommendation which was adopted by the conference of ambassadors (see ambassadors, confer- ence of). this was the first case in which action arising out of a peace treaty, which fell within the province of the ambassa- dors’ conference and of the supreme council as their principals, was transferred to the leazue of nations by common consent. at this conference the allied statesmen also considered the greco-turkish war in anatolia, the russian famine and sev- eral questions relating to germany. in particular it decided that the additional occupation of territory carried out during the preceding march should continue, but that the economic sanctions taken simultaneously should be removed (see london, conference of, feb. 21-march 14 1921). jan. 2-4 1923.—a meeting between allied statesmen to con- sider the terms on which germany might be granted a repara- tions moratorium—terms on which agreement had already proved impossible at the loncon conferences of aug. and dec. 1922 (see london, conference of). since the adjournment of the latter of these conferences the situation had been rendered much more critical by the momentous decision which the rep- aration commission had taken on dec. 26 1922, when a majority of the commission, consisting of the french, belgian and itahan delegates, with the british delegate in a minority of one, had formally declared germany in default in respect of deliveries of timber. backed by this decision, m. poincare repeated with greater vigour the proposals which he had made on the two occasions aforementioned. in return for the remission of the i'rench war debt to great britain, he would only be willing to cancel an equivalent amount of german ‘“‘ c”’ bonds, and in return for granting a moratorium to germany there must be a military occupation of the ruhr and a seizure of “‘ productive pledges ” in the form of coal deliveries, the seizure of the coal- tax hitherto payable by the industry to the german govt. and the requisitioning of timber and other raw and manufactured products in the occupied territory. on the other hand, the british govt. proposed that germany should be given an absolute moratorium for four years (except for certain deliveries in kind which were to be credited against future payments), on condition that germany should stabilise the mark on lines suggested in the majority report of a commis- sion of international experts which the german govt. had called in during the preceding autumn; and secondly, that germany should accept financial control by a foreign finance council, of which the german minister of tinance was to be chairman, ex officio, and which was virtually to supersede the reparation commission. in regard to inter-allied debts, the british govt. made specific proposals which would have given substantial relief to france in exchange for a remission of german indebted- ness to france, which would have been equally substantial. the gulf between these two sects of proposals was so great that there was no chance of an accommodation, and the confer- ence broke up on jan. 4 after the french and british govts. had ‘agreed to disagree.””? a week later, on jan. 11 1923, the french and belgian armies invaded the ruhr (see refarations). cys dt) paris, university of (see 27.751),—the university of paris has prospered greatly under the constitution given to it in 1896 by the forceful genius of louis liard, and in all its faculties and departments receives an increasing number of foreign students 64 a university quarter has been created in addition to the numerous separate buildings in various parts of paris, with the palais de la sorbonne as the main centre, where are housed the faculties of science and letters, the university library and the national school of charters. for other purposes an excellent site has been made available by the wise generosity of the city of paris, on which, with the funds given by emile deutsch de la meurthe, further provision is made for the accommodation of french students resident in paris. the demolition of the fortifi- cations has thus afforded the university the space it needed so much. other notable benefactions to the university have been made by the marquise aremati visconti, m. blumenthal, 31m. solvay et cie, dr. kaprak of bombay, baron mitsui and other japanese notables, the republic of czechoslovakia, mm. otto kahn, masson and lavisse. l’institut du radium et fondation curie has received precious gifts from the rothschilds, from public funds, from the franco-anglo-american league against cancer, and from lazard freres and la filiale canadienne de la fonda- tion curie. bequests of a valuable nature have been made to the faculties of medicine, science, letters and pharmacy; while with the purpose of aiding and stimulating scientific research—for public ends and for the welfare of individuals—many important developments have been effected in which the university of pans, true to its ancient tradition, has taken a leading part. college de france (see 27.769).—the great reputation of this foundation has been maintained worthily—even enhanced— since 1910 by periodical revision and reorganisation in order to meet the specialised needs of advanced students of both sexes in the higher branches of scholarship and science, and by the institution of new chairs from time to time. the newer chairs are those in human geography, public assistance, economics of algeria, co-operative studies, colonial history and _ colonial protistology and pathology, some of which owe their existence to public sources and others to private benefactors such as albert kahn. parker, alton brooks (1852-1926), american lawyer, was born at cortland, n.y¥., may 14 1852. he studied at the local academy and normal school, taught for a short time, read law and graduated from the albany law school in 1873. ad- mitted to the bar he began to practise at kingston, n.y., and in 1877 was elected surrogate of ulster co., being re-elected in 1883. he resigned in 1885 on being appointed by the governor justice of the n.y. supreme court to fill a vacancy, and the following year was regularly elected. he was a delegate to the democratic national convention in 1884 and in 1885 declined president cleveland's offer of the first assistant postmaster- generalship. he was appointed a member of the second division of the n.y. court of appeals in 1889 and a member of the gencral term in 1893. in 1898 he was elected chief justice of the n.y. court of appeals. in 1904 he resigned on being nominated by the democrats for president, but he was defeated by theodore roosevelt, the electoral vote being 336 for roosevelt to 140 for parker, the popular vote 7,623,486 for roosevelt to 5,077,971 for parker. he then resumed the practice of law in new york city. he was a delegate-at-large from new york to the national democratic convention in 1912. in 1913 he was counsel for the managers of the impeachment of governor sulzer of new york. he died in new york city may ro 1926. parker, horatio william (1863-1919), american com- poser and musician, was born at auburndale, mass., sept. 15 1863. he studied music first in boston, but later attended the royal conservatoire at munich. on his return to america in 1885, he became professor of music in the cathedral school of st. paul, garden city, long island. from 1888 to 1893 he was organist of trinity church, new york city, and from 1893 to rgor organist of trinity church, boston. in 1894 he was ap- pointed professor of the theory of music at yale. his oratorio hora novissima was widely performed in america. it was also given in england in 1899 at chester and at the “ three choirs ” festival at worcestec, the latter an honour never before paid an american composer. ilis opera jfona won the metropolitan parker, alton b.—parsons, william i. opera company's $10,000 prize in 1911 and in 1914 his opcra fairyland gained a prize of the same amount offered by the na- tional federation of women’s clubs. his cantata morven and the grail was written in rors for the centenary celebration of the handel and haydn society of boston. his other works include the cantatas, aing trojan and the kobolds, the oratorios, s¢. christopher and a wanderer’s psalm, besides numerous sacred and secular pieces. he died at cedarhurst, long island, dec. 18 i1qio. parkin, sir george robert (1846-1022), british edu- cationist (see 20.831), published in r9o12 the rhodes scholar- ships, an account of his works as organising representative of the rhodes trust (sce 23.257). he was knighted in 1920 and died in london june 25 1922. parry, sir charles hubert hastings (1848-10918), british composer (see 20.865), retired from his professorship at oxford in 1908. he died at rustington, sussex, oct. 7 1918, and was buried in st. paul’s cathedral, london. parsons, sir charles algernon (1854- ), british engineer, was born in london june 13 1854, the fourth son of the 3rd earl of rosse. educated privately and at st. john’s college, cambridge, he entered the armstrong works at els- wick in 1877. in 1884, having served for a year on the experi- mental stafl of messrs. kitson, of leeds, he entered into partner- ship with messrs. clarke, chapman and co., of gateshead. on the dissolution of the partnership in 1889, parsons, whose in- vention of the parsons steam turbine was bringing him into considerable prominence, established his own works at heaton, newcastle-upon-tyne, for the manufacture of steam turbines, dynamos and other electrical apparatus (sce 25.845). besides the chairmanship of c. a. parsons and co., he occupied impor- tant positions on the directorate of various electrical supply and enginecring companies. ile was made if.r.s. in 1898, was awarded the royal society’s rumford medal in 1902, was presi- dent of the institute of marine engineers 1905-6 and of the british association 1919-20. in 1911 parsons was created k.c.b, in 1884 he married katherine, daughter of william bethell. parsons, william barclay (1850- ), american engi- neer, was born in new york city april 15 1859. he graduated from columbia university (a.b., 1879; c.e., 1882). at first he entered the service of the erie railroad, but resigned to take up general practice in new york city in 1885 as consulting engineer. ile became deputy chief engineer in 1891 to the rapid transit commission of new york city and was chief engineer of the commission 1894-1904. as such he designed and supervised the construction of the first part of the subway system there. he has been connected professionally with railway construction in various parts of the world, especially china. he was a member of the isthmian canal commission, 1904; advisory engineer to the royal commission on london traffic, 1904; a member of the board of consulting engineers of the panama canal, 1905; and chairman of the chicago transit commission, 1916. he served during the spanish-american war as chief of the engineers, national guard of new york, and in the world war was major and later colonel of the r1th u.s. engineers attached to the b.e.f. and a.e.f. in france. his publications include turnouts (1885); track (1886); rapid transit in foreign citics (1895); an american enginecr in china (1900); the american engineers in france (1920); robert fulton aid the submarine (1923). parsons, william edward (1872- ), american archi- tect and city planner, was born at akron, o., june 19 1872. he graduated at yale university in 1895 and columbia university in 1898, where he was awarded the mckim fellowship in 1899, attending the ecole des beaux arts, paris, and studying under laloux. he entered the office of j. c. hnoward, architect, new york city, in 1901, and was appointed consulting architect to the u.s. govt. in the philippines, 1905. he designed many public and other buildings in the philippines, including the manila hotel, philippine gencral hospital, the university hall, the manila club and the manila normal school. he also developed and directed the execution of a number of city plans, pascal—pasic including those for manila, baguio and scbu, and instituted the conservation of the old fortifications of the city of manila as public parks. he resigned in 1914 and returned to the united states, opening practice in chicago in 1919 with e. h. bennett as partner. the firm was retained to prepare plans for municipal improvements and town-planning in many parts of the united states, including chicago, buffalo, st. paul, pasadena and san juan, porto rico. pascal, jean louis (1837-1920), french architect, was born in paris june 4 1837, and at the age of 16 became a pupil of gilbert. later, when in the studio of questel, he entered the ecole des beaux-arts, and amongst other distinctions gained the grand prix de rome in 1866. on his return to paris in 1870, after his four years at the villa medici, he was appointed inspector of works at the louvre and the tuilleries. in 1872 he became patron of his afelier, and thereafter was appointed asses- sor in public competitions, and subsequently received many distinctions. amongst these was his election to the council of the beaux-arts and president of the jury, and to membership of the institut de france, and finally he became commandeur de la legion d’honneur. in his long career the private, as apart from official, work of pascal was of a very diversified nature, and covered a wide area of ground, domestic and civil, and par- ticularly a long series of artistic memorial monuments such as those commemorating col. d’argy at rome, henri regnault at the ecole des beaux-arts and president carnot at bordeaux. among pascal’s buildings are the chateau du doux, correze, that for the faculte de medecine, bordeaux—a design with much dignity and calm—the painter perrault’s house and studio, paris, and several villas and chateaux in the provinces—at pau, beaulieu, avignon and elsewhere. he lived long enough to see, at the close of his busy career of over so years, the completion of the bibliotheque nationale, paris, a fine building character- istic of his learning and ingenuity. with m. gaudet, he is respon- sible for the splendid edition of blondel’s architecture francaise, published under the auspices of the french government. the celebrated atelier of which he was for so many years the patron was responsible in his time for the training of many architects to be found later on in every country in europe, in the united states and in canada. among them were sir john burnet, thomas hastings of new york, signor beltrani of milan and henri nenot of paris. in ror4 he was awarded the gold medal of the royal institute of british architects, but his great age and state of health prevented his receiving this in person. he died in paris in 1920. pascoli, giovanni (1855-10912), italian poet, was born at san mauro di romagna dec. 31 1855. after studying at the college of the scolopi fathers at urbino, he won a scholarship which enabled him to enter the university of bologna. there he obtained his degree in literature and was afterwards appointed secondary school teacher successively in bologna, massa and leghorn. efe soon began to acquire a reputation as a poet, and in 1891 published his first volume of verse, afyricae. after he had won the prize for latin verse at amsterdam, he was ap- pointed to the chair of latin and greek grammar at the uni- versity of bologna, whence he was transferred first to messina and then to pisa as professor of latin literature; finally he was recalled to bologna to succeed the poet carducci as professor of italian literature, an appointment which he held until his death. he published several other volumes of poetry, primi poemetti (1912), nuovt poemetti, canti di castelvecchio, poemi convivialt, poemi del risorgimento, canzoni di re enzio (1908) and carmina (in latin). pascoli was a mystic, given to meditation and soli- tude, and his poetic output faithfully reflects the characteristics of his melancholy and extremely sensitive temperament. he died at bologna april 6 ror2. see a. galletti, za poesia e larte di g. pascoli (1918); j. j. hart- man, de joanne pascolt poeta latino (1920); f. morabito; {2 alzs- ticismo di giovanni pascoli (1920); a. valentin, i pascolt, les themes de son inspiration (1925). pasic, nicholas (1846- ), serbian statesman, was the son of a merchant at zajetar, close to the bulgarian frontier. he 65 studied engineering first at belgrade and then, with the help of a state bursary, at the university of ziirich, where he and other young serbs came under the influence of the russian revolutionary bakunin. where they differed so profoundly from him was in their insistence upon nationality and national liberation as an essential preliminary to all social progress. pagie was one of a small group of remarkable men who surrounded svetozar markovi¢, and on the latter’s early death in 1875 became one of the chief exponents of his views, which were of capital impor- tance for the political development of serbia. he became a dep- uly in 1878, and was in 1881 one of the founders of the radical party. its ambitious programme of constitutional and adminis- trative reform, freedom of the press and of assembly, and in foreign affairs national unity and a balkan alliance, brought the party into acute conflict with the reactionary regime of king milan. a popular rising which broke out in the timok district in 1883 led to the arrest of most of the radical leaders and fresh repres- sive measures. paesie fled across the danube and was condemned to death i# absentia, remaining in exile till after king milan’s abdication in 1889. on his return he became president of the skupstina and on two occasions mayor of belgrade. he was premier for the first time from feb. 1891 to aug. 1892, and as foreign minister accompanied the young king alexander on his first visit to the tsar. as a strong russophile he was made serbian minister in st. petersburg (leningrad), but resigned as a mark of protest against the illegal return of king milan to serbia in 1894. the radicals were now in keen opposition, and when an attempt was made on the ex-king’s life in 1899 the government rid itself of their leaders by trumped-up charges of engineering the crime, and imposed savage sentences of forced labour. pasi¢, thanks to russian remonstrances, only received five years and was then amnestied on condition of leaving the country. he only returned after milan’s final withdrawal. after the fall of the obrenovie dynasty in 1903 the radical party became dominant, and pasie was foreign minister in 1904 and premier in 1906 and again from 1908-10. he shared in milovanovie’s negotiations for a balkan league and on his premature death in ro12 became the dominant figure.in the radical party, resuming the premiership on the very eve of war with turkey. he remained in office throughout the two balkan wars, and contributed materially towards the alliance with greece and the rapprochement with rumania. while his for- eign policy was essentially russophile, he, on two occasions, in 1912-3 made overtures to vienna, which berchtold contemptu- ously rejected. discontent inside his own party had led to an important secession, and in the spring of 1914 he was engaged in an acute struggle against the opposition and had to promise a revision of the constitution. parliament had already been dissolved and the electoral campaign started when the murder of the archduke at sarajevo brought the already strained relations with austria-hungary to a head. but so absorbed was paesie in internal politics that he was absent from belgrade when the fateful ultimatum was presented, and even then was preparing to visit veniselos at salonica when an urgent message recalled him. party discord was silenced by the national danger, the elections were postponed and the already dissolved parliament reassembled at ni8. in nov. a coalition cabinet was formed, but pasie remained premier, and when in 1917 the opposition again seceded, he once more formed a purely radical government. in foreign policy he had always relied implicitly on the sup- port of conservative russia, and the revolution of march 1917 and the fall of tsardom weakened his position both at home and abroad. he thus saw himself forced to recede from the strictly pan-serb and orthodox attitude which he had taken up, and to negotiate, upon equal terms, with the yugoslav committee under dr. trumbie, the so-called “ declaration of corfu ” (july 1917), which laid down the broad lines of the future unified yugoslav state. but his relations with the committee became increasingly strained, and he stubbornly denied to them any status in the allied camp and refused to admit them to a coalition cabinct. 66 this attitude was the main reason why the entente governments withheld from the yugoslavs that recognition which they accorded in aug. 1918 to the much less favourably situated czechoslovaks. the result was that austria-hungary col- lapsed before any agreement had been reached among the allies on the yugoslav problem, and that italy, abandoning the compromise reached at the roman congress of oppressed na- tionalities in the previous april, reasserted her full territorial claims under the secret treaty of london. despite this dan- gerous situation pasi¢e maintained his obstructive tactics not merely towards the yugoslav committee but also towards the hew provisional government which had been formed in zagreb and which had at once nominated trumbi¢e as its spokesman in paris. finally, a certain compromise was reached, and while protie became the first premier of yugoslavia, pasie was made first delegate to the peace conference, with trumbie and vesni¢ as his colleagues. . during the first two years of the new state he remained under a partial eclipse, but on his return to serbia soon reasserted his ascendancy over the radical party and strengthened its ma- chinery and discipline, as against the loosely knit democratic party. the first general elections held after the world war (nov. 1920) gave no party a majority and rendered complicated bargaining inevitable. this situation gave such a superb tac- tician as pagie the chance for which he had known how to wait. in jan. 1921 he again became premier, and thanks partly to his skilful bargaining with the minor groups and partly to the foolish abstention of the croat peasant party, he was able to manoeuvre the new centralist constitution through parliament (june 28 1921), and as reprisals for the attempted murder of the prince regent and pasie and for the successful murder of draskovie a month later, to suppress altogether the communist party. in the following winter he was able to manoeuvre his democratic allies out of the government and to form a purely radical cabinet. at the elections of march 1923 he failed to secure a majority, but was again saved from an untenable posi- tion by the refusal of radi¢ and his party to enter parliament and join the rest of the opposition in overthrowing pasie. the blunders of his enemies, even more than his own remarkable skill and endurance, rendered him almost indispensable, and though from july to oct. 1924 he had to give place toa coalition cabinet under davidovie, he returned to power stronger than ever. in feb. 1925 he again dissolved parliament, threw radie and his colleagues into prison, and by the adoption of extremely drastic electoral measures secured a small working majority. on this radi¢ made a complete surrender of his republican, federalist and anti-militarist princivles, acknowledged the dy- nasty and the “ vidovdan ” constitution, allowed his deputies to take their seats in parliament and accept portfolios, and finally, in oct. 1925, himself entered the cabinet as minister of education. thus pasi¢’s tactics of violence successfully over- came the long croat resistance which had so gravely retarded the consolidation of yugoslavia and produced for the time an irresistible union of the two strongest parties in the country. > (r. w.s.-w.) pastrnek, frantisek (1853- ), czech philologist, studied in vienna, where he qualified in 1888 as a lecturer on slavonic philology by his work entitled beitrege zur lautlehre der slovakischen sprache in ungarn. from 1895 onwards he was a professor of the same subject at the charles university in prague. he published many articles and reviews in native and foreign periodicals dealing with slavonic philology. among his works may be mentioned the slavonic apostles cyril and methodius (1902). he compiled a bibliographical survey of slavonic philology between 1876 and 1891. fle also madc a study of various slavonic dialects (cf. zur charakteristtk der mahris- chen dialekie, archiv. fur slav. phil. xx. 1898). paterson, n.j., u.s.a. (see 20.912), increased its population to 135,875 in 1920, of whom 45,242 were foreign-born, and to 141,695 in 1925 (census bureau estimate). the output of its factories was valued at $69,263,000 in r1qg09; $216,659,000 in igi9; and in 1923, recovering from a drop of 25% in 1921, at pastrnek—pa thology $194,857,975, two-thirds being contributed by silk manufac- tures ($112,100,378) and the dyeing and finishing of silk and other textiles ($20,386,475). paterson dyes 75% of the silk that comes into the united states and makes 20% of the country’s. output of broad-silk, in plant units ranging from 10 to 750 looms. by 1925 paterson had made substantial progress on a pro- gramme for modernising its public school plant. a high school for girls, to be opened in feb. 1926, was built on a seven acre tract in the heart of the city. by joint action on the part of paterson and other cities in the passaic river valley, a trunk sewer was constructed, at a cost of $22,000,000, to carry the sewage of the valley out to robin’s reef in new york bay (opened 1924). in 1925 a museum was established in connection with the public library; and a series of lecture courses, called the pat- erson collegiate centre, was inaugurated by the chamber of com- merce in co-operation with new york university. work on the elimination of grade crossings on the erie railroad was begun in 1924. a city plan commission and a zoning commission were in operation, and in 1926 paterson was co-operating with other municipalities in a project for securing its own water supply. pathology.—the study of pathology began about 100 years ago and it was in the last 30 years of the roth century that its importance began to be recognised by definite and separate academic provision for its prosecution. at first it consisted mainly of the investigation of the changes found in the human body after death and their correlation with the signs of disease which had been observed during life. the large progress made along these lines soon led to its ex- pansion in a variety of directions until pathology came to include almost anything which had to do with disease, and its field in- cluded aetiology, pathogenesis, morbid anatomy, microscopic histology, parasitology, functional changes, chemical alterations, and indeed any topic, except diagnosis and treatment, which was open to fairly accurate study. the contemporary progress of medicine and surgery showed also that laboratory methods for the investigation of sick persons afforded valuable aids in diag- nosis, this large subject of “clinical pathology” is properly rec- ognised as belonging to clinical medicine rather than to pathology. this very diverse assemblage of studies forms together a con- sistent whole, which necessarily suffers by sub-division, but the increase of knowledge in some directions has been so great that it is no longer practicable to treat the various sections as a single discipline, and bacteriology, immunology, protozoology, patho- logical chemistry and other branches have been progressively separated as specialised topics each with its own devotees, liter- ature and academic staff. it remains here to consider what prog- ress has been made since 1910 in the residuum which still re- mains under the heading “ pathology.’”? advance here has been relatively small; apart from a tendency to assimilate pathology to the other biological sciences and a considerable increase in the attention paid to functional as distinct from anatomical changes, no ideas or methods of primary importance have emerged to cause any great change in general outlook, and work- ers have mostly been engaged on the elaboration and consolida- tion of the position represented by the article in the 11th edition (see 20.913). pathology in its restricted sense may be taken to mean the study of the reactions of living organisms to injury— the investigation, that is, of what the body does in response to abnormal conditions and circumstances imposed upon it. nature of injury—the injury may be of very various kinds: mechanical trauma, injury by polsonous substances (many of the most important of which are produced by parasites), defec- tive supply of food (e.¢., by living at high altitudes or by errors of diet), electricity, radiation energy and other factors which are still indefinite. the injury may immediately cause gross altera- tions in structure, and it is known that the physical injury of a cell often entails radical changes in the biological and chemical characters of its protoplasm which depend in some way on its architecture as a whole. or the injury may be anatomically per- ceptible though unaccompanied by any large structural changes. or it may, like electric shocks, cause no visible change and yet lead to a complete and permanent cessation of the activities. pa’‘thology which constitute what we know as life. or, finally, it may cause no anatomical changes recognisable by present methods and be put in evidence only by greater or smaller alterations in function. the obvious anatomical changes in injured tissues with which the early students of pathology mostly concerned themselves are not as a rule the direct and immediate consequence of the injury. they result partly from alterations which take place in cells after death by the process known as autolysis and partly from the activity of the uninjured and healthy cells in the neighbour- hood and elsewhere in the body which constitutes the response or reaction, autolysts.—this is the mechanism by which dead tissues tend to be automatically removed. the normal body consists of life- cells and certain products of live cells (such as bone) which are not wholly dead in that they are in functional relation to living tissues. any dead cells constitute therefore abnormal or foreign elements and it is required to remove them if restoration of the normal structure is to be achieved. when cells die, ferments are set free which act on the substance of the cell much in the same way as the digestive juices act on food in the alimentary canal. the solids are liquefied and so readily absorbed into the circulat- ing blood, carried away to other parts of the body and if neces- sary, excreted. autolysis is naturally signalised by substantial structural changes recognisable naked-eyed or by the microscope. the translucency, colour and consistency of the part are altered, and it is on the recognition of these secondary changes that mor- bid anatomists depend. under the microscope the nuclear mem- brane and chromatin, the protoplasm and the cell wall become more and more disorganised until nothing remains except amor- phous debris. the reaction by the uninjured parts of the body is the means by which the effect of the injurious agent is diminished and the normal constitution of the injured part restored as far as may be possible. it may be local or general. many of the symptoms and signs of disease are due to it rather than to the injury which is the beginning of the disease. cellular processes —in the higher animals, cells which are mechanically injured or which have suffered gross structural change scem as a rule to be incapable of recovery: nerve cells may have their long processes cut off and be able to repair the damage, but such facility 1s quite exceptional. it is more fre- quent in lower forms of life but here, too, in unicellular animals such as bacteria any substantial injury is usually irrecoverable and is made good not by the restoration of the individual but by a compensatory increase of the other members of the community of which the injured cell formed a part. similarly in man, when a part is injured, the whole of the body 1s available and may be used in co-operation to bring the part, and with it the whole, back to normality. this reaction, whatever its real nature, has the appearance of being purposive in the sense that it is adapted to achicve a definite end. pathological changes indeed illustrate exquisitely two great biological truths. the first is that it is characteristic of all live organisms to resist any alterations in their structure and com- position and, if these are varied by circumstances which are be- yond control, to proceed actively to correct the deviation and so return to the normal state. the second is that all the parts of which the organism is composed work together and in relation- ship to one another for the common good. a growing realisation of these principles has been one of the most productive changes in recent pathological thought. it carries the corollary that the anatomical changes, which are generally the first objects of study, must be regarded as representing phases of processes rather than definitive states. the mode of thought which has collected into museums specimens of morbid anatomy and classi- fied them as if they were species of animals should be replaced by one which regards a hypertrophied heart, a cirrhotic liver, or a sclerosed kidney, not as a “‘ typical ’’ example of a state, but as an illustration of one stage in a process by which the body has responded to a stimulus of injury. mechanism of reaction.—the general nature of the react.on being purposive and restorative, it is likely that the particulars 07 of the mechanism by which it is brought about will vary widely, since the constants of live organisms are the ends which are achieved rather than the means by which they are reached. such is the case as will be seen from some illustrative examples. the human economy is adjusted to live in air at a pressure of about 760 mm. of mercury containing 21 % of oxygen: a compromise of the conflict between having a blood of a tolerable viscosity for the heart to pump round the body and one which will carry an adequate amount of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues has been found at a concentration of about 5,000,000 red corpuscles per cu. mm.; and the respiratory centre is adjusted to respond to a pressure of carbon dioxide which corresponds to about 40 mm. of mercury in the alveolar air. if man goes to an altitude of 15,000 ft. above sea level, where the barometric pressure is only some 440 mm. of mercury and the oxygen pressure correspondingly reduced, he is at once in difficulties in respect of the supp y of oxygen, especially if the need for it is increased by activity. no clear injury is inflicted on the tissues of the body which can be recognised by anatomical changes, but the shortage of oxygen causes plain symptoms and initiates a response the effect of which is to correct the deficiency wholly or in part. this is done by altering the sensitivity of the respiratory centre so that it responds to a lower pressure of carbon dioxide and so increasing the amount of air breathed, by changing the composi- tion of the blood so that the haemoglobin will take up more than the normal amount of oxygen at a given oxygen pressure and by stimulat- ing the bone marrow to grow and produce more red corpuscles so that the concentration of haemoglobin in the blood and hence its oxygen-carrying power are increased. the connecting links between the deficiency of oxygen and this complex reaction (7.e., the imme- diate stimuli to which the reactions are responses) are not known. the result is that man can soon live comfortably under conditions so different from those to which he is accustomed that they would cause serious harm if not compensated. simple wounds.—a simple incised wound of the skin and superficial tissues made by a knife which is chemically and bacteriologically clean inflicts an uncomplicated mechanical injury on a limited num- ber of cells in the epidermis and dermis. this is followed after a few hours by a familiar reaction: the injured part feels full and uncom- fortable and is swollen, red and painful. thee are the outward signs of an inflammatory reaction, which consists intimately in a dilatation of the blood vessels, an increased flow of blood to the neighbourhood and an alteration in the walls of the capillary vessels which enables liquid plasma and leucocytes to pass through from the blood to the tissue spaces. the cells killed by the injury undergo autolysis and in the course of a few days they are rented by fresh cells derived from the adjacent epithelial cells cf the skin and from the connective tissue of the dermis, as is appropriate. the result in the end is that the wound is healed and the part re- stored to normal. it is impossille to suppose that this reaction is started by the absence of the cells which were originally destroyed: the actual stimulus is no doubt provided by the soluble products of their autolysis, which can be shown outside the body to have a stimulating action on cell-growth and by suitable experiments to alter the permeability of capillary vessels. the process is self-reg- ulated and the inflammatcry reaction is accessory to the restorative growth. by increasing the local circulation it raises the tem- perature of the part and so promotes all cellular activities; it pro- vides plasma, which helps to wash away the soluble remains of the dead cells, and leucocytes, which eat the more resistant remnants of the cells; the discomfort which attends the hyperaemia and swelling is of value in securing rest to the injured part and freedom from fur- ther mechanical disturbance, cenditions which help cell-growth and healing. ‘lhe process is also automatically regulated quantitatively for the amount of autolysate, t.e., the amount of stimulus, depends on the extent of the criginalinjury. its effect varies with the respon- sivity of different tissues and, allowing for that, is determined by its concentration. if this is very high, which occurs in the ordinary way only with exceptionally massive destruction of tissue, it injures and kills cells and is responsible for the fatal condition known as second- ary shock which may follow extensive injuries. lower concentra- tions stimulate growth, as often happens with cellular poisons. and if the products of autolysis are present only in concentrations below the threshold value for stimulation, they have no action on the tissues. hence in the example under consideration the response is limited to the immediate neighbourhood of the injury and the growth of cells takes place where it is needed and not in all the parts of the body to which traces of autolysate are carried in the blood. the local reaction to a bullet or a piece of glass buried in the tissues illustrates the same regulative reaction. the response consists in a growth of the connective tissue next to the foreign body without any obvious destruction of cells, due to the irritants nowhere reach- ing an actually poisonous concentration owing to their small solubil- ity in the tissue fluids. a bscesses.—the history of an abscess illustrates a similar kind of injury stimulus and response, complicated by the fact that the inflic- tion of the injury is itself a process rather than an event. ahscesses can be produced experimentally by unorganised irritants, but in the natural course they are caused by bacteria which are capable of 68 multiplication and produce poisonous substances which are effective agents in killing and injuring cells, and as stimuli have, in a general way and apart from special actions, the same effect as the prociucts of autolysis. at first the organisms are present only in small numbers and do relatively little damage, but as they increase in numbers the amount and concentration of their poisons increase in parallel until a substantial piece of tissue is destroyed. this undergoes autolysis and the stimulus of the autolysate is added to that of the bacterial toxins. hence in a developed abscess three zones may be distinguished. in the centre, where the stimuli are at their highest concentration, there is an area filled with a more or less fluid mass (ps) composed of leucocytes and plasma from the inflamed blood vessels in the neighbourhood, the causative bacteria and the dead cells of the part and their disorganised remains. different tissues are killed at dif- ferent concentrations; highly differentiated cells such as those of the liver, kidney and other specialised organs generally succumb easily, while the white fibrous connective tissue which forms a skeleton framework of the whole body is particularly resistant. there may therefore be an area of differentia} destruction at some place in the falling gradient of concentration resulting from diffusion from the central point. surrounding the pus is a zone where the concentration of stimuli is not enough to kill cells but is adequate to stimulate them to grow; hence we find all round the pus an area of active inflamma- tion and a wall of growing connective tissue which acts as a filter in perenne the bacteria and their poisons spreading through the ody unhindered. beyond this zone the tissucs seem generally to be unaltered on superficial examination, and for the most part this is so. that specially sensitive cells may, however, be injured is shown by the fever and feeling of illness which an abscess may cause and by the functional impairment of the secretory cells of the kidney and stomach and other delicate tissues. we also find evidence of the reception of stimuli in distant parts of the body in the growth of leucocytes in the bone-marrow. any good-sized abscess contains in its pus more leucocytes than are present at any one time in the cir- culating blood, from which it follows that the formation of an abscess leads to the production of fresh leucocytes and that the cells which develop into leucocytes must be exceptionally responsive to the small amounts of stimulating substances which reach them. this deduc- tion is confirmed by direct examination of the bone-marrow where leucocytopoiesis is found going on actively, often with a vigour which results in there being an obvious excess of these cells in the circulating blood. the purposive and reparative nature of this reaction needs no further elaboration beyond indicating that the passage of plasma out of the inflamed vessels brings antibodies (see immunity) to bear on the bacteria to which the leucocytes are also directly inimical and that the general, as contrasted with the local, rise of temperature promotes the multiplication of leucocytes at places distant from the abscess itself. the reaction does not always succeed: the bacteria may generate such a concentration of poisons throughout the body as 1s fatal to essential organs such as the brain and heart. on the other hand, an abscess may cure itself by destroying so much tissue that the pus finds an exit to the surface of the body and the absorp- tion of poisons ceases because it becomes mechanically easier for them to pass outwards with the stream of plasma than inwards—a process of natural cure imitated and anticipated by surgical inter- ference. the same result is gained if the bacteria die out or are killed off. hypertrophy.—lf one kidney is removed from a young animal, the other kidney will grow in the course of a few months to twice its norma! size. similarly, if an error of development leads to one kidney being absent from the beginning, the other will be as big as two normal kidneys. in this instance the injury inflicted on the kid- ney is the presentation of more work to do than it was designed to discharge, and an analogous increase of both kidneys can be brought about by increasing their work by giving excess of water or of nitrog- enous food. muscle and many of the other tissues of the body show the same intimate relation between quantity of substance and quan- tity of function and will increase their bulk in response to greater functional requirements. ‘the intermediary mechanism of this hypertrophy has not been identified, but the similarity between the products of activity and those of autolysis is suggestive and it may well be that the normal sizes of organs which accompany normal amounts of work are deter- mined by the soluble substances which are set free in active katab- olism. so, too, if functional activity is reduced, the bulk of corre- sponding tissue becomes smaller. an unused muscle soon wastes, and in consonance with the quietude of old age most of the important organs shrink. if the arm is cut off at the elbow, the muscles which normally move the lower arm wither, the bones to which they are attached grow smaller, and the nerve cells in the spinal cord which actuate them may disappear. « two points need fartlier mention: (1) the removal of one kidney has no detectable ill-effect on an animal or man; one kidney is evidently enough to do the ordinary excretory work which is re- quired. but the kidneys and other organs are designed to discharge, and are capable of discharging, much more than the ordinary amount of function; a muscle can at any moment do more than its average work and indeed more than it has ever been called upon to do before. the possession of this reserve force is an obvious teleological necessity pathology for survival, and so precise is the response to an increase of average work that it is maintained in hypertrophied as well as in normal organs. (2) if the increase of work is too large, hypertrophy does not occur, #.e., the stimulus to hypertrophy is an amount of extra function within the range of the reserve force of the organ. thisisa well recognised principle in the training of voluntary muscles for athletic or aesthetic purposes. all these circumstances of the response to work secm to be best explained on the hypothesis that an organ is made up of a number of units, each of which requires a restorative period of rest after each of the periods of activity which are necessary for its maintenance. to fulfl the ordinary amount of function only a proportion of units is active at any one time; as their activity proceeds they become, in accordance with the general law, progressively less excitable by the stimulus which rouses their activity and eventually cease to respond. their function is then taken over by another set of units which, after a period of rest, are more responsive. in this way a larger num- ber of units is kept in working order than is usually required. the maximum possible work is the amount which can be achieved by all the units working simultaneously: this is the limit of the reserve force, and if it is habitually reached no units have time for the necessary rest and restoration, the organ is worn out and cannot make hypertrophic growth. these reparative responses are not the inevitable result of the application of the appropriate stimulus: the reaction may not occur if it is unnecessary or undesirable. if the portal vein bring- ing blood to the left half of the liver is tied, the left lobe pro- gressively atrophies and the right lobe hypertrophies so that at any time the total quantity of liver substance remains about normal. but if the right lobe is injured by tying its bile duct, it does not hypertrophy and the left lobe does not atrophy, though it receives blood only through the hepatic artery. the atrophy is conditioned by the total functional requirements of the body for liver tissue and does not necessarily follow the reduction in blood supply. if rabbit’s blood is injected into the circulation of a normal rabbit, the excess of liquid is got rid of in a few hours, and the excess of red corpuscles in ten days or so and the normal position is regained. if such a transfusion is repeated, the excess red cells are destroyed in two or three days and the animal can be brought by practice to a habit of disposing of them promptly. if such a trained animal is bled and then transfused with an equal quantity of blood from another rabbit, no destruc- tion of the injected blood occurs. the difference is that the extra blood is not wanted by the normal animal while the bled animal has need of it to carry oxygen: in the former it is destroyed, in the latter it is kept and used. response.—of the circumstances which facilitate response, age and experience are the most important: their influences will often be antagonistic. the inherent capacity of a tissue to grow and dis- charge any of its functions steadily diminishes as the organism of which it forms a part grows older. but its available ability to do anything is influenced by whether and how often it has done it be- fore, individually and racially. experience in such exercises as repro- ducing blood which has been lost by haemorrhage or making the sub- stances which neutralise bacterial poisons gives the same advantage as it does in the more complicated reactions of behaviour. in gencral, the most effective preparation for successful resistance to a large injury is the previous reception of small injuries of the same kind. reactions to stimuli may fail in whole or in part because the stimu- lus is too large and kills the whole organism or because the tissues are old or already diseased. in some instances it is the nature of the tissue which mostly determines the imperfection of the result. blocking of one of the smaller blood vessels of the heart kills the muscle which the vessel normally supplies. the dead muscle auto- lyses and is removed, and its place is taken by fibrous tissue instead of by cardiac muscle, which is inherently incapable of the necessary multiplication of cells. the repair is for the time effective but it 1s unsatisfactory, for fibrous tissue is less elastic than muscle and is liable to tear. the nerve cells of the central nervous system never grow to repair an injury: if some of them are destroyed they cannot be replaced, and the best that can be achieved is a certain amount of functional restoration by the rearrangement and adaptation of the parts which remain. in other cases, the nature of the injury and the mode of its infliction determine the result. the common sclerosis of the kidney begins by the destruction of a proportion of the glomerulo- tubal units of which the organ is composed by some poison circulat- ing in the blood. the dead tissue is cleared away and, since kidney cells cannot adequately regenerate, the gap is healed by the growth of the connective tissue. later, which is characteristic of the disease, further destruction takes place and so on from time to time, each loss of secreting tissue being followed by fibrous tissue repair, the other units, as might be expected, hypertrophy, and up to a point function is adequately maintained, partly by the local reaction and patiala—paul-boncour partly by a general rise of arterial blood pressure backed by a hyper- trophied heart which tends to compensate the diminution of vaso- motor mobility and control resulting from the anatomical changes. but if successive injuries continue, the limits of the possible hyper- trophy of the remaining healthy tissue are exceeded and its growth is impeded by the firm fibrous tissue which comes to constitute a large part of the organ. hence, in the end, function fails, as it finally must if repeated injuries are inflicted on tissues which cannot be vicariously replaced and are capable only of compensatory hyper- trophy (z.e., most specialised tissues) and not of indefinite regenera- tion (¢.g., connective tissue, blood corpuscles). these examples are sufficient to illustrate the kind of topics which form the subject-matter of pathological study and the way in which they can at the moment be fruitfully approached. the reaction to injury (using the word in a wide sense) is a process which is initiated by some definite stimulus arising within or outside the body and generally promoted and extended by sec- ondary stimuli which are produced by the body in the early stages of the response. the injury and the response may be local or general; general injuries may provoke local reactions, and local injuries may elicit responses in which many organs take part. the organism in this, as in other respects, has to be re- garded as a coherent and essentially indivisible whole, and one must recognise the limitations of the point of view, fruitful enough in the past, from which a live animal appears as an assem- blage of relatively independent cells or organs. the character of the response is such that it tends to correct in one way or another the anatomical defect or the functional derangement which is caused by the injury. whatever the mechanism by which the result is attained, the reaction is purposive in appearance if not in intention, and its purpose is survival. bibliography.—r, t. hewlett, pathology, general and special (1923). (a. e. bo.) patiala, sir bhupindar singh, manarajsa or (1891- ), head of the sikh community in india, was born oct. 12 1891, the son of maharaja sir rajendra singh, who died in nov. 1900. he was carefully trained, and on receiving full ruling powers at the close of 1910 maintained and greatly developed the progressive policy cf the council of regency, applying himself with great assiduity to the moral and material welfare of his people. in the world war the contribution of patiala to the indian army, including imperial service troops, was increased from about 4,000 men to 28,000, and as the recognised head of the sikh race the maharaja exercised an enormous influence in promoting recruitment from other parts of the punjab. his subjects saw active service in nearly all the theatres of war, and won 125 battle distinctions. he also took part in the afghan war (1919). he took a prominent part in promoting the inau- guration of the chamber of princes in 1921 and represented the princes at the league of nations assembly at geneva in 1925. paton, john brown (1830-1911), british nonconformist divine (see 20.930), died at nottingham jan 26 ro1t. paton, john lewis alexander (13863- ), british educationalist, was born in sheffield on aug. 13 1863, the son of the rev. j. b. paton, d.d., afterwards principal of nottingham congregational institute. educated at nottingham high school and shrewsbury school, where he was head boy, he went to st. john’s college, cambridge, where he was bracketed first in the classical tripos (part i.) and became a fellow of his college. he studied also at halle. after a year as a master at the leys school, cambridge, and 10 years at rugby, he was appointed headmaster of university college school, london, in 1898. in sept. 1903 he was appointed high master of manchester gram- mar school and held the post till july 1924. on his retirement a fund was raised in his name to commemorate his services to the town and district, as well as to the school. paton was a member of the consultative committee of the board of education from 1907 to 1915, was lecturer on education in victoria university and president of the teachers’ guild (1907) and of the modern languages association (1911). he was a zealous advocate of the social and religious, as well as the literary sides of education. he published in 1914 a life of j. b. paton, and his educational works include chapters on the aims and practice of teaching (1896); 69 the public schools from within (1906); the higher education of bovs in england (1906); cambridge essays on education (1917); vocation (1919); as well as a special report for the board of education on the teaching of classics in prussian elementary schools (1907). pats, konstantin (1874- ), estonian politician, was born in the parner district. after completing his studies in the faculty of law at dorpat university, he became in roor editor of the teatujad (newshect), the first daily paper in the estonian language. this journal maintained radical principles and gave much prominence to economic questions. pats then devoted his energies to organising the estonian citizens and secured muni- cipal administration for estonia from the russians, being him- self appointed assistant to the mayor of revel. during the revolution of 1905, when the russian authorities gave way to panic, pits was the real ruler of the town. he brought about a compromise with the social democrats and thus succeeded in protecting revel from plunder and excess. when the russian punitive expeditions arrived he was sentenced to death by the military court, but the sentence was later commuted by the ordinary courts to imprisonment for one year. . while the russianising wave was passing through his country during the world war pits effected a compromise in 1915 with the estonian nobility in connection with a reorganisation of the mediaeval system of local autonomy, which was cancelled, how- ever, by the russian authorities. after the revolution of 1917 pits became head of the national administration, and on the declaration of independence of estonia on feb. 24 1918 he formed the first temporary government. owing to resistance to the plans for the formation of a baltic duchy he was imprisoned by the german occupation authorities, but on the collapse of ger- man rule he returned to the head of the temporary government. he then began the political organisation of the peasant move- ment and fostered the steady growth of the agrarian party. pats became president of the rijikogu and prime minister in 1920-2 and again in 1923. patterson, joseph medill (1879- ), american pub- lisher and editor, was born in chicago, iil., jan. 6 1879. he graduated from yale university in 1901 and joined the staff of the chicago tribune. jle was elected a member of the illinois house of representatives in 1903, and acted as com- missioner of public works, chicago, 1905-6. in 1914 he became associated with his cousin, robert rutherford mccormick (g.v.), as co-editor and publisher of the chicago tribune, which, under their direction, rose to be one of the most influential and suc- cessful papers in the united states. he acted as war corre- spondent in belgium and france, 1914-5; served with the u.s. field artillery in texas, 1916; and also with the a.e.f. in france, taking part in the second battle of the marne, st. mihiel and the argonne. enlisting as a private he rose to the rank of captain in the r4gth f.a., 42nd division. he was the author of a little brother of the rich (1908); rebellion (1911) and note book of a neutral (1915). patti, adelina juana maria (1843-1910), british singer (see 20.937), died at craig-y-nos castle, s. wales, sept. 27 19109. paul, saint: see ciiristianity. paul-boncour, joseph (1873- ), french politician, was born at st. aignan, aug. 4 1873. after a brilliant university career, he joined the paris bar. his book le federalisme eco- nomigue, published in 1900, showed him an ardent advocate of the trade union movement, and in 1906 he was elected to the chamber as an independent socialist, a follower of painleve, by his native district of loire-et-cher. in 1911 m. paul-boncour was appointed labour minister in the radical monis-bertaux cabinet and in this capacity was successful in applying the new old age pension law. in the elections of may 1914, however, he was defeated by a narrow margin of 35 votes. on the out- break of the world war he became a commander on the lorraine front. meanwhile, he had definitely joined the socialist party, thus fulfilling a promise made to jaures, a few months before the latter’s tragic end. he was returned to the chamber at the nov. rotg election and at once joined forces with leon blum in the struggle against the national bloc. he was again returned 70 in 1924, this time as deputy for jaures’ former constituency of the tarn. he was also one of the french delegates to the fifth and sixth assemblies of the league of nations, 1924 and 1925, and acquired great prestige at geneva. he became the recog- nised leader of the right wing of the french socialist party. pauperism: sce poor law. pavlov, ivan petrovich (1849- ), russian physiolo- gist, was born sept. 14 (old style) 1849 in the district of ryazan in russia, son of the village priest. he studied science at the university and then medicine at the military medical academy of st. petersburg (leningrad). he graduated as a doctor in 1883, and in 1884 was appointed privat-dozent in physiology, but he went for two years to germany to work under ludwig and hei- denheim. in 1890 pavlov was appointed director of the physi- ological department of the institute of experimental medicine at st. petersburg and in 1897 professor at the medical academy. in 1907 he was elected member of the russian academy of sci- ences. he is famous for his leading work on the problems of digestion, the work of the digestive glands (eng. tr., 1902) (for which he was awarded in 1904 the nobel prize) and for research on cerebral activity and the theory of reflexes. his first achievements were on the physiology of blood circulation. he devised special methods of treating animals, which enabled him to make observations under normal conditions of the organism. his first papers appeared in 1878-9. from 1892-7 a series of papers on the physiology of digestion was published in the archives des sciences biologiques. in 1897 a collected account was published in german and french, die arbeit der verdanung- driisen. most of his and his pupils’ researches are published in russian. in 1907 pavlov was elected a foreign member of the royal society and in 1915 he was awarded the copley medal. see m. dontchef-dezeuze, l’image et les reflexes condition- nels dans les travaux de pavlov (1914). pavlova, anna (1885- ___), russian dancer, was born in st. petersburg (leningrad) jan. 31 1885. at the age of 1o she entered the imperial ballet school, attached to the marianski theatre, st. petersburg, and subsequently became prima bal- lerina of this theatre. she later appeared at the imperial opera house in st. petersburg, and in rgro made her first visit to england. assisted by michael mordkin she appeared with con- spicuous success at the palace theatre, london, in “‘ le cygne,” ‘“‘ les papillons ” and “ valse caprice.” in the same year she appeared in paris with diaghilev’s russian ballet in ‘les sylphides,” “ pavillon d’armide ” and “ la nuit egyptienne”’; and also in new york in the ballet ‘“‘ coppelia.” later, after making regular appearances in london for some years at the palace theatre, she toured in the united states. in the autumn of 1923, 1924 and 1925 she appeared with her own company at the covent garden opera house, london, in ‘ dionysus,” “ don quixote,” “ amarilla,” “ the fairy doll’ and other ballets. during her career mme. pavlova toured all over the world, and her performances were invariably assured of an espe- cially appreciative and enthusiastic reception in london and new york. . peace conference: see paris, conference of. pearce, charles sprague (1851-1914), american painter (see 21.24), died in paris, france, may 18 rorq. pearl, raymond (1879- ), american biologist, was born at farmington, n.h., june 3 1879. he graduated from dart- mouth college (a.b., 1899) and the university of michigan (ph.d., 1902), afterwards proceeding to the university of leipzig, the naples zoological station and university college, london. ajter being instructor in zoology at the university of michigan and the university of pennsylvania (1902-7), he was appointed biologist and head of the department of biology at the maine agricultural experimental station in 1907. he became professor of biometry and vital statistics in the school of hygiene and public health, johns hopkins university, in 1918, and pro- fessor of biology tn the medical school there in 1923. in 1925 he was appointed director of the institute of biological research, a new division of johns hopkins university. he became known through his biological researches on variation in organisms, and pauperism—pearson, karl his studies in heredity. he was a member of the executive com- mittee, chairman of the agricultural committee and member of the executive board of the national research council, 1916-0, being also chief of the statistical clivision of the u.s. food ad- ministration, 1917-9. (sce death.) pearl wrote, among other works, variation and differentiation in ceratophylium (with o. m. pepper and f. j. hagle, 1907); variation and correlaiion in the crayfish (with a. b. clawson, 1907); diseases of poultry: their etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention (with f. m. surface and m. r. curtis, 1915); afodes of research tn genetics (1915); the nation’s food (1920); the biology of death (1922); introduction to medical biometry and statistics (1923); studies in iluman biology (1924); and the biology of population growth (1925). pearse, patrick henry (1879-1916), irish leader, was born in dublin nov. 101879. educated at the christian brothers schools and the royal university of ireland, he became editor of the claitdheamh soluis, the weekly organ of the gaelic league. he was secretary to the publication committee of the league and an energetic member of its executive. after touring belgium to study bilingual methods, he published several fiana, tales from irish manuscripts. pearse’s chief interest was education and he approved mr. birrell’s irish education bill (see 14.788), as it gave the irish control over their own education. he founded a school at cullenswood, dublin, moving it in 1910 to the hermi- tage, rathfarnham, where he continued to run it until his death. after a tour in america, pearse joined the irish volunteer move- ment and was commander-in-chief of the irish forces in the rebellion of 1916. on april 30 1916 he sent out an order to his troops to surrender. he himself was arrested and executed on may 3 1916. pearson, sir cyril arthur (1866-1021), british news- paper proprietor, was born at wookey, near wells, feb. 24 1866, and was educated at winchester. he early founded the business of c. arthur pearson, ltd., newspaper proprietors and publishers; and after making large profits with pearson’s weekly and other periodicals he founded in 1900 the daily express, a halfpenny rival to the daily mail. in 1904 he purchased the standard with the evening standard (see 19.560). under his con- trol the siandard reverted to the policy of colonial preference which it had advocated nearly 50 years previously. he was a strong supporter of mr. chamberlain’s tariff reform movement, and was vice-president of the tariff reform league and vice- chairman of the tariff commission of 1903. in 1tgos5 he amal- gamated the evening standard with the st. james’s gazette which he had bought a few months previously. in roro increas- ing—later complete—failure of sight obliged him to retire from the active direction of newspapers. henceforth he de- voted himself and his fortune with whole-hearted industry to efforts to ameliorate the condition of the blind. during the world war he established at his house, st. dunstan’s, in regent’s park, london, a hospital for blinded soldiers, and became chairman of the blinded soldiers’ and sailors’ care committee (1914). he also became president of the national institution for the blind. he was created a baronet in 1916 and g.b.e. in 1917. sir arthur died in london dec. 9 1921. pearson, karl (1857- ), british mathematician, was born in london and educated at university college school and at king’s college, cambridge. he was called to the bar in 1882, and afterwards devoted himself to the science of eugenics, be- coming a leading authority on the subject. he was subsequently appointed galton professor of eugenics at london university and director of the francis galton laboratory for national eugenics. he was awarded the darwin medal of the royal society, of which he was elected fellow in 1896, for his numerous contributions to the mathematical theory of evolution and heredity. professor pearson was the editor of biometrika from 1902-24, and his other publications include the hthics of free- thought (1887, 1901); the chances of death, and other sinudies in evolution (1897); grammar of science (1899, 1900, 1911); national life from the standpoint of science (1901); tables for statisticians (1914); the life, letters and labours of francis galion (1925). peary—penck peary, robert edwin (1856-1920), american arctic ex- plorer (see 21.30) died in washington, d.c., feb. 20 1920. on account of his discovery of the north pole (1909) he was promoted rear-admiral in ro11 and received by special act the thanks of congress. the same year he was u.s. dele- gate to the international polar commission in rome. during his later years he was much interested in aerial navigation. he was the author of the north pole (1910) and secrets of polar travel (1917). peat (see 21.31), the fibrous substance formed chiefly of the remains of bog mosses growing in swampy places, has long been used for fuel, firelighters, fertilisers and litter for animals and in the production of gas, charcoal and various by-products. in the present century its use in making bandages, wadding, spinning-fibres, paper, cardboard, millboard, non-conducting coverings, building blocks, finger plates and other moulded articles has formed the subject-matter of numerous patents. more than half the water of fresh peat is so closely associated with its organic constituents that it is practically impossible to reduce by pressure the water content to an amount, e.g., 25%, desirable for most commercial purposes. methods of treatment.—ekenberg’s wet-carbonising process has been improved in details. in this process, a mixture of peat and water circulates through an arrangement of highly heated tubes; by this treatment the cell structures of the peat are broken down and the liberated water is then removed by pres- sure. in messrs. testrup, rigby and sederlund’s process (brit- ish patent specification no. 17610 of 1911), apparatus for wet- carbonising and briquetting peat is worked in association with a generator plant adapted for the recovery of ammonia. the process may be worked so that, by using some of the peat briquettes in the generator, the heat requirements of the proc- ess are met and ammonia and a surplus of gas and briquettes are obtained. in the process of dr. perkin and the bettisfeld trust co. ltd. (british specification no. 288993), the peat is macerated and transferred to a digester, which delivers it into a large cooling chamber in which the pressure on the peat is reduced suddenly; the peat is then pressed, cooled and_bri- quetted. the briquettes are hard, contain about 18°% of water and are said to yield a high quality charcoal. other proc- esses for facilitating the removal of water from peat, by pres- sure, are the repcated cutting and mixing of the peat until it is a pasty mass, like mustard (herman de meijer); grinding to a very fine state in ball or tube mills (nielsen); treating with slaked lime and removing the released water by means of cen- trifugal machines or presses (sirocco engineering co., belfast) ; and mixing with about one-third of dried peat (brune-horst process), coke dust and other substances. many successful processes for treating peat on a large scale are modifications of the old air-drying process. at the alfred peat bog, ontario, the excavated peat is transferred to the drying ground, cut into blocks and exposed to the air by me- chanical means and stored under cover. the peat at the wies- moor peat station, germany, is macerated before being spread on the drying ground. near vislanda, sweden, where the eke- lund system has been used, the peat is spread on the drying ground by an arrangement of travelling screens; the peat blocks obtained are crushed, dried and pulverised to obtain a very dry peat powder for use in locomotives. at juurkopi in finland and schwanberg in oldenburg the peat is cut into and washed into storage pits by jets of high-pressure water. this process is useful in working bogs containing trunks of trees. it has been proposed to obtain charcoal, oils, wax, ammonium sulphate and acetic acid by low temperature carbonisation of peat. dry peat has been used in gas generators at portadown, ireland. the fuel research board a'so has obtained good re- sults by using peat in glover-west vertical retorts. the power- gas corporation ltd., making use of mond generators at oren- tano in italy, in westphalia, at osnabriick in hanover and near moscow, has employed “ wet peat ” (60 to 70° water) for obtaining gas, charcoal and by-products. (sce also fuel pros- lems.) (tel) 7a peel, arthur wellesley peel, rst viscount (1829-1912), british statesman (see 21.39), died at sandy, beds., oct. 24 1912. he was succeeded by his son william robert wellesley peel (b. 1867) who, in 1916, was chairman of the committee on the detention of neutral vessels. in 1919 he was appointed under- secretary for war, in 1921 became chancellor of the duchy of lancaster, and from 1922-4 was secretary of state for india. when mr. baldwin formed his second government in nov. 1924 he was made first commissioner of works. peking (see 21.61), the capital of the chinese republic, with a population estimated at 1,181,400 in 1923, has been much improved since the revolution of 1911. the cuties of the munici- pality are carried out by the ministry of the interior, which aims at making peking a model city. a chinese self-government association was formed in 1921, to agitate for the foundation of a municipal council. the chief streets have been metalled and lighted; water, sewage and electric light systems installed; new roads made and tramways laid; and a municipal fire brigade, a central hospital, a model prison and a government industrial museum (with a factory for native handicrafts) opened. there are a number of foreign banks, and the chinese banks have made great progress in recent years; the peking bankers’ association, founded in ro9r9, opened a fine building in 1920. a wireless telephone system to tientsin was started in 1922. the reor- ganised police have recently been replaced by the military. the kalgan railway had reached paotow in 1923, but the road-bed was not completed. railway traffic conditions have been improved by the location of the termini of the lines to mukden and hankow at the reconstructed chien men, the great south gateway of the tartar city. a circular line to link up the stations, which has involved the destruction of the cur- tains of most of the gatewavs, has been built; the wall of the imperial city has been pierced in a number of places, and broad thoroughfares driven through the forbidden city. the deposed manchu emperor keeps his court in a small part of it, less than half a mile square. the three palaces have been repaired, and the temple of heaven is open to the public; roads have been made in the lovely park, barracks built and a library and mu- seum of imperial treasures opened. the national university was reorganised in 1917, and women students have been admitted since 1920. the yenching university, in temporary premises in peking, has acquired 175 ac. of land to the east of the city, and buildings were being erected as rapidly as possible in 1925. a medical school was opened at the peking union medical college in 1919. most of the recent institutions, the government offices and many banks and commercial businesses are housed in build- ings of western style; these, however, are chiefly conspicuous in the vicinity of the legations, and the gencral features of peking are little changed. the number of resident foreigners has in- creased considerably, and, although the city has not been opened to foreign trade, many business houses have been established with the tacit consent of the chinese authorities. the authority of the peking govt., though recognised by the powers, did not in 1925 in reality extend outside the capital, and many anti-foreign disturbances, including a strike of the chinese servants at the british legation, occurred. a tariff con- ference on the question of the revision of tariffs met in the city in the autumn of 1925, but was at a deadlock early in 1926, when the peking govt. was in desperate straits for lack of funds, trade was stagnant, and the city menaced by opposing armies and by threatened attacks by the canton govt. (sce china). pelletan, charles camille (1846-1915), french politi- clan and journalist (see 21.69), died june 4 rors. pelloux, luigi (1839-1924), italian general and politician (sce 21.71), died in rome oct. 26 1924. penck, albrecht (1858- ), german geographer, was born at reudnitz, near leipzig, sept. 25 1858. he studied at the university of leipzig and afterwards taught in munich. he was a professor in the university of vienna from 1885 to 1906 when he went in the same capacity to berlin. his chief work in that city was the extension of the marine museum and the geographi- cal institute of the university, of which he became director. 72 penck travelled extensively in various countries for the purpose of study and collected much valuable scientific material. his researches were particularly devoted to climatic phenomena of ancient and modern times. he made special studies in con- nection with the ice age and the formation of glaciers in the tertiary and diluvial periods, and also some outstanding con- tributions to scientific knowledge in the sphere of hydrography. before the world war he acted for a time as professor at columbia university, new york city. in the field of practical geography penck did valuable work in promoting the production of a map of the earth on a scale of 1: 1,000,000 (see map). his publications include die vergletscherung der deutschen alpen (1882); die donau (1891); morphologie der erdoberfldche, 2 vol. (1894); die alpen im eiszeitalter, with e. briickner, 3 vol. (1901-9). he also edited the g eogra phische abhandlungen, the bibliothek geographische handbiicher and the bibliothek landerkundlicher. penley, william sydney (1852-10912), british actor (see 21.99), died at st. leonards-on-sea nov. 11 1912. pennsylvania (see 21.105), a state of the united states of america. the population in 1920 was 8,720, pat an increase of 1,054,906 over 1910. the rate of increase, 13-8%, was consider- ably lower than that of the preceding decade, 21-6%. the esti- mated population in 1925 was 9,317,647. in 1920 the population of the cities of over 50,000 inhabitants was:— philadelphia . 1,823,779 pittsburgh 588,343 scranton 137,783 reading 107,784 erie 93,372 harrisburg 75,917 wilkes-barre. 73,833 allentown 73,502 johnstown 67,327. <altoona 60,331 chester . 58,030 lancaster 53,150 bethlehem 50,358 agriculture —the production of chief crops (in thousands of bushels) is shown in the following table:— 1923 iqiq 1909 wheat 24,381 23,454 21,564 maize . 58,912 . 61,450 41,494 oats 33,793 29,183 28,173 buckwheat 4,449 4,756 4,797 (3 oe ere 3,583 3,208 3,497 the production of potatoes in 1923 was 23,406,045 bu.; of apples, 11,735,320 bu.; of peaches, 1,953.700 bu.; of pears, 636,515 bushels. mineral production.—the production of coal in recent years (in thousands of net tons of 2,000 lb.) was as follows:— average average 1916-20 iq1i-5 anthracite 90,214 93;339 92,741 9,233 p?tuminous 123,530 171,880 168,532 157,229 1 estimated. the production of coke (in net tons of 2,000 ib.) was 25,625,000 in 19233 13,992,000 in 1922; 23,638,000 in 1920; 25,632,000 in iqs. manufactures.—in 1914 pennsylvania became the foremost state in the value of silk production, displacing new jersey. her 1914 production was valued at more than one-third of the national total, and the state had more than two-fifths of all the employ- ees in the industry. in nosey. manufacture pennsylvania in the same year produced 39-7% of the national quantity and 41-2% of the national value. t rer iron and steel and kindred tadustries in the period 1909-23 more than doubled the value of their out- put, that of steel works and rolling-mills rising from $500,344,000 in 1909 to $1,292,222,273 in 1923, while the output of blast fur- naces increased in value from $168,578,000 in 1909 to $377,227,- 181 in 1923. in the manufacture of tin plate, pennsylvania in 1914 had 13 establishments with 2,368 employees and an output valued at $36,795,990. in 1o109, with eight establishments only, the number of employecs had increased to 12,311 and the vaiue of the product was $115,642,300. in 1923, in all manufacturing industries combined there were in the state 19,055 establish- ments, with an average number of wage-earners of 1,095,066 and a total output valued at $7,438,600,142. pentey—pennsylvania the following table shows the figures for the more important industries in 1923, as compared with 1921:— estab- val f years| lish- wages “ ag = ments proders steel work i ae lines 1923 186 | $272,189,711 | $1,292,222,273 mills. 1921] 190 | 146,957,133 645,759,871 1923 53 20,468,325 b37 7122 7,188 blast aeruees: 1921 : 11,766,246 164,558,350 foundry and machine 1923 | 1,017 94,135,554 344,064,225 shops 1921 | 1,092 62,121,550 238,197,741 (general) silk manufac- 1923 455 45,396,927 286,073,270 tures 1921 470 42,733,610 224,195,519 steam railroad 1923 170 7 1,678,064 245,098,336 repair shops 1921 156 90,507,445 193,711,154 1923 610 46,003,198 221,183,510 | poutgeads 1921 | 614 | 35,368,629 177,149,526 | electrical mae chinery, ap- 1923 159 47,275,071 201,117,706 paratus and 1921 116 24,741,162 116,577,178 supplies | printing and — ee 1923} 685 ] 21,194,352 142,113, 747 and period- 192! 697 17,790,771 121,004,569 ical s cigars and 1923 672 26,035,626 119,665,073 cigarettes 1921 7 23,128,934 a. oe 1923 103 18,664,705 116,959,114 worsted goods 1921 iol 16,444,526 85,231,872 cars, steam railway, not built in rail- }| 1993 oa oe ee 875 ya 589, ons way repair 1921 i2 11,436,931 9,163,002 shops clothing, men's (outer 1923 524 19,039,109 100,829,552 garments | ig2l 535 15,488,576 78,422,296 pe on ee ee ee ee ; education.—two progressive steps a decade apart mark the development of the public schools. the first was the adoption of the school code of may 18 1911; the second, the enactment of what is known as the finegan programme (named after the state superintendent of public instruction) by the legislature of 1921. the school code of 1911 was virtually a codification of all the laws governing the public school system and a general unification, with many new features, of administration measures. its impor- tant sections provided for independent control of taxation and borrowing by school boards, with mintmum and maximum tax rates varying according to the size of the school district; reduc- tion of the number of members in school boards so as to simplify official business; establishment of a state board of education; es- tablishment of a state school fund, and general provisions for the better selection of text-books and for the development of higher education. the measures of 1921 (the iinegan programme) raised the standard of qualification of teachers and county superintendents; established a uniform salary schedule for teachers; increased the state aid to schools; made appropriations for normal schools so that they might be supported without tuition fees; centralised the state school administrative system by the creation of a state council of education; standardised the elementary courses in pub- lic and private schools; and required that teaching be in the eng- lish language and from texts in english. the following table shows the number of pupils and teachers employed in the years ending july 1920-3:— number of pupils number of year enrolled in public pee = hools teachers 1919-20 © 1,592,591 44,862 1920 1 1,624,915 45,435 iq2i-2 1,799,477 48,000 1922-3 1,840,766 49,843 the total expenditure, state and local, for education increased from $52,544,036 in the school year 1913-4 to $175,000,000 in pennsylvania, 1923-4. in 1924 the state appropriation for education reached $21,000,000, the largest in the history of the state, being an in- crease of $6,000,000 over that of the preceding year. finance.—the revenues of the state more than doubled from 1909 to the end of 1920. the receipts in 1909 were $28,945,210; in 1920 $62,071,293. this does not include $11,800,000 derived in 1920 from the sale of state road bonds, a fund kept separate from the regular state moneys. the treasury disbursements in the fiscal year 1920 were $74,960,112, $18,000,000 higher than 1919, the increase being due to road construction. for the year ending may 31 1924 the receipts were $103,123,948 and the ex- penditure during the same pcriod rose to $97,157,571. on june 30 1924 the total number of commercial and savings banks was 1,650, with total resources or liabilities of $5,5 26,654,000; capital, surplus and undivided profits of $924,673,000; and deposits of $3,924,883,000. of these banks, the national banks numbered 864, with total resources or liabilities of $2,756,792,000; capital, surplus and undivided profits of $411,427,000 and deposits of $1,826,986 ,000. | history.—the first two constitutional amendments of the pe- riod 1910-25, adopted in 1911 and 1913 respectively, had to do with the courts—the amendment of 1911 increasing the number in philadelphia co. and merging those in allegheny co.; the amendment of 1913 altering the judicial and municipal terms to conform with an amendment of 1900, which changed the date of the elections from feb. to november. another amendment of 1913 enabled municipalitics, except philadelphia, to embark upon the construction or acquisition of waterworks, subways, etc., even though their cost brought the indebtedness above the limit allowed; it also permitted arrangements whereby the in- terest and sinking-fund charges were paid from the principal un- til the properties should have been completed and in operation for one year. a limit of 10% of the assessed valuation of taxable property in a municipality was fixed for such indebtedness, three- fifths of the electors of the municipality having first to give their assent to the increase. on nov. 2 1915 the people voted on four proposed amendments and adopted three of them. the first and most important pre- pared the way for workmen’s compensation. the second enabled philadelphia to increase its borrowing capacity under conditions similar to those set forth in the amendment of 1913. the third enabled the general assembly to enact laws providing a system of registering, transferring, insuring and guaranteeing land titles by the state or the counties. amendments passed by the legislature in 191§ and 1917 were approved by the voters in 1918, one ena- bling the state to issue bonds to the amount of $50,000,000 for the improvement of highways, and the other enlarging philadelphia’s borrowing capacity by removing the previous restrictions which confined its increased indebtedness to the construction or acqui- sition of waterworks, subways, etc. an amendment approved at the general election in 1920 enabled the assembly to levy “ graded or progressive taxes.”’ the result of these numerous amend- ments was manifest in the session of 1919, when a bill was passed authorising the governor to appoint a commission to study the constitution with a view to general revision or to amendment by sections. the number of boards, commissions, etc., functioning under the state government was greatly increased between 1919 and 1925. the legislature in 1911 created a bureau of professional education under the state department of public instruction, its purpose being to regulate the education of physicians, dentists and pharmacists. a bureau of medical education and licensure, under the department of public instruction, was also created by act of 1911 to examine into conditions in the medical schools and conduct the examination of students applying for state licences. another important change of rg11 was the reorganisation by leg- islative enactment of the state highway dept. and the undertak- ing of an extensive system of highways to be built and main- tained entirely from state funds. in 1913 the department of labour and industry was created, with powcr to enforce the “ laws relating to the safety, health, and prosperity of employees and the industrics.”” -a workmen’s university of 74 compensation board was set up, the state was divided into dis- tricts, and the administration of compensation was carried on through referees and members of the board. a state workmen’s insurance board was created the same year for the purpose of ad- ministering the insurance fund provided in the workmen’s com- pensation act. the legislature, in 1913, also did away with the old state railway commission, substituting a public service com- mission with much greater powers. the year 1915 saw the reorganisation of the department of agriculture with the creation of a commission on agriculture to appoint all officers and employctes of the department and prepare the budgets of the department and the state livestock sanitary board. other new boards of that year were the one on vocational training under the department of public instruction; the board of censors on all motion pictures; the prison labour commission, to supervise the manufacturing industrics of inmates of penal instt- tutions; and the veterinary medical examining board. the bureau of municipalities under the department of labour and indus- try was a development of 1917, intended to classify and make available statistics and other information tending to improve the government of municipalities. in the same year five new boards were created; the state military board, which has the power to grant pensions not exceeding $12 per month to widows or minor children of national guardsmen killed on active duty; the board of pharmacy; the board of optometrical educati®n, examination of licensure; the board of commissioners on uniform state laws and the public school employees’ retirement board. the legislature of 1917 also ¢reated a commission on public safety and defence, for which was appropriated $2,000,000. it functioned during the two years of american participation in the world war, but was succeeded in 1919 by the commission on pub- lic welfare, which received an appropriation of $500,000 10 carry on the work of reconstruction and of collecting records of the state’s part in the world war. in 1919 a bureau of statistics and information was created under the state department of internal affairs, the bureau of municipalitics was transferred from the de- partment of labour and indusiry to the department of internal affairs, and a bureau of rehabilitation was created under the de- partment of labour and industry. the year 1919 witnessed the adoption of two federal amend- ments; the prohibition amendment of eb. 25 and the woman suffrage amendment on june 24. the legislature in 1921 created a welfare department, which assumed the duties of the former board of public charities, the lunacy committee, the prison [a- bour board and connected activities. in 1923 a new administra- tive code was enacted, providing for the consolidation of the ex- isting administrative agencies of the state into 12 departments, viz.: state and finance, justice, public instruction, military affairs, agriculture, forests and waters, labour and industry, health, highways, welfare property and supplies, and commerce. governors of the state between 1911 and 1925 were john k. tener (rep.), ro11-5; martin g. brumbaugh (rep.), 1915-9; william k. sproul (rep.), 1919-23; gifford pinchot (rep.), 1923-. 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