PAPACY

the year 1910 found pius x. restoring the evangelical framework of the church. after the break with france his tendency lay toward devotion, not politics. the visit of president loubet to rome led to the withdrawal of the french embassy because, france being in diplomatic relations with the papacy, president loubet ranked technically as a catholic sov- ereign and broke the papal decree concerning official visits to the italian king. a protestant king under the same circum- stances could be made welcome at the vatican. the visit of president roosevelt was a lost opportunity; friction was engi- neered by interested parties. the only catholic sovereign who visited rome was the prince of monaco in the guise of a lecturer. with the french and portuguese republics pius waged open war. he declined all compromises with french law, while the persecution in portugal evoked the encyclical jamdudum in lusitania. decrees as purely ecclesiastical as the ne temere, defining the conditions of catholic matrimony, or that regulating the anti-modernist oath, roused protest, principally in germany. both were directed against bad catholics. for protestants in good faith he maintained absolute toleration. the pope some- times seemed to see modernism in an exaggerated light, for he al pressed safeguarding measures upon dioceses innocent or ignorant of modern thought. pius had decided that modernism was pan- theism, and insisted on destruction before discussion; but by a letter to the bishop of limerick, he approved newman's works; and under the cloak of newman all modern thought, not demand- ing conclusions against tradition, finds honourable harbour. the encyclical pascendi gregis cut a few self-enginecred modern- ists from the church, like loisy and tyrrell. pius gave no quarter, and a great many loyal writers and thinkers were hermetically sealed in their own minds. it proved a sound caulking of the ark, but original exegesis disappeared with the exception of scholars like the dominican lagrange, who was protected by his order against the standards of rigorism. the encyclical editae saepe on st. charles borromeo was thought to insult german history and the princes of the reformation and received modifications. the modernists had attempted to rationalise a creed whose value and distinction lay in opposing a damascus- blind faith to the earthly working of reason. pius minded less the socialist tinge in the german centre party than the modern- ist colour in german professors. he disliked the catholic centre simply because it was political, but he made no decision between cardinals kopp and fischer concerning christian trade unions. he did not approve a catholic party in italy under a modern- ist and socialist leader like don murri, against whom catholic action was organised by lifting the non-expedit of his predeces- sors whenever the pope could help conservatism to defeat social- ism. on one principle he supported the italian govt., which he protested against on another. by allowing catholics to vote at times, he outvoted divorce law and drew personally closer to italy. the insults offered him in rome were due rather to a clique than to the people, who felt that he was italian at heart. he blessed the italian tricolor among the symbols of catholic societies, but he protested bitterly against the statue of giordano bruno and the speech of the mayor nathan. he was not political except in his measures to bring the italian catholic party and the french sillonists under episcopal control. pius not only trimmed but discarded modern philosophy and politics. his reforms in discipline and devotion installed new disciplinary engines. the diplomatic web woven by leo xitij. and the political entanglement bequeathed by pius lx. were swept aside by an unrelenting desire to reform not only the uni- versal machine and the text-books of the church, but to regu- late the writings and thought of individual catholics. however expedient a council, the pope proved more effective. he founded the biblical institute based on the bible, the whole bible and nothing but the strictest interpretation of the bible by the church. pius accepted and demanded belief in a verbal inspiration of scripture, though by entrusting a revision of the latin text to the benedictines he admitted scribal error in the vulgate. degrees in scripture were granted after serious and searching examination. ineffective seminaries were suppressed and reluctant bishops were deposed. idle priests were banished from rome. rome herself received vigorous visitation after three-quarters of a century. pius introduced a uniform cate- chism into italy and appointed a commission to codify the canon law. he required a restoration of true church music. he introduced frequent and juvenile communion, thus quenching the embers of jansenism. he by the sapient: consilio reformed the roman curia. by the commissum nobts he had abolished the veto of austria or spainin future conclaves, and buried future procedure in strict secrecy. he simplified the religious orders, establishing, for instance, the franciscan union. he upset the theory of cardinalitial posts and demanded merit alone for the sacred college. to the application for red hats he grimly re- plied that he was a tailor (sarte), not a hatter! by the decree divino afflatu pius reformed the roman bre- viarv, so that the psalter came more truly to be said weekly. the accumulation of feasts was checked, and holidays of obliga- tion were practically reduced to eight in the year, apart from sundays. the divine office was lightened and the breviary abbreviated, making it a way rather than a maze of devotion. iie developed the eucharistic congress, sending cardinal 42 legates to various countries. he interested the unites states by creating two american cardinals. france he soothed by beati- fying joan of arc and kissing the french tricolor in the presence of 67 french bishops. he was an evangelical lfildebrand and liable to the impulses and utterances of a saint. to britain pius was propitious. he sent his legatus a /afere, vanutelli, to london for the eucharistic congress of 1908. ile removed britain from the care of propaganda to the general law of the church and created the new archiioceses of liverpool and birmingham. ue sent an apostolic delegate, ceretti, to australia and raised two englishmen, bourne and gasquet, to the sacred college. in 1913 he celebrated by the encyclical magni faustique the 16th centenary of the peace of constantine, throughout 1914 he foresaw war and uttered warning of days * when class is rising against class and nation against nation.” to his secretary, merrv del val, he said prophetically: ‘ we shall not pass the fourteen.”” the war overwhelmed him and he died the day the germans entered brussels. a legend was spread that his warning letter to the austrian emperor was withheld. the truth was that the emperor asked for his blessing and the pope replied that he blessed peace—not war. election of benedict xv. the disorganisation of europe did not prevent the cardinals meeting. the policy of pius x. was upheld by the group around cardinal serafini, while the moderate group round cardinal mafhi coalesced with those who desired a diplomatic pope, and elected cardinal della chiesa, who took the name of benedict xv. the election of benedict was humanly unforeseen. ife had been appointed to bologna to suppress modernism, but he was left for seven years without a red hat, to the perplexity of historians. after 100 days’ cardinalate he was pope! his entire pontificate was occupied with efforts to bring peace or to assuage the effects of the war. in nov. 1914, in the encyclical ad beatissimi, he declared mystically that the days foretold by christ, when nation should rise against nation, had actually come to pass. the belligerents watched for hints of approval in spite of the philanthropic neutrality. excluded from the conference of the hague in 1899, the papacy was not in a position to pro- nounce upon the invasion of belgium, though any proven atroc- ity to nun or child would have met stern condemnation. he made the holy sce a bureau of charity rather than a court of justice. it may be said that a courteous diplomatist and an eru- dite lawyer went in search of peace, exploring and extolling every avenue that lent the least hope during years of world despair. benedict was impartial to the nations, but the nations were not impartial to him. he set himself in a halo of neutrality, but he referred to “‘ our beloved people of belgium,’ and appealed to the invaders not to devastate, and to the devastated not to aggra- vate their own plight. he denounced “every injustice by whatever side committed,” which gasparri amplified by specif- ically including the invasion of belgium, and the pope wrote cardinal mercier the words, ‘‘ your cause is our cause.” at the same time he complained of the treatment of catholics by the russian army in galicia. though the holy sce set great store on diplomatic action, that action tended to disappoint- ment, whereas the strictly religious policy brought a growing prestige and success. in 1914 sir edward grey sent sir henry howard, followed in 1916 by count de salis, to reopen english relations, which had officially lapsed since the reign of queen elizabeth. the apos- tolic delegate at constantinople was able to arrange for the ex- change of british prisoners and the care of british graves in the dardanelles. at constantinople benedict received the tribute of a statue erected by all communities in recognition of his efforts to save nations from each other. the pope’s war efforts may be set under: (1) the exchange of prisoners unfit for further military service. (2) liberation and exchange of detained civilians. (3) hospital treatment for sick and wounded. (4) sunday rest for prisoners of war. paragy the vatican acted, but not strenuously, when bethmann hollweg proposed a german peace at the end of 1916. cardinal gasparri urged mr. balfour not to givea tlat refusal, for the sake of neutral opinion. if the germans were called to state their terms, the terms might be moderate, and, if they were not, the moral advantage would lie with the allies. the pope told de salis that the moment did not appear suitable for making suggestions to the belligerents. at the beginning of his reign the political force of the vatican was nearly nil. without achieving spectacular success, benedict spread conviction that his was a force with which it was advisable to be on terms of approach rather than of reproach, provided that distinction was made between internal ecclesiastical policy and the outside policy. benedict’s outside policy remained a tenacious demand for peace. he proposed a conference of bellig- erents on the basis of “eliminating unjust and impossible pre- tensions.”? when italy entered the war, he blessed the italian priests called to serve, while remaining in touch with the aus- trian government. with the narrowing of communications, the pope complained that “‘ complete and precise judgment on events’? was impossible. in the dangers of universal war the holy see inclined to be indulgent, if not changeful. the un- written alliance of the italian and papal govts. was a sign of benedict’s times to be consummated by his successors. with the entry of italy a secret pact was made under sonnino by which the allies excluded the pope from discussion of the peace. this was published in 1917 by the bolshevist govern- ment. the german and austrian representatives to the vatican withdrew to lugano, but italy respected papal communications with enemy countries in spite of the averted suspicion of pro- austrianism. the disaster of caporetto was met at the vatican and the quirinal by mutual forbearance and succour. the pope declared that he looked to solve the roman problem not by for- eizn arms but by the italian sentiment of justice. still the pope remained neutral, sharing with president wilson the hope of a negotiated peace. the vatican council had been suspended before it could deal with practices of warfare. the church therefore could only offer generalities without pronounc- ing on clear cases. after the sinking of the “ lusitania” the pope protested against “ methods of attack contrary to the laws of humanity both by land and sea.” the transportation of belgians and the bombing of undefended cities were condemned, but the pope was unheard and increasingly criticised by both sides. benedict passed from exhortation to warning. it culminated in his supreme but unsuccessful bid for peace by the note of aug. 1917, when he asked with ironical despair, ‘‘ must the civilised world be reduced to a graveyard?” austria was anxious for peace, but germany offered no data. the nuncio pacelli sounded the german govt. in june. bethmann hollweg had begun to show himself sympathetic even on belgium and alsace-lorraine. in aug. the peace note was distributed. by a curious irony, george v. was asked to give copies to the french and american presidents and to the king of italy. the note caused no small stir, but it was ignored by the allies and refused by germany. the pope claimed impartiality, pleaded for disarmament and arbitration, stigmatised the war as “ use- less massacre,” since both sides recognised that ‘‘ the honour of arms is safe.’’ he proposed the evacuation of belgium and invaded france and the return of the german colonies. he added a plea for the small states. ludendorff called him a f rench pope and clemenceau a german one. the german chancellor michaclis was more hostile than the allies, to whom he left the reproof inthe declarations of wilson and lloyd george. fundamentally there was no differ- ence between the pope and the allies, except as between a ne- gotiated and a dictated peace. the note represented the measure of european exhaustion had not the united states entered the war. ‘the vatican, though represented unofficially at washington, had no means of expecting either wilson’s dec- laration of war or peace. benedict issued an encyclical con- cerning the future, whereas the pope’s terms were a protocol based on the past. wilson’s reply hushed the pope, who, deeply papacy disappointed returned to the alleviation of the victims. his con- trast will always lie with wilson. for nearly three years they personified the greatest spiritual neutrality and the greatest temporal neutrality in the world. the pope, more tenacious and consistent, was left alone in his plea for a just and durable peace to the profit of neither side. his consistence was twice impugned by interviewers and by the treason of mgr. gerlach, who helped the enemy of italy actively while himself sheltered in the vatican and was handed over to the italians by vatican officials at the bronze gates. benedict in 1915 warned the rulers, saying, ‘‘ remember that nations do not die: humbled and oppressed, they chafe under the yoke. why not from this moment weigh with serene minds the rights and lawful aspirations of the peoples?’’ it was two years before wilson, converted, was chastising the teutonic powers with the same admonition. the pope did not include the tem- poral power of the holy see among unredeemed aspirations. he reduced an irreducible claim to sovereignty to an appeal to help the holy see out of a false position. though benedict was puzzled by wilson’s volte-face, he realised that it was michaelis who brought his peace note to nought. the erzberger revela- tions showed that the pope was not met in germany on the bel- gian question with as much good will as was shown by the allies. though the peace declarations of wilson and lloyd george showed modelling on the pope’s peace note, the pope after 1918 became restrained. with the collapse of the central powers he accepted “‘ all legitimate changes in politics and territories.” neutral in the war, the pope was left neutral in the peace. that benedict had no share in the treaty of versailles proved a blessing to the vatican and was consistent with the policy which maintained that the pope would take no part in any peace dic- tated by germany or the allies. the vatican sincerely believed that only by agreement was peace possible. at versailles the pope’s unofficial representative, ceretti, was supported by england in obtaining modifications in favour of foreign missions. of the treaty of versailles, the pope showed implicit blame and justified suspicion as long as it failed of christian bases. the pope seemed almost, like cato, to favour the vanquished because they were vanquished. the germans, who had not been sympathetic to the vatican during the war, looked to the pope for help to avert the worst consequences of the peace. by the encyclical det afunus of 1920 the pope called for european re- conciliation rather as a christian family than as a mere league of nations. in the same year he celebrated the memory of st. jerome by the encyclical spiritus paraclitus. by 1921 he ccle- brated the seventh centenary of st. francis in the sacra prope- diem and the eighth of dante by the in pracclara summorum. his utterances returned to the greatness of the catholic past. though a disappointed diplomatist, he never relaxed his impar- tial benevolence. his relations with italy became so friendly that he relaxed the conditions laid down for the visits of catholic sovereigns to rome, opening the way for visits from the kings of spain and belgium. he received the ruling amcrican presi- dent and the prince of wales. like leo xiii., whose pupil rather than whose equal he was, benedict had been inclined to sacrifice irish and polish political aspirations to the importance of british and russian friendship. after the russian revolution he was quick to recognise the polish republic and to nominate a polish cardinal. he would not declare himself during the war between the complaints of the irish bishops and the british govt., but after the peace he demanded an irish settlement and beatified oliver plunkett. though france had prevented the holy see obtaining direct access to the chinese govt. instead of using the french minister, she found it no longer dignified to use the back stairs and sent her own ambassador to the vatican. when benedict succeeded, there were two embassies and twelve legations. he left his successor with seven embassies and eighteen legations. one stupendous intellectual achievement crowned his war- harassed reign, the issue of the new codex of canon law, edited by order of pius x. and promulgated by benedict under cardinal gasparri’s supervision by the bull providentissima mater in 43 1917. the original commission of five cardinals appointed in 1904 had died and been succeeded by eight others, who achieved the gigantic work of codifying the canon law of centuries under 2,414 canons, the most astounding legal tour de force ever accomplished. early in 1922 benedict died suddenly. until his archives are published his career cannot be appreciated historically, but upon his catafalque the church, which he had served in agonising days, inscribed his epitaphia thus: 1. vainly he tried by his counsels of a christian peace to put out or restrain the fire lit by the greatest of wars. he succeeded by all means in making it less calamitous. 2. ife made opportune prescriptions for the diffusion of the catholic faith. he excited the zeal of the better to help the heralds of the gospel by prayer, by alms, by action. 3. the authority of the apostolic see rising to the ascendant in public opinion, he brought almost all states to seek bonds of amity with the church. 4. admirably incarnating the charity of jesus christ, he clasped with paternal heat all the miseries of the people and comforted them by the effusion of his kindness. election of pius ni. the cardinals elected cardinal ratti, archbishop of milan, as pope, under the title of pius xi. the secrecy of the conclave was well kept, but it was obvious that neither the rigorist school of pius x. nor the diplomatic policy of benedict would be carried on, though by continuing cardinal gasparri as secretary of state the new pope created a precedent. his first act was a beau geste toward italy, for he gave the long withheld blessing of orb and urb to the saluting troops of the italian kingdom. from that moment the roman question could be described as in final solution. no pope of modern times has been so uni- versally hailed by a broken world or received such an inter- national endorsement. his first regret was that the american cardinals had arrived too late, and he extended the interval between a pope’s death and the conclave to 15 days. his life had been passed in the ambrosian and vatican libraries, with alpine holidays. interesting were such incidents as his latin speech in oxford at the celebrations of roger bacon, and his ascent of monte rosa. he has never been happier than when issuing encyclicals on great scholars like st. thomas aquinas and st. francis de sales, whom he made patron of catholic jour- nalists. his encyclical ubi arcano det was a signal for charita- ble rather than diplomatic action. the absence of italy from the nations attached by bonds of friendship to the holy see was la- mented. the alliance of the vatican and the fascist govt. has been indubitable, though the pope has declared that divine pro- vidence has not yet indicated, nor human wisdom discovered, a substitute for the old temporal power. the new conception of the papacy as one of the glories of the italian kingdom has been almost embarrassing to the vatican, which has refused to con- done outrages committed by fascists. naturally, the conquered states flocked to the protection and internationalisation afforded by the church. on the ruhr question the pope pointed out a possible equilibrium between charity to germany and justice to france that france herself could not dispute. such phenomena as german and french embassies at the vatican signified both the measure of german defeat and of french satisfaction. during 1925 the pope cele- brated a holy year of jubilee, and by receiving nearly 200,000 pilgrims in rome enabled many threads to be laid for the healing of the nations. pius xi. has remained on religious territory, making no effort to be included or consulted by the powers except when ecclesias- tical interests are at stake—the holy places, for instance. at first the vatican welcomed the british mandate in palestine preferring a sympathetic non-catholic power in the east to an anti-clerical protector like france. but the progress and priority of zionism mortified catholicism exceedingly, and the holy see turned for assistance to the league of nations. the orient has been the scene of great activity by the holy see. for centuries 44 the czar and the caliph had been inexorable enemies of the vatican. with their disappearance the new pope made instant advances. the encyclical ecclesiam det on the third centenary of st. josaphat was an appeal to the slavs. the cause of oricntal unity with the west became the pope's prepossessing desire. missions were dispatched to russia. the pope called latin at- tention to the splendour of the slavic rite, and to the conference at geneva expressed russian sympathies. with some difficulty the pope obtained from lenin the release of an archbishop from death. nor was the pope’s protest against the spoliation of the orthodox church listened to. but the most striking ecclesias- tical result of the war has been the opening of oriental europe to the latin church. the papacy undoubtedly looks forward to a period of missionary activity in the east as great as that which followed the european convulsion of the 16th century. (see also roman catholic church.) bibliography.—m. pernot, acta apostolicae sedis; la doane de pie x. (1910); p. dudon, l’action de benott xv. (1918); a. baudrillart, bonott xv. (1920); charles gallet, le pape benoit xv. et la guerre (1921): j. van den heuvel, the statesmanship of benedict x v. (1923); charles loiseau, politique romaine et sentiment francais (1923); jean carrere, le pape, trans. as the pope nto24): m. pernot, le saint siege et la politique mondiale (1924); r. cecil, a dreamer in christendom (1925); f. a. forbes, vif. of ame na (1925). l. s.s. wood, articles in the dublin review (1922-6). (s.'l.*) paper making (sce 20.727).—the production of paper in- creases part passu with population: in the period under review (1910-26) the industry has grown and there has been marked progress in scientific-technical control of its operations. the evidence of this development is the record in the form of periodical publications of the research work of chemists and engi- neers engaged in the industry, evoked and stimulated by the tech- nical socicties founded in all the leading countries of civilised activity. in great britain the paper makers’ association has constituted a technical section which publishes its “ proceed- ings”; in france a school of instruction and research has been founded at grenoble; in germany the “ verein der papier tech- niker’’ has contributed important advances, and its tech- nical publications have taken a leading position; in america the government forestry department has carried out elaborate researches, especially in the study of fibrous raw materials; in canada likewise the forest products laboratories (montreal) have worked in a systematic programme which has now resulted in the constitution of a department of the university devoted to cellulose, paper making and the related industries. notwith- standing this activity in the investigation of the first principles of the art, the period is not marked by any outstanding feature of scientific or technical novelty. beating processes—the beater and beating process are the most important factors of paper mill production. the old form and type of beating engine known as the hollander not only survives, but is still found the most efficient machine for the preparation of fibrous raw material for important classes of paper in competition with the elaborated modifications which have re- sulted from the endeavours of engineers to improve a machine recognised to be wasteful of power. the beating process is one of the most complex in manufactur- ing industry. the beater was first designed for the treatment of wastes from the textile and rope-twine spinning industries, and substitutes a continuous process for the medieval methods of reducing these wastes to “ pulp” by stamping or wet-grinding. in treating rags, cuttings and twisted wastes the beater undoes the work of the spinner and weaver, opening out the component fibres for the further reduction, operated by the special mecha- nism of the beater roll, carryingits battery of knives or bars, run- ning at high speed over a corresponding provision of bars in the bed plate of the circulating trough. there is in this work a further complex of results or effects— (1) a cutting of the fibres, i.e., reduction of length, (2) a splitting or shredding of the fibres in the length of their axis, to fragments, fibrillae of less diameter, (3) an effect known integrally as “ hy- dration ’’ by which the water is beaten into the fibre substance in such way as to facilitate its suspension in the carrying water, paper making at the high dilution required for*running on the wire of the paper machine. in modern paper making the beater preparation is applied to raw materials which are already in the form of ulti- mite component fibres—*‘ half stuffs,” as a result of previous chemical treatment of the actual raw or original material, ¢.g., wood, straw, espurto grass. for measurement of the work of the beater, in the exact terms of “ efficiency,” this is already a sim- plification, and it becomes possible to equate the expression for consumption of power to certain of the above effects which can be measured. scientific analysis —this is the basis of the mathematical treatment of the subject up to the time of s. smith’s treatise. in this treatise, which embodies several original methods of ex- perimental investigation, the author separates and separately measures (a) the cutting action from (6) the crushing action of the roll-bar bed-plate contacts. in regard to the effects of inter- nal friction of the stuff or pulp surfaces, he formulates a “ law ” in new terms, viz., that resistance to displacement along a surface or plane of the pulp or wet stuff, is proportional to the surface dimensions and independent of pressure and speed of movement. lastly he discusses the phenomenon which must be the immediate factor of the specific beating effects, that is the at- tachment of fibre to the beater bars rotating in the pulp mass and thereby brought into contact with the bars of the bed plate; as a contribution to this factor he especially treats the invisible phenomena of the beater bar cells or spaces between the bars, which are filled with the pulp mass and which is necessarily in a state of rapid rotation before and during the contact. this physi- cal mechanical effect has certainly been overlooked in previous treatises, and the author is justified in claiming attention to it and in basing certain improvements of beater construction upon iis recognition. for the attachment of the fibres in this sense the english edition adopts the expression ‘ fibrage ”’? which is convenient and self-explanatory. raw materials the addition of the wood pulps—cellulose (g¢.v.) as well as ground woods or “ mechanical” pulps to the paper makers’ supplies of raw fibrous materials, in the last century (1880-90) led to much unmethodical and indeed reckless treatment of the forest supplies of original material. under methodical] reaflores- tution (sce pforestry) equilibrium has been reached in certain countries and a continuous supply of maturing timber guaran- teed. but in view of the world’s rapidly increasing consump- tion the question of a limit of supply is raised: and alternatively the question of supply of crop material in adequate massive quantity. cotton residues—in the cotton crop and the residues of lint and short fibres remaining attached to the seed after removal of the textile cotton, there is an immense potential supply of fibre, e.g., on the united states production of seed alone, estimated at 300,000 tons. a de-linting machine invented by e. de segundo has demonstrated its efficiency, and the ‘ de-lint ” is produced in great britain by the cotton products co. in a condition of cellulose concentration or content as high as 70-80%. ‘the matter appears to have passed into a phase of arrested devel- opment in encountering difficulties beyond the technical, which it is stated, have been surmounted, and it still offers the prospect of a most important and desirable addition to our supplies (see journal r. soc. of arts, 67, 1919, pp. 184-202). flax straw —another crop material largely unutilised is the flax straw or stem of the plant from which the seed (linseed) has been removed. this waste represents an enormous tonnage and loss of its 15-20% of fibre (cellulose) of excellent paper-making quality. there have been several attempts to realise this poten- tial industrial value, but with no further result than to fully demonstrate the practicability of a well organised scheme. bamboo.—bamboo again, which is a massive growth and may be worked as a crop, has been the subject of much investigation which has resulted in industrial developments for the produc- tion of pulp. this matter also has reached a phase of arrested development. papini-—-papua papyrus.—perhaps the most massive of the vegetable growths of the world is the papyrus of the nile and other african rivers. the fibro-vascular bundles of the relatively massive stems of the papyrus break down under ordinary chemical treatment to a complex of fibres which have paper-making quality of the highest order. in several cases bulk quantities of this reed-material have been treated in english mills and worked up to papers of quite exceptional characteristics. these, however, represent merely attempts without industrial issue. operations carried out in the sudan (sudd fuel co.) and in zululand (walmer papyrus co.) have ended in failure. in the latter case, the equipment of a factory for “half stuff’? and “quarter stuff’ production was carried out on modern design; but the venture failed for other than technical reasons. the above represent potential supplies of sufficient magnitude to affect the world’s markets in raw materials. the failure to develop them industrially illustrates the exacting character of the specification of qualities and conditions to be fulfilled for acceptance among the staple raw materials of this industry. the failure in these cases is in respect of conditions rather than qualities, and the matters may be regarded as open for more mature consideration and effective handling. processes.—the separation of cellulose from non-cellulose by treatment of fibrous vegetable material with alkaline lye, the general method (a) is a chemical process of great complexity. by contrast there are two methods of resolving these plant struc- tures by chemical treatment with electronegative reagents, viz.: (6) sulphurous acid (c) elementary chlorine, which depend upon a simple quantitative reaction of synthesis with their lignone components, the main constituent of the non-cellulose admix- tures, which convert these to derivatives freely soluble and easily removed. (a) w. raitt has devised methods of fractional treatment for re- moval of the non-cellulose components of raw materials which are described in his reports on ‘‘ bamboo and indian savannah grasses,” indian forestry records, 1912-3, and invented a special digestor for the working of the processes (english patent 16488-1915). this leads to a notable simphfication of the reactions with the alkalics employed and in consequence produces a cellulose pulp of much improved colour, and economy in the consumption of alkali. (5) sulphurous acid combined in the form of a bisulphite of lime, magnesia, soda, is the reagent employed in the industrial process for obtaining wood cellulose. the process has developed from its small beginnings in 1880 to the immense industry of the present time without a clear recognition of the actual chemistry of the process. recent investigations have now established that the process depends upon clirect synthetic reaction of sulphurous acid with the lignone components of the woods. — a sulphurous acid process carries resolution to a limit but the addition of ammonia in small quantity completes the resolution to cellulose and gives a by-product liquor free from the salts which, in the proportion of the present process, are a scrious bar to the em- ployment of the concentrated by-product in various industries. this by-product is one of the colossal wastes of the industrial world amounting to millions of tons per annum, and therefore it is ob- viously one of the most serious objectives of the chemist to convert this waste to value. see j. soc. chem. ind., 1924-5, papers by c. f. cross and a. engelstad (2) and by c. dorce and l. hall (2). (c) the process of isolating cellulose quantitatively by treatment of prepared vegetable tissue with chlorine gas was brought into prominence by cross & bevan in 1880-5, and since adopted as the standard laboratory method. a french chemist-engineer, de vains, has invented and devised a comprehensive scheme with its several parts for realising this treatment as an industrial economic process. factories have been established and are working on a large scale in france, belgium, canada and the far east; results obtained especially with esparto and the cereal straws confirm the inventor’s anticipations in regard to economy and certainly yield as might be expected a cellulose pulp of higher quality than by the relatively un- controlled caustic alkali processes. the process is the subject of descriptive papers by j. strachan in the paper trade review, 1923-4. brsliograpity.—c. f. cross and e. j. bevan, yext-book of paper making, 5th ed. (1920); e. sutermeister, chemistry of pulp and paper making (1920); the manufacture of pulp and paper, prepared under the direction of the joint i¢xecutive committee on vocational education, n.y. (5 vol., 1921-5); sigurd smith, the action of the beater, paper makers’ association of great britain (1925); g. clapperton, practical paper making, 3rd. ed. (1926), (c. f.c.) papini, giovanni (1881- ), italian author, was born in florence jan. 9 1881, and took to literature at an early age. he 45 contributed to many reviews and founded two new ones, leo- nardo (1902) and lacerba (1913) and wasalso joint editor of la voce in 1912, at a time when that journal gathered around it many of the most brilliant and original young italian writers of the day. he was professedly an iconoclast, and in a volume entitled stronca- ‘ure (1917) he demolished many established reputations. among his many works are several volumes of essays and criticism— la paga del sabato, l’uomo carducci (1918), il crepuscelo dei filosofi (1906), and two novels un uomo finito (1922) and parole e sangue (1921). his poetical output includes cento pagine di poesia (1920), opera prima, giorni di festa (1920). subsequently he surprised his readers by casting off his caustically sceptical and critical attitude and evolving into a mystic, with his storia di cristo (1921), a book which achieved immense success through- out italy and abroad. see e. fabri, papini come scrittore (1921) and r. fondi, un con- struttore: papini (1922). papua (sce britisi new guinea, 19.489), a territory of the australian commonwealth. the area, including surrounding islands, 1s 90,540 sq. miles. papua occupies that part of new guinea lying between the extreme limits of 5° and 12° s. and 141° and 155° east. the white population in 1924 numbered 1,276 and the estimated native population 275,000. production.—the physical features of papua are favourable to agriculture. rich soils at varying elevations, and heavy and evenly distributed rainfall, have ensured success in the cultiva- tion of almost every tropical product. the system of land tenure is leasehold; no freehold is granted. the government buys from the natives and leases to planters. the area held by the crown in 1924 was 800,712 ac.; the area held under lease was 190,124 ac., as compared with 218,950 ac. in 1919 and 290,936 ac. in 1913. in tor3 there were 216 plantations, principally coconut, witha total area of 35,363 acres. in 1923 the plantations numbered 260, area 60,863 ac.; 46,798 ac. were under coconuts, 7,481 ac. under rubber, and 5,849 ac. under hemp, while other tropical products such as cotton, rice, coffee, tea, cacao, vanilla, tobacco and cinnamon were also grown. in 1924, 7,315 tons of copra and 304 tons of rubber were produced. it was estimated in 1917 that over £1,000,000 had been expended in plantations. an act was passed early in 1926 by the commonwealth govt. granting bounties on the production of certain papuan products, and at the same time a tariff preference was granted to these products imported into australia. in sept. 1925 the coastal provisions of the australian navigation act, in so far as they were applicable to the territory of papua, were suspended. mincrals—minerals have been found over a wide range of country, and include copper, gold, tin, lead, zinc and osmiridium. the yield of gold in 1923-4, valued at £6,702 was the lowest recorded since 1895; in 1921-2 the value was £68,726. in 1924 the first copper smelters were erected. the ore rescrves were then estimated at 290,000 tons containing 13,300 tons of copper and 36,250 oz. of gold. the existence of petroleum has also been traced. exploitation of the oil-fields by private individuals or companies was not permitted before 1923. pearl-shell fishing is important: in 1923-4, £6,120 worth of pearl and trochus shell were exported, but returns are mostly credited to queensland whose boundary comes within a few miles of the papuan coast. native labour.—the supply of native labour presents consider- able difficulties. the population is scanty and the natives are peasant proprietors with land of their own sufficient to supply their simple wants. under the native labour ordinances the rights of both employer and employee are preserved. service on the part of the native is voluntary and he must be justly treated and properly fed. employers may recruit personally or obtain their natives through a licensed recruiter. the number engaged under contract of service during the year ended june 30 1924, was 7,578. under the native taxes ordinance, 1918, a tax not exceeding £1 may be imposed on natives. the proceeds of tax must be expended on education or on purposes directly bene- fiting the natives. the taxes collected in 1923-4 totalled £16,410. the revenue in 1923-4 amounted to £77,150, exclusive of the 46 commonwealth govt. grant of £50,000 per annum, and the expenditure £131,640. most of the plantations are close to the coast, and com- munication is by sea. there are some 240 m. of roads. port moresby is the seat of government and chief port. a three- weekly steamship service, subsidised by the commonwealth govt. for the carriage of mails, is in operation between tort moresby, samarai and sydney. (see australia.) parachutes.—in 109024 parachutes were recognised as a part of the standard flying equipment for use with aeroplanes. the use of parachutes with large, dirigible airships is usually optional, the crews of such craft often preferring to run risks without them to the trouble of carrying them strapped to their bodies. the development of a parachute that could be used in acroplanes was inevitable. as flying in- creased, so did accidents. when an aeroplane is disabled in the air through collision, fire or failure of the control cables, an avi- ator can seldom save him- self except by parachute. during the last days of the world war in 1918, german aviators jumped from their machines when the gas tanks were set on fire or the controls cut in combat, but after the war little was done to complete the use of para- chutes until about the year 1921. at this time british and american aviators began working upon a parachute that could be carried conveni- ently by a pilot. it was obvious that the old style balloon parachutes were too cumbersome to carry in aeroplanes. in 1923 the u.s. army air serv- ice developed a seat pack type parachute that was generally recognised the following year as standard and practically 100% efficient. more than 1,500 experimental jumps were made in achieving perfection. the standard parachute-—the standard aeroplane parachute is folded into a compact pack about the size of an ordinary chair cushion, but about twice as thick. it is worn strapped upon the body with the pack in place beneath the buttock of the wearer and it becomes the cushion when the aviator takes his seat in an acroplane. thus, the regular cushion in aeroplane cockpits is generally omitted. the pack weighs approximately 18 pounds. it is made of carefully chosen untreated silk; the untreated silk is used because it does not become creased so easily as the finished material. when open, the parachute is 24 ft. in diameter. the shroud lines are made from high-grade thrown silk and consist of not less than 32 threads of 3-ply, each with a breaking strength of not less than 400 pounds. the main parachute is pulled from its case by a smaller “ pilot chute,” about 3 ft. in diameter, which operates by spring when the aviator pulls the “ rip cord ” that holds the pack closed. in jumping from acroplanes, aviators do not pull the rip cord immediately, but wait two or three seconds until clear of the machine. the parachute descends at the rate of 16 to 20 ft. per sec., depending upon the weight of the wearer and density fic, 1. the right hand is upon the rip cord ring. by pulling this ring from its pocket and across the abdomen the pack is opened and the small pilot parachute icaps out by a spring and in turn pulis the main parachute out. airman wearing parachute. parachutes—paraguay of the air. this is equivalent to jumping from a height of 7 ft. without a parachute. each parachute is tested to withstand an operation of 200 lb., falling at the rate of 400 m. an hour. the lowest height at which a parachute will open is probably not less than 150 ft., although a few forced jumps have been tan 7 dy es ay, fs fic. 2.—a normal parachute jump. made at slightly lower altitudes. the lowest altitude consid- cred safe is 250 {t., although the higher the jumper is, the better are his chances, because sometimes delayed openings occur. jumps have been made from aeroplanes as high as 25,000 fect. an aviator usually pulls the rip cord and releases his parachute within a few scconds after leaving an acroplane, but openings have been purposely delayed for experimental reasons while a jumper fell for about 1,500 feet. the first parachute jump ever made from an aeroplane was made by captain berry near st. louis, mo., u.s.a., in 1g12. this jump was made with an old style balloon parachute, but, as stated previously, the old types of parachutes were too hazardous for acroplane use and very few jumps were made from aeroplanes until the development of the standard aviators’ parachute. parachute flare—a parachute flare contains illuminating chemicals attached to a small parachute, which, when ignited and dropped from an aircraft, will descend slowly and light up the country side for many miles. parachute flares are used for military purposes to discover night movements of enemy troops by aerial observers; by aviators to locate landing fields at night and guide the approach to the carth and to take night photo- graphs. (c. mcd.) paraguay (see 20.756), a republic of south america and a member of the league of nations. its area is 161,000 sq. m., and in addition the disputed chaco territory covers an area of about 100,000 square miles. the estimated population (1925) is j,000,000, in addition to about 50,000 guarani and chaco indians. parasitology estimated population of asuncien, the capital, in 1925 was 101,790; villarica 30,000; concepcien 25,000. paraguay remained neutral during the european war, but after the united states de- clared war on germany the government maintained a pro-ally attitude and dismissed some of its german employces. political history.—dr. manuel gondra, inaugurated as presi- dent in jan. 1911, held office for a very brief period. a succession of revolutions caused him to be followed by four provisional pres- idents whose terms of office were of the briefest: col. albino jura, jan—july rort; dr. liberato m. rojas, july rg11-feb. 1912; dr, pedro pefia, feb-—march ro912; dr. emiliano gonzie lez navero, march-aug. 1912. dr. eduardo schaerer, who as- sumed office on aug. 15 1912, was the first president since 1870 to complete his term of office. he was succeeded in aug. 1916 by dr. manuel franco, under whose administration paraguay’s finances attained a sound position and the meat-packing industry reached a hich point of development. dr. franco died on june 3 1919, and the remainder of his term was filled by dr. jose p. montero until aug. 1920, when manuel gondra was elected to a second term having been elected while minister to the united states. gondra was forced to resign in nov. 1921 under pressvre of threatened revolts. the subsequent provisional presidency of eusebio ayala, which was disturbed by political and personal difhculties, terminated in july 1923, when eligio ayala was elected president, inaugurating the most prosperous administration in the history of paraguay. the unsatisfactory character of the world market for paraguay’s produce in 1921 had precipitated an economic crisis. the government had defaulted in payments on the foreign debt, and an american financial adviser had been called in. under ayala’s administration the fiscal year 1924 closed with a surplus in the treasury equivalent to $700,000, and in sept. of that year an agreement, since scrupulously ob- served, was signed for the settlement of that part of the foreign debt held in london. in 1913 direct diplomatic relations were resumed with the united states, after an interruption of eight years, and a united states minister was accredited specially to paraguay. an extra- dition treaty with the united states was signed on july 30 1913. education.—education is nominally compulsory in paraguay, but at least 60°) of the inhabitants are illiterate largely owing to lack of schools. an attempt at educational progress was made by president franco in 1916-9. in 1919 there were 80,000 pupils en- rolled on the school registers. in 1923 the total number of pupils attending the 1,204 government primary schools was 70,820; 2,089 pupils were attending the 31 private schools, and 800 the three national colleges at asuncien, vilar and villarica. the colegio in- ternacional, a united states missionary institution and the largest educational establishment in paraguay, was opened at asuncion in 1920. finance.—the budget estimates for the fiscal year 1923-4 pro- vided for a revenue of 945,129 gold pesos and 104,488,950 paper pesos. expenditure was estimated at 1,387,506 gold pesos and 113,534,896 paper pesos, the estimated deficit being 442,377 gold pesos and 9,045,946 paper pesos. actual returns were, revenue 1,158,138 gold pesos and 142,346,867 paper pesos; actual expendt- ture was 1,232,224 gold pesos and 108,474,546 paper pesos. there was thus a deficit of 74,086 gold pesos and a surplus of 33,872,321 paper currency. the budget estimates approved for the financial year 1925-6 provided for a revenue of 1,250,330 gold pesos and 174,484,264 paper pesos. the estimated expenditure was 1,476,823 gold pesos and 164,766,277 paper pesos. production and industry,—vhe cultivation of cotton is one of the growing industries of paraguay, the quantity of ginned cotton for export having increased from 567 tons in 1922 to 2,653 tons in 1924. the expansion of cotton growing has stimulated the demand for agricultural implements. yerba mate, or paraguay tea, gathered in the virgin forests, is one of the chief articles of export, the quantity exported having increased from 6,908 tons in 1924 to 5,703 for the first six months of 1925. under governmental encouragement the meat-packing and curing industry has arrived at a prosperous condition, ilides exported during the first six months of 1925 ex- ceeded those exported for the whole year 1921. sugar has declined, the production falling from 5,230 tons in 1920 to 2,400 tons in 1922. ‘tobacco reached its highest point of production in 1923 when 8,151 metric tons were exported. the chief exports in 1920 were timber and forest products $6,581,218; agricultural products $4,486,166; and animal products $2,905,610. the chief imports were textiles $3,485,714; machinery and hardware $3,408,392; grocerics and kerosene $2,002,346. total imports in 1923 were $8,314,084; in 1920 $12,724,949; and in 1910 $6,252,480, total exports in 1923 47 were $12,097,409; in 1920 $14,510,400 and in 1910 $4,789,065. i[m- ports in 1923 were chiefly from argentina, $2,859,520, the united ixingdom, $1,899,609 and the united states $1,305,897. exports in 1923 were, chictly to argentina, $9,139,326; the united states, $1,503,311; and uruguay, $796,347. communications —on oct. 3 1913 direct rail communication was established between asunci6n and buenos aires. this has done much to lessen the isolation of paraguay. the paraguay central railway company has about 274 m. of track. the gauge of its main track, 232 m., was changed from 35} ft. to 4 ft. 85 in. in i9i0 to con- form to that of the argentine railways. during the year 1923, 2,046 steam vessels of an aggregate tonnage of 221,488 tons entered the port of asuncien; during the same year 2,061 steam vessels of an aggregate tonnage of 226,020 tons were cleared from the port. banking.--on june 30 1925 a branch of the german bank of south america (deutsch-stidamerikanische bank, aktiengesellschaft) was opened at asuncien. a branch of the bank of london and south america was opened early in 1920. bisliograrity.—report of the council of the corporation of foreign bondholders (london, annual, 1873, etc.); a. k. macdonald, pre- turesque paraguay (1911); a. de belmont, situacion internacional del paraguay (asuncion, 1912); w. h. koebel, paraguay (1917); department of overseas trade, annual series (1919, etc.); w. l. schurz, paraguay: a commercial handbook (washington, 1920); w. b. parker, paraguayans of to-day. hispanic notes and mono- graphs. hispanic-american series, vol. 6, pp. 317 (1921); j. w. hills andl 1. dunbar, zhe golden river. sport and travel in paraguay (1922). (ce)