{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:orinoco:650a27002308", "title": "ORINOCO", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "3da24d2c7edb0400c6d22b11c12f94e7c0d02055840b97aec917f6d234178edb", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "-during the 15 or 20 years ending in 1926 economic conditions in the region of the orinoco and its tributaries have passed through three states: normal, depressed during the world war years and a subsequent revival. the im- proved conditions are largely caused by europe’s renewed de- mands for raw materials. ciudad bolivar (pop. 20,000), the metropolis of the region, has extended modern sanitation and improved health conditions, paved some streets, installed elec- tricity, initiated motor-car service, extended telegraph and telephones and constructed some modern homes. beer, ice, candles, macaroni, lumber, fishing and mining are local and regional industries. cattle business, largely north of the orinoco and apure rivers, is expanding, and estimates place the number of head at several million, british interests in the san fernando region are active in breeding and shipping to port of spain for slaughter and re-export. ciudad bolivar is increasing the export of hides; tonka-bean shipments range from 70,000 to 600,000 pounds yearly; exports of egret feathers to france and of balata largely to england are increasing. ‘the indications of petroleum in the orinoco delta are promising. german, british, french and american companies, in the order given, represent forcign investments. there is some gold mining and much prospecting is carried on in the region. orlando—orthodox eastern churches orlando, vittorio emanuele (1860- ), italian politician and jurist, was born at palermo march 19 1860. becoming a barrister and a law professor, he was first elected deputy for partinico in sicily in 1898. he was minister of education in the giolitti-tittoni cabinet of 1903-5, and of justice in the giolitti cabinet of 1907-9, and again under salandra in nov. ror4. although a giolittian at heart, he was in favour of italian intervention in the world war. on the resignation of the salandra cabinet in june 1916 he remained in office under bosclli as minister of the interior, and when the latter resigned orlando was entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet. after the armistice he went to paris as president of the italian peace delegation. when president wilson launched his appeal on fiume to the italian people over the heads of their delegates, he returned to rome, where he was triumphantly re- ceived, but after his return to paris without the guarantees he was supposed to have secured, and without obtaining any satisfactory solution of the adriatic problem, the chamber voted against him and he resigned on june rg r1g19. | on dec. 2 ro19 he was elected president of the chamber. he at first supported fascism and the mussolini govt. and was re-elected deputy in 1924 on the government list; but after the matteotti affair he withdrew his support, without, however, abandoning the chamber. at the municipal elections of palermo in aug. 1925 he mobilised all his adherents in favour of the anti-fascist list but upon the subsequent triumph of the fascists sig. orlando retired from parliament. orleans, louis philippe robert, dwuke of (1869-1926) (see 20.285), died at palermo march 28 1926. orpen, sir william newenham montague (:878- vs british painter, was born at stillorgan, county dublin, nov. 27 1878 and studied at the dublin metropolitan school of art and at the slade school, london. he was elected a.r.a. in 1910 and r.a. in ror1g. he first exhibited at the new english art club, of which he became a member in 1900, his early work being marked by preoccupation with spacing and silhouette and the use of quiet harmonies of grey and brown, with a note of vivid red or blue. he soon turned to the use of bright colour and the study of light, seen in a series of brilliant portrait interiors such as the “hon. percy wyndham ” (1907), “ myself and venus ” (ro10, now in pittsburgh gallery, u.s.a.). about this time he became well known for his vigorously characterised portraits. during the world war orpen received an appointment as official artist and in 1918 an exhibition of his war pictures was held in london. many of these are now in the imperial war museum. he was created k.b.e. in 1918. he wrote ai onlooker in prance (1921) and stories of old ircland and myself (1924). orthodox eastern churches (sce 20.333).—as regards the ecclesiastical position in the near east, this article deals only with the “ orthodox ” churches—an adjective used in its technical sense, and having here no bearing on the question of right or wrong belief—and not with the uniats (the churches which acknowledge the roman obedience but keep their own rites), or with the separated churces of the east—the armen- ians, nestorians, jacobites and copts. it is necessarily depend- ent on literature of a fugitive nature, such as magazines and newspapers, and on the observation of recent travellers. one preliminary remark, which throws light on many of the prob- lems to be discussed, must be made. a marked feature of ortho- dox christianity is that political independence has usually led to ecclesiastical independence. this is a fact of great importance. tue position before the war position at the outbreak of war.—russia, with georgia, is reck- oned to have had nearly 100,000,000 slavonic orthodox.' georgia, an exarchate once independent, was gradually being russian- ised; the cxarch was a russian and an ex officie member of the russian holy synod since r8o0r, while his suffragan bishops were georgians. the effects of tsarism on the russian church have been described by a learned observer as not good.2 “ under the 1 hastings, encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, 10. 875. 2 prof. ageiev in the christian east, 1920, 1. 15. ti33 guise of protecting the church, the state in reality had enslaved it.””. the church was, he continues, in a state of paralysis, and the russian educated classes were estranged from it. the orthodox church in turkey (greek), under the ecu- menical patriarch, archbishop of constantinople— often erro- neously in the west callecl the patriarch of constantinople—is believed to have numbered 2,500,000 in europe—counting in those transferred to the kingdom of hellasin 19g12—and 2,000,000 in asia minor and the islands.2 in greece proper, where the autocephalous position of the church was recognised by the ecumenical patriarch in 1850, there were about 2,000,000 ortho- dox (ih.) in the austro-hungarian empire there were several orthodox churches, chietly slavonic, with some 3,000,000 souls: ‘the karlowitz serbian church; those of dalmatia and cattaro, joined to the ruthenian bukowina, though far distant from it; of bosnia and hercegovina; of transylvania; and a certain num- ber of orthodox scattered in various districts. the bulgarian church was made autocephalous by the sultan in 1876, when the bulgarian exarch resided in constantinople; but the ecu- menical patriarch did not recognise its independence. it num- bered about 4,000,000. in rumania the old church of okhrida was suppressed in 1767, and the orthodox then became subject to the ecumenical patriarch till recent times. they numbered about 4,500,000. the same state of things obtained in serbia (1,500,000), where the old church of ipek was suppressed in 1766. the little church of montenegro (about 200,000 souls) was made independent in 1766 and governed by a metropolitan who -had one suffragan bishop. (note that in some of the separated churches of the east the metropolitans have no suffragans.) in addition there were the orthodox in the patriarchate of anti- och, that of jerusalem, that of alexandria, cyprus, autocepha- lous since 431, and the monastery of mount sinai, autocephalous since 1575, the archbishop of which usually resides in egypt the posiition after the war the alterations in the boundaries of the various states have necessarily had a great effect on the church. but a much greater cffect has been produced b~ the internal convulsions in russia and turkey. russia has lost poland and the baltic provinces; but this has not affected the orthodox church to a very great extent, as the bulk of the population was of other faiths. poland has still 3,000,000 orthodox; lithuania has 23,000 orthodox and 35,000 “old believers; ”? czechoslovakia has very few orthodox, 90° of the population being roman catholics or uniats.& in russia proper and in georgia the effect has been most dis- astrous. at first the revolution promised well for the orthodox. a holy synod of 12 bishops and a council of bishops, priests and laymen were established in 1917; the office of chief procu- rator—a layman who had represented the tsar, and who wielded very great powers—was abolished; the patriarchate, discontinued by peter the great since 1700, was revived (nov. 1 1917) in the person of tikhon, patriarch of moscow and all russia, who was enthroned on dec. 4 1917. but the bolshevist regime dashed all the hopes of the church. the new rulers set themselves to oppose christianity in all its forms. the patriarch was imprisoned, and only liberated, owing to the general expres- sion of civilised public opinion, after a long incarceration, in may 1923. all teaching of religion in public schools was forbidden; par- ents were not allowed to teach their children religion; only can- didates for the priesthood, if over 18 years of age, might learn theology. no minister of religion could enjoy full civil rights. no religious association could hold property, and all property of existing religious associations was confiscated to the state, * encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, 6. 429. * encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, 6. 431. ‘the new frontiers, as far as they are fixed, may be seen in the royal geographical society's journal, 53. 370, 54. 188, 55. 160, 65. go. § goodwill, pp. 135-139. 1134 which might at its pleasure lend buildings for religious worship. monasteries were to be converted to useful purposes.! a great persecution of the orthodox has broken out, and ac- cording to the official figures, within a period of less than two years, 1,275 bishops (and priests?) and 6,775 other persons have been executed for their religion.2, most of the remaining bishops who have not escaped from russia have been interned in or about moscow, or in monasteries in the far north. and the only organisation that has been found possible is a synod of 15 russian bishops which holds its sessions outside russia, at bel- grade. the patriarch tikhon died in 1925, and a makeshift for the patriarchate has been devised in the shape of a locum tenens. the passive resistance of the russian peasantry has been the great obstacle to the government’s endeavour to suppress christianity, and the so-called reformed russian church, a body encouraged by the sovict power, has so far been a failure for the same reason. in georgia, the church is in as great con- fusion as in russia; since the first revolution the tendency has been towards independence in ecclesiastical matters. the ecumenical patriarchate—post-war turkey, with its curtailed frontiers, has as its aim the creation of an entirely moslem state; and among other things the turkish govt. desires the abolition of the ecumenical patriarchate. but the european powers, while restoring constantinople to turkey, prevented this, and at lausanne the turkish delegates made a formal declaration of their government that the patriarchate would be allowed to continue. yet, as faras turkey is concerned, the patriarchate is little more than “‘ the shadow of a shade.” by the treaty of lausanne all greek orthodox residents in con- stantinople before oct. 30 1918 are exempt from expulsion. all- other greeks in turkey, however, are liable to expulsion, and those in asia minor have been settled in the new greece and elsewhere, in many cases in exchange for moslems. only turkish subjects can be metropolitans in turkey, and therefore the episcopate has to be recruited from the comparatively few greek residents in constantinople. outside modern ‘turkey the ecu- menical patriarch, not the metropolitan of athens, has jurisdic- tion in macedonia, western thrace, epirus, crete and the aegean islands, and this is an exception to the rule about ecclesi- astical independence mentioned above.* yugoslavia, called in the treaties the serb-croat-slovene state, is now re-organising its church, which includes the former serbian church, the karlowitz serbian church, that of dalmatia and cattaro, that of bosnia and hercegovina (these three for- merly in austro-hungary) and montenegro. during the great war many serbians were in england; over 600 refugees, young ordinands, were there instructed and prepared for the orthodox priesthood under serbian priests.5. many others were in france, engaged in secular pursuits, and in other countries. this will be a convenient place to remark on the changed ecclesiastical con- ditions in both yugoslavia and rumania. before the war ru- mania and serbia were inhabited practically by orthodox alone. but the enlarged boundaries have brought in many roman catholics and lutherans, and this has complicated the problem of national religions. the former idea of one country, one church, has to be given up, and religion and politics cannot have the same close connection that they had before. moreover, the greatest hindrance to the reorganisation of the orthodox church in the balkans and in rumania is the exaggerated national feel- ing and jealousy of each country against the others. this jeal- ousy is much more felt between the different branches of ortho- doxy than between them and the roman catholics or lutherans.§ rumania—to the former rumanian church, with its two metropolitans, is now added the transylvanian church (for- 1the translation of an official summary of soviet legislation against religion is given in the church times, oct. 30 1925. 2 church times, nov. 20 1925. 8 june 10 1923. 4see an informative series of four articles on the orthodox churches by dr. greig, bishop of gibraltar in theology, 10-11, march, april, july, aug. 1925. 5 the christian east, 48.1, §1. f, 54. 6 greig in theology, 11. 8, 66. orthopaedic surgery merly in h[iungary), with its metropolitan at hermannstadt, and suffragan bishops at arad and kazansebes; and also the churches of bukowina and bessarabia. vhe united church now numbers some 11,000,000, out of a total population of about i 2,500,000.7 greater greece.—the old metropolitanate of athens has not been greatly affected. for macedonia, etc., see above; but it is hard to see how the ecumenical patriarch in constantinople can under the changed conditions exercise an effective supervision over these districts. salonika has now become once more a christian city, and the mosques which had originally been christian churches have now been restored to orthodox worship. bulgaria has lost the aegean coast to greece, and part of the dobruja to rumania. otherwise the church has not been much wffected. it has, by the official census of 1920, about 4,000,000 members, almost all of bulgarian nationality, out of a total popu- lation of nearly 5,000,000, of whom about 700,000 are moslems, chiefly turks.8 | we now pass to the smaller communities in asia and africa which were once under turkish rule. the orthodox patriarchate of jerusalem, now under british mandate, consists of about 30,000 arab and greek christians and a few russians. the chief obstacles to progress are the jealousies between arabs and grecks, and the financial difficulties of the monasteries. ‘there is now no orthodox theological seminary in palestine. the orthodox patriarchate of antioch, now under french mandate, suffers from the same difficulties as that of jerusalem. it has some 300,000 members. the orthodox (‘‘ melkite ’’) patriarch of alexandria has only a small following of about 100,- ooo, as has been the case since the monophysite schism in the sth century. under him is the archbishop of nubia. the auto- cephalous churches of cyprus (with about 200,000 orthodox) and mount sinai have not been greatly affected by the war. (a. j. m.) orthopaedic surgery.— the influence of the war upon the practice of orthopaedic surgery is related to organisation, and to lessons learnt in technique from the handling of large groups of cases. efficiency at the front and at the hospitals in england was attained only when segregation of various types of injury became established. the treatment of fractures during the early part of the war was attended not only by unnecessary deformity, but also by a high mortality, and remained unsatis- factory until special hospitals were started, manned by teams of expert surgeons. in compound fractures of the femur an initial mortality of 80°% was ultimately reduced to 25°%. this dramatic change was accomplished by immediate reduction and fixation of the fracture, by segregation and by continuity of treatment both at the seat of war and at home. knowledge thus gained has formed the basis of the efforts to place the organisation and teaching of fractures upon a different basis with a view to mini- mising the disabilities of industrial accidents. reform lies in the simplification of apparatus, and in an intensive education in their application, in segregation of fractures in special wards and in appointing surgeons with special qualifications to teach the student. technique-—the world war supplied us with exceptional opportunities of acquiring an improved technique in certain re- constructive operations which have an important bearing upon civil surgery. amongst these stand prominently injuries to the peripheral nerves, tendon transplantations, bone grafting and bone infections. the enormous number of complete nerve lacera- tions enabled a finished operative technique to be built up, which was largely wanting before the war. many misconceptions were corrected, such as the worthlessness of complete transplants of nervous or other tissue to bridge gaps in peripheral nerves, and the doubtful value of lateral nerve anastomosis. in cases of irreparable destruction to nerves, healthy muscles were trans- posed to take the place of paralysed ones. these operations proved singularly successful where large tracts of the musculo- spinal nerve were irreparably damaged. 7 goodwill, p. 114 ff. 8 goodwill, p. 127. ortzen—osaka © certain flexor muscles of the forearm were attached in such a way that extension of the wrist and fingers became assured. bone graft surgery received a great impetus during the war and has since been extended. this has led to considerable research on the viability of transplanted tissue, and in the case of the bone it is held that the transplant is a scaffold along which the fresh bonelaying cells creep from the embracing bone and deposit new bone, the scaffolding itself being ultimately removed by absorp- tion. war experiences have permanently affected the treatment of virulent infections. the carrel-dakin method has perma- nently established itself as well as the procedure of laying open infected bone cavities so that the soft tissues fall in easily to obliterate the gap when the infection is at an end. care of cripples.—the most notable advance in orthopaedic surgery following the war is in the organisation for the care and cure of cripples. this consists in the establishment of well- equipped open-air hospitals in various parts of great britain, known as hospital schools, fully staffed by surgeons specially trained to deal with deformities of every kind. these schools provide treatment and education for the cripple, and are asso- ciated with what are known as after-care clinics situated in small towns covering an area of from 40 to 50 m. distant from the hos- pital in every direction. these after-care clinics are visited by the hospital staff at stated times, and are attended by out- patients who have been inmates of the hospital school, and by cases from the district, who are often seen at a sufliciently early date to prevent deformities from arising. these hospitals and clinics are run in close association and agreement with the local practitioners, the education authoritics and the ministry of health. this scheme, in association with preventive measures, promises practically to eliminate the cripple. its aims are to se- cure the potential cripple at the earliest moment, to give him expert institutional treatment in fresh air and sunlight and to secure continuity of treatment until recovery is complete. artificial light—of{ the special advances in knowledge that have taken place since the war, the evolution of the artificial light treatment as an auxiliary form of therapeutics for tuber- culosis of bones and joints and of rickets may be instanced. the work of rollier, leonard hill and others has given prominence to the therapeutic value of sunlight (see heliotherapy), and in the absence of sun extended observation favours the conclusion that we have in various forms of artificial light a promising sub- stitute. this treatment, as in the case of heliotherapy, must be - looked upon merely as an accessory measure in surgical tuber- culosis. it is most effective when used in combination with other surgical procedures. it should be pointed out that there is grave danger in spreading a belief that other forms of treatment are unnecessary and subsidiary. infantile paralysis.—the serious epidemic of infantile paraly- sis has resulted in a more widespread knowledge of the early symptomatology and important work has been done, especially by the late prof. lovett of harvard from 1916 onwards. it has now been proved that complete rest and immobilisation and the elimination of meddlesome therapeutics have resulted in lessen- ing the severity of symptoms by limiting the paralysis. the mass of material rendered available by these epidemics has thrown new light on the actual treatment of deformity. tendon trans- plantations for various deformities of the feet have given place to operative stabilisation of the flail foot, and transplantations when practised are now associated with reconstructive opera- tions upon bone. this combination has resulted in more satis- factory function. | rickets.—rickets and allied nutritional diseases, largely as a result of starvation diets during the war, have received close investigation by many observers abroad and at home. consid- erable work on the aetiology, particularly with reference to diet, exercise and sunlight, has been carried out at johns hopkins hospital, the lister institute and by findlay of glasgow, mell- anby and chick. much has been discovered regarding ‘‘ vita- mines” or “ accessory food factors”’ (see vitamines). the report of the research committee provisionally deals with only two varieties; one known as vitamine a, or fat soluble a, 1135 and the other as anti-rachitic vitamine. both are essential to the diet of growing animals. defect in the one leads to arrest of growth and loss of weight; in the other a deficiency in the de- posit of lime salts. the committee conclude that an anti-rachitic vitamine is a central factor in the prevention of rickets; and that a deficiency of calcium and phosphorous, in conjunction with a deficiency of anti-rachitic vitamine, hastens rickets. the greater the discrepancy in the calcium phosphorus intake the greater need for an appropriate anti-rachitic intake. it has now been proved that sunlight and ultra-violet rays act as an antidote toa deficiency diet, and can ward off the on-coming of rickets. this work has added considerably to the knowledge of orthopaedic surgeons, and has rendered unnecessary a good deal of the opera- tive treatment for rachitic deformities. spinal treatment.—the writings of hibbs, calve, girdlestone and waldenstrom have enabled us to place in accurate perspec- tive the bony fixation of the vertebral column in tubercular dis- ease of the spine. forcible correction and fixation of the spine in lateral curvature is being abandoned in favour of less drastic measures, and bony fixation of the flail spine in paralytic cases is being performed with promising results. other operations—operative treatment in osteoarthritis, especially in the non-articular type, is being more widely prac- tised. this consists in stabilising the joint by exercising the joint surfaces and in the complete removal of diseased synovial membrane in the knee joints. the so-called operations of arthroplasty, or mobilisation in ankylosis of joints is becoming more common, and the results more encouraging. they main- ly consist of the loosening and reconstruction of the bone ends, and the introduction of transplanted or living tissue between the bone ends to secure movement. the treatment of fractures of the neck of the femur by wide abduction of the limb with internal rotation have been still further perfected by royal whitman of new york, and a large percentage of recoveries in this obstinate type of fracture occur- ring in old age is reported. the pathology of the rarer bone dis- eases such as “ cysts of bone,” ‘‘ myeloid sarcoma,” “‘ paget’s disease ”’ have been closely studied by many observers, resulting in valuable information in relation to operative procedure. bibsl1ography.—p. b. roth, orthopaedics for practitioners, an introduction to the practical treatment of the?commoner deformi- ties (arnold 1920); sir r. jones (ed.), orthopaedic surgery of in- juries (by various authors), 2 vol. (oxford university press 1921); sir r, jones and r. w. lovett, orthopaedic surgery (oxford univer- sity press 1923). (r. jo.) ortzen, georg, baron von (1829-1910), german poet and prose writer (see 20.342), diedin freiburg may 261910. his later works include: nebensachen (1910); auf schwarzwaldwegen (1910). orzeszko, eliza (1842-1910), polish novelist (see 20.343), died at grodno may 18 roro. osaka, japan (see 20.344), brought several suburban dis- tricts within its boundaries in 1925 and had a population of 1,252,072 in 1920. it was a busy industrial centre with over 7,000 factorics in 1921; the cotton manufacture, in particular, has developed rapidly. there is an acute shortage of houses and rents are high. many people migrated from the north to osaka after the earthquake in 1923, since the southern and south- western districts are believed to be immune from severe shocks. in 1909 one-third of the city was destroyed by fire and though it was rebuilt with wider streets and better buildings, there are still many wooden houses and bridges, dangerous in case of fire, and its factorics and warehouses compare less favourably with european and american standards than those of tokyo. work on a drainage system was started in 1909, but is still in- complete. railways in the neighbourhood are in process of elec- trification, and there were 51 m. of tramways in 1925. trade has grown very largely, but most goods are loaded and discharged at kobe, as the river is only navigable for small vessels. a programme of port improvements was, however, undertaken in 1906 to make the harbour suitable for ocean-going ships, including the erection of jetties and warehouses, and the protection of the shore was practically completed in 1914; and further work on land reclamation has been undertaken. a fourth 1136 shipbuilding yard was opened in torr. a pharmaceutical school was opened in 1917 and in 1919 the university of medicine was made into a general university. the spread of pulmonary tuber- culosis has caused alarm and a tuberculosis laboratory has been opened. in 1919 a municipal home for workpeople, including an employment bureau and a children’s clinic, was inaugurated. osborn, henry fairfield (1857- ), american palae- ontologist, was born at fairfield, conn., aug. 8 1857. graduat- ing from princeton university in 1877, he was appointed assist- ant professor of natural science there in 1881, becoming professor of comparative anatomy in 1883. he went to columbia uni- versity as da costa professor of biology in 1891 and was professor of zoology there from 1896 to rgro, in the latter year being ap- pointed research professor of zoology. he was also curator of the department of vertebrate palaeontology of the american museum of natural history from 1891 to 1910. he was appoint- ed vertebrate palaeontologist to the u.s. geological survey, 1904. from 1894 to 1916 he was connected with the brearley school for girls as director and president. he served as chair- man of the executive committee of the new york zoological society 1896-1903, and assisted in founding the fine zoological park in the borough of the bronx, new york city. (see evolution; palaeontology.) _osborn’s works include from the greeks to darwin (1894); evolu- tion of mammalian molar teeth (1907); the age of mammals (1910); huxley and education (1910); afen of the old stone age (1915); eee and evolution of life (1917); and the earth speaks to bryan osler, sir william (1840-1919), british physician, was born at bond head, canada, july 12 1849. he was educated at trinity college school, port hope, trinity university, toronto and at mcgill university, montreal, where he took the m.d. degree in 1872. he studied medicine in london, leipzig and vienna and was in 1874 appointed professor of medicine at mc- gill university. from 1884 to 1889 he was professor of clinical medicine in the university of pennsylvania, and from 1889 to 1904 professor of medicine at johns hopkins university. in 1905 he was appointed regius professor of medicine at oxford, where he also served as a curator of the bodleian library, as a delegate of the university press and as one of the radcliffe trustees. in ror1 he was created a baronet. sir william osler carried out original and valuable researches on the diseases of the spleen and blood and also made eminent contributions to the study of infections of the heart, of angina pectoris, of malaria and of many minor maladies. he was the author of many medi- cal works, of which the most important is 7he principle and practice of medicine (18092, latest edition 1916), and of a volume of essays entitled aeguanimitas. sir william died at oxford dec. 29 1919. oslo, formerly curistianta (see 6.279), the capital of nor- way, changed its name as from jan. 1 1925, oslo being the orig- inal appellation of the city. the population was 258,483 in 1920. between 1912 and 1921 large sums were spent on building and equipping quays. vessels up to 10,o00 tons can be built in the ship-building yards. garden suburbs have been erected by the municipality at ullevaal, where there is the largest municipal hospital in the country, and at toien. at the latter place are three buildings, the first erected in 1908, which house the min- eralogical and palaeontological, zoological and botanical collec- tions. a third viking ship, that of oseberg, has been added to the others in the historical museum. the margaret church, buill by the swedish colony in memory of the late crown princess of sweden, was consecrated in 1925. three new theatres have been built since the world war. a trade intelligence bureau was founded in 19019, and the central bureau of statistics reor- ganised in 1918. a beginning has been made with the electrifi- cation of the state railways, from oslo to drammen. the dovre railway, connecting oslo with trondhjem, was completed in 1g21, and the ostbane station has been extended. the joint scheme of the state and the municipality for deriving power from the glommen river has been delayed, but three units of 13,000 kw. were in use early in 1925. -~osborn—osteopathy ossendowski, ferdinand anthony (1876- ), polish traveller and writer, was born may 27 1876 in the government of witebsk. he studied at the university of st. petersburg (len- ingrad) and at paris, where he received the degree of docteur des sciences and officier d’academie for his work entitled 7he allotropy of silvey. he was appointed lecturer of physics and physical chemistry at the tomsk polytechnic and then became successively a lecturer in chemistry, physics, geography; a manu- facturer, a commercial manager, a journalist, a novelist, a phy- siclan, a draughtsman, a teacher of languages, and a mineralogist. ossendowski was twice imprisoned for supposed political offences. while at the university he was sentenced to five months’ imprisonment for taking part in a manifestation against capital punishment, and, at the time of the russo-japanese war, he was brought before a russian jaw court for leading a patriotic organisation in the far east with the object of prevent- ing civil war after the defeat of the russian army. he was sentenced to death but the sentence was later commuted to 20 months’ imprisonment. during this period ossendowski’s books on prisons appeared, which aroused a great deal of controversy and led to a revision of the russian prison system. after the outbreak of the communist revolution, ossendowski held office as financial adviser to the government of general kolchak in siberia. after kolchak’s govt. fell, he made his way through the forests to mongolia disguised as a peasant. his journey through central asia is recounted in beasts, men and gods (1923), and his other works on asia include afan and mystery in asia (1924), and the shadow of the gloomy east (1925). his play the living buddha had a successful run at the national theatre in warsaw. ossendowski also published a number of scientific books, including the theory of fermentation, vegetation of the pacific ocean and the fextraction of iodine; the origin of petroleum according to scientific itypothesis, contribution to the hydrography of the ussurt territories; contribution to the oceanography of the pacific, the coal industry in russia and its possibilities. see sven hedin, ossendowski und die wahrheit (1925). ostend, belgium (see 20.356), had a population in 1923 of a4,271. large sums have been recently spent in enlarging and improving the town and suburbs, which is one of the most popu- lar watering places in europe. it is computed that it is visited by nearly 1,000,000 people yearly. it is also a port for cross- .channel services and the chief belgian fishing port. the new fishing harbour includes a wet dock for steam trawlers, a tidal dock for sailing boats and a slipway. extensive harbour and dock works were completed before the world war. the war period.— ostend was occupied by the germans for four years during the war, and was at first, until it was rendered untenable by acrial bombardments, a base for destroyers and submarines. in may 1918 the entrance channel to the harbour and the canal to ghent and bruges were blocked to all craft except the smallest submarines by the sinking of the “‘ vindic- tive.” after the war she was raised and broken up. [arts of the “‘ vindictive,” “ intrepid ” and “‘ thetis’ have been made into a memorial on the digue. during the german occupation over 2,000 bombs were dropped on the town, and an enormous amount of damage was done. the new marine station and the locks were blown up, and the central station badly damaged. restoration, however, was so rapid that two years after the armistice hardly a trace of the havoc was left. a new lighthouse, in place of the large one destroyed in 1916, was finished in 1924. in 1922 a monument to commemorate the work of the people of ostend among refugees fleeing to england was unveiled in front of the church of st. peter and st. paul, and in the english church is a plaque in memory of those who were killed in the raid on zeebrugge. (see zeebrugge.) osteopathy.—according to its advocates, osteopathy is that system of the healing art which regards the structural in- tegrity and adjustment of the mechanism of the body as the most important single factor in maintaining the organism in health, in contrast to the older systems which regard the chemical intake of the body as the most important factor. in other words osteop- ostwald—ottoman empire, the athy is based on the belief that the human body is a vital mech- anism, a living machine, which, given wholesome physical and mental environment, good food, proper exercise, pure air and pure water, will be healthy—that is, will function properly, so long as all the cells and parts of that vital mechanism are in normal adjustment. osteopathy teaches that structural derangement of the body is the predisposing cause of disease. such structural derangement causes functional perversion of the vascular and nervous system, weakening the nutritional processes and lower- ing the powers of resistance of the body; on the one hand, pro- ducing congestion, either general or local, active or passive; on the other, depriving tissues of an adequate blood and lymph supply. this perversion impairs the rebuilding of cells after waste due to active functioning and retards the elimination of waste products through body drainage, thus making the body unable to withstand climatic changes or unhygienic and insanitary sur- roundings, and offering a hospitable medium for the invasion and propagation of pathogenic germs. integrity of mechanical structure determines the normality of functioning. that struc- tural perversion is the basic cause of functional disturbance or disease is a distinctive and fundamental principle of osteopathy. diagnostic methods osteopathic diagnosis includes examina- tion of the whole body and its excretions, especially the articula- tions and alignments of the vertebrae, ribs and pelvis. symp- toms are noted, and chemical, microscopic, hygienic, sanitary and other findings are studied to aid in determining the existing con- ditions of tissue, viscera and function. of supreme importance, however, is the physical examination to discover existing me- chanical tissue lesions. therapeutic methods —osteopathic therapeutics may, and usually does, consist in the specific manipulative removal of the jesion or structural perversion, by effecting tissue adjustments, which free the remedial anti-toxic and auto-protective resources of the organism itself; or it may consist in correcting hygienic, dietetic, environmental and psychic conditions; or in the appli- cation of operative surgery for fractures, lacerations, and the re- moval of abnormal growths or organs so diseased as to be danger- ous to life; or it may be the administration of antidotes for poisons and other dangerous substances. in osteopathic therapeutics the fundamental principle ts, ‘‘ find the lesion, adjust it, and let it alone.” historical matter —the founder of osteopathy, dr. andrew taylor still, was born in virginia aug. 6 1827, and died at his home in kirksville, mo., dec. 12 1917. he was a practising allopathic physician at the beginning of the american civil war, served as a union officer, and at the close of the war returned to his home in kansas and resumed the practice of his profession. gradually his confidence in the efficacy of drugs as a means of healing weakened, and his faith in the inherent curative power of the body strengthened, until june 22 1874, when he publicly announced that he would henceforth discard the use of drugs asa curative measure and would dedicate the remainder of his life in aiding nature in the alleviation of disease by the mechanical readjustment of the disordered body. the american school of osteopathy was opened at kirksville, mo., in 1892. there were in 1925, over 9,000 graduate practitioners of osteopathy in all parts of the world. legal recognition.—in addition to the school at kirksville, there were in 1921 six others in the united states devoted to the teaching of osteopathy. the curricula of the osteopathic colleges embrace all the subjects taught in other medical colleges, except afateria medica, in place of which there is included ‘ prin- ciples and practice of osteopathy ” and ‘‘ osteopathic thera- peutics.”’ osteopathy was by 1925 recognised and regulated by law in 47 states of the united states. the one remaining state, through court decisions, makes its practice legal. there is an international organisation, the american osteo- pathic assn., having some 4,000 active members; an osteopathic association in each state in the union; associations in canada; the new england osteopathic assn., the western osteopathic assn., the eastern osteopathic assn., the south atlantic states osteopathic assn., osteopathic women’s national