NORWEGIAN LITERATURE

the first decade of the 2oth century marks the passing away of the four great classics of the preceding age: ibsen, bjernson, lie and kiclland. thereby the field of fiction was thrown open to a new generation of authors, who found themselves confronted with problems essentially different from those which had taxed the attention of the former generation. norway was no longer the country of consuls, shipowners, vicars, rectors, chamberlains and estate owners, representing official views and opinions against which persons not “ made of that self metal ” occasionally revolted, and always with denlor- able result to their own social interests; nor was norway the country of women suffering in silence under slow torture of an apparently correct marriage, or a country of workers imbued by a patriarchal respect to their employers, based on personal con- nections from generation to generation. on the contrary, thanks primarily to the claim of the right of personality which had been raised so energetically and sonsistently by the authors of the preceding age, norway had gradually developed into a com- munity in which democracy had established itself on a broad basis, and in which, generally speaking, a remarkably tolerant spirit prevailed. at the same time, a number of social and eccnomic questions had come to the forefront in consequence of the extraordinary industrial development which had taken place, especially since the beginning of the ‘nineties. it might have been expected that all these facts and features, which should be taken into consideration for a fair judgment on the position of norwegian literature on the eve of the new epoch, would have contributed to bring about a new departure in litera- ture, but nothing of the kind happened. drama.—as far as the drama is concerned, its flourishing age came to an end with the age of ibsen and bjernson. their 1089 younger contemporary, gunnar heiberg (1857- ) who after their death was considered the greatest dramatic author in norway, did not, however, develop any further in this line, and as a whole the norwegian drama since ibsen and bjernson has followed more fortuitous lines. this applies, by way of exam- ple, to the itappy election (1914) by nicls kjaer (1870- 2 in which this author, who is considered one of the most accom- plished writers of modern norwegian prose, deals with certain contemporary phenomena of norwegian politics, among them the language question, in a very clever and realistic way. an- other example is oskar braaten (1881- ) who has scored great success on the stage with his comedies the kird (1911) and the wholesale christening (1925), written in the character- istic language of the industrial population in the vicinity of oslo and dealing with its life and manners. a dramatist of an entirely different type is hans e. kinck (1865— ), whose remarkable drama the cattle dealer (1908), in the opinion of many critics, is unrivalled in norwegian literature since ibsen’s peer gyit. this drama, which is too unwieldy for the stage notwithstanding its intrinsic merits as a work of fiction, has never been performed, contrary to his italian drama a gilulf the wise, which was acted at the national theatre in the spring of 1910, when it gave rise to a lively discussion engendered primarily by the sovereign way in which the author disregarded the conventional rules of rhythm and stanzas. fiction.—an examination of the history of the norwegian novel during the same period leaves a more satisfactory impres- sion for the very simple reason that this special form of art had not reached the same state of perfection as the drama at the end of the preceding period and, accordingly, contained possi- bilities of a further development. by that time some 20 years had passed since itamsun had made his appearance in literature. within this period he had produced a number of works, gen- erally written in an exquisite style and filled with an exuberant vitality, of which pam» (english translation) 1895, ranks par- ticularly high. compared with this work, the growth of the soit (1917; english translation 1920), by which hamsun has become famous all over the english-speaking world, docs not approach it in range of passion andin mystic grandeur. the former is a con- summate work of fiction and art. the latter is an exceedingly fine novel, inspired by the cooler views of the more mature years as well as of a more prosaic age. in the strugcle between the ideas of agriculture and the ideals of industrialism, hamsun, like the rest of his contemporaries, sides with the representatives of the ‘‘ mother trade of the country’ notwithstanding the marvellous industrial transformation of norway during the last generation, or perhaps we should rather say because of it. this even applies to kinck, who is anything but pieposisen in favour of the peasants. kinck, who is by all critics admitted to be an author of rare gifts, has not yet received general recognition either at home or abroad. yet by his daring metaphors, his exuberant pas- sions, his deep psychology supported by extensive historical studies, he is one of the most intimate guides to the depths of the norwegian mind. his hardanger novel, the avalanche (1919~20), is considered his greatest work, but generally speaking he is at his best in the short story. another classic writer is trygve andersen (1867—1920), a self-controlled author with a limited production but whose work is stamped by a keen psy- chological insight and imaginative inspiration and moulded in an exquisite and transparent style. besides these three poct-artists and classics should be men- tioned johan bojer (1872- ) whose novels notwithstanding their fame in the english-speaking world and elsewhere are not considered by norwegian critics as revealing any particular feature typical of the norwegian mind. a more intimate author is peter egge (1869— }, a conscientious writer with an artistic style which adds to his original gifts as a narrator and psycholo- gist. 1jn this article the titles of books are translated into english for the convenience of the reader, although unless otherwise stated the books themselves have not been ‘so translated. (ed. e. b.) ioqo one of the chief characteristics of norwegian literature during the last generation is the ever-increasing number of local authors who, substituting particular districts for the country as a whole, have given rise to local literature, partly written in the literary tongue of the country known as the aiksmeal, partly in the landsmaal (see 19.818) or in a riksmaal coloured to a mirked degree by some local dialect. the most conspicuous of these authors are oskar braaten, hans aanrud (1863- ) who scored success as a playwright of broad humour in the ’nineties, and johan falkberget (1879- )—all typical east norway novelists. braaten’s literary domain, not only as a playwri,,ht but as a novelist, is the industrial quarters in the immediate neighbourhood of oslo. aanrud is a keen observer of life and manners in the midland countries round lake myjesen. talk- berget is intimately acquainted with the mincrs of the mountain districts of the valley of osterdalen, whom he has depicted vividly in surroundings of an overwhelming nature. gabriel scott has, in an idyllic novel the source (1918), found an exquisite expression of the typical serland (literally southerland) nature and serland temper as they reveal them- selves all through the charming coastland. west norway coun- try life has been ably sketched by jens tvedt (1857- ), who writes in the fandsmaal. the particular district of the north trondhjem country, known as the valley of namdalen, has in olav duun (1876- ), whose works all deal with life and man- ners in his native valley, produced the most gifted author of modern times writing in the eandsmaal. another siznificant author in the same language is kristofer uppdal (1878- ), originally a navvy whose works in prose and poetry are imbucd by the ideals of the jabour movement. this tendency in the direction of developing a special county or district literature, as it were, is intimately connected with the national current which in 1905 brought about the dissolution of the union with sweden and which since then has given rise to a rather voluminous literature dealing with the local history, of which madame sigrid undset may be considered the chief exponent. poeiry.—in the noble art of poetry nils collett vogt (1864- ), who already in the ‘nineties was known as a hishly gifted lyric poet, continued to proclaim his emotions in stanzas of vigorous and beautiful metaphors. olaf bull (1882- ) com- bines to a rare degree a refined versification with silent resigna- tion and lofty enthusiasm. herman wildenvey (1885- )a genial troubadour talent, sings out his joys, his cares and his whims in easy verscs and metaphors, striking by the felicity of phrase. simultaneously with this lyric flourishing in the riks- maal, no adequate revival has taken place in the landsmazal. the gem of lyric poetry in that tongue is haugtussa (1895), a lasting tribute to the genius of arne garborg (1851-1925), by whose death the jandsmaal literature was left temporarily without any first rate lyric poet. (5g. 14) norwich, englan! (see 19.819), is extending and enlarging its industries. its banking interests are less localised than for- merly, owing to amalgamations, but it is the headquarters of the norwich union life office and the norwich union fire office, which societies have been under one control since 1925. the area of the borough is 7,923 ac.,and the population was 120,661 in 1921. the chief magistrate was created lord mayor in 1910, the church of st. luke’s, new catton, was consecrated and given a parish in 19015. the house in which george borrow resided with his parents when in norwich is now a borrow museum, presented by mr. a. m. samuel, m.p., in 1913. stuart gardens, bequeathed to the city by the late mrs. james stuart as a memorial to her husband, was formally presented in 1922, in which year the strangers’ hall, a r5th-century house on charing cross, was given as an english folk museum by mr. l. g. bolingbroke. in ro2t sir eustace gurney presented to the city the lazar house, a fine norman relic contemporary with the cathedral, for the purpose of a branch public library, and as such it was opened in 1923. the city bridewell, a fine old, flint-faced build- ing, was presented by mr. h. n. holmes in 1923, and after restoration was opened in 1925 as a museum of local industries, norwich—nottingham past and present. in 1925 miss ethel m. colman, the first lady ia the country to hold the office of lord mayor (1923-4), and her sster, miss helen colman, restored and presented to the city suckling house (14:h century), together with the adjoining stuart hall, which was erected by them as a memorial to their sister, mrs. james s.uart, to be used for educational purposes. in the same year the famous samson and hercules house on tombland, and the adjoining augustine steward house, were opened asa y.w.c.a. centre, and the ancient and almost unique bishon’s throne in the cathedral was restored by the bishop, (the rt. rev. bertram pollock). in jan. 1925, prince henry laid the foundation stone of a new children’s block at the norfolk and norwich hospital, and this was opened in jan. 1926. the maddermarket theatre, an exact model of an elizabethan theatre, in a building once a roman cutholic chapel, was opened in 1921 for performances by the norwich plavers, an amateur dramatic company. considerable developments in town planning have taken place, and several new arterial roads have been made. in 1923 the new carrow bridge over the river wensum was formally opened by the prince of wales, and in 1925 wensum park was opencd on the site of a refuse ground. see [an hannah, heart of fast anglia (1914); g. a. stephen, guide to the study of norwich: a bibliography, and. ed. (1919). nose: see ear, nose and throat, diseases of. noske, gustav (1868- ), german politician, was born in brandenburg july 9 1868. he became a writer for social democratic papers and from 1897-1902 worked on the staff of the kenigsberger volkszeitung and later the volksstimme, at chemnitz. returning to brandenburg in rgoz, he was elected to the municipal council, and in 1906 entcred the reichstag. throughout the world war noske belonged to the majority socialists. in nov. 1918 he accompanied the sccretary of state to kiel and arranged a suspension of the mutiny then prevailing. he remained in kiel as governor till feb. 11 1919, when he returned to berlin as minister of national defence. in his book lon kiel bis kapp (1920) he gives an account of his difficulties i1 organising an army for home defence. on the occasion of the kapp coup of march 1920 noske was unable to prevent the occupation of the capital by gen. von luttwitz and fled with ebert and bauer to dresden and later to stuttgart; but after the suppression of the kapp troubles it was impossible for him to resume office, owing to his lenient treatment of the military reactionaries, coupled with his ruthless suppression of com- munist rioters. nottingham, england (sce 19.826), with an area of 10,935 ac. and a population in 1921 of 262,624, has several tlourishing industries, although the lace trade is less prosperous than formerly. cycles, drugs and hosiery are made here in large quantities. the leather trade expanded greatly during the world war. since 1918 the city has returned four members to parliament. in 1921 wollaton hall, a magnificent example of elizabethan architecture, with the park of 750 ac. that surrounds it, was bou;ht by the corporation from lord middleton. a portion of the land is te be used for building purposes, but the greater part of the park will remain an open space. municipal schemes have provided a number of new houses since 1918. the new churches and parishes include st. cyprian (1010), st. christopher, sncinton (1910), st. faith, northwilford (1914) and st. michael and all angels (1914). the william woodsend memorial homes were opened in 1913 and the william booth memorial hall in 1915; the natural history museum was transferred from uni- versity college to carlton road in 1920. new buildings con- templated include one for municipal purposes overlooking the market place, a large power station and a public library. a railway line to mansfield, leaving the london & north eastern a few miles north of the town, was opened in 1917 and gives access to the docks at immingham. the most important development is the erection, at the cost of sir jesse boot, of new buildings for university college. these are on the western side of the town, on a site of 220 ac. called novak—nursing highfields, part of which has been devoted to recreation grounds for the public and the students. a large open-air swimming bath was opened near the estate in 1924 and a new road con- necting it with the city has been made. in 1926 the work of doubling the width of trent bridge was completed, a slum area of 400 houses being demolished to make a new road to the bridge. sir jesse boot has given 16 ac. to complete the victoria embankment. novak, vitezslav (1870- ), czech composer, was born at kamenice in bohemia. jie completed his studies at the prague conservatoire of music, of which he became director in ’ zg1g. early in his career he came under the influence of dvorak, brahms, schumann and others, but he soon revealed his own individual method of expression, which was marked by powerful phantasy and boldness in musical resources. his early piano compositions, consisting of overtures and songs, are lyrical, phantastic and passionate by turns, but romanticism forms the basis throughout. later he turned his attention to the popular music of moravia and slovakia, by which his subsequent com- positions were strongly influenced. these include many of his best works, such as the symphonic picture jz the tatra, slovak suite, two valach dances, the symphonic poem legend of yearn- ing, moravian songs, czech suite, gypsy melodies, as well as a number of compositions based upon national ballads. among his earlier works may be mentioned the overtures the corsair and manfred, memories, serenades, eclogues and barcaroles. of his orchestral works the most noteworthy are toman and the wood nymph and the storm. novak also composed some operatic works, the best of which is the lantern, based upon a play by a. jird4sek and exhibiting his art in its maturest form. nova scotia (see 19.830), a province of the dominion of canada. the population, which includes the island of cape breton, was 523,837 in 1921. this showed an increase of 6-4°%% since rorr; of the total 56-98% was classed as rural. about 80% of the inhabitants are of british descent. halifax, the capital (pop. 58,372) and sydney (pop. 22,545) are the chief commercial and shipping centres. the government consists of a licut.-governor, a legislative council of 21 members appointed for life, a legislative assembly of 43 members elected on general suffrage; an executive council of ministers is appointed by the premier. the province is represented in the federal parliament by ro senators and 14 members of the house of commons. education.—each county in the province has a hiyh school or an academy. among the degree-granting institutions of the province the most important are dalhousie university at hali- fax (including by affiliation since 1922, king’s college, windsor). acadia university at wolfville and st. francis xavier at anti- gonish. the schoo] districts are subdivided into school sections, each administered by a board of three trustees, elected by the ratepayers. local taxation is supplemented by legislative grants, the total expenditure on education in 1923 being approximatcly $3,500,000. there were then 114,458 pupils and 3,237 teachers in the schools under public control. production and industry.—the acreage under crops, and conse- quently the quantity and value of agricultural products, greatly declined during the post-war period. in 1919 the total valuc of the principal field crops was $63,357,000; in 1924 this value had fallen to $16,359,000, but a slight increase occurred in 1925. the average annual yield, in bushels, of the chief crops for the period 1922-4 was: wheat, 233,533; oats, 4,094,667; barley, 195,700; and buck- wheat, 188,100; the average yield of potatocs was 3,372,800 hundred- weight. the production and export of apples, for which the annapolis and cornwallis valleys are especially suitable, has become a iead- ing industry, the average annual crop exceeds 1,500,000 barrels. the provincia! govt. maintains 35 model orchards in various parts of the province. in 1925 there were 291,912 cattle, 273,499 sheep and lambs, §3,480 swine and 53,352 horses in the province. dairy- ing has increased in importance; the chief dairy product is butter, the output of which increased from 320,763 |b. in 1911 to 4,094,282 lb. in 1924. travelling dairy schools giving instructions to farmers throughout the province have been instituted, the forest area of nova scotia is estimated at over 12,000 sq. m., more than half the area of the province. the value of the lumber cut in 1923 was $2,281,949. the production of pulpwood for 1923 was valued at $838,358. the fishing industry is of vital importance: in 1924 there were 18,721 persons employed in the various branches ioqi of the industry, and the total value of the products amounted to $8,777,251. aoe coal, iron, copper and gold are found, but only coal is produced to any large extent, the output being 4,973,184 tons in 1924. the pro- duction of gold has greatly declined, and only 750 0z. was produced in 1924. colchester county contains valuable oil shales. the total value of mineral products in 1925 was $38,720,000. extensive manu- factures of iron and steel are carried on at sydney and other parts of cape breton island. the shipbuilding industry has declined steadily, except for the temporary stimulus provided by the exigen- cies of the world war. other manufacturing industries of the province include sugar refineries, pulp and paper mills, canncries, textile and boot and shoe factories. the total capital invested in manufacturing industrics was $107,000,000 in 1923, the number employed 17,179, and the gross value of production amounted to $32,000,000. trade and communications —imports entered for consumption in 1924-5 amounted to a value of $22,068,108. exports during the same year were valued at $43,487,392. of 15,190 m. of roads in 1924, 1,255 m. were of gravel. the total expenditure on the high- way's in 1924 amounted to $1,728,894. the canadian nationa! rail- way system is the chief means of internal communication; the rail- way mileage in 1925 was 1,434. (see canada.) (s. le.) novelli, ermete (1851-1919), italian actor and playwright (see 19.838), died at naples jan. 29 1919. his tragedy la masque written in collaboration with signor bonaspetti, was produce in i91t. . nursing.—the science and art of nursing has, like surgery and medicine, made enormous strides since 1910, partly due to the war, but largely owing to the general development of science in this country. modern nursing had its origin with florence nightingale, and she set the standards that have been followed since. but in later years there has been a change in the manner in which the nurse is regarded. she is now looked upon, both as the possessor of a great vocation for which she has to be qualified by years of training, and as a professional woman whose lovalty to that profession should be as true as that of the doctor, and whose duty is to add to her knowledge and profession- al skill both for her own sake and for that of the profession to which she belongs. i. in great britain training of nurses —in great britain the training of the nurse is regulated by the state through the nurses’ registration act of 1919. this act was only carried into law after years of controversy, which ended with the outbreak of war, when a truce was declared and loyally maintained. the profession has now the right of self-govern- ment. there is a general nursing council for england and wales and another for scotland, and 16 of the 25 members of the english oe must be registered nurses elected by persons registered under the act. in addition to the ordinary registration of nurses with a general training (which occupies three or four years) there are five supple- mentary registers for male, mental, fever, mental defectives and sick children’s nurses. nurses usually begin their general training in recognised training schools at an age not less than 21, though for certain kinds of training (such as those for nurses of fever or sick children) probationers are taken earlicr. the nurses usually live in the hospital or in hostels near it; and as a rule, those who remain in hospital retire about the age of 50 or 55, when a pension is frequently provided with or without contribution. post-graduate teaching is developed in the best schools, as is the system of providing tutor- nurses, there is not as yet much connection with the universities though the university of leeds grants a diploma in nursing, hospital training has thus become highly developed in great britain, and the matron of a great hospital holds a very important position as regards her staff, which is divided into sisters, staff nurses and probationers, there are specialists in electric and other technical work, but these have usually first completed their general training. strenuous efforts have been made to reduce the hours of service and to increase the salaries, which for many years have been extremely low. there is still room for improvement in both these matters. college of nursing.—in the year 1916, a college of nursing was established with the view of forming a centre for all nursing activities, improving the nursing service as a whole and the conditions under which nurses work. in 1925 it had a member- ship of 24,000 with 42 branches and sub-branches throughout the united kingdom. connected with it are a student nurses’ association for nurses in training, a section for sister tutors and a section for public health workers. it is recognised by the ministry of health as an approved centre for the training of health visitors. 1092 although a large number of nurses serve in hospitals, these are regarded mainly as training schools, where the young nurse is carry- ing on her studies as well as gaining practical experience. the difti- culty with the present hours of duty 1s to provide the necessary time for her studies and for preparing for frequent examinations, state and hospital, in early days, the importance of the training was not fully recognised, and the nurse was regarded as one who simply performed certain useful functions, now, the doctor or surgeon fooks to the nurse for assistance in his work; he can only sce the patient at inter- vals but she has him always under observation, and the accuracy of her observation and report is a matter of vital importance. it is probable that during the strain of war the matter was pressed hom2 on those in control of hospitals as it never was before. nurses have become an essential part of the social and economic life of the country and their functions are continuing to increase. it may be well to enumerate the most important of them. district nurses —on completing her general training, usually of four years, a nurse may take her district training and be placed on the roll of the queen’s nurses, which are supervised from head-quarters but supported locally. there are still “‘ cottaze nurses,” with a short training, but those with a higher standard are rapidly increasing, more especially as they are eligible to do county health work under the medical officer of health. those who hold the certificate of the central mid- wives board are frequently employed in infant and child-welfare work. before many years have clapsed every parish or district should have its own nurse. public health work.—in addition to child welfare work many nurses are employed under county, bur;-h or city schemes. the education authorities require a large staff for following up | th: cases of children who have been inspected by their medical omfcers. nurses are also required for fever and isolation hos- pitals. poor law infirmaries give excellent training and have certain advantages over hospitals, which are also training schools for the medical profession. there will probably be changes in poor law administration before long. private nursing.—this form of nursing has expanded enor- mously and though some visiting nurses come in for the day, they are mainly residential. nurses who undertake this work are to be had either from a hospital which sends out their nurses after they gain their certificates, or from an institution, possibly a co-operative institution or home. nurses are employed in many private nursing-homes for the well-to-do. mental nurses —the training for mental nurses is usually conducted in a recognised institution for the treatment of men- tal disorders where the candidate serves for three years, and enters for the state examination for mental nurses. the nurses and attendants are of both sexes, but women are being in- creasingly employed even for male patients. midwives and maternity nurses —midwifery is controlled by a central midwives board, established in london, with juris- diction in england and wales, and there are separate boards for scotland and ireland. the number of midwives now on the roll in england and wales is approximately 77,791. these boards rezulate the issue of certificates and the conditions of admission, and have also the power to remove names from the roll. it was only in rgro that it was forbidden to any person to attend women in childbirth for gain (otherwise than under the direction of a qualifed medical practitioner) unless certified under the act. an incorporated midwives institute has done splendid work in promoting the interests of midwives. many trained nurses take the midwives’ certificate, for which they have to have a six months’ special course while a twelve months’ course of mid- wifery is necessary for those who are not trained nurses. massenrs and masseuses.—the chartered society of m issage and medical gymnastics grants a certificate to those who have taken a rescribed training at a recognised school and have passed an exam- ination, after june 1927 examination on massage as a single subject will cease. various services.—a voluntary advisory nursing board was es- tablished in 1921 under the prison commission of the home office, and trained nurses are now appointed for the care of sick prisoners. a nursing service deals with hospitals under the ministry of pen- sions, and a matron-in-chief is at its head. the overseas nursing association sends trained nurses to the crown colonies and small british communities abroad. there is also an indian nursing service for europeans in india. nursing queen alexandra’s imperial military nursing service originated in 1902. a nursing board advises the secretary of state on matters connected with the service. a matron-in-chief is at its head and pancpel matrons, matrons, sisters and staff nurses are subordinate to ner. in the first year of the world war there were 2,323 fully trained reserve nurscs, in addition to the regular service, and by 1918 the number reached 10,304. there is likewise a service called queen alexandra’s military familics nursing service. the territorial army nursing service, established in 1907-8 in connection with the territorial army, supplied the largest number of british nurses available on the outbreak of the world war. the probable number required is about 4,000, but the territorial nurses are only called u in case of necessity. like the territorial army, they enrol with overseas obligations. ‘ queen alexandra’s royal naval nursing service is a small one, which also has a reserve. ‘the royal air force nursing service was established in 1921 and has the same formation —matron-in-chief, matrons, sisters and staff nurses—as the others. (see medical service, army.) bisliography.—sarah tooley, [istory of nursing in the british empire (1906); m. adelaide nutting and lavinia l. dock, a his- tory of nursing (2 vol., 1907); the same edited by l. l. dock in 4 vol. (1921); sir henry burdett, the nursing profession (1915); lavinia l. dock and isabel m. stewart, a short history of nursing (1920); elizabeth s. haldane, the british nurse in peace and war (1923); an abridged edition of the life of florence niehtingale, by e. t. cook (2 vol.), appeared in 1925, edited by ete s nie (e. s. h.) science and technique nurses now work for shorter hours, they have greater freedom, optional out-door uniform, a: rational and comfortable indoor uniform, better food, private bedrooms, a dining hall and com- fortable sitting rooms. they are encouraged to take healthy out-door exercise, to play games for their hospitals, to join musical or literary societies. there has been a further reduction in the minimum age (to 19 years in many hospitals) at which probationers are engaged, in order that girls leaving good schools may pass on to a nursing training without loss of time, and find their position in that nursing training to be on a par with that of their friends, who have passed on to a university. the standard of living for the patient also has greatly im- proved. the modernisation of hospital wards, singular 15 years ago, 1s now an almost universal fact. the introduction of up- to-date apparatus, such as steam heat, electric light, gas or electric cookers, heatcrs and sterilisers, electric hot air baths, adjustable beds, heated food trolleys, rubber floors, electric lifts, wheeled stretchers, high power reflector lights for operating rooms, powerful magnets, etc., is an advantage; there is a marked improvement in the quality of the paticnts’ bedding, linen, crockery, hospital food and its service, although, in the last respect, england has something to learn from scandinavian countries. there is a greater personal liberty for patients: in many hospitals, since the world war, smoking is permitted to the men patients within certain hours, and visitors have greater access to their sick friends. entirely new methods of treatment have been evolved for diseases and conditions such as diabetes, eclampsia, uraemia, phthisis, cardiac disorder, etc., necessitating, in many cases, complicated and exact diet regulated by an exact knowledge of the chemical constituents of the blood and other fluids. in other cases treatment such as immobilisation of a lung, or measure- ment of the air capacity of a lung, is regulated by the results of frequent bacteriological and other tests. again, treatment by means of graduated exercises for the heart, the re-education of muscles and nerves that have lost their power, and the re-educa- tion of the brain itself, have been developed and depend for success on careful nursing. surgical cases.—the advance in surgery is illustrated in delicate operations in brain surgery; plastic operations on the face; blood transfusion; tendon transplantation; periscopic examination of the abdominal and other cavities; examination of the intestinal tract, kidneys, spinal canal and brain cavities by means of opaque drugs and x-rays; bone grafts and all the skilled manipulations of orthopaedic surgery; plaster and splint work; and advances in many other special branches of medicine and surgery. in all these investigations and achievements nursing doctors require the intelligent and skilled co-operation of nurses. the education of modern nurses has been widened and deepened to fit them for their task. (e. e. macm.) il. in the united states the rapid development of the nursing profession in the united states has been due in large measure to the three national nursing organisations established by the nurses themselves, in the belief that they were responsible for the ethics, standards and educa- tional developments of their profession. american nurses’ association—the ‘“ american nurses’ association ”? was founded in 1806, according to its charter, “ to establish and maintain a code of ethics; to elevate the standard of nurses’ education; to promote the usefulness and honour of nurses; to distribute relief among such nurses as may become ill, disabled or destitute; to disseminate information on the subject of nursing by publications in official periodicals or otherwise; to bring into communication with each other various nurses and associations and federations of nurses throughout the united states.”’ this association has been active in legislative measures affecting nursing interests, and since 1917 has been in constructive co-operation with the national league of nursing education. the american journal of nursing, a monthly magazine published continuously since 1900 by the american nurses’ association, is also the official organ of the ‘‘ national league of nursing education.” the national league—the “ national league of nursing education ” was organised in 1893 by 18 women superintendents of hospitals to promote nursing education and to raise educational requirements for the profession. its membership is now open to heads of schools for nurses, teachers of nurses and heads of nursing services, all of whom are also members of the american nurses’ association. the league has initiated many distinctive movements, the most notable of which are: in 1896, the extension of the hospital training course to three years; in 1903, the inauguration of state registration of nurses, now compulsory in the 48 states of the union; in 1907, the establishment of a de- partment of hospital economics at columbia university; in 1917, the publication of a standard curriculum, designed to ensure a minimum standard for all schools of nursing, and now almost universally adopted; in 1925, the classification and grading of training schools, a task now under way. in addition, the league has during the 33 years of its existence published numerous pamphlets and reprints of value in nursing education. the national organisation.—the national organisation for public health nursing was organised in 1912, to establish standards in public health nursing, and to promote a general intelligent understanding on the part of the laity, as well as the nurses, of the needs and importance of well-planned preventive work in the field of public health. it publishes a quarterly journal, the public health nurse. each of the three national organisations maintains ample headquarters, with secretarics and reference libraries, and in diverse ways lends its support to the body of nurses and their educational experiments. the distinctive service in america performed by these associations because of their special knowledge and experience accounts for the remarkable progress macle in the nursing field in the past 30 years. the american red cross —in 1904, by act of congress, the reorganisation of the american red cross was effected, and provision thereby made for a flexible nursing reserve, with chapters in every state, ready to provide nurses from the ranks of the profession in times of emergency. the red cross has also initiated a peace programme for rural visiting nursing, which has developed into a national service of public health nursing. in 1919, it appropriated $115,000 for scholarships to enable graduate nurses to equip themselves more thoroughly for this service. army nursing service—the army nursing service was established by act of congress in 1901; the navy nursing serv- ice, in 1908. in 1918, the army school of nursing was established on progressive lines, with hospital affiliations to give its students the experience necessary for their complete training. 1093 u.s. public health service—the united states public health service, a branch of the treasury dept., employs a staff of nurses under the direction of a woman superintendent, to assist in carrying out its extensive public health programme in hospitals, in foreign and domestic quarantine and in various sanitation projects. university courses —at teachers’ college, new york, the first collegiate course for nurses was established in 1899 through the efforts of the nurses themselves. ‘to-day there are in the united states 22 universities or colleges providing training for nurses. in 1909, the university of minnesota made its school of nursing a professional school of the university, the principal being responsible to the dean of the medical school, and a member of the medical faculty. five-year courses have been established by several colleges in order to combine liberal arts with professional training. in torg, through the generosity of the rockefeller foundation, a study was made of the conditions of nursing and nursing education. as a result of a report based on this study, yale university established a school of nursing open only to college graduates, to be maintained as an experiment for five years by the rockefeller foundation. the ideal of this school is to increase the number of teachers and leaders for new lines of work. development of public ifecalth nursing —vperhaps the most unique contribution to nursing in the united states has been the development of public health nursing. the term “ public health nurses,” originated in 1893, emphasises the community responsibility of the nurse. there are to-day 12,000 yublic health nurses in the united states actively engaged in y ublic health nursing, which, as now understood, proclaims the twin service of ministration and education, and includes the care of the sick in the homes and the teaching of preventive health measures. many types of specialised work in the public health field have been developed: school nursing, municipalised in 1902, and now supported by public or private funds throughout the country; work with the tuberculous; maternity clinics; milk stations; infant health centres; prenatal clinics; clinics for the pre-school child; care of cardiac cases; industrial nursing; hospital social service; and treatment of venercal diseases. hospital social scrvice.—the germ of hospital social service, now highly developed, originated in 1879, when the ethical culture society of new york employed a nurse to associate herself with a visiting physician affiliated with the dispensary. the massachusetts general hospital of boston in 1905 placed new emphasis upon carrying the treatment from the hospital to the patient and utilising the opportunity of education in the home, systematising the co-ordination of the treatment and the complete rehabilitation of the family through public and private agencies. many hospitals now employ a staff of social workers and nurses for follow-up work among their patients’ families and among discharged patients. the nurses in the united states have written most of the text-books used in the schools and in public health nursing, and publish many leaflets, articles and local journals. in this they are encouraged and aided by the medical profession. educational tendencies—the present tendency in nursing education is to replace the apprenticeship system of training by professional university schools administered independently of hospitals, but affiliated with them to give ward experience to their students. statistics —in 1925 the number of registered nurses in the united states was 250,000, of whom approximately 220,000 were active private-duty nurses, 11,000 public health nurses and 5,000 were in institutions or engaged in teaching. the number of training schools was 1,800, the number of graduates annually 13,000, and the number of colleges giving training courses 22. the growth in number of training schools is striking; in 1873 there were four schools, in 1883 22, in 1900 400, in 1910 1,100, in 1920 1,800. according to the 1920 census, there are 150,000 untrained nurses in the united states. bibliograpiy.—a merican journal of nursing (1900 to date); m. adelaide nutting and lavinia l. dock, history of nursing (1907); 1094 the public health nurse (1910 to date); lillian d. wald, the house on ifenry street (1915); official, [istory of american red cross nursing (1922); report of the committee for the study of nursing education, nursing and nursing education in the united states (1923); mary sewall gardner, public itealth nursing (1924); publications of the national league of nursing education. (l. d. w.)