OCEANOGRAPHY

in 1912 the results of the south polar expeditions became known. roald amundsen landed on the great antarctic ice barrier (at the bay of whales, in south lat. 78°, and west long. 165°) and travelled over the land towards the pole, which he reached on dec. 14 torr. capt. robert scott had left england before amundsen and in ignorance of the intention of the latter to seck the south pole. scott took his previous route, via the beardmore glacier, towards the pole, not the easiest way, but much the most interesting one from the scientific point of view. the party (scott, wilson, oates, bowers and evans) reached the south pole about a month after amund- sen and, on their return, encountered a series of blizzards in which all perished. after scott’s last voyage shackleton made two further expedi- tions to the south polar regions. in the first one he left england 1098 in the “ endurance ” (in 1914); reached south lat. 76° 34’, drifted north, was beset in the ice and lost his vessel, the crew being landed on elephant island (in south lat. 62° and west long. 55°). this voyage is famous for the fine boating cruise made under the command of capt. worsley. a small party left elephant island in a whaleboat and, after a voyage of 14 days, reached south georgia from where they sent assistance to the wrecked crew of the “ endurance.” shackleton again sailed for the antarctic in sept. 1921, in the ‘‘ quest ” but died (of angina pectoris) at south georgia on jan. 4 1922. these voyages have roughly fixed the notions at present held about antarctic geography (see polar exploration). an important expedition set out (oct. 1925) for the antarctic regions on scott’s old vessel, the “ discovery,” strengthened and refitted for special work. this is the eighth exploring vessel bearing that name—the first one having gone to hudson bay in 1602. the voyage is primarily intended for the investigation of the whaling industry and it will be supplemented by the con- tinuous work of a laboratory on the island of south georgia. the cost of this well-found expedition is largely borne by the government of the falkland islands, and important scientific results are confidently expected (see whaling). arctic expeditions—the first and most notable arctic ex- pedition since 1913 is that of stefansson, who left alaska in 1913 with a vessel called the ‘ karluk.” stefansson demonstrated, for the first time, how arctic investigators could trust themselves freely to the ice, finding food there and being able to keep them- selves perfectly healthy (see arctic resourcces). he investi- gated part of the beaufort sea, the huge inaccessible region of frozen ocean lying between the pole, alaska and western siberia. he explored some of the parry islands and supplemented nan- sen’s observations on the drift of ice in the north polar ocean: this takes place in a large cyclonic eddy having its centre in north lat. 83° 50’ and west long. 160° tending to leave the arctic region through the wide passages between greenland and iceland and between iceland and europe. it is now known (though no formal results have yet been pub- lished) that important fishery and oceanographic investigations have been made by the russian govt. on the siberian continental shelf. off the coast, from novaya zemlya to the behring straits there is an enormous region of flat shallow water (the greatest in the world) and some great rivers (such as the lena, obi and yenesei) open into the sea here. it is stated that the fishing grounds in the neighbourhood of these estuaries are un- usually productive. an american expedition (the macmillan one) is working in the arctic regions. roald amundsen made an attempt in 1925 to reach the north pole by aeroplane. starting from kings bay, in spitsbergen, a small party reached north lat. 87° 44’ (in west long. 10° 20’) but were then forced to descend. after abandoning one of the planes, they returned to spitzbergen in the other. a small expe- dition led by algarsson left liverpool for arctic investigation in 1925 but returned after some three months. two small but very successful expeditions to spitzbergen were organised by some oxford scientists. thus there have been several inves- tigations during the post-war period, but these have added little to our knowledge of the oceanography of the north polar ocean beyond that resulting from nansen’s highly productive voyage with the “ fram ”’ in 1895. a good deal of general marine biological and oceanographical investigation is now being carried on in the shallow seas of the north-west of europe by the various maritime states. ‘this work is mainly concerned with questions of the productivity of the sea fisheries, with the search for new trawling grounds and with the investigations necessary for the elaboration of regula- tions of methods of fishing both within the territorial waters and on the high seas. physical oceanography and geodesy.—the tendency in ocean- ographical investigation is towards research into the physics and geology of the ocean floor; towards the physical and mathe- matical study of currents and tides; and towards the investiga- tion of oceanic meteorology. oceanography permanence of the ocean beds.—there has always been much discussion as to whether or not the great oceanic depressions have always been permanent features of the face of the earth. in the latter half of the roth century, this was generally believed. nowhere on the dry land are there any sedimentary rocks that appear to have been deposited at the bottoms of oceans com- parable in depths with those we know—that is, there are no formations known that resemble, for instance, the globigerina ooze now being deposited on the atlantic floor. on the other hand the geographical distribution of many species of plants and animals points very decidedly towards the existence in the past of land connections between the various continents, and this evidence cannot be put aside. it is now believed that, in the north and south atlantic, in the central part of the indian ocean, and possibly in the central part of the pacific, there were, during the mesozoic period, extensive land regions that have now subsided. thus there are indications that large regions of continental land have been depressed to form the floors of deep oceans, but there are no clear indications that deep ocean beds have ever been elevated to form dry land. it is possible that the quantity of water on the surface of the earth has been increasing throughout geological time. it is known that fluid heated rock (volcanic magma) contains much water and it is probable that, in the course of geological time, large quan- tities of water have thus reached the surface as these magmas, are extruded, cool down and weather away (see geology). age of the oceans —fairly satisfactory data now exist for the formation of estimates of the age of the oceans. the evidence comes partly from the study of radioactivity (q¢.v.): it is known that helium and lead are the end-products of radioactive dis- integration of certain minerals and from the ratios of these ma- terials to their parent substances it is believed that a period of several thousands of millions of years must have elapsed since the first solid and cool earth-crust was formed. some cosmo- graphic investigations (due mainly to jeans and jeffreys) sug- gest pretty clearly that at least about 1,300,000,000 years have elapsed since the first oceans were formed. formation of the ocean floors— oceanic soundings are gradu- ally accumulating (though they are still very few in comparison with what are needed) and a general idea can now be made as to the forms of the great oceanic depressions. geosynclines.—in general an ocean bed is a great, flat plain and there are few marked elevations or depressions on it. but, in general, the marginal regions are deeper than the central ones and there is a tendency for the arrangement of mountain chains running parallel to the ocean coast (as along the whole western sides of north and south america). also the marginal regions of oceans tend to be regions of volcanic and earthquake dis- turbance. (the coast of japan and the coastal part of california, for instance.) jeffreys has shown how very probable it is that the central part of the earth has still a very high temperature; that a relatively thin outer shell is cold and has ceased to contract and that the hot central mass js still losing heat to the outside. therefore the ocean floors must warp downwards at the margins, but must tend to rise slightly at their central regions. our knowl- edge of oceanic depths supports this conclusion. in the pacific notably, but also in the atlantic and indian oceans, the “‘ deeps ”’ (that is, the regions of over 3,000 fathoms in depth) all tend to be situated near to the continental lands. relative ages of the oceans.—these features of high mountains, formed by foldings of the earth, and running parallel to the oceanic margins, are well exhibited on the american side of the pacific. on the asiatic side we have chains of islands (the aleutians, kuriles, japanese, philippines, etc.) which form the natural boundaries of the ocean bed. in many places these islands (the “insular arcs ’’) can be shown to be formed by earth-foldings. they are often volcanic and earthquake regions. thus the pacific ocean is bounded by geosynclines—that is, the coastal mountain foldings and, outside of these, the marginal oceanic de- pressions. these geosynclines exhibit great activity, which is indicated by faulting of the strata, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. therefore the pacific ocean is still in the making, so ochs—o’connell to speak. indeed among the island archipelagoes there are evi- dences of continued subsidence. the atlantic is a mucn older ocean for, except in the west indian region, there is not much evidence of activity as in the pacific, while the geosynclinal land elevations and depressed marginal oceanic deeps show signs of being smoothed out. the indian ocean is probably still older, in the geological sense. the theory of isostasy (see isostasy).—when the intensity of gravity was measured at many places on the surface of the earth, some remarkable results were obtained. the measurements are made by observing the rate of swinging of a standard pendulum (on the land) or by observing the barometric pressure simul- taneously with the tem>erature of boiling water (on the sea). where necessary corrections are made, the intensity of gravity is everywhere the same (with the exceptions of small deviations). yet it ought to be less over the ocean bottom (where some two to three miles of earth crust are replaced by water) than over the con- tinental land. therefore, again, the materials of the earth crust must be heavier on the ocean floor than on the continentil plateaux. at a certain depth beneath the surface all rocks are exposed to such enormous pressures that they are in a poteniial- ly self-crushed condition so that “‘flowage”’ of their materials must take place when there are stress-differences. ‘there is a continual adjustment of pressure so that when shallow sea regions near the land are loaded with sediments from great rivers, ma- terial beneath this loaded region flows to underneath the con- tinental plateau (which has undergone erosion). the wegener ilypothesis—connected with the theory of isostasy is wegener’s hypothesis of the mode of origin of the oceanic and continental earth-features. beneath the continental plateaux and the ocean beds there is the “ plastic,” crushed, earth-crust layer, and the hypothesis is that the great continental land elevations actually slip on this crushed layer. the at- lantic has been formed, it is stated, by the slipping westward of the americas and when the outlines of western eur-africa and eastern north and south america are compared it is seen that the one continental land mass would approximately fit into the other. the coastal mountain ranges on the pacific margin of the amcricas are said to have been formed by the crumpling of the crust under the horizontal pressure set up by the westward drift of the american continents, and so on. the hypothesis re- quires that there should be evidence of progressive change of longitude. this has been claimed but the observations are doubt- ful. it also requires a motive force—some stress-difference under which the continental land masses yield and shift place relative to the earth-axis. this is difhcult and no satisfactory verifica- tion of the wegener hypothesis has been made (see geology). tidal investigations (see ties).—much fine work, both on the theory of the tides and on the methods of tidal prediction has been done at the liverpool tidal institute. the methods of prediction have been greatly improved and methods of ‘ore- casting deviations from the predicted results (which may be due to winds) are being worked out. long-period tides.—the work of otto and hans pettersson on the occurrence of long periodic variations in the tide-generating force due to the sun and moon has important oceanographic consequences—should the theory be confirmed and established. the petterssons have shown that there are absolute maxima of tide-generating force recurring at intervals of about 1,600 years. the last maximum was in 1433a.d. and the next will be in 3300 a.d. important effects preceded the last maximum—thus the coast of greenland was relatively free from ice during the period of the norse voyages related in the sagas. iceland was nearly free from volcanic eruptions during the period 800 to 1250 but such phenomena were relatively frequent during the period 1290 to 1348. during the 13th and 15th centurics, the baltic was frequently frozen over between denmark, germany, sweden, gothland and fsthenia. about 1287 the zuider zee was formed. the pettersson theory relates many of these occurrences to the changes in the me;'h european ocean current system set up by the high tiles dusting the periods of maximal force (that is, at intervals of i600, y3, 19, 9 atid 44 years). toq9 marine biolegy.—the most important result of oceanic biol- ogy during the post-war period is the completion of dr. johs. schmidt’s fine investigations on the life history of the freshwater eels. it has now been demonstrated that all the eels of :urope and america migrate out into the region of the atlantic ocean roughly coincident with that of the sargasso sea. there they spawn and, after this single reproductive act»of their life-times, they die. the ccl-larvae, or lepiocephali take several years to migrate towards the continental shores where they undergo metamorphosis into the well-known elvers and then ascend the rivers. having attained maturity after 4 to 7 years they return to the atlantic ocean to spawn and die. references to most of the matters treated in this article will be found in j. johnstone, introduction to oceanography (liverpool, 1923). (j. j.) ochs, adolph simon (1858- ), american newspaper pro- prietor, was born in cincinnati march 12 1858, of jewish parent- age. hlis father, who had left bavaria for the united states in 1846, settled in 1865 with his family in knoxville, tenn., where the son studied in the public schools and during his spare time delivered newspapers. at the age of 15 he became a printer’s devilona knoxville paper. advancing rapidly in newspaper work, he moved to chattanooga in 1877 and in 1888 gained control of the reorganised chattanooga times, which soon assumed a high position among the papers of the south. he was one of the founders of the southern associated press and served as presi- dent. in 1896 he obtained control of the new york times, then in financial difficulties and with circulation greatly diminished. ile formed the new york times co., and having placed the paper on a stronger financial foundation after four years became the majority stockholder. with a daily issue on aug. 18 1806 of 18,900 (of which over half was rettirned unsold), the circula- tion increased rapidly, reaching an average of 392,695 in 1926, (360,000 daily and over 600,000 on sundays). the annual receipts exceeded $22,000,000 in 1925, probably equalling those of any other american paper. in 1926 the staff of the new york times numbered 2,800. it was classed as an independent democrat publication, an advocate of sound money and tariff reform, and consistently opposed william jennings bryan in his presidential campaigns. by the fairness and comprehensiveness of its pres- entation of news, editorial moderation and ample foreign service, it made secure a high place in american journalism, becoming widely read and influential throughout the country. the 7umes has been a pioneer in many fields of newspaper publishing: in the introduction of rotogravure printing to the united states, in the reception of a new service by wireless, in the improvement of advertising typography and in the censoring of advertising to protect its readers from dishonest and mislead- ing offers. it is also worthy of note that in an age of syndication, or exchange of news features among a great many newspapers, the times has pursued a wholly dilferent course, preparing its news and other articles solely for its own columns. the 7imes co. also publishes the book review and magazine {sections of the sunday edition); the annalist, a financial review appearing on fridays; the times mid-week pictorial on wednesdays; current history magazine, a monthly, started during the world war. the index of the times, begun in 1913 and published quarterly, forms an invaluable guide to contemporary events, to be compared only with the similar index to the times of london. in 1901 mr. ochs became proprietor and editor of the philadel- phia times, later merged in the philadelphia public ledger, of which he was sole owner from 1902-12, when he sold it to cyrus h. kk. curtis. the times co. also has in the wide world service a news photograph agency covering the entire world. (l. w1.) o'connell, william henry (18s59- s+), american cardi- nal, was born at lowell, mass., dec. 8 1859. he graduated from boston college in 1881, and then went to rome where he studied theology at the north american college (1881-4), being ordained priest june 8 1884. he became rector of the north american college in 1895 and was consecrated bishop of portland, me., may 9 1901. in r905 he was selected as special papal envoy to the emperor of japan. he was appointed co-adjutor to bishop i i00 williams of boston, mass., feb. 8 1906, taking the titular arch- bishopric of constantia. he became archbishop of boston aug. 30 1907, and was created cardinal by pope pius x., nov. 27 iqii. oder (see 20.2), a european river. the oder rises in czecho- slovakia, flows through the miniug area of upper silesia, and crosses germany, receiving a number of tributaries, of which the chief are the warthe and the netzc,! both rising in poland. it is utilised by three main currents of traffic; traffic between berlin and stettin; goods transported to or from the mining area of upper silesia (this traffic has diminished since the partition of upper silesia between germany and poland); and traffic to and from poland via the warthe and the netze, thence by the byd- goszcz (bromberg) canal and the brda (brahe) river towards the vistula. poland has placed on the navigation of these two tributaries certain restrictions based on her conception of their legal status. problem of international status—the oder and all the navi- gable portions of its system, which provide natural access to the sea for more than one state, were declared international under article 331 of the treaty of \ersailles. article 341 places the oder under the administration of an international commission consisting of three representatives of prussia, and one each of poland, czechoslovakia, great britain, france, denmark and sweden. under article 343 it was the duty of this commission at once to prepare an act of navigation. as the commission failed to reach an agreement regarding the territorial extent of its powers, the british govt. on aug. 23 1924, brouzht the dispute before the league of nations, in virtue of article 376 of the treaty of versailles. the advisory committee of the communications section of the league appointed a comnfdssion of inquiry consisting of m. j. hostie, president, gen. il. o. mance and prof. l. babinski, which studied all the legal aspects of the question and also examined the situation along the warthe at poznan (posen), along the netze (notec) at nakto, and along part of the old netze between nahlo and lisi-ogon. the majority of the commission reported that “ oder” in the sense of article 341 should be taken to mean the whole international system; morcover it was of opinion that although article 331 only includes in the system the navigable parts which naturally provide more than one state with access to the sca, the sphere of territorial application had been extended as a result cf article 338, which provides that the provisional definition given in article 331 shall ipso facto be replaced by the general definition cf the barcelona convention on the regime of navigable waterways of international concern. as regards consideration of fact, the warthe, from its junction with the oder as far as pogorzelice, indubitably fulfils the conditions of the gencral definition laid down in the barcelona convention. the warthe, as far as luban, carried con- siderable traffic before the war. jt was navigable for craft of 4oo tons, which could proceed with full cargoes at mean water level. the sector between luban and pogorzelice was navigable for craft of 150 tons and carried an appreciable amount of trallic, although mainly of local character. the netze, which has been canalised be- tween kreuz and naklo, is navigable for craft of 400 tons. in pre- war years this waterway carried a considerable amount of traflic— mainly transit traffic proceeding from or towards the bydgoszcz canal. the commission considered that the netze below naklo should be regarded as naturally navigable; the portion of this river above nakto should not be presumed, in its natural condition, as being navigable in the sense of the barcelona convention. transit commitiee’s suggestion.—the committee for communica- tions and transit suggested on nov. 27 1924, that the jurisdiction of the international oder commission should extend upstream on the warthe to and above poznat (posen), and upstream on the netze as far as ujecie (usch), from which point as far as its confluence with the vistula through the bydgoszcz canal, the waterway should be subject to the regime of the barcclona convention. in the opinion of the committee this solution, while it takes account as far as pos- sible of the various legal and technical standpoints, is also in_ the yeneral interests of navigation. the choice of the limit on the war- the needs no comment; for purely technical reasons the limit on the netze might have been nakto, but this would have represented in fact a decision regarding the iegail controversy. the committee pre- ferred to reach an agreement on a practical basis. thus ujscie was chosen; but on the other hand, realising the importance before the war of the transit traffic over the junction between the oder and the vistula, the committee desired to guarantee to international navigation, including floating, the benefits of an international regime on this waterway. existing treatics guarantec to germany 1 the netze is a tributary of the warthe. oder—office appliances freedom of transit across poland, along all means of communication for traffic to and from east prussia. consequently, for a certain category of traflic, this waterway already enjoys an international regime as regards transit. it was thought that under the circum- stances the proposed extensions of the international regime would not encounter any serious opposition. however, at its eighth session in july 1925 the advisory and technical committee felt bound to note the fact that the opinion given with a view to conciliation had been accepted by all the govern- ments represented on the oder commission except those of germany aid poland. the german govt. expressed no opinion, while the polish govt. definitely refused to accept the solution. (r. rn.) odessa (sce 20.3), in the ukrainian soviet republic, had a population of 434,857 in 1920 as compared with 631,040 in 1912. the city was bombarded several times by the turks during the world war, taken by german forces in 1918 and occupied by the bolsheviks in 1920. a new mole and a special ice-breaker were built for the harbour before the war, but odessa’s share in the trade of russia was then declining and plans had been made for further improvements in the harbour. a scheme was reported to be again under consideration in 1925, whereby it 1s proposed to construct a grain harbour, an additional mole and warehouse accommodation. ground was being reclaimed and dredging carried on in 1925 and odessa was made a free port by the rus- sian govt., in the hope of improving trade. the quay accommo- dation in 1926 allowed 12 or 13 steamers to unload at once. o'donovan, william rudolf (1814-1020), american sculptor and painter (see 20.9), died in new york city april 20 1920. office appliances.—manv office tasks, being of a repeti- tive character, naturally adapt themselves to the principle of ** division of labour,” and consequently to the use of machinery also. but these facts alone are not sufficient justification for the purchase of appliances. four purposes are considered by good office management in deciding when the use of machinery is advisable. these are:— objects of the appliances,—1. to save labour. this saving should be evidenced in a reduced pay-roll. ilypothetical savings of “ half a man ’’ are seldom realised. 2. to save time. in many cases this is more important than the saving of labour; to speed up a slow routine, extra expenditure its often an economic advantage. 3. to promote accuracy. mechanical methods are advisable when accuracy is vitally important and otherwise difficult to obtain. 4. toavoid monotony. the substitution of a machine for manual repetitive movements will usually achieve this. inventive skijl and genius have not been lacking to meet these needs, and the list of available devices is very long, machin- ery being now extensively used. adding and calculating machines are largely used for the pro- motion of accuracy, and save time by avoiding extended search for errors. the ordinary clerk is usually incapable of correctly handling a large amount, even of simple calculations, with a fair degree of accuracy by the mental-manual method, and these machines have therefore become a practical necessity for the modern business office. adding machines all adding machines may be used for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division; but as certain types are better adapted for multiplication and division, a technical distinction has grown up in the trade between adding and calculating machines, the latter being used more extensively for multiplication and division. there are two principal types of adding machines: those which print on paper the amount being added, and those which do not—the former being known as listing, and the latter as non- jisting machines. he listing machines are again divided into two classes, the first being the full keyboard model carrying a row of keys numbered from 1 to g for each column, and the machine of the second class having to keys arranged in two or three rows. fach of these keys represents a digit, and the depression of a key for an item automatically causes progressive columnar position. thus, if 23 is to be added, the 2 is first depressed, then the 3, and the mechanism takes care of the numerical order. the items are printed either on a rojl of narrow paper or on a wide form held in the carriage of the machine. oe office appliances some models have two sets of adding dials—one for accumulat- ing individual totals, the other for accumulating a grand total. on some machines a “ split ’’ feature provides for splitting the printing mechanism into two or more sections,so that several columns may be listed and added at the same time and the total of one or more columns printed. on others, subtraction is ac- complished by means of complementary numbers, a “ comple- ment ” being ary number which, added to another, makes a full number. thus if the digits are changed to 9’s—as 9, 90, 999 and so on—ail a 1 then added, we can convert any number into a full or comrlementary number on the keyboard of any adding machine. the complementary numbers are usually indicated by small fizures on the keys, the two digits on a key,if added, invariably making nine. other machines perform subtraction by depressinz a subtract key. multiplication is consecutive addition. thus, if 26 is to be multiplied by 5, it is merely added five times. for division, the divisor is subtracted from the dividend as many times as it is contained in that dividend, the number of subtractions being automatically registered on the counting wheels as a quotient. there is also a small portable adding machine, weighing about seven pounds, operated with a pull- down lever keyboard. a very small adding device, known as a vest pocket machine, is operated by inserting a pick, or stylus, in positions for the amounts. calculating machines.—where rapid addition, multiplication, subtraction and division are required, and no need for a printed record exists, calculating machines are used. they do not print a record of the items, but indicate the result on total dials. one type, known as the key-driven, causes the items to appear im- mediately on the dials when the keys are depressed, the operation of a crank clearing the figures off the dial faces again. as with adding machines, the four arithmetical operations are all per- formed as variations of simple addition. in another type, known as the key-set, the amountsare first set up on the keyboard and operation of the machine, either by hand or by motor, effects the calculation. the total dials, located in the laterally moving carriage above the keyboard, show the total in addition, the product in multiplication, the minuend or remainder in sub- traction and the quotient in division. proof dials, located in, above or below the carriage, show the multiplier in multiplica- tion and the divisor in division. an extra set of dials is sometimes provided, which furnish an additional check for accuracy by showing the amounts set up on the keyboard. the dials are cleared by various means, distinctive with each make of machine. for subtraction, the amount from which the deduction is to be made is set up, the operation of the machine causing that figure to appear on the total dials. the figure to be subtracted is then set up and the machine operated, and the answer appears on the total dials. multiplication is consecutive addition, though in some models multiplication is by means of a plus bar; in others, by means of an extra row of multiplying keys. division is consecutive subtraction, some models dividing by means of a minus key, while another model provides for setting up amounts by means of levers pulled down tothe desired numbers, this machine otherwise conforming to the key-set type. book-keeping machines.—the so-called book-keeping machine is in reality a device for posting on loose ledger sheets or cards. the amouat is not merely entered to the account as in hand book-keeping —to be added and balanced at a specified period— but a balance is struck each time a posting is made. the original entry from which the account is posted is usually a sales ticket, credit slip or copy of the invoice (see book-keeping). all such machines are designed to print and addan old balance, print and add debit items, print and subtract credit items and compute the new balance, in some cases printing it automatically, in others showing it in the adding and subtracting mechanism so that it may be copied in the proper column by the operator. proof of the correctness of posting varies with the type of ma- chine. one type is an adding machine which subtracts directly; it is equipped with means for printing dates, folio numbers, characters and abbreviations, and with a tabulating carriage which moves automatically to the next column as each amount iioi is computed and printed, and in some cases returns automatically to any required position on the printing line. both vertical and horizontal columns are added, subtracted and computed. items are set up as on an adding machine, the operation of the motor causing them to be printed, added or subtracted. when a new balance is printed, the accumulator clears, ready for the next operation. some models have two counters, thus making it possible to compute individual balances and accumulate a total of all postings. the keyboard may be split into two sections so that both ledger and statement can be inserted in the carriage and posted at the same operation—that posting being auto- matically repeated. the design of a second class of book-keeping machine embodies a typewriter—on which any description may be typed—and a calculating machine, built as one unit. some machines add and subtract in vertical columns; others compute amounts across the sheets as well. the typewriter carriage moves {o correct column positions by means of a decimal tabulator. typing the amounts on the number keys effects addition or subtraction. the amounts are visible in registers or totalisers placed cither on the carriage truck, in positions corresponding to the columns to be added or subtracted, or at the front of the machine below the keyboard. in posting, a new balance is computed, and the operator types in the proper column the amount appearing in the register which functions to compute across the sheet. if the typing is correct, this register clears. ledger and statement are made at the same time, in some cases by means of a carbon and in others by the split-platen method, one machine of this class being unique in that its typewriter section is mounted on a carriage which moves from left to mght across a flat printing surface on which the forms are held, a back and forward motion providing line spacing. registers are mounted on the rear of the typewriter section, and ledger and statement are posted at one operation by means of carbon. a third class of machine carries, below the typewriter key- board, a 10-key keyboard which controls the calculating mechan- ism. ilere the split-platen method 1s used for making ledger and statement at the same time. still another class, used for ledger posting and instalment accounts, follows cash register design, amounts being set up on a push-in key-set keyboard, ard turred into the mechanism by the operation of the motor. ‘there is a sliding printing table on which the forms to be posted are in- serted. two forms may be posted at the same time, the amount being printed on one and repeated on the other. this machine automatically computes and prints the amount of the balarce outstanding on each account. debits and credits are classified and a total of each is accumulated, as many as 18 individual and two group totals being obtainable. a detailed record of all postings is printed on a strip of paper inside the machine. billing machines ——the writing of an invoice for goods sold, by means of a carbon duplication, can be made to serve other purposes also, and it 1s quite common at one writing to make the invoice, the original sales record, the shipping notice, the shipping record and other memoranda required for various kinds of business. by means of calculating devices, the amounts of the items may be computed, and totals accumulated for con- trolling accounts. combination typewriters designed to do this work are known as billing machines. these are designed to write, at one operation, the several necessary copies of orders, invoices, bills of lading and other forms, and in some cases to compute amounts as they are written. cut forms, printed and padded in individual sets so that each set is torn off and loose carbon inserted between the sheets to make the necessary copies, are used with some machines. others use continuous-length forms, which provide multiple copies of the same or related forms, in rolls or folded flat, these forms being fed through the machine with the carbon interleaved between the copies, so that it is not necessary to insert new forms after writing each set. among the billers which write, but do not compute, is an ordinary correspondence typewriter equipped with an inbuilt carbon-changing device which removes the carbons from a set of continuous-length forms just written and inserts them in pto2 another set. another non-computing biller has a standard key- board typewriter mounted on a carriage which moves from left to right across the flat writing surface over which the forms are fed. cut forms may be used with this machine, and it may be equipped to add in vertical columns and to cross comptite as well. book-keeping machines which combine a typewriter with a cal- culating mechanism have been adapted to billing work which requires the adding or subtracting of amounts as they are typed. one such has an inbuilt carbon-changing device which provides jor the use of continuous-length forms; another uses cut forms and may be equipped with a split cylinder so that billing and ledger posting can be done simultaneously. still another embodics a typewriter and a calculating mechan- ism which handles addition, subtraction and multiplication, and is operated from a separate 1o-key keyboard below the type- writer keyboard. by means of a split-platen, billing and ledger posting can be done at the same time. accounting and tabulating machines—the preparation of statistics requires, first, the sorting of data, and, second, the accumulation, by classes, of the amounts involved. machines for this work were first used by the u. s. census bureau, but are now being rapidly adapted to business uses, such as cost work, sales analysis and similar work. cards printed with vertical columns numbered from o to 9, or from o to 12, and separated into fields of one or more columns, each field representing an item, such as department, job number and so forth, form the basis of two systems. facts are expressed in figures, letters or symbols, and are recorded by perforations on the card at the proper numerical positions, made by a punch- ing machine which operates like a typewriter. the cards are then arranged by a sorting machine, according to a predetermined classification. contact—electrical or mechanical, depending on the make of the machine—sets the mechanism in motion. the cards are next fed through the tabulating machine, which makes a printed final report, in multiple if so desired. contact through the perforations causes the machine to designate and add what has been perforated into the cards—listings, sub-totals, totals or grand totals being obtained, depending upon the arrangement desired for the report. when detailed listing and printing is not required, a non-printing tabulator registers the quantities in counters which accumulate the totals, the figures being posted by hand to report forms. another type of machine is built on the same principle as the book-keeping machine of cash-register design. twenty-seven keys, each representing a classification, accumulate individual totals, and as many as three grand totals can be obtained and the number of items in each classification counted. a continuous permanent record of all operations is made within the machine on a roll of paper called a visible audit sheet, and notations may be hand-written opposite any printed item. this record may be used as a posting medium, a proof sheet or a permanent rec- ord. a ticket may be issued on any operation, showing the date, serial number, identifying numbers, symbols for the totals used and the amount. it may be used as a voucher, pay ticket, receipt, requisition, or posting medium, or for filing purposes. the same information may be printed on any form inserted in the printing- table. duplicating mfachines.—in offices there is much need for de- vices that will quickly produce multiple copies of typewriting or handwriting, for the time and labour thus saved is an important economy. sometimes only a few copies are needed, sometimes many. fora limited number of copies, say up to five or six, the carbon method of duplication is perhaps the cheapest in most cases; but where from 5 to 100 copies are required, the hektograph process is preferable. stencils —for a still larger number of copies, the stencil methods and type methods are available. with the former, the stencil was originally made on a sheet of wax-covered paper, which was written upon either with a stylus or with a typewriter from which the ribbon was removed—a system that had many defects. the modern method utilises a specially prepared sheet of tough, flexible tissue, which can be filed away after using and office appliances used many times. one manufacturer provides a glass-topped, electrically illuminated table for making stencils by hand with a stylus. typewriting, handwriting and drawing may all be com- bined on one stencil sheet. the duplicator consists of a hollow revolving cylinder, partially covered by an ink pad, over which the stencil is fastened. each revolution brings the stencil sheet in contact with the paper, and the ink, passing through the characters or design, makes the impression. from 1,500 to 5,000 copies can be made in an hour, depending on whether the model is hand- or motor-operated and whether it is automatically fed. hektographs —the hektograph is many years old, and its operation is based on the principle of absorption. the original writing is done on a sheet of hard bond paper with a water- soluble ink or with a typewriter ribbon impregnated with such ink. this sheet is then placed in contact with a moist surface of gelatin or clay composition, and the writing is absorbed from the paper and appears in reversed form on the gelatin or clay surface. then, by placing a sheet of blank dry paper on this moist surface, the impression is transferred to the paper. the gelatin was originally used in flat tin pans, and in this form the hektograph was of little use in the office, as registration was difficult. the clay form of hcktograph was, and is, extensively used for the reproduction of drawings by architects and draftsmen, because it is a simple matter to prepare this composition for large sizes of work. the modern hektograph uses the old principle, but the gelatin is coated on a long band, a small portion of which is exposed at a time. this band runs over a flat iron surface. registration is accomplished by a special feeding device. the unique feature of the hektograph duplicator is its use in routines of order or billing systems, in which from 10 to 15 copies of the same wriling (or any portion of it) may be transferred to sheets of various sizes and shapes. such copies are much clearer than carbons, and the paper does not have to be thin. the hektograph can also be used for bulletins of which roo or less copies are desired. type reproduction —there are several devices which duplicate from type, the principal feature of most being a simple method of setting the type, which does not require a trained typesetter, the printing also being simplified by means of a revolving drum. the style of type most used is the imitation typewriter face, and the chief use is for the reproduction, through a ribbon, of facsimile typewritten letters, there being also a special device which may be used for the reproduction of the signature. a printing-ink attachment makes possible the use of printer’s type and of electrotypes or stereotypes curved to fit the drum. some models are hand-fed and operated; those which are automatically fed and motor driven attain a speed of 2,400 to 4,800 pieces an hour. another machine produces letters from typewriter type cast on a linotype machine, at the same time filling in the name, address and salutation from slugs—one for each name on the mailing list—which change automatically as each letter is printed through a ribbon, the slugs being filed for future use. the speed is 1,000 letters and envelopes an hour, the latter being addressed from the same slugs. certain machines which print from type- writer type are really small presses adapted to the printing needs of the layman, and print from printer’s type, electrotypes, lino- type, monotype, flat zincs and half-tones. automatic typewriters —the automatic typewriter is designed to produce actual typewritten letters at three times the average speed of a typist. its mechanical movements are controlled by a paper roll, similar to that of a player-piano, in which perforations representing characters on the typewriter keys are made by a perforator. when an entire letter has been thus perforated, the paper is cut from the roll, and its ends are cemented together to form an endless belt, which is then placed over the drum of the automatic typewriter. the operator writes by hand the name and address and starts the automatic device. tins dropping through the perforations into slots, as the roll is carried forward by the revolution of the drum, actuate the typewriter keys, causing the typing of the words; when all the perforations have passed over the drum, the operator removes the finished letter and then repeats. insertions of special words or sentences may offich appliances plate = cy sess ess fa jp = = ee ee & 5 . sos ay vot pel ee onl fic. 1. photostat. this machine copies photographically any written or printed material, and automatically develops, fixes and washes the photographic copy. a machine used to save the labour of keeping documents, fic. 2. electric printing, ‘vabulating and accounting machine. this machine tabulates data which have been previously sorted on another machine, not shown in illustration, and prints the tabulation automatically on a suitable sized sheet. fic. 3. the protectograph. a machine for printing the amount, and at the same time shredding the paper on cheques, to avoid the possibility of forgery. fic. 4. graphotype. on this machine, a metal stencil is embossed, which is later used for addressing. fig. 5. brunsuiga calculating machine. 1g. 6. bookkeeping machine. used for posting debit and credit items on ledger sheets. accounting is balanced with each posting. f1g. 7. postal permit printer. fic. 8. postage meter machine. a device which seals the envelope and prints indicia which take the place of the ordinary postage stamp. the meter is locked by the postmaster, and postage is paid for the amount shown on the meter. fic. 9. addressograph. prints from metal stencils made by the graphotype. addresses envelopes, statements and the like automatically. office appliances be made by hand at any desired point . one operator can, with- out difficulty, control three or four machines. photocopying muchines.—a special photographic machine, in which a roll of sensitised paper coated on rag stock is used as a negative, photographing directly without the intervention of plates, has of late years been highly developed and used exten- sively as an office device. it offers a means of quickly producing a fac-simile copy of any document, and has therefore to a great extent eliminated the laborious hand copying of records, dlecds, insurance applications, contracts and the like. the equipment consists of a large camera combined with a developing machine, so that after an exposure is made the sensitised paper 1s carried first to the developing bath and then to the fixing bath. dials and levers control all operations, and the machine is so scientifical- ly adjusted that an office boy can turn out perfect copies. the colours are reversed in the first print, called a ‘* black print,” that is, the whites in the original are black and the blacks are white. as the photograph is made through a reversing prism, the letters appear exactly as in the original. a white positive print is made by re-photographing the black print. by continuing to photograph the original, as many black prints as desired can be made; and as many positives as required can be made by photographing the black prints. _ addressing machines.—these are in reality devices designed for duplicating small pieces of writing. originally designed for duplicating names and addresses—hence the name—they now have many other uses, such as the making of invoices, state- ments, receipts and other office records. they are of especial value in businesses where the same list of names and addresses must be repeatedly uscd. fach name and address must first be impressed upon a metal plate, cut on a fibre stencil or set in type, according to the character of the machine. the metal plate is prepared by an embossing machine operated by hand or electric motor; a blank plate is inserted in the machine, and the required characters are selected by an indicator and stamped into the metal. some embossers have a typewriter keyboard, the embossing being performed by depressing the keys. some metal plates carry a name card and others a record card for recording relevant data. a fibre stencil consists of a frame in which is mounted a panel of semi-transparent paper coated with a gelatinous material, some frames having spaces for the insertion of relevant data. the name and address are cut by means of a typewriter from which the ribbon has been removed, a special de- vice holding the stencil while it is cut. when printer’s type is used, slugs with the names and addresses are cast on a linotype machine. addressing machines, despite many structural differences, operate on the same general principle. the metal plates, stencils or slugs are fed from a magazine to the printing point where the envelope or other matter to be addressed is placed either by hand or by a mechanical device. directly over the printing point is a stamping arm which comes down on the envelope when the machine is operated, thereby bringing it into contact with the plate, stencil or slug either directly, in case ink is used, or through a ribbon. as the arm rises, another plate comes to the printing point, the one just used passing to a receiving machine, where it re-files itself in original order. models are hand, foot- treadle or motor operated, the speed varying from 1,000 to 15,000 impressions an hour. special models are designed for publishers addressing on large envelopes, on mailer strip or directly on the margins of newspapers and magazines. the adaptability of addressing machines is greatly increased by attachments, some of which are so common as to be considered standard equipment. the metal plates and fibre stencils are filed like index cards in drawers kept in cabinets, slugs being filed in galleys and stored in cabinets. one machine is unique in that its metal plates are linked together to form an endless chain; they pass to the print- ing point from a reel on which they are wound and they are then re-wound on another reel, the reels being stored in cabinets. hand stamp affixers -——stamps provided in rolls of 500 by the post-office are locked in a stamp affixer and applied to en- velopes by the downstroke of a plunger, moisture being applied 1103 in some cases to the stamp, in others to the envelope. extra containers, allowing for quick change from one denomination to another, are furnished with some models. some machines are spring-locked; others are key-locked to guard against un- authorised operation; still others furnish the further protection of counting the stamps used, the number appearing in figures on 4 recorder. ; sealing machines—these are designed for the rapid sealing of large quantities of envelopes. ‘the envelopes are fed to the machine one at a time, either by hand, semi-automatically by holding them against revolving feed rollers or automatically from a hopper—depending on the type of machine. the gummed flaps come in contact with a moistening device—a wick, a roller or a metal disk—which receives its water supply from a reservoir or by a position feed suction. the envclopes then pass between scaling rollers and are ejected from the machine. permit mailing machines—aan oflice having occasion to mail a thousand or more letters a day could greatly expedite their passage through the routine of mailing if the office were permitted to cancel the stamps or to print some indication that postage was paid, for this purpose, a u.s. post office regulation, passed in 1920, provides for the printing of the permit, or indicia, as it is called, directly on the envelope in the office of the mailer. permit mail is of two kinds—metered and non-metered; for either, the licence must be obtained from the post office dept. through the local postmaster, the mail being delivered to the post-office by the sender, as such mail is handled separately. machines which handle non-metered mail print the indicia, seal the envelopes and count the pieces. the impression must show the postmark— city and state, month, day and year, denomination and sender’s permit number. the number shown in the counter of the machine after a mailing is completed, multiplied by the denomin- ation, gives the amount of postage to be paid. payment is made either with each individual mailing or by a cash balance carried at the post-office. certain machines will print the indicia without sealing, seal without printing, or count without either scaling or printing. the basis of the meter system is a printing and recording mechanism demountable from the machine with which it is used, so that it can be taken to the post-office to be set for a given number of impressions, payment being made at that time, and the mechanism locked and sealed. two sets of registers indicate how much postage has been used. a separate meter is used for each denomination, and any number of meters can be secured for one machine. the indicia are the same as those printed by the non-metering type, except that the sender’s meter number is shown. the speed of such machines varies from 150 to 200 a minute. one type of machine is adapted for use with either the metered or the non-metered system. in 1924 the u.s. post office dept. issued a regulation permitting first-class mail to be sent out with pre-cancelled stamps attached. the stamps, obtained in coils from the post-office, are applied by a hand stamp-affixer and the envelopes are then passed through a non- metering permit machine which seals and counts them and prints the postmark and additional cancellation required. where bulk of mail does not warrant a permit machine, the postmark and additional cancellation are applied by a rubber stamp bearing a changeable date. one sealing machine is adapted to metered, non-metered and pre-cancelled systems, without mechanical alteration. cash registers (see 5.446).—motor-driven models are now available. autographic registers —on many occasions it 1s necessary to make by the carbon method several copies of pencil memoranda. the autographic register is a device for making at one writing an original and from one to six copies of sales slips, bills of lading, requisitions and other business records on continuous forms. these, interleaved with carbon, are retained within the register and fed across a writing table or platen. some registers use rolled forms, one roll for each copy of the record; others use flat folded forms. various type of registers have various methods of aligning the several copies that make up a set. as a written 1104 set 1s issued from the register, either by pulling out by hand or by the turn of a crank, and is torn off against a knife edge, another set, automatically leaved with carbon, is brought into a writing position. coin-handling devices —in all business houses where large amounts of coin are handled and packaged daily, the use of mechanical deyices for sorting, counting and packaging saves time and labour. coin-counters simply sort mixed coins into denominations. the usual type of machine has a disk revolving in a hopper, and the coins are carried by the disk to a rail finger from which they roll by gravity and are sorted by dropping through slots of various diameters into separate boxes. from 1,000 to 12,000 coins can be separated in a minute, depending on whether the model is hand or motor operated. coin-counting and packaging machines count the coins and deliver them into bags or wrappers, and, in specific cases, check pre-determined amounts into bags. one denomination of coin is dumped into the machine and a revolving disk throws the coins to the outer edge of the hopper, where they pass under a register which counts them. in some models the coins fall through a stem into a tubular wrapper which the operator has previously placed there; other models wrap with continuous rolls of paper, fed down as the coins are counted; when the required number of coins are in place, they are carried over to the paper and tightly wrapped, the machine automatically locking off further passage of coins. coin-counters and separators serve the dual purpose of counting and sorting coins of mixed denominations at the same operation. the registering devices of some machines provide for a totalled sum in connection with each separate adding counter; others have a sub-total and a total register. other coin-handling de- vices are bag-loading machines; proving and bagging machines which recount and bag coins that have been previously separated; continuous counting and bagging machines, which count and bag coins at a high rate of speed; counting machine heads, which handle one denomination at a time and handle metal tokens also; manual counters and packagers, which combine in one operation hand-counting and wrapping. dictating machines ——by means of the cylinder phonograph the time of a stenographer taking notes may be saved. the executive who uses this system speaks into the mouthpiece of a small machine which records his voice by engraving on a revolv- ing wax cylinder. he may pause in his dictation, correct an error, and at any time listen back to what he has said. when the cylinder is full, a typist puts it in a transcribing machine placed alongside her typewriter, and the reproduction of what has been dictated is carried to her by receivers placed over her ears, she typing the words as she hears them. the engraved surface of a used cylinder is removed by a shaving machine so that it may be used again and again. typewriters (see 27.501).—one machine which has been on the market a comparatively short time is practically noiseless in operation, because the principle of pressure printing instead of percussion printing is utilised. another is electrically powered and can be operated either from a direct or an alternating cur- rent; the keys are touched lightly—about one-quarter of an inch depression—and electricity takes up the burden. portable type- writers serve the need of the individual for a personal writing machine. their construction embodies many features of stand- ard office typewriters. the machine is usually secured to the bottom of the case in which it is carried, a permanent base being thus provided, making its use convenient under all conditions. the weight varies from 7 to 12 pounds. a wide selection of special keyboards and type arrangements for engincers, doctors, chemists and all those requiring special symbols and extra char- acters is available. _ cheque writers and protectors.—besides writing the permanent and unchangeable amounts on cheques, thereby protecting, as far as it is mechanically possible, against losses from raised and forged cheques, these devices save time and labour in concerns which issue large quantities of pay-roll cheques and in banks and establishments which issue dividend cheques periodically. pro- office appliances tection is afforded by printing, by shredding or by perforating the amount, using acid ink in one or two colours. the amount is written in words, in figures or in words and figures. certain models protect the payee’s name as well, by “ crimping” or shredding an un-inked design over it. after a cheque is inserted in the machine, the amount to be written is selected by slide levers set in vertical columns, by a hand wheel or by an indicator on the dial, depending on the type of machine. some models require one stroke of the operating handle for each word or number; others print the whole amount at one operation. in some models the amount is visible before and after printing, and in certain cases the name of the user is also printed. repeated writing of the same amount on a number of cheques, without change of set-up, is a feature of some cheque writers. an inter- esting development is the cheque writer with many combinations of foreign denominations for use in foreign banking. cheque certifiers—these devices print a form of acceptance on cheques, either through a ribbon from a bronze die or from steel wheels inked by a felt pad. some number the cheques with consecutive serial numbers. certain models are locked against unauthorised operation. cheque endorsers—motor-driven machines are used for endorsing large numbers of cheques. impressions are made from either a rubber or a metal die inked from rollers and having movable type for dates and batch numbers, cheques are fed by hand, one at a time, to those models designed for use along- side an adding machine, so that as each cheque is listed for clearing-house, transit, or deposit, the operator turns it over and drops it into the endorser, which prints the endorsement and places the cheque in its original order in a tray beneath the machine. other models provide for feeding a large number of cheques held at the feeder guide by the operator’s hand. cheque cancellers—enduring and inerasable evidence that a cheque has been paid, together with the date of payment, is provided by machines which perforate the cancellation through cheques, and if desired, the bank’s american bankers associa- tion number. dating of deposit slips, notes, mortgages, and other papers may also be done. hand models cancel from 100 to 225 cheques a minute; motor-driven models are speedier. cheque signers.—pay-cheque signing is speeded by devices which sign from five to 10 cheques at once. a sheet of cheques is placed on an extension table under a writing frame to which are attached five to 10 fountain pens controlled by a monitor penholder. as the operator signs a sheet of cheques they are pushed into a tray and another sheet is brought into position. finding and filing devices—simplification of filing and locating data compiled in digest form is achieved by three mechanical devices differing in construction, operation and purpose. the purpose of one is to find a single card by number. it is a metal, desk-like affair, in the top of which are ro trays, each holding numerically filed cards numbered from o to 999— 1,000 in all. a card is found and filed according to its number. by depressing the proper number-keys of the finding mechanism, the corresponding card is instantly raised above the others in the file. in filing a card, the operator raises the card immediately following to indicate the filing position. means are provided for finding mishled cards. another device finds a single card by means of the general class or name under which it has been classified. this system uses a steel drawer, on the front of which are two rows of keys marked with the classifications, such as ‘‘ farm lands,” ‘ west side property,” etc. the keys are connected with rods extending back through the drawer. one card can be filed under many classifications, by means of clips placed in position along its lower edge, which correspond to the classifications desired. pressure on the proper key raises the desired card, together with all those having a clip corresponding to the key. a tap returns the card to position. a third system provides for the automatic selection and segregation of cards according to any number of classifications, the basis of the system being the card. the top carries a brief summary of the record, or can be extensive enough for a posting office management record. the body of the card is perforated, two vertical perfora- tions constituting a “ position’ to which some classification is assigned. each card is prepared for automatic selection by con- verting the two holes of significant positions into a slot by means of a hand-operated slotting punch. the cards are placed in a file drawer, which has a brass front perforated to conform to the cards. if, for example, the device is used for a list of garages, and all garage cards are to be selected, a steel rod is placed in the position designating garages. if all garages having service stations for a particular motor-car are to be selected, another rod is placed in the position designating that information. the more rods, the finer the classification. the drawer is then in- verted, and the cards that are suitably slotted drop down. a rod inserted at the bottom of the drawer locks them in place, and when the drawer is held upright, the desired cards are held above the others in the file. when the work is finished, the locking rods are removed and the cards fall into place. visible index systems —an operation on a card system may be divided into several parts: (1) locating and removing the card; (2) making the record or noting the information; and (3) return- ing the card to place. if the second part is a small proportion of the whole time required, the total operation may be greatly simplified by using the so-called visikle system. the cards are usually mounted on panels in such manner that they overlap, showing only the title line, a slight lifting movement reveling the whole card. the panels are housed in several ways. sometimes they fit into steel cabinets and may be pulled out at a convenient angle for posting or removed entirely. in other cases, the panels—with cards inserted on both sides— are hung vertically, either on a circular track which rotates at the touch of a finger to bring the panel with the desired card before the eve or on a straight track so that they turn like the pages of a book. another type of visible index is in book form, the cards being either held on panels inserted between the covers or fastened into the binder, asin a loose-leaf binder. still another kind, which looks like a card drawer with the sides anc ends cut down, consists of an aluminium tray in which cards tabbed at different heights so that a portion of each tab is always visible are held by a lock rod. aluminium guides permit index- ing. pulling forward a guide exposes the tabs of a group of 24 cards, and the full surface of any one is visible when the intcr- vening ones are thrown over. with each type of visible index colour signal systems may be used to call attention to pertinent facts. electric paging systems ——by audible code signals sounded throughout the premises, this equipment immediately locates individuals who are away from their desks. the central station is usually located near the telephone switchboard, and the telephone operator sends the signals. telegraph typewrtter—an electrically operated typewriter used in hotel offices, banks and other businesses where informa- tion is daily transmitted to distant points, transmits messages in written form to any number of distant stations. as the message is typed on the sending typewriter, the words are written simultaneously and automatically by the distant receiv- ing typewriter. the paper is fed from a roll mounted on a frame behind the typewriter. tabulated forms and duplicated copies can be written. the telautograph is used for a similar purpose, but the message is handwritten instead of typed. credit authorising systems.—three distinct types of systems are used for transmitting to a department making a charge sale, the credit department’s o.k. on the sale. one is an electric telephone system with a switchboard in the credit department and a telephone in each sales department. as the sales person calls the credit department, she places the slip in an aperturc in the telephone, and the credit authoriser causes his approval to be printed on it if the sale is approved. (wh l*) office management.—the office is that part of an enter- prise which is devoted to the direction and co-ordination of the various activities of the enterprise. it is characterised by the gathering, classification and preservation of data of all sorts; the making, using and preservation of all kinds of records; the t105 analysis and utilisation of these data in planning, executing and determining the results of operation; the preparation, issuing and preservation of instructions and orders and the composition, copying and filing of written messages. though clerks and clerical work have existed for centuries, and large groups of clerks for decades, it ts only in recent years that the management of clerks, or office management, has become a problem of importance, this is wholly duc to the rapidity of industrial change, which is best shown in the united states. in 1880, when there were but 172,575 clerks in that country, mostly book-keepers and account- ants, the problem might be considered as practically non-existent; but in 1920, when the number of clerical workers of all kinds had grown to 2,951,008, if assumed proportions that could not he ignored. in 1920, one in 10 of all persons engaged in “ gainful occupations '’ was a clerical worker. the change was necessitated by the exigencies of an ever-growing large-scale industry. while business organisations were small, and direct contact existed between producer and consumer, beyond simple bookkeeping few records were required, there was little written communication between sections of an organisation, and consequently few clerks were needed. all this has changed, and to-day the office has attained a position of major importance in business. many offices employ more than 100 clerks each, and a considerable number employ several thousands. evidently the employment of such numbers of workers requires management of a high order, yet it is only recently and among the most progressive companies that the subject has received the attention it deserves. ingenious systems of record keeping and filing have been invented, scores of clever appliances and marvellous office machines are available (see or fice appliances), but the problem of securing the greatest result for the least expenditure of effort has not been given the attention in the office that it has in other lines of endeavour. this is due to the new- ness of the problem, but there are signs that this condition is sure to change as time passes. frederick winslow taylor (¢.v.), the ‘‘ father of scientific manage- ment,’’ was himself probably the first person to apply—at least in a limited measure—scientific principles to office work. in copley’s biography of taylor is shown a “ time note,”’ dated about 1885, giving ‘‘ piece-work '"’ rates on 17 clerical operations, the implica- tion being that taylor had at least studied these operations, found the best method of performing them and controlled them to the extent that he offered an incentive wage for their accomplishment. the human element the major divisions of office work are given herewith, but not necessarily in the order of their importance. organisation.—the most essential factor here is clearly defined lines of authority, and its lack is the greatest defect to be found in many companies. in the struggle for advancement it seems difficult to prevent officers from claiming more authority than is granted them, and where confusion of this kind exists, loss of morale invariably results. functionalisation—one of the leading principles of scientific management—is as efficacious in the office as elsewhere. the office manager himself holds a func- tional position—that of managing clerks, wherever located. where this principle is fully carried out, work, instead of being departmentalised, will be functionalised, and therefore performed much more effectively. thus, a stenographer employed exclu- sively in taking notes and transcribing letters, will do much more effective work than one who also kecps and files records, answers telephone calls and performs other miscellaneous work. func- tionalisation, however, is to its fullest extent only feasible in large offices. it is uneconomical to have too many departments under the charge of one officer. a chart of the orginisation, and an organisation diagram, both giving not only the position of each individual in the office but his duties and relation to others, are necessities. also there should be standard methods for per- forming each task, and written standard practice instructions so that the carefully devised methods may be perpetuated. otherwise great loss of output will result. personnel mcthods progressive records of each employee’s perigniaice. bie gicccssy ae ce es ae advancement. special tests for ascertaining the ability of new employees will prevent to a large extent the great wastage of continuous hiring and discharging. many psychological tests, special ability and trade tests have been prepared, extensively used and found advantageous (see intelligence tests). while there are many clerical positions which demand the very highest intelligence, all clerical work does not, and much of the simpler 1106 clerical work is found irksome when allotted to those capable of a higher grade of activity. training is extremely important, though often sadly neglected. in some offices the various lines of promotion are laid down and made known to all employces, so they can prepare themselves ior advancement. some offices also have officers who devote their activities wholly to employ- ment, and all persons who are to be discharged are referred for final adjudication to this officer—the employment manager. the advantage here is that competent employees are not lost to the organisation solely because of the personal pique of some hasty or temperamental officer. the employment manager also ascertains by tactful questioning the reasons why employees leave, and by a careful, classified record of such reasons is enabled to check bad practices, and to determine any other causes for dissatisfaction. t urnover.—the “ rate of turnover,” that is, the ratio of em- ployees leaving to those on the pay-roll, is a most important factor in good office management. an average cost of over $100 is represented in the training of a new employee who replaces one who has left, so that it is evidently desirable to retain em- ployees for long periods. turnover is dependent upon many factors. if employees are not properly selected, many replace- ments will be needed; if salaries are not right, physical conditions bad, or the relations of officers not as they should be, there will be many voluntary separations. a minimum turnover 1s con- sidered to be about 109% annually. length of service depends upon much the same conditions as rate of turnover. routines and mcthods.—a routine is a collection of separate operations through which a piece of work successively passes. division of labour has been highly developed in office work, and few operations are complete in themselves. routines as a rule are seldom consciously developed but come into existence gradu- ally through the use of machinery combined with hand-work. as a result, operations wholly or partially useless and of little or no value to the “ finished product ’—the result desired—are frequently found. methods also have gencrally speaking a simi- lar evolution, and yield great results from scientific research. unless both routines and methods are carefully studied, there is apt to be much waste. control of output —to secure maximum results for minimum effort, a continuous and uninterrupted flow of work is necessary, and this is one of the most difficult achievements in office work. in the manufacturing of any material commodity the work can be precisely scheduled, step by step, and the maintenance of a steady flow is largely a mechanical problem, as every piece of similar character goes through precisely the same steps. but in the office there is the added difficulty that office work of similar character does not always take the same course; and even in some work of exactly the same nature, the flow is governed by conditions beyond the control of the office manager. because of this fact it was, until very recently, considered impossible to plan and schedule office work. peaks, that is, periods demanding intensified and additional work, were handled either by over- time work, or by the permanent maintenance of a sufficient force of clerks to handle them, both plans being evidently waste- ful. analysis of this matter, however, showed that in many cases they could be adequately met by pre-planning. the office force should be well balanced, and sufficiently large to handle average conditions; but a sufficient number of clerks should be trained in several operations. then by utilising the idea of the flying squadron ”’—a selected group of clerks that can be used almost anywhere in an emergency—most of the minor peaks can be handled without difficulty. major peaks can be dealt with by a re-adjustment of working force and the employment of extra clerks for positions which require only a minimum of training. clerical output.—on this subject all the major factors of office management converge, and all have a bearing upon it. under conditions where all factors have been scientifically studied, clerical output is invariably much greater than in organisations in which they are largely ignored. thus in the office of the latter character the average output of a stenographer will rarely exceed office management 100 sq. in. per hour, while in a scientifically managed office this particular output will be increased to an average of 200 sq. in. per hour. the maintenance of the latter rate does not depend alone upon the skill and application of the stenographer—for 200 sq. in. per hour is but 30 words a minute, while the world’s typewriting record is over 800 sq. in. per hour—but largely upon other factors outside the control of the operator and decid- edly within that of the office manager.’ as with typewriting, so it is with all other clerical operations; the output usually depends much more upon the efforts of the management than upon those of the individual clerk. the cffort should not be to obtain the highest possible output from any individual, but that which should be expected from a first-class worker. the incentive wage.—still another factor which aids in obtain- ing a high clerical output, is an incentive wage of some kind, wherever it is possible to measure the work. the various methods of incentive wage used in other lines of business endeavour have all been tried in the office, some with considerable success, others with disastrous results. in the cases of failure the main causes generally are that (1) work was not properly standardised; (2) not properly measured; (3) steady flow not obtained; (4) work not properly controlled; and (5) no adequate check upon its quality. piece-work in the office is not so generally applicable, because the worker must have a guaranteed minimum wage, and it is not always possible to supply him with sufficient work to make that wage on a piece-work basis. the meechanical side the preceding factors deal almost wholly with the manage- ment of the human element, and now other factors must be considered—those physical factors without which efficient man- agement is not possible. arrangement,—the physical arrangement of an office affects all other factors of management. as most offices are in large cities, rentals are high, and therefore space must be conserved. for this reason the cubicles of the aideeeioned office are giving way to the open office. departments having relations with each other should be contiguously located, and the seating of the workers in each de- partment be regulated also on this principle. work should flow in straight lines. adequate light, both daylight and artificial, should be rovided, the standard of the latter being placed by experts at not ess than 10 foot-candles (see illumination e.nginefring). the totally indirect system, in which the light is thrown from its source to the ceiling, and from thence reflected down, is considered the best. ventilation is an important matter also. experiments show that the best ventilating system is that which brings in fresh air from the outside without altering it in any way, this being superior to the elaborate washed and heated air systems (see heating and ventila- tion). excessive noise is also detrimental to good work, and noisy machines, if numerous, should be segregated. | equipment.—under this head are included desks, tables, chairs, filing cabinets and similar furnishings. the old-fashioned roll-top desk is being rapidly eliminated, and as the present tendency is to the extended use of small loose-leaf books and cards, the high- standing book-keeper’s desk has largely disappeared. at present the usual office desk is too large and contains too many drawers, and as clerks have little need for more than one or two drawers, a table is generally preferable. the size of a desk depends naturally upon the character of the work, but a desk larger than 54 in. x 30 in. is rarely needed, though no desk should be smaller than 4o in. x 30 inches. chairs to be comfortable require designing to fit the human anatomy in an upright seated position. a few good anatomical chair types are available, but most of the others are uncomfortable. office machinery.—lere the greatest development has taken place, office appliances being now available for almost every occasion (see office appliances). there was a tendency to use machines to the exclusion of competent brainwork, but office managers are beginning to see that this is a mistake. correspondence.—this is naturally an extremely important part of office management, not only between the company and outside correspondence, but within the organisation itself. the present tend- ency is toward brevity and clarity, and the florid style and redundant expressions of the so-called ‘“‘ business english ”’ are in process of elimination. filing.—the vertical system of filing has almost entirely super- seded the old-fashioned flat file, and elaborate systems have been greatly simplified. its greatest present misuse is the filing of value- less and superfluous material. the filing problem requires not only adequacy in equipment and system, but also accuracy, which necessitates adequately trained operators, for misfiled papers may easily cause great loss. | a ohio | stock-keeping.—in a large office the maintenance and issue of an adequate stock of all forms in use becomes a problem in scientific stock-keeping. order and neatness are necessary, and an adequate location system, so that material can be found with a minimum loss of time. stores should be classified according to some well-devised system, and there should be a perpetual inventory and a systematic method of issuing stores to, or on the order of, authorised persons. intercommunications,—this factor is a most important one in large offices. the telephone is of course the most common method, but there is usually a large transfer of papers from one part of the organisation to another, and this must be taken care of by well- organised messenger systems with regularly scheduled trips. in many offices automatic belt systems or other forms of conveyors are used. mechanical devices of other kinds are automatic signalling systems, automatic telephones and so forth, forms.—most office work is performed by writing upon some kind of blank form, whether they be detached or loose-leaf forms, the quality of paper selected for any form should be governed by the use to which it is put. if it isto be written upon with pencil it is wasteful to use a high-grade paper designed for writing with ink. when forms have a temporary value only, the paper should be of a cheaper quality than that of forms to be kept for a number of years. selecting stand- ard qualities of paper for these various purposes requires consider- able study. a large variety of colours should not be used, as many of them—particularly the reds and blues with their varying shades— are difficult to read under artificial light. not more than nine stand- ard sizes of forms are usually needed. salary standards.—in most offices salaries vary widely and often unreasonably, clerks doing similar work frequently receiv- ing widely different salaries. some of the best-managed organi- sations have made a careful gradation of salaries, with a maxi- mum and minimum for each class of worker. the minimum is that salary which a clerk is entitled to as soon as he is assigned his position, and the maximum the highest salary which the company can afford to pay for that type of work. such grada- tion eliminates gross inequalities, gives more equitable payment for results and minimises dissatisfaction among the oflice force. summary office management is highly complicated, and requires a spe- cialist—a manager of high order who at the same time thoroughly understands clerical work. the scientific approach to the factors of office management may be briefly defined. first it is necessary to define thoroughly the purpose of any work about to be under- taken, for if this is neglected the path of the subsequent investi- gation is likely to follow incorrect lines. then the problem should be carefully analysed by dividing it into its factors. these preliminary steps, though simple in a statement, are by no means so simple in fact. the next step involves a careful search for all the facts in the situation which govern each and every factor in the analysis. it is a very common oversight to gather an abun- dance of facts on one part of a problem, and ignore or minimise other parts. to infer, without investigating, is a most prolific source of error, the method of actual test being by far the best. these three steps are precisely those of experimental science, and may be called the scientific method of thinking out a problem. by its use, the office manager can correctly approach each prob- lem and devise the right method, otherwise known tin manage- ment as “ the one best way.”’ with the best method secured, it is then necessary to select the person best fitted to perform it, for all cannot be equally proficient in the same things. the person best fitted for any particular task will invariably produce better results than the so-called “ average” person. when found, it then becomes necessary to teach the person who has been thus selected. these six steps constitute the basic procedure in any form of scientific management and lead up to the seventh, which is planning. without careful planning, all the scientifically de- signed work which has gone before will be wasted. finally, to secure the best results it is vitally important to win the co- operation of the workers. an office force labouring without interest or enthusiasm will accomplish some results, but certainly not of the type desired by a competent office manager. the manage- ment which does not and cannot secure co-operation is neces- sarily defective. these eight steps cover the basic principles of scientific management in all activities. there is also a consid- erable tendency toward the simplification of office methods and 1107 the entire elimination of much that has been done in the past, on the ground that it is either superfluous or not worth the effort expended. these tendencies are continuously accelerated by economic conditions. scientific management will be the principal means of reducing the numerical growth of office workers. binirocrapiy.—c. c. parsons, office organisation and manage- ment (1917); mary f. cahill and agnes c. ruggeri, office practice (1917); w. h. leffingwell, scientific office management (1917); l. galloway, office management; its princtples and: practice (1925); j. w. schulze, office administration (1919). (w. h. l.*) ohio (see 20.25), a state of the united states of america. in 1924 ohio had a population of 6,219,330, an increase of 20-8°% in the decade 1910-20 or of 30-5% since r910. the density of population rose from 117 per sq. m. in ror1o, to 141-4 in 1920. there was a marked increase in the negro population of the cities owing to migration from the south, and also of the forcign clement. more significant was the drift from rural districts to cities. in ro1o the urban population in cities and incor- porated villages of 2,500 inhabitants or more, formed 55:9% of the total; in 1920 it was 63:8%. in 1925 cight cities had a population in excess of 100,000. cities with 100,000 inhabitants or over (1925). akron 208,435! columbus 292,222 canton 114,648 dayton 178,642 cincinnati 418,792 toledo 288,792 cleveland 922,864 youngstown 159,870 i 1024, communications—a flood in 1913 wrecked the two principal canals, the miami and erie from cincinnati to toledo, and the ohio and erie from portsmouth on the ohio river to cleveland: they had not been restored by 1926. the lower part of the muskingum river and that part of the ohio bordering the state has been canalised. the chief development in transportation has been the expansion of interurban traction service and the establishment of motortruck lines. in 1919 there were 4,223 m. of electric railway. in steam-railway mileage there was no significant change between 1900 and 1920. in order to meet the demand of the motor-car for improved roads large state ex- penditures have been made, and in 1918 31,800 m., or 36°8% of the rural public roads had been surfaced. agriculture —the total value of all farm property in 1920 was $3,095,666,336, as against $1,902,694,589 in 1g10, an increase of 62:7%. the total value of live stock in 1920 was $287,655,118. in 1019 the value of all crops was $607,037,562, an increase of 174°6 over 1909. the following table shows the quantity and value of the chief agricultural products according to the united states census. agricultural production ro19 quantit increase crop oy na yo over in $ yo ovel es i erne eee corn 149,844,626] — 4-9 |217,274,709| 163-9 oats . 46,818,330] —18-7 | 39,795,590 714 wheat —_. 53,124,351 89°6 | 127,873,574] 311-0 hay and forage 7,661,890! oe 1 30,187,929 66 tobacco 64,420,472"| —27°3 | 13,528,302 50:3 1 tons. 2 pounds. the total acreage harvested in 1919 was 11,780,554, an increase of 3-1% over 1909. mineral products —from 1900-18 there was an increase in the annual output of bituminous coal from 16,900,000 to 40,900,000 short tons; in 1923, 40,546,433 short tons were produced. the coal of ohio is produced mainly in the southeastern part of the state. the fire-clay mines of tuscarawas, jefferson, columbiana stark and carroll counties supply the raw material for a rapidly rising industry. in 1917 3,694,302 net tons of coke were pro- duced: in r918 the output of natural gas was valued at $24,- 234,741. the production of crude petroleum has fallen; the total for 1918 was 7,285,005 bar. with a value of $23,465,197 (sce petroleum), , 1108 manufactures:—according to the preliminary report of the biennial census of manufactures, 1923 (dept. of commerce), the manufactures of ohio have nearly returned to the war-time level. the table below gives the development from 1914-23. the most notable advance was in the production of motor- cars and in the manufacture of motor-car tires. the value of all tangible property in ohio was estimated in 1922 at $18,489,000,- ooo. the per capita wealth increased from $1,076 in 1890 to $3,048 in 1922. history.—the chief political advance has been the progress in adapting the constitution and the system of administration to the new needs of the state. at the election of rg10 a general constitutional convention was approved by a large majority. delegates were chosen in nov. rg11, and the convention sat jan. —june 1912. the delegates, of whom the majority were demo- crats, represented the progressive clements of both major parties. forty-two amendments were submitted to the voters on sept. 3 1912, of which 34 were ratified; among those defeated were the abolition of capital punishment, woman suffrage, and a $50,000,000 bond issue for a state system of roads. the tax- reformers secured for the general assembly the power to impose inheritance, income and franchise taxes as well as taxes upon the production of coal, oil, gas and other minerals. a tax com- mission created in 1910 succeeded in bringing out for taxation the property of corporations at something near a true valuation, and in obtaining the adoption of the 1% rule as the maximum rate for taxation. the league for direct legislation secured the initiative and the referendum, the liquor interests a licensing system. in 1918, on the eve of federal prohibition, an amend- ment incorporated state prohibition in the state constitution. a law of 1910 centralised the taxing power in a small state tax commission, bringing to an end an expensive system of decennial boards of equalisation. the following year all the charitable and penal institutions were placed under a board of administra- tion. in rg1r the old railroad commission became the public service commission. the act of ro1r gave the public service commission the same power over public utilities in general which the railroad commission had had over railways and telegraphs. in 1913 the legislature changed the public service commission to a public utilities commission. at the same session of the general assembly a state industrial commission was created to assume the functions of the older boards of awards, depart- ments of inspection, etc. in 1911 the workmen’s compensa- tion act substituted ‘a system of compensation for industrial accidents, which compensation is to be paid out of a state insurance fund, to which both employers and employees con- tributed (90% and 10% respectively) in lieu of the civil action for damages.” a law of 1913 made compulsory the system of state insurance. employers were required to guard the safety of employees and also to arrange reasonable hours of work. ohio under the act maintains its own state insurance fund. by 1918 the premium income to the state fund amounted annually to $9,000,000. at a cost of 43% of the premium receipts the indus- trial commission gave protection to more than 1,500,000 workmen. in 1913 the department of agriculture, the state experiment station and the college of agriculture, together with the dairy and food commissioner and the fish and game commissioner, were brought under an agricultural commission with four members. two years later, the legislature undid the reform in part, making the experiment station and the agricultural college independent institutions, and restoring the large board of agriculture of 10 members without a salary. a change in political parties occurred again in 1917 and the legislature, while retaining the large board of agriculture, made its functions those of an advisory council. the position of secretary of agriculture was created. ohio river—oils and fats one of the constitutional amendments of 1912 instructed the legislature to make provision for a state-wide public-school sys- tem, and substitute for the commissioner elected by the people a superintendent of public instruction, appointed by the governor. in i914 the legislature enacted a rural school code; and in 1917 created a state board of education. the reorganised depart- ment of education was instructed to emphasise rural agricultural education, and to co-operate with the federal govt. in vocational education. the old state board of health was re- formed at the same session. in the act of 1917 a state commis- sioner of health was supported by an advisory public health council of four members. a statute of rorg created a state-wide system of municipal and general health districts and the powers of the department of health were greatly increased. the general assembly in 1915 created a state highway commissioner, and in an act of 1919 authorised the development of a state system of highways and co-operation with the road-making enterprises of the federal government. in 1921 an act was passed which combined the numerous departments and commissions into nine departments—finance, commerce, public works, agriculture, health, industrial relations, examinations, education and public welfare. if the act stands the test of constitutionality ohio will have a system of adminis- tration analogous to that of the federal government. other legislation included a children’s code (1913), providing a state- wide juvenile court and a mothers’ allowance system, and a pension system for teachers in the public schools (1919). in 1921 the legislature authorised a world war compensation fund of $25,000,000, and the establishment of co-operative marketing associations. in 1925 it once more undertook, with only slight success, to adjust an antiquated tax system to modern conditions. a disastrous flood in 1913, affecting especially the inhabitants of the miami, the scioto and the muskingum river valleys, led to a measure for the protection of the river valleys from future damage of the kind. by 1921 the miami conservancy district had practically completed a series of dry reservoir dams costing $25,000,000. governors since 1913 have been judson harmon (dem.), 1909-13; james m. cox (dem.), 1913-5 and 1917-21; frank b. willis (rep.), 1915-7; harry l. davis (rep.), 1921-3; victor a. donahey (dem.), 1923- . (e. j. b.*) ohio river: see mississippi. ohnet, georges (1848-1918), french novelist and man of letters (see 20.35), published in 1908 la route rouge, and in 1912 la serre de laighe. his last work was journal d’un bourgeois de parts pendunt la guerre de 1914 (1914-5). he died may 5 1918. oil: see petroleum. oils and fats (sce 20.43).—long experience in the con- struction and use of hydraulic presses led to something ap- proaching a state of perfection early in the present century. the process of extraction of oils by means of solvents is, however, a more recent introduction into the industry. i. the manufacturing side solvent processes.—in the earlier extraction plants losses of solvent were often high, extraction of oi] from seed was incom- plete, and the oil obtained was of inferior quality and frequently unsuitable for edible purposes. the methods of construction and operation of extraction plant have been improved to such an extent that the losses of solvent (generally light petroleum spirit) only amount to about 1% of the weight of seed treated. the oil content of the residual meal can easily be reduced to 2%, or even less, and oi] of excellent quality is produced, the oil being quite equal to that prepared by expression. there is, therefore, at the present time but little to choose between pressing and solvent extraction, and the choice of the process rests i9itg 1921 1923 average number of wage earners 510,435 730,733 494,288 699,031 wage payments . $317,923,000 $944,651,000 $627 033,000 $979,660,000 value of products $960,811 ,000 ¢5, 100,308,000 $3,300,693,000 $5,046, 504,000 oils and fats rather on the kind of seed to be treated than on grounds of cost of working or efficiency. where the maximum yield of oil ts desired, and the residual meal is not required to contain more than traces of oil, solvent extraction is obviously better. in a good many cases seed is pressed first and the residual cake afterwards extracted by solvents. in the oil seed crushing industry it has always been an aim to devise continuous methods of operation. several machines for the continuous expression of oil sceds have been devised and patented, but so far only one such machine, the anderson “ ex- eller,’ appears to have met with commercial popularity. patents ave also been taken out for continuous processes of solvent extrac- tion, but it does not seem that any of these have been put into actual commercial operation. refining and bleaching—many of the chemicals formerly used or proposed are not now employed. in practice treatment of certain oils (e.g., linseed and rape oils) with sulphuric acid is effective, while treatment with caustic soda, which neutralises free fatty acids, and in many cases also removes colouring mat- ter and other impurities, is largely employed. the use of caustic soda for neutralising oils has certainly increased in late years with the growing use of oils for edible purposes. outwardly the principles of the process are simple, neutralisation of free fatty acid by soda and the removal of the soap formed from the neu- tralised oil. actually the problem is onc of some complexity from the physico-chemical point of view, involving as it does the forma- tion of emulsions. various processes have been devised with a view to obtaining bet- ter or more rapid separation of the soap from oil, and also to lowering the loss of neutral oil carried away with the soap, such as that of c. baskerville (j. ind. eng. chem. 8, 118, 1916) in which about 2 °% of prepared cotton fibre is added with the soda to the oil, enabling the soap (and cotton) to be separated from oil by means of a filter press. in other processes a vacuum is employed to assist removal of water after neutralising, so as to obtain the soap in a dry form, which can be separated from oil by filtration. fiftration.—the methods of removal of insoluble suspended im- purities from crude oils have been improved, and the use of filter presses, which assist filtration and also cause clarification of the oil, is common, high speed centrifugal clarification is in many cases advantageous, while the introduction of a new type of filter—the hele-shaw “ stream-line”’ filter—may have far-reaching applica- tions. considerable advances in the methods of “ bleaching ”’ oils by means of various decolourising materials such as natural fullers earths, chemically treated earths, and charcoals, have been made and the use of such materials, particularly in the edible oil industry where freedom from colour is desirable, has undoubtedly increased. activation. —methods of “ activating ’’ vegetable carbons so as to render them highly efficient as decolourising agents which can compete with animal or bone charcoal, formerly the most efficient variety of decolourising charcoal have been developed. the methods of activating vegetable decolourising charcoals owe a good deal to the investigations carried out during the war on methods of pro- ducing vegetable charcoal with a high absorptive capacity for gases such as was required in gas masks. the nature of the physical reac- tions of carbon treatedl in various ways was thus elucidated. while the removal of colour is due chiefly, if not entirely, to physical ad- sorption of the colouring matter, further investigation 1s desirable, both in the direction of elucidating more fully the medus operand: of the decolourising effect and also towards further improvement of decolourising agents. chemical methods of bleaching oils and fats generally involve treatment by oxidising agents, and are seldom, if ever, employed in bleaching oils for edible purposes. oils for technical use, e.g., for soap manufacture, are still generally bleached by air or by bichro- mate and acil or ‘by hypochlorites, but various other oxidising agents such as certain organic peroxides and metallic per-salts are also used. deodorisation of oils.—practically all processes depend on the passage through the heated oi! of a current of steam, which carries off the more volatile substances to which odour 3s due. in the earlier processes steam at comparatively low temperature was employed, and as much as 2 lbs. of steam was often required to deodorise 1 lb. of oil. deodorisation is still to some extent regarded as a trade secret, but modern development has all been in the direction of employing superheated steam and_ higher temperature of oi! assisted by high degree of vacuum. deodcor- isation is now much more efficient than formerly, both in degree and in consumption of steam. the use of inert gases, such as car- bon dioxide or hydrogen, in place of steam has also been tried. artificial oils and fats——the conversion of hydrocarbons from petroleum into fatty acids by processes of oxidation has attracted a good deal of attention, by reason of the large difler- i109 ence in price between hydrocarbon oils and fatty acids (which may be converted to oils by reaction with glycerol). fatty acids undoubtedly can be produced from hydrocarbons, but so far it does not appear that any process has been devised which shows a likelihood of commercial success. fatty acids are in many cases by-products of the oil industry; they also frequently exist in a free state mixed with neutral oils in crude oils, and have to be removed before the oil can be used for many purposes. jhe conversion of fatty acids into neutral oi by esterification with glycerol is the subject of certain patents. tech- nically the conversion of fatty acids into neutral glycerides has been suzgested. (1) for the purpose of converting fatty acids of low value into neutral oils of higher value, (2) for the neutralisation of free fatty acids naturally present in crude oils, (3) for the produc- tion of glyccri:les having certain desirable properties, e.g., mixed triglycerides containing definite fatty acids.. esterification has certainly been carried out technically but, owing to the reticence of manufacturers, it is not possible to indicate its technical importance. hydrogenation of oils.—in principle the process is one of great simplicity, involving the combination of hydrogen with a liquid oil containing unsaturated fatty acids, the resulting product being a solid fat containing saturated fatty acids. thus liquid olein, the triglyceride of oleic acid, a common constituent of liquid oils, is converted to solid stearin, the triglyceride of stearic acid, accord- ing to the chemical equation cyh3;coom-+ h2= crlycooh. this reaction is effected by bringing the liquid oil into contact with hydrogen gas in presence of small amounts of catalytic metals. metals such as platinum and palladium are active hydrogenation catalysts at low temperatures, even at ordinary atmospheric tem- perature, but these metals are too expensive to be used on the large scale demanded by modern requirements, and have been displaced in the oil industry by nickel catalysts. many patents dealing with the production of suitable catalysts, machinery for carrying out the reaction, and other details, have been taken out. the process con- sists as a rule in heating the oil and nickel powder catalyst to 150- 200° c., in a closed vessel with hydrogen under pressure of 50 ib. per sq. in. or more, thorough agitation being effected either by stirring gear or circulation of hydrogen through the oil by pump or by both these means. after hydrogenation to the desired degree, t.e., after sufficient hydrogen is combined to produce an oil of the required hardness, the mixture of oil and vet is run out of the reaction vessel and the catalyst removed by filtration. the catalyst most usually employed 1s a mixture of nickel and some inert material such as kieselguhr (siliceous earth), the latter being used to afford a large surface of catalytic material. the catalyst 1s produced by precipitating an insoluble nickel salt in presence of the inert material; nickel carbonate is commonly employed and this is formed by a.lding the requisite amount of sodium carbonate solu- tion to a suspension of the inert material in a solution of nickel salt (generally nickel sulphate). the precipitated nickel salt, etc. is collected andl washe:l in filter presses until free from soluble salts; it is then dried and reduced in a current of hydrogen, generally at a temperature of 300° c. or over. after reduction the catalyst is kept from contact with air either by admixture with oil or by keeping in an atmosphere of inert gas. the reduced catalyst powder has generally a content of nickel of about 20 per cent. in the hydrogenation of oils of good quality an addition to the oil of as little as 0-1°% of actual nickel is sufficient to bring about hydrogenation, but lower grades of oi] may require considerably more, while very fow grades of oif cannot be treated economically owing to the presence of impurities which “ poison ” or render the catalyst ineffective. this powder catalyst process has been developed to a very high degree i efficiency, and the process of hydrogenating oils has grown to a very large extent. the powder process 1s not continuous and the powder catalyst must be removed from the oil by filtration. further the nickel catalyst can only be recovered for re-use by costly processes. by a recently developed process metallic nickel in the form of fine turnings is employed as catalyst. these turnings are packed permanently tn cages which fit into the reaction vessels. in this process of hydro- genation the oil flows continuously through heated reaction vessels containing cages of nickel turnings in presence of hydrogen; and hydrogenated oil entirely free from nickel and requiring no filtration is delivered from the plant. the degree of hydrogenation is readily controlled by the rate of flow of oil, while the nickel catalyst is regenerated without loss in weight, and at low cost by a simple pro- cess of electrolytic oxidation (eng. pat. no. 203,218). the process of hydrogenation has le:l to much important work on the mechanism of the reaction, the effect of ‘' poisons ”’ on catalysts, and the nature of the catalytic action of metals. oils hydrogenated under such conditions as obtain in technical practice as a rule contain considerable amounts of iso-oleic acid, a solid unsaturated acid isomeric with ordinary liquid oleic acid. this facilitates the identifi- cation of hydrogenated oils in compounde:! oils (kx. a. williams and e.r. bolton, analyst, vol. 49, p. 460 1924), which was otherwise difficult or even impossible. iiio speaking broadly, the hydrogenation of oils may _ be looked upon as the most important advance in the oils and fats industry during the present century, and hydrogenated or hari- ened oils are used to a very large extent chiefly in edible oil and in soap manufacture. by it liquid oils may be converted into solid fats of any desired degree of hardness and many oils which are of low value on account of odour and flavour, such as fish and whale oils, can be rendered odourless and tasteless. oil analysis and the constituents of oifs.—the general tendency has been to increase the delicacy and reliability of the various tests, and from increased knowledge obtained as to the “ con- stants ” of various oils to render more easy the detection of ad- mixtures or adulterants. the task of the analyst has increased considerably in difficulty owing to the improved methods of refining oils employed in commercial practice, to the increased complexity of mixtures of blended oils and to the widespread use of hardened oils. much work has been done on the nature of the fatty acids present in oils and fats, and the relative propor- tions of the different fatty acids occurring (as neutral glycerides) in commercial oils and fats are now generally known with a de- sirable degree of exactitude. there is a lack of information as to the exact forms of triglycerides existing in most oils and fats. mixed triglycerides, such as olco- distearin, have been separated from natural fats, but so far such substances can only be separated by tedious methods of fractional crystallisation, which do not afford accurate quantitative evidence. the importance of mixed triglycerides is certainly great, for example, their influence on the consistence and general physical properties of fats. the inner structure of the molecule of various fatty acids has received attention, by the application of the x-ray spectrograph (e.g., a. miller, chem. soc. trans., vol. 123, p. 2043 1923). new constituents of oils—in the liver oils of certain sharks and other marine animals large amounts of unsaponifable matter, con- sisting of highly unsaturated hydrocarbons, have been discovered, thus spinacene—cyhso—was isolated from the liver oils of centrophorus granulosus and scymnus lichia by a. c. chapman (chem. soc. trans. vol. 111, p. 56 1917). similar or identical hydro- carbons have been obtained from many other marine animal oils by a. m. tsujimoto. soap (25.296).—an interesting example of the application of scientific methods to the technique of soap making is the work of k. maclennan (chemistry and industry, 1923, 393 t) dealing with the microscopical character of the soaps of individual fatty acids, and with the structure of the soap during different stages in the manufacture. a general improvement in technique and machinery ts evident. machines for artificial cooling of soap enable the soap to be obtained in the form of solid slabs ready for cutting in about two hours, com- pared with the four or five days formerly necessary when spontaneous cooling in frames was employed. the oils used by the soap maker in recent years have to some extent changed, and the increased demand for oils for edible purposes (¢.g., margarine) has caused a rise in price in some cases, and such oils have consequently been replaced by other cheaper oil for soap making. soya bean oil has proved useful to the soap maker as a substitute for more expensive matcrials. hardened oils have also come into use in soap making, while full use has been made of the increasing quantities of by-products obtained as a result of the removal of free tatty acids in the refining of crude oils for edible and other purposes (see under refining). in refining oils with caustic soda the soap formed together with any excess of caustic soda and associated ncutral oil 1s deposited as soap stock; this forms a useful raw material for the soap maker on the spot, if not used in the same factory the soap stock is generally converted into “ acid oil” (by treatment with an excess of mincral acid) so as to obtain a more homogenous material and to save cost of transport by removal of water. the production, improvement and use for domestic as well as technical purposes of dry soap in the form of powder or flakes; are noteworthy. investigations into the colloidal and other physical properties as well as to the chemical nature of soap and soap solutions, have resulted in a better under- standing of many problems connected with soap; for example, meth- ods have been devised for measuring the detergent action of soaps. bibliography.—-oi/s and fats.—general.—a. bruno, beurres et graisses animales (1912); g. halphen, huiles et graisses vegetales comestibles (1912); c. a. mitchell, edible oils and fais (1918); w. w. myddleton and t. h. barry, fats, natural and synthetic (1924); s. s. sadtler and e. c. lathrop, ed. al/en’s commercial organic analysis, vol. 2, 5th ed. (1924); l. e. andes, vegetable fats and ous, 4th ed. (1925); a. griin, analyse der fette und w'achse, vol. 1 (bre- men, 1925); e. r. bolton, oils, feats and fatty foods (1926). spec- salised.—t. w. chalmers, production and treatment of vegetable oils (1918); c. ellis, ifydrogenation of oils, and ed. (1919); w. oils and fats clayton, margarine (1920); e. r. bolton and r. g. pelly, ovs, fats, waxes and resins, vol. 9, resources of the empire scries (1924). periodicals.—annual reports on the progress of applied chemisiry; chemistry and industry, both published by the soc. of chem. ind.; ou and colour trades jour.; chemische umschau; les matteres grasses; jour, of indust. and eng. chem. (amer. chem. soc.); the analyst (jour. of soc. of public analysts). (e.r, b.*) ii. the distributing side the trade in oils and fats has always been important, but it was not until the war period that any systematic attempt has been made to compile statistics. during the war industry was brought temporarily under governmental control in great britain, in germany and some other countries, and the need for more accu- rate information as to available supplies was acutely realised. the international institute of agriculture, rome, began to collect statistics from the various producing and exporting countries, and these have been published in oleuginous products and vegetable oils. figures dealing with production are in most cases largely guesswork. the bulk of the oilseeds are shipped from tropical countries, many of which are still in a primitive state of develop- ment. moreover, a considerable proportion of the production is consumed in various ways in the countries of origin, and in most of them are numerous small native mills producing oils for local use, and using up in many cases as much as half the total crops. the difficulties therefore in the way of obtaining complete statistics are very great. since the war, however, a considerable advance has been made in the method of estimating crops, and government reports for the principal producing countries are now issued at recular intervals for most of the oilseeds prominent on the international markets. the pioneers in the oilseed industry were the soap manufac- turers, who, as they found their supplies of raw material being encroached upon by the demands from the edible oils trade— demands which steadily increased with the development of better refining methods—were driven to search in new directions. the effect of the war was to arrest this expansion, to divert available supplies to allied countries, and to favour those sources of supply which lay nearest to hand. the blockade cut out germany as an importer, and many seeds and nuts which previously had gone mainly or exclusively to the continent, such as groundnuts, sesame sced, palm kernels and copra, were diverted to great britain. moreover, economy of freight space being essential, and oil occupying much less room than seed, a considerable stimulus was given to the erection of oil-mills in countries of production, and to the development of the export from there of oilin bulk. particularly was this the case with copra and coco- nut oil. in both the philippines and dutch east indies extensive crushing plants were put up, and shipments of oil increased in the one case from 5,000 tons in 1913 to 140,000 tons in rg1g, and in the other, from 1,000 tons in 1913 to 75,000 tons in 191g. after the war former conditions were gradually restored, though great britain continued to import palm kernels, copra and groundnuts to a much greater extent than before. the war helped the development of refining processes. the vital necessity of finding supplies of oils and fats for the armies and the civil population gave a great impulse to research, and many oils which had hitherto been regarded as purely industrial, became available for edible purposes as a result of improved methods of refining and deodorising; rape oil, which had pre- viously been used for burning and lubricating, and palm oil for soapmaking, took a place in the list of important potential edible oils. another process—hydrogenation, whereby a liquid oil is enabled to absorb hydrogen and is hardened—was greatly developed. this process brought whale oil to the margarine manufacturer. the gencrat effect of these changes has been to increase very considerably the interchangeability of oils. while each oil may be said to have a particular purpose for which it is most suited, it can be readily turned to other purposes if the price factor is right. whereas previously there were wide differences in prices the tendency now is for all refined oils to approximate in value. oils and fats the production of oilseeds is liable to very considerable fluctu- ations, but in a normal year the following estimates of the main crops may be taken as approximately correct :— exportable surplus from producing countries world’s production equivalent oilseeds of exportable surplus product tons tons tons linseed ; cottonseed ground nuts. rape and mustard sesame ‘ ; soya beans sunflower copra . e ox palm kernels . castor sced 4,000,000 11,000,000 2,500,000 1,500,000 600,000 4,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 500,000 300,090 oil | 700,000 2,000,000 900,000 800,000 380,000 300,000 1,000,000 30,000 600,000 450,000 150,099 600,000 162,000 280,000 133,000 135,000 100,000 9,000 390,000 202,000 63,000 olive oil total 120,000 120,000 | 2,194,000 linseed.—the main producing countries are argentina, india, u.s.a., canada and russia. about 50% of the total is. now pro- duced in argentina, where expansion has been steady over the last 20 years, and was largely unaffected by the war. the seed is mainly exported to the crushing mills in europe, though america imports considerable quantities, varying according to the fluctuations in the home crop. production in canada and the united states has varied largely. normally america con- sumes about 1,000,000 tons of seed and any deficiency in the home production has to be made good by imports of seed from argentina or of oil from europe. in 1922, 64,000 tons of linseed oil were exported from europe to america. in india, flax is cultivated for the seed and not the fibre. production of linseed amounts to from 500,000 to 600,000 tons, of which about 80% is exported, almost entirely to europe. with the increasing competition from argentina there has been a tendency to dimin- ish production. russia as a producer and exporter of linseed was practically eliminated during the war and subsequent revo- lution, but is now again resuming exports. production in 1925 reached 600,000 tons, which is about normal. pre-war exporis amounted to approximately 150,o00 tons a year. cottonseed.—the main producing countrics are the united states, india and egypt, but cultivation has extended to other countries, e.g., south america (brazil, peru, argentina), east and west africa (nigeria, uganda, sudan) and australia. with the increasing demand from the textile industry for cotton, a great expansion in cultivation is inevitable and with it the pro- duction of cottonseed, one of the greatest sources of edible vegetable oil. up to 1870 cottonseed in the united states was a useless encumbrance to the planter. with the discovery and development of refining, numerous oil-mills were erected, and now some 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 tons of sced are crushed an- nually, producing about 600,000 tons of oil. up to a few years ago 150,000 tons of oil were exported annually to europe, but owing to increasing home consumption the exportable surplus has now diminished to about 28,000 tons, with every probability of a further decrease. europe has had to depend for its supplies of cottonseed mostly on egypt and india, though with the extension of cultivation to other countries many varicties are now coming on to the euro- pean market. egypt normally produces about 600,000 tons and exports to europe 400,000. india produces rather over 2,000,000 tons, but exports only from 200,000 to 300,000 tons. figures re- lating to china are difficult to obtain, but it is estimated she produces about 14 million tons, practically all of which is con- sumed locally. the striking fact about cottonseed is that out of a total production of about 11,000,000 tons of seed, only some goo,coo tons find their way to the international markets, the rest being disposed of at home. iiii groundnuts.—the main producing countries are india, west africa china and the u.s.a., the two first being the principal sources of supply for the world markets. in all areas production is continuously expanding to meet the demand both for the purposes of oil produc- tion and for direct use as food. the chief importing country is france, which takes about 500,000 tons annually. india produces well over 1,000,000 tons, more than half of which is retained for home consumption. the nuts are shelled before ex- porting. west africa produces well over 500,000 tons and exports about 350,000 tons, practically all in shell. figures are not available for china, but production is probably very large. exports amount to only about 60,000 to 70,000 tons. the u.s.a. consumes all it produces, viz.: about 350,000 tons. the pre-war export trade in ground-nut oil was confined mainly to france, the netherlands and china. during the war french and dutch exports were reduced to a minimum, and china became the chief source of supply, increasing its export from 15,000 tons in 1913 to 75,000 tons in 1919—mainly to america. since then the pre-war position has gradually been restored. rapeseed.—india produces four-fifths of the world’s supply, the remainder being grown in japan, rumania, russia and other european countries. european cultivation has decreased consider- ably. the great bulk of seed produced in india is consumed locally, exports even before the war showing a marked tendency to diminish. in recent years exports have fluctuated widely, varying from 56,700 tons in 1921 to 271,500 tons in 1924 and 165,000 tons in 1925. soya beans.—the chief producer of soya beans is china, the nor- mal crop being estimated to be between four and five million tons. the soya bean has long been one of the staple foods of the east; since 1904 when the first shipment was made to europe there has been a very rapid expansion in trade. some 500,000 tons are now exported to europe, a similar quantity being exported locally—mainly to japan. in addition, a large number of mills have been erected in manchuria to crush the soya bean, the oil being exported mainly to europe and the cake to japan for use as a fertiliser for the rice crop. exports of oil amount to over 100,000 tons a year. sunflower seed.—this is produced mainly in russia, but to an increasing extent in rumania, ilungary, bulgaria and poland. in 1913 some 180,000 tons of oil were produced practically all of which was consumed locally. copra.—the two main zones of cultivation are the southern asiatic, including dutch east indies, philippines, ceylon and malay states, and oceania, comprising the various pacific island groups. the former is the more important, supplying about four-fifths of the total. during the war the export trade to europe in copra suffered severely. in the case of the dutch east indies, exports fell from 30,000 tons to 65,000. the united states, however, increased its imports both of copra and coconut oil. a marked revival took place in 1919, total exports amounting to 650,000 tons of copra. palm kernels——west africa holds practically a monopoly of the production, although plantation cultivation is being extended to other tropical countries, notably the dutch east indies. practically the whole of the production is exported to europe. the war diverted supplies from germany to great britain. in 1909 only about 20,000 tons were brought into england, as against 240,000 tons to ger- many. after the war germany gradually recovered her position. in 1924 the respective figures were 280,000 as against 102,000 and in 1925 226,000 against 225,400 tons. in addition to palm kernels, west africa produces large quantities of palm oil, #.e., oil from the palm fruit. it is difficult to estimate total production owing to the large local consumption. the method of producing the oil is still primitive, and the free, fatty acid content is high. the oil, therefore, is used principally for soapmaking in importing countries, though the best qualities can be made edible by refining. about 180,000 tons are exported annually to great britain, the continent and america. in the same group of oil nuts may be mentioned the cohune, babassu, ucuhubu, all of which have only come on the international market so far in small quantities. the producing country is brazil, which is known to be rich in oil seeds. castor seed.—india has practically a monopoly. during pre-war years the average export amounted to about £20,000 tons, the chief importing countries being germany and great britain, during the war brazil began to cultivate this secd, and in 1918 exported 4,000 tons and in 1924 15,000 tons, after the war exports from india fell heavily, due to the accumulation of government stocks in great britain. since then recovery has set in and in 1925 100,000 tons were exported. the united states has become one of the chicf importing countries. small quantities are also exported from dutch east indics and portuguese west africa. olive oil,—cultivation of the olive has not undergone any material change during the last 25 years. the principal producing countries border on the mediterranean, .e., spain, italy, greece, algeria, tunis, and, to some extent, france and turkey. annual production amounts to 700,000 tons, of which over 100,000 tons are exported, mainly to argentina, the u.s.a., great britain and germany. the war re- duced the exports of italy, greece and tunisia and doubled those of spain. as much as 87,000 tons in 1916 and 110,000 tons in 1919 were exported from spain. pre-war conditions however eventually re-asserted themselves. iii2 animal fats.—in addition to the vegetable oils, considerable quantities of animal fats, such as lard and tallow, are produced for edible and industrial purposes. the united states produces some 700,000 tons of lard, of which about one-half is exported. the main exporting countries for tallow are argentina and australia, which between them account for about 100,000 tons. the united states consumes practically all its production which amounts to about 170,000 tons. : marine oils —the principal marine oil is whale oil. these oils were used only for burning until the hydrogenation process was developed; since that time all the whale oil is used in soap and margarine manufacture. the total production of marine oils ts approximately 200,000 tons, whale oil accounting for about 130,000 tons (see wu aling). see international institute of agriculture, rome, oleaginous prod- ucts (1923); international crop report and agricultural oe (monthly.) (j. w. p.)