NEW YORK CITY

the population of new york city in 1925, according to the state census, was 5,873,356, as against 4,766,883 in 1910, an increase of 1,106,473 of 23-2%. the population of the separate boroughs was: manhattan, 1,945,- 029 (in 1910, 2,331,542); bronx, 872,168 (in 1910, 430,980); brooklyn, 2,203,235 (in 1910, 1,634,351); richmond, 138,277 (in 1910, 85,969); queens, 714,647 (in 1910, 284,041). the aver- age number of inhabitants per acre was: manhattan, 139-0, new testament—niew york city brooklyn, 48-5; bronx, 32-9; queens, 10-3; richmond, 3:8; whole city, 30-6. in 1924 the average death-rate for the city was 11-8 per 1,000, as compared with 15-98 per 1,000 in 1910. the reduction of the general death-rate has been due mainly to special activities in the prevention and control of communicable diseases, especially those of childhood. i. public services finunce—yhe city’s budget grew from $163,130,270 1n 1910 to $399,618,885 in 1925. important items were $95,090,162 for education and recreation; $59,068,521 for protection of life and property; $60,255,956 for health, sanitation and care of depend- ents; $106,487,232 for debt service and tax deficiencies. the assessed values on which taxes for 1925 were levied were $11,901,- 348,553 real estate and $239,507,540 personal property, or a total of $12,140,856,003. in 1q10 the total assessed value of taxable property, real and personal, was $7,416,837,490. the net funded debt of the city as of march 1925 was $1,262,736,066, the gross funded debt being $1,969,515,440. water supply.—the most notable extensions to public serv- ices made since rgoq include the development of additional water supply from the esopus and schoharie watersheds in the catiskil mis., and extending rapid transit facrities throughout the city. the two watersheds have an area of 571 sq. m. and a safe minimum yield estimated at 515,000,000 gal. daily. the flow of the schoharie creek is intercepted by a temporary diver- sion dam through the shandaken tunnel, 18 m. long, to join the water of esopus creek, which discharges into the ashokan reser- voir. the gilboa dam, under construction in 1925, was designed to form the schoharie reservoir with a storage of 20 thousand mil- lion gallons. ‘the main reservoir of the system, the ashokan, is located about 92 m. from the northern boundary of new york city. its estimated available storage capacity amounts to 130,400 mil- lion gallons. other features of the catskill system are the kensico dam, the catskill aqueduct and city tunnel and the hudson river crossing. the kensico dam is one of the great masonry structures of the world, containing nearhy 1,000,000 eubit yards of masonry and at its highest point rising 307 ft. above the rock foundations on which it rests. the catskill aqueduct includes 69 m. of plain concrete grade aqueduct and tunnel, 17 m. of reinforced concrete pressure tunnel and 6 m. riveted steel in- verted siphons. the hudson river crossing comprises a 14-{t. tunnel driven in granite rock 1,114 ft. below the sea-level. the total cost of the completed catskill supply will be about $180,- 000,000. other supplies, together with the catskill, provide a safe yleld estimated at approximately 1,000 million gal. per day. water consumption during 1925 reached 865 million gal. per day, thus indicating the need for developing additional supply in the near future. rapid transit development.—as a means of meeting the de- mand for additional rapid transit facilities, the city, in march 1913, entercd into separate contracts with the interborough rapid transit co. and the new york municipal railway cor- poration, for the construction, equipment and operation of a system of rapid transit lines known as the dual system. at that time the interborough rapid transit co. operated the subway lines in manhattan, the bronx and brooklyn and under icase the elevated lines owned by the manhattan railway company. the new york municipal railway corporation was formed in the interests of the brooklyn rapid transit co. for the operation of various lines constructed or to be constructed as outlined in the dual plan. the new york railway co. and third avenue rail- way co., which operated most of the surface lines in manhattan and the bronx and the surface lines of the brooklyn rapid trans- it co. were the only large traction systems in the city not in- cluded in the dual system. the operating contracts made with each company run for a period of 49 years (dating from jan. 1 191g in the case of the interborough; and from aug. 1 1920 for the brooklyn co.), at the end of which time all leases and agree- ments will terminate and the city will have complete ownership and control over the construction included in the dual plan. pro- vision is made for the sharing of profits with the city after the © new york city operating company has paid all necessary expenses and taken out an amount designated as a preferential. ‘the contracts also specify that the fare for a continuous ride shall be five cents. the dual plan provided for the construction of about 325 m. of new tracks, making the total mileage of the completed system 618-4. while the plan as outlined approximately doubled the existing mileage, it tripled the facilities then available, as the third tracking and extension of existing elevated railways mate- rially increased the carrying capacity. for the interborough these extensions comprised subway construction north and south of 42nd street, manhattan. north of g2nd street, the new sub- way extended up lexington avenue and connected with the existing fourth avenue subway. new subway construction south of times square extended the west side subway down seventh avenue to lower manhattan and by tunnel under the east river and to south brooklyn. this construction provided independent through north and south rapid transit lines for the east and west sides of manhattan island. the addition of third tracks and extension of existing elevated lines have brought the route mile- age to 115-4, and the total track mileage for the interborough system to 333°3. the main feature of the extension of the lines of the new york municipal railway corporation was the subway beginning at the queensboro bridge and extending west by soth and 60th streets to seventh avenue, thence south by seventh avenue, broadway, vesey street, church street and trinity place to a connection with a tunnel under the east river at whitehall street. this construction and other extensions make a total of 99:4 route m. and a total track mileage for the new york munici- pal railway system of 274-3 m. now in operation. a continuous ride of 26-63 m. for five cents is available on the interborough system and one of 18-5 for the same fare on the brooklyn lines. up to june 30 1925, expenditure by the city and the operating companies for rapid transit construction and equipmeni, exclu- sive of the cost of the privately owned lines of the old manhat- tan elevated structures, amounted to approximately $537,000,- ooo. of this amount the city’s part was about $327,000,000 and the operating companies’ $210,000,000. communicutions.—two important enterprises in. providing additional direct lines of communication with new york city are the new york connecting railway across the east river and the vehicular tunnel under the north river. the new york con- necting railroad provides direct rail connection with the new york, new haven and hartford line for the boroughs of queens and brooklyn. the main features include a reinforced concrete arch viaduct extending from the connection with the new york, new haven and hartford railroad in the bronx to a point on ward’s island, in the east river, a steel arch spanning that sec- tion of the east river known as hell gate, and connecting witha similar reinforced concrete viaduct in the astoria section of queensborough. surface construction provides direct passenger rail connection with the sunnyside yard of the long island rail- road and thence access to the pennsylvania railroad terminal in manhattan, while another branch for freight only extends to the bay ridge section on the water-front of south brooklyn. the entire length of the connecting railway is 12 miles. the total amount expended was approximately $30,000,000. the bridge itself (hell gate), having the largest steel arch in the world, cost $18,500,000. its massive granite piers rise to a height of 240 ft. and are 1,017 ft. apart. the steel arches which support the deck of the bridge rise 300 ft. above the water, and the clearance for vessels at mean highwater is 135 feet. the bridge carries four tracks, two of them for both passenger and freight service. the holland vehicular tunnel beneath the north river con- necting manhattan island and jersey city was to be open for traffic during 1926. its construction is under the joint jurisdic- tion of the new york interstate bridge and tunnel commission and the new jersey interstate bridge commission, anc the cost was to be shared equally by the two states. the estimated traffic capacity of the tunnel is 15,000,000 vehicles per annum. the tunnel section, the construction of which was completed oct. 1 1925, comprises two tubes each 29 ft. 6 in. outside diameter and 1061 approximately 9,500 ft. in length. the tubes are constructed of cast-iron segments and reinforced concrete and were built by the shield method of construction. each tube includes a 20-ft. roadway to accommodate two lines of traffic moving in the same direction and a 3-{t. sidewalk for pedestrians. ‘the greatest single engineering difficulty involved was that of providing an adequate system of ventilation. that adopted was the so-called transverse system, under which fresh air 1s forced into the tunnel structure through air ducts under the roadway and ejected into the tunnel section through apertures along the roadway curb at each side the foul air is discharged through air ports in the tunnel roof section, and thence forced through air ducts to the ventilation shafts and the outer air. other public improvements. —growth of the city and the great development in the use of motor vehicles have produced serious trafic congestion which has necessitated extensive street widen- ing and the construction of new thoroughfares. notable ex- amples of new construction are the varick street extension of seventh avenue, manhattan, the extension of flatbush avenue, brooklyn, and the construction of the jamaica bay boulevard in queens. the removal of elevated railway structures from 42nd street and upper sixth avenue and the construction of a viaduct carrying park avenue over 42nd street at grand central station have aided in relieving traffic congestion at those points. prog- ress has been made in relieving the waters of new york harbour from sewage pollution by the construction of sewage screening plants along the north and east rivers and at other points. there have been marked changes in the use of property, particularly in manhattan, since 1909. the principal shopping district has shifted northwards, until in 1926 its boundaries, broadly speaking, were 34th street, broadway, 59th street and madison avenue. in the vicinity of 42nd street there has been an extensive development of office buildings. the buildings formerly housing the knickerbocker, holland house and manhattan hotels and two famous restaurants—sherry’s and delmonico’s —have been replaced by office buildings. notable building construction from 1909-25 includes the woolworth building (792 ft.), the highest structure in the world excepting the eiffel tower, bankers’ trust (539 it.), city investing (487 ft.), equi- table (485 ft.), adams express (424 ft.), whitehall (424 {t.), bush terminal (419 {t.), american express (415 ft.), american telephone and telegraph (403 ft.), and the new telephone build- ing (400 ft.). height restrictions and set-back provisions in the city zoning ordinance have offered the opportunity for consider- able variation in the architectural treatment of high buildings constructed during recent years, which have resulted in securing more artistic effects than were formerly possible. among the newer hotels are the pennsylvania, with 2,200 rooms, the largest hotel in the world; the commodore; the ambassador; and the roosevelt. madison square garden, an historic structure used for amusement purposes and as a place of public assembly, was demolished in 1925, a 28-storey office building being erected on its site. if. commerce and industry port of new york.—during 1924 the tonnage of vessels enter- ing the port of new york direct amounted to 18,280,975, while ships clearing from the port carried 18,858,693 tons. ‘the value of the imports received during 1924 aggregated $2,047,759,136, representing an increase of 130% over 1909. exports for 1924 amounted to $1,685,562,079, an increase of 169° over 1909, but a decrease of 52°, from those made during 1920. improvements in port facilities made since 1909 include the completion of the ambrose channel work and deepening of the east river channel by the federal govt. and the reconstruction and extension of the erie canal by the state. eight canal terminals have been built at various points along the north and east rivers together with a modern grain elevator with a capacity of 2,000,000 bu. located at the gowanus bay terminal. expenditures on the canals up to 1925 aggregated $167,123,774. the most note- worthy port development works carried out by the city since 1909 include the north river, staten island and jamaica bay 1062 projects. along the north river two 1,000-ft. piers were built between 44th and soth streets, and by 1925 two others had been planned. the completed construction, which cost approximately $5,500,000, including real estate, provides 285,000 sq. ft. addi- tional dock space. the construction of a steamship picr 1,000 ft. long and 174 ft. wide above the holland vehicular tunnel, involving an estimated expenditure of $2,500,000, was planned. a railroad pier costing about $900,000 and providing 92,000 sq. ft. additional dock space, was completed during 1925 at pier 2, north river. three piers providing 568,500 sq. ft. dock space were built along the east river during 1916 at the foot of 20th, zoth and 3sth streets respectively, south brooklyn, and subse- quently there was extensive bulkhead improvement of both the manhattan and brooklyn waterfronts along the east river. remodelling high bridge over the harlem river and straighten- ing of the alignment of that waterway was also accomplished. in 10109 the city initiated the staten island improvement project involving the construction of 12 modern steamship piers with terminal warehouse facilities. this improvement, built at a cost of about $30,000,000, includes over six miles of wharfage and 1,800,000 sq. ft. dock space. through its connection with the baltimore and ohio railroad, opportunity was provided for track railhead connections between these piers and all but two of the railways entering the port of new york. the facilities afforded by this improvement exceeded, in 1926, those available for simi- lar purposes on the island of manhattan. the jamaica bay project constitutes the most important de- velopment undertaken by the city in recent years. jamaica bay has an area of about 26 sq. miles. in 1909 the state of new york ceded to the city all of the state’s ownership in the bay, amounting to about 16,000 acres. the federal govt. adopted a project to dredge a channel through rockaway inlet and from barren island to cornell basin, to an ultimate depth of 30 it. and to a width of 1,000 feet. in 1923 the department of docks laid out in the middle of jamaica bay a scheme for the construction of two islands, to be made by dredging a channel 2,500 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep around the bay. the islands will contain 6,500 ac., and will have a quay wharfage of about 28 miles. at an expenditure of about $1,250,- ooo the department has completed an embankment 550 ft. wide and more than two miles long. this embankment provides a roadway of 150 ft., which is the cross bay boulevard, over the island and in addition gives the city about 2,c00 building lots. the two islands, will provide homes for about 400,000 people. port authority.—in 1921, on recommendation by a joint com- mission appointed in 1917 by the governors of new york and new jersey to investigate conditions at the port of new york, a treaty was entered into between these two states providing for the creation of the port of new york district and the establish- ment of the port of new york authority. this treaty was subsequently ratified by congress; and the port authority was appointed, consisting of six commissioners, three from each state, serving for overlapping terms. in dec. 1921 the port authority presented to the legislatures of new york and new jersey a comprehensive plan for the development of the port, which was adopted by the legislatures and ratified by congress. the prin- cipal features of the plan are a series of belt lines and marginal railways, a freight tunnel from greenville, n.j., to bay ridge, brooklyn and an automatic electric system of freight transporta- tion for serving manhattan and union inland terminal stations on manhattan island. in 1924 the states of new york and new jersey made appro- priations for and granted authority to the port authority to make surveys and borings for two bridges across the arthur hill from staten island to new jerscy. in 1925 the legislatures pro- vided for the building of these bridges by the port authority, the states contributing a total of $4,000,000 toward the cost, to be eventually repaid from the collection of tolls, and the balance of the cost is to be financed by the issuance of bonds, to be amortised from the tolls collected. in 1925 the legislatures also provided for studies for a bridge across the hudson river from manhattan, in the neighbourhood of 178th street, to fort lee, new jersey. new york city manufactures—the new york city metropolitan district (a district of 616,928 ac., including in addition to new york city the neighbouring cities and towns both in new york state and new jersey) is by far the largest industrial district in the united states. in ro19 there were 32,590 manufacturing establishments in new york city with a total number of 825,056 persons en- gaged in the industries. of these 638,775 were wage-earners; 35,101 were proprietors and firm members; 36,894 were salaried officers, superintendents and managers; and 114,286 were clerks. the sum of $326,171,741 was expended for salaries and $805,- 822,451 for wages. the total value of the products manufactured was $5,260,707,577,and the amount of capital invested in indus- tries in the whole city was $3,038,557,492. the clothing industry ranked first in importance, the total value of men’s and women’s clothing manufactured being $1,346,839,946 or 57 % of the value of clothing produced throughout the entire country. [printing and publishing ranked second, with products valued at $206,- 585,376. art.—the additions to the metropolitan museum of art dur- ing the years 1910-25 have made it rank with the large museums of the world. among the notable bequests have been those of francis l. leland, $1,000,000; joseph pulitzer, $900,c00; ben- jamin altman, collection of paintings, sculpture, chinese porce- lains, ete., with a fund for their care; william henry riggs, col- lection of arms and armour; harris b. dick, collections and funds over $1,000,000; isaac d. fletcher, collection of paintings and objects of art and fund over $3,400,000; john hoge, over $1,000,- coo; and frank a. munsey, the bulk of an estate estimated at $40,000,000. {ii. local politics mayor mitchel’s administration.—during the administration of mayor gaynor, which began in 1910, there arose an increased interest in city affairs. the mayor who in consequence of an attempt to assassinate him had gained a hold on popular sym- pathy, died on sept 10 1913 while on a voyage to europe. adolph l. kline (b. 1858), president of the board of aldermen, succeeded to the office for the remaining few months of the term. a fusion ticket, led by john purroy mitchel (1879-1918), who had made an enviable record in public office as commis- sioner of accounts, collector of the port and president of the board of aldermen, easily defeated the tammany ticket. mitchel, but 35 years of age, undertook a complete reorganisation of administration and obtained remarkable results, making his mayoralty a period of unprecedented efficiency in the city’s government. of special note were the improvements in police, street cleaning, charities and corrections and the establishment of high standards and expert service in taxation, purchasing and the selection of personnel. the tammany reaction.—though admittedly efficient, eco- nomical and honest, this administration saw itself at the end of four years buried under the greatest majority for tammany on record. john f. hylan (b. 1868), a candidate from brooklyn, led a complete tammany ticket into office, with a platform of out- spoken opposition to almost everything the mitchel administra- tion had done. subsequently, however, upon the election of the president of the board of aldermen, alfred e. smith, to the gov- ernorship of the state and the death in office of the president of the borough of manhattan, republicans were elected to the vacancies. in 1921, largely as a result of the enactment of legislation sponsored by gov. miller which seriously curtailed new york city’s powers over local rapid transit matters, mayor hylan was renominated and again elected by a substantial majority, to- gcther with a complete tammany ticket. during both terms of mayor hylan’s administration there was practically continual wrangling among the members of the board of estimate and complete lack of co-operation with other public agencies. these conditions, together with the general character of appointments made by the mayor, resulted in a distinct lowering of the morale of city employees and a disturbance of administrative machinery that interfered seriously with the public service. particularly in new york state providing for much-needed rapid transit facilities the demagogic attitude of mayor hylan and to a less degree that of the other members of the board of estimate in refusing to work with the transit commissioners, brought about a virtual impasse that for seven years prevented action necessary to afford public relief. finally, in 1924, the board of estimate filed charges against the transit commissioners with gov. alfred e. smith, and the latter appointed the hon. john v. mcavoy, supreme court justice, appellate division of the state of new york, a commissioner to investigate the charges. commissioner mcavoy’s report, pre- sented early in 1925, placed responsibility for the transit situa- tion directly on mayor hylan. the administrative incompetence of mayor hylan and his subservience to mr. william randolph hearst, publisher, were factors in causing many influential tam- many leaders to withdraw their support and in sept. 1925 he was soundly defeated in the primaries as a candidate for mayor by james j. walker. the republican nominee was frank d. water- man, a prominent manufacturer. walker was easily elected in the nov. elections. home ruie—important legislation affecting new york city since 1910 included the home rule act of 1924 and the home rule transit law. under the provisions of the home rule act the power to enact local laws in new york city is conferred on a bicameral body known as the “ municipal assembly ” consisting of the board of estimate and apportionment and the board of aldermen. the home rule transit law provided for the estab- lishment of a board of transportation to have jurisdiction over the regulation of existing rapid transit lines and gave the board broad powers for providing additional transit facilities together with the right to undertake municipal operation of such lines. (rie fd new york state (see 19.5094), a state of the united states. the population in 1920 was 10,385,227 as compared with o,- 113,614 in i9to, a gain of 14%. the average population per sq. m. in 1920 was 217-9 as compared with r9or-2 in rgro. the urban population (in cities with 2,500 or more inhabitants) was 8,589,844, or 82:7%. the native white population was 7,385,915, of whom 3,668,266 were of native parentage; 2,844,083 of foreign parentage; and 873,566 of mixed parentage. the foreign-born white population was 2,786,112. in 1920 there were 28 cities with populations of over 20,000, of which the chief were:— albany 113,344 rochester 295,750 binghamton 66,800 schenectady 88,723 buffalo : 506,775 syracuse 171,717 new york . 5,620,048 utica 94,156 niagara falls 50,760 yonkers 100,176 government and political history.—the constitution of 1894 was frequently amended during the period rt910-25, but the amendments did not alter fundamentally the system of govern- ment. among the most important constitutional changes were the adoption of woman suffrage in 1917, the establishment of a literacy test for new voters in 1921 and the granting of home rule to cities in 1923. an important constitutional amendment providing for the consolidation of numerous state administrative establishments (187 in 1919) into 20 departments was approved in nov. 1925. on oct. 6 1910 gov. hughes resigned to accept a position on the u.s. supreme court, and was succeeded by horace white, the licutenant-governor. in the election of nov. 1910 the democrats carried not only the state but also the legislature, and john a. dix was elected governor. the 1911 legislature adopted a compromise direct primary law, which retained the party convention for the selection of candidates for state-wide offices. the wagner-levy election law limited independent nominations to registered and enrolled voters, made registration days uniform and provided for personal registration in rural districts for voters who had not voted in the previous election. it also prevented a candidate’s name from appearing more than once on the ballot, and thus made fusion tickets and in- dependent voting difficult. in the fall elections the republicans regained control of the assembly. the legislature of to12 1063 allowed party organisations to substitute the assembly district for the election district asthe unit of repr sentation. this caused absurdly long ballots and tended to discredit the direct primary system. the hours of labour for minors in factories were restricted. the democrats again carried the state and the legislature in nov. 1912, and sulzer became governor. the legislature of 1913 passed laws insuring greater safety in factories, providing for an eight-hour day for employees on public works, and a s4-hour week for women and children under 16 in certain indus- tries. in april 1913 gov. sulzer sent a special message to the legislature urging a direct primary law that would abolish party conventions. the legislature refused to enact the primary bill, and the governor vetoed the legislative substitute. when the legislature recessed on july 23 the governor declared the special session adjourned, but the legislature reassembled on aug. 11. two days later the assembly voted to impeach the governor; on oct. 17 he was removed from office and martin h. glynn, lieutenant-governor, succeeded. in the elections of nov. 1913 sulzer was elected to the assembly. a constitutional amendment authorising a workmen’s compensation law was adopted by a large majority. the special session of the legis- lature which had impeached gov. sulzer reassembled on dec. 18 and adopted a direct primary law abolishing conventions; a modified office group ballot law; measures to carry out the 17th amendment providing for the popular election of u.s. senators; a resolution submitting to the voters the question of calling a constitutional convention; and the adoption of a workmen’s compensation law for certain hazardous employments. the republicans were successful in the elections of nov. 1914, and whitman became governor. the new legislature passed a widowed mothers’ pension law; reorganised the inferior criminal courts of new york city by creating a board of city magistrates, the judges of which were given the right to sit in special sessions and to dispose summarily of minor misdemeanours; and author- ised parole commissions in cities of the first class. in nov. 1916 gov. whitman was re-elected, the assembly continuing repub- lican; in the presidential contest, also, the republicans carried the state. state legislation of 1917 was strongly influenced by the entrance of the united states into the world war. the woman-suffrage amendment was ratified by a large majority. in the nov. election, 1918, alfred e. smith (dem.) was elected governor. most of the other state officers and the legis- lature, however, remained republican. one of the most impor- tant laws of the year was the one providing for an income tax of from 1% to 3%. the federal prohibition amendment was ratified. shortly after his inauguration gov. smith appointed a non-partisan reconstruction commission to investigate the problem of reorganising the state government. this commission in its report of oct. ro 1919 recommended an executive budget and the consolidation of the numerous administrative agencies. the most constructive work of the session was the passage of several laws for the relief of the housing situation. in the elections of 1920 the republicans carried the state by large majorities, and their candidate for governor, judge nathan miller, was elected. the legislature passed a law placing all public utilities, except transit in new york city, under the ju- risdiction of one state commission. a state prohibition enforce- ment law was adopted. the direct primary was abandoned and the convention system restored for the nomination of state and judicial officers. the state industrial commission and the state tax commission were reorganised, and a board of estimate and control created. the 1922 legislature authorised life-insurance companies to invest 10% of their assets in new buildings for dwelling purposes; extended the emergency rent laws to 1924 and fixed assessments as the basis for determining the reasonableness of rents. women were given representation on county party committees. a home rule amendment was adopted. under the law passed the previous year the candidates for state office were nominated by party conventions in 1922. the election resulted in the election of alfred smith as governor. the 1923 legislature provided for a commission to study the problem of bringing the state laws into 1064 conformity with the home rule amendment, which the legislature again approved. some progress was also made in carrying out the governor’s consolidation programme for a constitutional amendment providing for consolidation of the numerous admin- istrative agencies into 20 departments. the mullan-gage prohibition enforcement act was repealed, and congress was memorialised in favour of liberalising the volstead law. in the fall elections the voters approved by large majorities | two constitutional amendments. one authorised a bond issue of $45,000,000 to pay a bonus to world war veterans. the second amendment extended to cities a large measure of home rule. the referendum on a bond issue for $50,000,000 for new hospitals was likewise approved. the republicans increased their majority in the assembly. the legislature of 1924 passed a bonus law awarding $10 for each month of service to all active participants in the world war who were residents of the state; the maximum payment was fixed at $150. the emergency rent laws of 1920 and the following years were extended to 1926. an important measure of the session was the home rule enabling act, designed to carry out the amendment adopted the previous year. this law, drafted by the state home rule commission, was adopted unanimously by both houses of the legislature. the new york amendment differs from constitu- tional provisions in some other states in that it grants powers in general terms. in the presidential election of 1924, the republicans were successful. gov. smith was re-elected, but the republican candidates for the other six elective state offices were succcss- ful, and the legislature became more strongly republican. a griculiure and stock- raising —in 1924 new york, with crops valued at $303,812,600, ranked eighth among the states in the value of all crops and first in the production of hay and potatoes. in 1923 the number of farms in the state was 190,000 and the total acreage 20,300,000. the u.s. census of 1920 placed the value of all farm property at $1,908,483,201. in 1924 7,327,000 tons of hay; 24,519,000 bu. of corn; 6,840,000 bu. of wheat; 34,056,000 bu. of oats; 6,900,000 bu. of barley; 935,000 bu. of rye; 5,363,000 bu. of buckwheat; 46,620,000 bu. of potatoes; 1,820,000 bu. of beans; 23,800,000 bu. of apples; 2,178,000 bu. of peaches; 2,100,000 bu. of pears; 80,000 tons of grapes; and 2,350,000 ib. of tobacco were produced. in 1923 there were 532,000 sheep in the state, and the wool production was 2,968,000 pounds. the dairy business was one of the most important. minerals —in 1923 mineral products valued at $89,975,134 were produced. the average value for the years 1919-23 was $62,243,270. in 1923 clay products were valued at $25,226,187; cement, $12,834,471; gypsum, $10,344,745; stone $9,610,324; salt, $7,431,155; sand and gravel, $7,291,076; petroleum, $4,140,000; natural gas, $3,739,000; and iron ore, $3,320,004. manufactures according to the united states report on manufactures for the year 1923, the value of the products of manufacturing establishments in the state was $8,960,693,000, as compared with $6,973,506,o000 for 1921, a gain of 28.5%. the number of establishments in 1923 was 38,187; in 1921, 38,107; in 1919, 49,330; and in 10914, 48,203. the decrease in number is partly accounted for by the fact that the last two reports did not include establishments which reported products under $5,000 in value. the wage-earners in 1923 numbered 1,150,901 as compared with 1,000,414 in 1921, an increase of 15%. the wage payments in 1923 amounted to $1,582,006,000. the industries whose products were valued at more than $100,000,000 in 1923 were:— clothing . $1,636,529,625 paper and wood _ printing and pulp $140,468, 586 publishing 503,411,143 furniture 137,328,234 foundry and ma- cigars and chine shop 273,933,262 cigarettes 129,659,423 bread and bakery chemicals 128,376,073 products 236,546,477. steel works and knit goods . 230,525,505 rolling mills 122,964,813 millinery, lace 197,627,982 silk . . 105,018,097 boots and shoes 195,082,384 confectionery electrical and ice cream 103,215,335 machinery 192,224,937 new zealand the chief manufacturing centres and the values of their products in 1921 were: new york city, $4,328,187,499; buffalo, $4.31,383,131; rochester, $291,117,230; syracuse, $1009,061,617; yonkers, $107,182,668; and albany, $41,171,786. transportation and commerce.—in 1925 the operated railway mileage in new york was 8,401. in 1925 there were 4,792 m. of electric railways. there were 81,878 m. of highways in the state, 18,566 m. of which were surfaced. of the $75,000,000 appropri- ated by congress to the states for highway building in the year 1924-5 under the federal aid system, new york received $3,663,105. the erie barge canal was opened from troy to buffalo in 1918. the champlain and the oswego barge canals have also been completed. in addition to the canalised rivers and lakes (382 m.) the state has a canal mileage of 525. education.—the university of the state of new york, a supervising and examining institution, is the state department of education, and controls the educational system of the state. it is governed by 12 regents, one elected each year for a 12-year term at a joint session of the two houses of the legislature. the board of regents elects the president of the university, who is the commissioner of education. the regents apportion the state educational funds. in 1924 there were 62,401 teachers, and 1,610,076 enrolled pupils. the cost of school maintenance in that year was $250,553,776. finance.—-on june 30 1925 the total debt of the state was $318,456,000. the sinking funds, however, amounted to $87,123,821. approximately one-half of the total debt was incurred for canals. highway bonds amounted to $98,800,000, and world war bonus bonds to $45,000,000. the general revenue receipts for the year ending june 30 1924 amounted to $146, 587,- 656, and the disbursements to $146,456,708. (be. dog:) new zealand (see 19.624), a dominion of the british empire and a member of the league of nations. the area of the dominion proper is 103,285 sq. m., but if outlying islands are included the total area is 103,862 square miles. in addition new zealand is responsible under the mandate of the league of nations for the administration of the western samoan group, and shares with great britain and australia the adminis- tration of the former german island of nauru. also, since 1923, the governor-general of new zealand is responsible for the administration of the ross sea area in the antarctic. in feb. 1926, at the invitation of the british govt., new zealand took over the administration of the tokelau or union group of islands in the pacific. the population of the dominion proper, according to the census of 1921, was 1,271,664. by letters patent dated may 11 1917 the designation of the representative of the british crown in new zealand was altered from gov- ernor and commander-in-chief to governor-general and com- mander-in-chief. i. political history the year 1910 saw the dominion recovering from the financial crisis of r908. political control was in the hands of the ward ministry, which, with incidental cabinet changes, had carried on the liberal-labour govt. and regime of the late mr. sed- don, who himself had been prime minister without intermis- sion for 13 years. political interest had centred largely around the system of crown land tenure; amendments to industrial legislation; the passing in 1910 of the national provident fund act; and questions of military and naval defence. the govern- ment was being assailed by mr. massey’s already growing party with the proposal to relinquish the remaining remnants of leasehold principles, and to permit the sale outright, under certain safeguards against monopolistic holdings, of crown lands. a defence act, embodying the principle of universal service within certain ages, had been passed in 1909, though it had not been put into operation; and in 1910 lord kitchener, at the invitation of the new zealand govt., visited the coun- try, and, after slight alterations had been carried out at his suggestion, the system was introduced in jan. rorzr. in the naval sphere an arrangement had been made in 1909 with the home govt. under which it was understood that the domin- new zealand ion’s ‘ gift ”’ battle-cruiser, the “‘ new zealand,” should be the flagship of a new china unit, and that seven vessels of the unit should be stationed in peace time in new zealand waters, the ships to be manned as far as possible with new zealand officers and men, the general election of rgrt was disastrous to the ward government. the liberal-labour combination, which had held together for 21 years, had for some time been showing signs of disruption, while the conservative opposition, now known as the reform party, had improved its organisation. the polls gave the latter an apparently slight advantage, though the issue was still in doubt. in the recess the ward ministry resigned because of internal discord, and a new liberal cabinet was formed under sir thomas mackenzie. the latter was defeated on a no-confidence motion two weeks after the new parliament met; and on july ro 1912 mr. w. f. massey became prime minister. the reform regime.—the new government in its first session passed the necessary legislation to enable holders of crown leases in perpetuity to acquire the freehold. another important measure passed placed the control of the public services largely under commissioners. no important changes in general policy were made. nevertheless, there was ample work for the govern- ment. for some time, aided by agitators from abroad, sections of labour had shown considerable restlessness and dissatisfaction with the arbitration act, and this culminated in 1913 in a strike of all transport workers, seamen, and miners, who, can- celling their registration under the arbitration act and thus being able to strike without incurring penalties, ranged them- selves under a federation of labour. the strike, one of the most extensive in the history of new zealand, was a grave menace to the country, for at the time it took place produce from every part of the dominion was in store at the ports awaiting shipment to great britain. the government took firm measures to deal with the situation. a new waterside workers’ union was established under the arbitration act, and all temporary workers, chictly farmers’ sons and employces, joining it were given sccurity by the police and special con- stables from interference; ultimately the ships, manned by volunteer crews, were dispatched with their cargocs. the strike ended after a protracted struggle. as one result of it the labour disputes investigation act was passed in the same year; it applied to workers or societics and to employers not bound by the conciliation and arbitration act. the remainder of the parliamentary session was devoted chiefly to amending icgislation, and in this connection useful, if not outstanding, work was done. to the amended land laws of the previous session was added a further provision giving the same privilege of purchase to those possessing similar leases of settlement lands, i.c., lands which had been purchased by the state and leased. acts were also passed to provide funds to assist irrigation and also the fruit industry. a board of agricul- ture was established to act in a consultative and advisory capacity to the lands department. in this session also the second ballot act was repealed. in 1913 the minister for defence, finance and education, mr. (sir) j. allen, visited england, at the wish of the govern- ment, to confer with the british admiralty and war office in regard to new zcaland’s military and naval defence, and also to attend to certain matters of general finance. arrangements were completed with the war office in regard to the strength and composition of the voluntary expeditionary force authorised under the defence act of 1909; but the negotiations with the admiralty were not very satisfactory. it had been found nec- essary by the admiralty to depart from the previous arrange- ment, and station the ships designed for the china seas in english waters; and the only offer to new zealand was of two obsolete vessels of the old australian and new zealand squai- ron. new zealand then asked that the vessels to be sent should be of the “ bristol’ type, but this could not be done. in the same year, 1913, the naval defence act was passed: it provided for the establishment of a new zealand naval force by voluntary 1065 enlistment. a new zealand division was inaugurated in ro1r4, but the outbreak of war stopped the scheme of training. during his return trip to new zealand via canada, the minister, who had been instructed to purchase in britain a stock of small arms for the dominion’s newly constituted terri- torial army, but had only been able, owing to a shortage, to obtain a small quantity, bought a large number of -303 lee- enfield rifles—discarded by canada for the ross rifle—which were destined not only to serve for the training of new zea- land’s expeditionary forces for the first two years of the war, but to become, many of them, the weapon of the new zealanders in gallipoli. the war period.—a considerable programme of important legislation had been arranged for 1914, but parliament had not been in session very long before war broke out. it was, how- ever, possible to pass, amongst other measures, an education amendment act, under which there was a complete reorganisa- tion of the educational department and the system of education control. at the declaration of hostilities neither government nor people displayed any hesitation as to the course new zealand would pursue. secret preparations had been made for the mobilisation of an expeditionary force of approximately 8,000 officers and men, and these preparations were immedi- ately pul into operation. but first, at the request of the british govt., a force of 55 officers and 1,358 men was mobilised, and on aug. 15 dispatched to capture german samoa, a feat accomplished without fighting. the first expeditionary force for the actual scene of war, consisting of 360 officers and 8,139 other ranks, sailed on dec. 14 1914. the preparation of rein forcements was meanwhile proceeded with, and also the neces? sary organisation for a sustained war cffort. new zealand maintained her war effort on a scale consider- ably greater than that involved in her first arrangement with the war otlice; her infantry division in france and mounted force in palestine were kept at full strength with necessary reserves to the day of the armistice, and by the close of hos- tilities she had sent overseas (out of a population of 1,089,825) 100,444 trained troops. in addition, 12,000 were mobilised and preparing for service when hostilities terminated. the financial cost of an undertaking on such a scale was extremely heavy. the budget of 1914 was already in print when the declaration of war was received, and authority was therefore given by parliament to raise {2,000,000 by treasury bills to mect imme- diate expenses. afterwards loans were arranged according to requirements. meanwhile, in dec. 1914, the parliamentary elections were held and mr. massey was returned with a small majority. subsequently, in aug. 1915, a national govt. composed of the two chief parties, reform and liberal (the small labour section declining representation), was formed; mr. massey remained prime minister, with mr. (sir) j. allen as minister of defence and sir joseph ward as minister of finance. a complete party truce was declared. new zealand shipped to britain during the war produce re other supplies to a value of £160,000,000, which were sold to the imperial govt. at prices fixed by mutual arrangements. on three occasions during the war the prime minister and the finance minister attended imperial conferences in london, and on such occasions the defence minister, as acting prime minister, combined their dutics with his own. though the country was wholcheartedly behind the war effort, problems naturally followed in the wake of the compulsory enlistment enactment, for which in 1916 the majority of the people had themselves agitated. one serious coal-miners’ dispute al the west coast mines also required settling. but whatever sectional and temporary difficulties arose, the nation as a whole sup- ported the policy of the government. the ability of the dominion to ship its produce at satisfactory prices overcame the difficulties of financial provision. the output increased considerably, and extra taxation was met without inconvenience. up to 1917, comparatively small por- tions only of loans authorised were raised in london, and the rest in new zealand, an innovation so far as the dominion was 1066 concerned. after 1917, new zealand provided her own financial requirements. the actual fighting costs of the troops in the field were advanced to new zealand by the imperial govt. on a per capita basis (which fluctuated according to the en- gagements in which the new zcaland units participated). the total cost of the war to the dominion was assessed in ro2t at £81,538,570, and of this amount £55,198,325 had been raised in new zealand. post-war years—vyhe national govt. came to an end in 1919 by the withdrawal of the liberal party from the min- istry. at the general elections which ensued late in the same year the reform party was returned with a heavy majority. labour also showed a considerable accession of strength, and, for the first time for many years, became a distinct party in the house. the government turned its attention with con- centrated effort to the repatriation of the returned soldiers, secking particularly, under special legislation that had been passed, to place satisfactorily on the land all those who so desired.’ financial assistance was also given, chiefly by loans on casy terms, to men who desired houses of their own, or wished to start in business, etc. each case was carefully inves- tigated by special repatriation organisations, and in every possible respect the government sought to provide for the future of each individual soldier who presented himself. in the case of those seeking land occupations, suitable areas were purchased by the government, sub-divided, and resold or icased to the men under special legislative provision at easy terms of interest; or the money was advanced as a first mortgage, with essential safeguards, if a man desired any particular jarm. an abnormal demand for land was created, and naturally, assisted by the enhanced values of produce, land values became inflated. house propertics also went up greatly in value, and the shortage, since but few had been built during the war, became very acute. altogether 9,388 men were assisted to obtain rural homes and properties, and 10,890 in securing homes in towns; 61,254 were placed in employment, trained in some future livelihood or financially assisted to re-establish them- selves—a total altogether of 81,532 men. the cost to the country by july 1922 was £28,718,578. the problems of repa- triation and others following in the wake of the war were in the forefront of the new government’s duties. fortunately during the later war years there had been heavy surpluses of revenue over expenditure, and these were available for partial application to repatriation needs. the immediate post-war years were years of high prices and prosperity, but in 1921 the prices of produce, especially of wool and meat, on the british market rapidly fell. land values in new zealand were too high and there had been extremely heavy over-importation, largely due to merchants and manufacturers abroad being able to fulfil long-standing orders. the country was faced with an immediate crisis. taxes were already at a high level, and there were cries for easement to meet the strain of financial calls. the country’s ordinary current expenditure had grown tremendously, and it was impossible to afford much relief. the prime minister decided at once on a policy of the most rigid economy. departmental expenditure was closely examined by a specially appointed commission; war bonuses were attacked, and, since a fall was shown in the cost of living, deductions were made accordingly. as a result of its measures for economy, the popularity of the government was seriously affected. there was much unem- ployment, but it was possible, by pushing forward the public works programme, to offer manual labour to those able to undertake it. meanwhile, the overseas marketing problems were tackled, reductions were obtained in freights, insurance, storage, etc., and by the middle of 1922 a recovery in market returns abroad was in evidence. the meat producers of the dominion had tackled their own marketing problems, and had set up an organisation under which the whole industry was able to seek reasonable terms in all matters of costs from the farm to the overseas markets; the dairy producers had taken the preliminary steps for a like movement. . the government was in close touch new zealand with these developments and, in the case of the meat producers, passed the necessary legislation. the vexed question of heavy taxation was seriously disturbing the community, the commercial interests especially desiring a change in the incidence of taxation. the government then set up a commission to investigate the whole matter. by the middle of 1922, however, the general situation had considerably improved. towards the end of the year, while the government was still unpopular owing to its drastic economies, a general election became due. the result was not unexpected. mr. massey could not muster a sufficient number to provide an absolute majority over the liberal and labour parties, the latter of whom had increased their strength to 17, the largest repre- sentation they had ever had. but when the new parliament met in 1923, three liberal independent members, who had given pledges to vote against labour, ranged themselves on the side of the government, and saved a defeat. the year 1923 was remarkable for the recovery of the new zealand produce markets in britain, for the state revenue revival, and for various taxation burden remissions the govern- ment was able to institute. income tax was greatly reduced, penny postage was rcinstituted, reductions were made in tele- graph rates, the income tax on revenue from farm products was removed, and a sum of approximately {2,000,000 was provided for the aid of soldier settlers who were unable to carry on under the burden of the high value at which their land had been purchased, and for further pension assistance. the incidence of taxation was also altered in some particulars, and a policy of progressive reduction of income tax was instituted, the maxi- mum rate falling from 7s. 4d. to 4s. 6d. in the £, and the minimum from 1s. to 7d. substantial reductions were also made in the rates of land tax. exemptions in respect of children were increased. an energetic poiicy of development was also undertaken. legislative provision was made for the state advances depart- ment to extend its security for advances to 75% in the case of farming land, and to 95% for workers’ houses, and legislation was passed to authorise the necessary borrowing to provide the money. for a number of years the payments from borrowers under the scheme had provided suflicient revenue to meet all applications for advances. the customs tariff was also revised, the chief features being the increase of british preference, and a separate reciprocal tariff with australia. in 1924 the old age pensions act was improved, further beneficial amendments were made in the education legislation, the companies act was altered to enable the issue of “‘ labour shares,’’ and acts were passed to permit the dairy, honey, fruit and poultry farmers to exercise control over their industries similar to that enjoyed by the meat producers, though differing in some essential details. legislation was also passed making registration of electors for general election purposes compulsory. | on may 10 1925 the prime minister, the right hon. w. f. massey, died at wellington. sir f. hf. d. bell, the first new zealander born in the dominion to occupy the office, was appointed prime minister on may 14, and was succeeded on may 30, following a reorganisation of the executive council, by mr. j. g. coates, previously minister for public works and railways and postmaster-general. the session closed without any legislation of outstanding importance. in nov. a general election was held, and resulted in an overwhelming victory for the reform party under mr. coates, which secured 57 seats as against 11 held by the national (liberal) party, and 12 by labour. , defence.-—new zealand’s attention since the war has been directed chiefly to additional naval security. in 1919 admiral jellicoe of the british navy visited new zealand, and pre- sented a report making recommendations and suggestions for the naval defence of the dominion. in 1926 the dominion maintained a training ship and two modern light cruisers. the cruisers were loaned free of charge by the imperial govt., the dominion being responsible for all payments for the ships and their personnel, a considerable number of which consisted new zealand of new zealanders. a naval oil-tank vessel is also maintained, and at the naval base at devonport, auckland, one oil-tank had been erected while another was under construction in 1925. the amount provided in the estimates for 1925-6 as the dominion’s contribution to naval defence was £538,325. all matters relat- ing to the naval forces of the dominion are administered by a naval board, constituted in 1921. the military forces consist of the permanent forces, the territorial force and the senior cadets. the permanent forces, excluding the air force, contain 1or professional officers who are charged with the training of the forces and the administra- tion of all matters connected therewith. the strength of the territorial force in 1925 was 699 officers and 15,481 other ranks. the strength of the senior cadets was 427 officers and 26,515 other ranks. rifle clubs exist throughout the dominion. all male inhabitants of new zealand who have resided therein for six months and are british subjects are liable to be trained in the senior cadets from 14 years of age, or the date of leaving school, to 18 years of age, or, in the case of those who at the age of 18 are attending a secondary school, to the date of their leaving school; or in the territorial force to the age of 25. the new zealand permanent air force, with an establishment of five officers and 19 other ranks, is a unit of the military forces. public finance.—the gross national debt, which at march 31 1910 stood at {74,890,645 (£72 6s. rod. per head of population), had increased to {201,170,755 (£162 12s. od. per head) at march 31 1920; at march 31 1925 it amounted to £227,814,647 (£165 as. 11d. per head). this is the gross amount, and against it are accumulated sinking funds amounting to £13,462,839, leaving the net indebtedness of {£214,287,128. with the exception of that portion incurred for war purposes, the greater portion of the borrowings has been for productive and developmental purposes, resulting in revenue-producing assets such as railways, hydroelectrical installations, telegraphs and telephones. the war debt to the imperial govt. had been funded and repay- ment was already well advanced by 1925. the following table shows the revenue and expenditure for each financial year from roto to 1925:— year : excess of ending mar. 31 revenue over expenditure revenue expenditure i9to iqii 1912 1913 1914 iqi5 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 year ending mar. 31 £ 9,238,917 10,297,273 11,061,161 11,734,271 12,229,661 12,451,945 14,597,530 18,355,194 20,206,222 22,352,372 26,081,340 34,260,961 28,127,007 271579,443 27,960,370 28,643,000 taxation £5,918,034 22,184,414 16,172,306 f £ 8,990,922 9,343,106 10,340,368 11,082,038 11,825,864 12,379,803 12,493,107 14,058,770 15,120,288 18,673,599 23,781,524 28,068,730 28,466,838 26,263,760 26,148,005 27,399,200 railways £4,028,739 6,918,492 7,105,106 247,995 954,167 720,793 652,233 403,797 72,142 2,014,423 4,296,424 5,085,934 3,678,773 2,299,816 6,192,231 — 339,831 1,315,683 1,812,365 1,243,800 1067 these tables show that revenue from taxation increased very con- siderably from 1914 to 1921, but fell heavily from 1921 to 1925. the public services (chiefly railways and post and telegraphs) in- creased their revenue after 1921, while the costs of their adminis- tration were reduced, showing the excellent results of the severe and continued economies instituted in the services’ administration during the post-war period. the movement of direct and indirect taxation from 1914 to 1925 is shown in the following table:— year customs : land income death crding | and. | tax tax | duties f£ £ £ £ 194 31553785 767,451 554,271 613,751 i9i7 . 4,037,628 713,118 4,262,126 570,040 1921. | 8,769,251 1,688,979 8,248,945 1,106,925 1922 . 5,554,334 1,637,816 6,002,987 1,512,754 1925 . | 8,339,576 1,335,251 3,386,052 1,520,749 education.—\n 1914 the whole of the law relating not only to public, but to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. the principal changes involved the reorganisation of the depart- ment of education and the inspector-general of schools became the director of education. provision was also made for the constitution of fewer education districts, and by an act of 1915 nine were created from the existing 13. a council of education was also constituted, with statutory duty to report to the minister and advise upon any matters in connection with education referred to it, or which it may consider advisable to introduce into new zealand. by the educa- tion amendment act 1921-2 the registration of all private schools was made compulsory, and teachers in all schools were required to take the oath of allegiance. the education amendment act 1924 included provisions for the establishment of junior high schools, for the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools and for the creation of a teachers’ register. the number of scholars receiving instruction in all educational institutions in i91i was 194,325, and in 1924 289,033. the following table shows the advance in the state primary schools (including district high schools): — no. of pupils at average schools end of year attendances | %o 1913 -. 2,255 172,168 89-2 2,305 194,934 2,574 216,190 the number of teachers in the public schools in 1913 was 4,262; in 1924, 5,822. in 1915 there were 11,958 children receiving secondary and technical instruction at all classes of schools; in 1924 there were 23,276. free places at secondary schools are granted to suitably qualified pupils. there are also liberal national scholarships. con- trol of higher education is vested in the new zealand university, which by royal charter is entitled to grant degrees. in 1921 the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and doctor of philosophy were instituted. there is a liberal scholarship system in connection with the universities. the following table shows the increased expenditure on education :— expenditure expenditure | from per head of public funds mean population £ s. d. igog. ; : 980,000 197 i9gi5. ‘ : 1,378,000 24 1 i92i. : : 3,224,000 51 6 1924. : 1247 ,000 48 8 to25, 62° = & 3,643,000 537 chief sources of revenue and expenditure post and tele- crown lands other sources £750,120 2,359,882 2,446,957 interest, £12,229,661 34,260,961 28,643,000 other etc., eeu bxncnses total £2,887,981 £3,556,141 £11,825,864 7,831,593 8,803,789 28,068,730 8,862,644 7;709,266 27,399,200 year : . working post and : ce railways telegraphs education 1914. £3,004,181 £1,170,883 £1,206,678 i92i. 6,211,011 2,588,360 2,633,977 1925. | 5,636,583 2,413,436 2,777,271 1068 bibliography.—j. e. rossigne and w. downie stewart, ad socialism in new zealand (1911); rt. hon. sir r. stout and j. stout, new zealand (1911); giuseppe capra, la nuova ae (1913); fh. lusk, social welfare in new zealand (1913); j. hight and h. d. bamford, constitutional history and law of new zealand (1914); j. lindsay buick, treaty of wattangt (1914); f. waite, new zealanders at gallipoli, official (1919); h. stewart, new zealanders in france, official (1921); c. g. powles, new zea- landers tn sinai and palestine, official (1922): e. kk. mulgan and a. e. mulgan, new zealand citizen (1922); w. pember reeves, the long white cloud, 3rd edition (1924); hi. j. b. drew, new zealand’ s war effort, official (1924); n. e. coad, dominion civics a j.a ii. population and settlement population.—the census figures for t911, 1916 and t921, and the estimated population on dec. 31 1925 were as follows:— iqii iqt6 1921 1925 europeans . 1,008,463 | 1,099,449 | 1,218 o13 1,335,719 maoris 49,844 49,776 2,751 54,768 1,058,312 | 1,149,225 ee 1,390,487 | the actual gain in population in the decade 1911-21 (excluding maoris) was 210,445, or 20-87%. taking the two census periods, the gain from 1911-6 was 90,981, or 9:02%, and from 1916-21, 119,464, or 10-87%. three factors influenced the comparatively small increase:— 1. immigration during the war years was severely restricted; 2. emigration figures were swelled by the inclusion of over 100,000 members of the expeditionary force, thousands of whom did not return; 3 the rate of natural increase was reduced owing to the absence of so many thousands of men. in torr the birth-rate per 1,000 was 25-97, and in 1924, 21°57. in the same periods the death-rates per 1,000 were 9-39, and 8-29 respectively. the proportion of females to males, excluding the war years, is steadily increasing. the number of females to 1,000 males in r911 were 896; in 1916, 993; in 1921, 956; and in 1925, 959. the population is chiefly centred in the north island, and the “ drift ” that way, largely due to the development of the dairy industry, is growing. in 1911, 55-90% of the people re- sided there; in 1916, 59°22 %, and in 1921, 60°81%. the maortis, who are not included in these percentages, chiefly reside in the north island. the census statistics of 1921 classed 56% of the population as urban. in 1921, 98-43% of the inhabitants, exclusive of maoris, had been born in the br:tish empire, an increase of -51 % as compared with rorr. of the total in 1921, 74-39% were born in new zea- land, 19-54% in the united kingdom and 3:94 %in australia. a certain number of those born in foreign countries were of british parentage or nationality, and including these the proportion of the population owning british nationality in 1921 was 99-35%. the number of aliens steadily diminished—from 12,050 in 1911 to 7,901 in rg2r. of the 7,901, 2,712 were chinese, 1,013 americans and 857 yugoslavs. certain restrictions are placed upon the entry into the dominion of race aliens, a classification implying persons of other than european race. of the total pop- ulation in 1925 43°66 % were eee of the church of england, 25-42% preby dan. 13°93 % catholics and 9:53 % methodists. the maori race increased id numbers from 49,844 in i911 to 54,768 in 1925, and continued to preserve their individuality and strength. the above 1925 firure includes 7,352 half-castes, the majority of whom live as europeans. there are 125 native schools, with an average daily attendance of 5,6ro scholars. immigration.—the immigration policy of the new zealand government is to provide assistance, by free or reduced passage rates, to desirable immigrants from great britain. assistance is restricted to persons who are nominated by permanent residents of the dominion, or by bona fide new zealanders visiting great britain, provided such persons are healthy and under 50 years of age. in the case of a married person, nomination must include the wife and family, except where a judicial separation exists, or desertion is proved. the nominator must undertake to make pro- vision for the maintenance and employment of the nominee, and new zealand guarantee that residence will extend to at least five vears. the quota of such assisted new arrivals is fixed from period to period. from shortly after the war until 1925 the quota was 10,000 per annum, but early in 1926 it was extended to 13,500. exceptions to the nomination rule are single domestic servants and farm workers, for both of which classes there exists an unsatisfied de- mand. very complete arrangements, under the direction of the im- migration department, which in turn is responsible to the minis- ter for immigration, exist for the care and comfort of immigrants both at their departure and arrival. assisted immigrants are re- quired to pass severe medical tests, and to present certificates of good character. these, and all allied matters, are administered by the high commissioner for new zealand in london. the re- duced rates of passage from great britain to new zealand in 1926 were as follows:— £ married! or widowed adults . il . 13 158. 0d. ii single adults (males) single adults (females) ‘ ; farm labourers . , ; ; poe & | domestic servants . . free, with a £2 bonus boys, over 17 and under 19 years of age, not travelling with their parents. . 5 ros. od. children under ig9 years travelling “with parents . ; ; ; free in addition to the general immigration scheme, there exist special arrangements for british public schoolboys between the axes of 17 and 19 years. if satisfactory they are provided with passages at a cost of £7 10s. 0d.; they travel in groups under a pre- fect, and on arrival are placed with specially selected farmers at fixed rates of wages and taught farming. in 1924, 208 boys went to new zealand under the scheme, and about an equal number in 1925. a large section of the shcepowners of the dominion also hive a fund of over £200,000, allocated out of wool profits of the war period, for training sons and daughters of sailors of the navy and mercantile marine who were killed or incapacitated during the war, the lads in farming at a special institution i: new zealand, and the girls in domestic and light farming work at another. free passages are provided by the government of new zealand, and the children are provided with suitable employment alter training. both schemes are under the scrutiny of the min- ister for immigration and both have operated with entire success and satisfaction. the british govt. co-operates with the domin- ion in its assisted migration and provides a share of the pas- save money. the following table shows the number of assisted immigrants entering new zealand for each year from 1911 to 1924:— year number year number i9i1 3,070 1918 421 igi2 3,535 1919 3,569 1913 5151 1920 7,015 1914 3,716 1921 8,085 iqi5 1,300 ig22 7773 1916 695 192 6,181 1917 231 192 8,091 8,236 ee ee land settlement.—the total area of the dominion is 66,390,- 262 ac., and the following is the condition of the land in 1925:— acres held on freehold . 21,068,660 reserved for public purposes 14,425,181 crown lands leased 18,226,492 crown lands yet available for disposal 2,925,410 lands held by the native race . . 5,881,571 unfit for settlement (including riv ers, lakes, roads, etc.) : 2° x . 3,862,948 66,390,262 it is impossible, in the absence of available statistics, to give a comparative table for the year 1910, but other statistics show that individual holdings increased from 73,876in 1911 to 85,077 in 1925, and areas held from 40,238,126 ac. to 43,632,372 acres. these figures disclose the extent of new lands taken into occupa- new zealand tion, and also the sub-division that has taken place. of the 43,632,372 ac. of occupied land in 1925, 18,510,558 ac. were in cultivation as follows:— grain and pulse . , ; ; ; 699,844 grasses and clover (for hay and seed), and green and root crops . ; ; 1,068,459 fallow . ; : 124,459 grasses and clover (permanent pasture) 16,450,625 vineyards and orchards : ; 27,749 market goods, etc. —. : 4,998 private gardens and grounds 63,206 plantations : ‘ 71,218 18,510,558 unimproved land 25,121,814 43,632,372 the unimproved land was divided upinto 54,814 ac. under flax; 14,470,990 ac. of tussock and native grasses; 4,054,760 ac. of fern, scrub, etc.; 4,331,333 ac. of standing virgin bush; and 2,200,917 ac. of barren land. the wellington and auckland prov- inces possess the greatest flax areas, and canterbury and otago the tussock land (used for sheep grazing); the fern and scrub areas are well distributed; westland and the auckland provinces contain the chief forest lands; the barren lands mainly consist of the mountain areas of south island. the remaining crown lands are being thrown open as rapidly as possible. in the 1924-5 financial year 168,748 ac. were offered for selection under the various tenures providedby the land act 1924, land for settle- ments act 1908, and education reserves amendment act 1910. there is provision in the legislation for compulsory prevention of aggregation in large areas and for sub-division if such is desirable. the advances to settlers act 1894, was embodied in the state advances act 1913 under which money is lent to settlers on first mortgage of lands and improvements held under certain specified classes of tenure. the government has authority under the act to borrow money for these advances. the scheme has proved very successful and from 1917-21 repayments exceeded advances. in 1923 its application was widened to enable larger amounts to be borrowed and increased advances to be made; as a result the loans authorised in the two succeeding years were greatly in- creased. in 1924-5, 3,321 loans amounting to a total of {4,289,875 were authorised, {3,516,130 advanced, and £846,771 repaid. brsliocraeny.—j. cowan, the maoris of new zealand (1910); s. p. smith, hawaiki, the original home of the maori, 4 ed. (1921); h. w. williams, dictionary of maori language (1917); a. w shrimpton and a. e. mulgan, maori and pakeha (1921); e. best, maori myth and religion (1922); j. cowan, new zealand wars (1923); e. best, the maori, memoirs of the polynesian soc., vol. 5 (1924); g. h. schalefield, who's who in new zealand ee (w.s. n.) ill. economic history agriculture —new zealand is primarily a grazing country, large- ly because better financial returns are obtained from the pastoral industries. of the total area of 18,510,558 ac. under cultivation in 1924-s, 690,844 ac. were in grain and pulse crops; the area under crops intended for threshing was only 371,944 acres. grain crops, principally oats and wheat, are chiefly grown in the eastern and southern districts of the south island; barley is also grown, but to a very much smaller extent. before the 191§—6 season agricultural statistics were rarely correct, owing to the unsatisfactory methods of collecting returns. 1069 the table below clearly shows the decline in the area under grain crops, particularly wheat. the decrease in production necessitates grain imports in some years and in 1924-5, 4, 181,422 bu. of wheat were imported from australia. about 14,000 persons were engaged in agriculture in 1925. linseed is grown mainly in canterbury, south island. its cultivation increased rapidly after 1916-7, when only 1,431 ac. were sown until 1923-4, when 12,119 ac. were sown; the acreage fell, however, to 6,679 in 1924-5. the area under potatoes in 1924-5 was 23,002 ac., yielding a return of 122,184 tons. other root crops are grown on a large scale for winter feed and for stock fattening purposes. turnips are a most important crop in a sheep breeding country such as new zealand; in 1924-5 the area under the crop was 4§2,- 894 acres. the cultivation of mangolds is increasing, with is,11r ac. under the crop in 1924-5, and the value of lucerne cultivation is being realised. the department of agriculture, under a director-general with divisional heads controlling chemistry, livestock, dairy fields and horticulture sections, is concerned mainly in advanc- ing the interests of primary production. the sum allocated to this department in 1925-6 was £368,297. while the service is mainly educational, it also is responsible for the inspection and grading of all produce exported from the country. experimental farms and horticultural stations are maintained in various localities, and farmers are assisted by visits and letters of advice. a board of agriculture was established in 1913 to advise the minister for agriculture upon matters relating to the develop- ment of agricultural and other rural industries. pastoral industry.—the number of dairy cows in the dominion in 1910 was 804,078, while in 1925 it had risen to 1,323,432. the dairy industry is largely conducted upon a co-operation basis, and the most up-to-date mechanical aids are used. in 1925, 15,561 milking plants were in operation, milking 705,000 cows each day, and 44,656 cream separators were in us2 on the farms. there were 156 butter, 267 cheese, and 69 dual (butter and cheese) factories. over 76,000 persons were employed in the industry. pastoral products comprised cver 90% of total exports in 1925. the great advance made in the dairy industry is shown by the following table of comparative percentage increases in export quantities and values for the decade 1914-24. value quantity of of butter . 398 192 cheese 174 85 i*rozen meat 62 —! wool 64 —6 during the post-war period two very important branches of the dairy industry were developed: the manufacture of casein, and of dried (or powdered) milk. in 1925, 43,908 cwt. of casein were exported, valued at {110,171, and 12,598,321 lb. of dried milk, valued at £390,045. preserved milk was also exported to a value of £35,693. ‘the decrease in the dairy output in 1925 (as shown in the export trade table) is attributable chiefly to an extremely unfavourable season and a shipping strike. the number of sheep and lambs in the dominion in 1925 was only some 500,000 more than in 1910. there was a normal increase in the flocks until 1918, when a total of 26,538,302 was acreage and yield of princtpal crops, 1915-25 wheat oats barley maize season area quantity area quantity area quantity arca quantity area quantity |. thous. ac.| thous. bu.| thous. ac.| thous. bu.| thous. ac.|thous. bu.| thous. ac.|thous. bu.) thous. ac.| thous. bu. i9i5-6 . 329 7,108 213 7,653 30 820 8 340 9 163 i916-7 . : 218 5,051 178 5,371 30 738 6 274 12 47 1917-8 . - 281 6,808 156 4,943 i9 569 8 368 i2 1918-9 . f 208 6,568 173 6,885 19 711 10 414 18 1919-20 . . 140 4,560 180 6,968 23 816 9 406 14 1920-1 . : 220 6,872 148 5,225 47 1,587 is 501 14 1921-2 . ; 353 10,565 171 6,753 33 1,152 ii 488 13 1922-3. , 276 8,395 143 5,688 17 598 20 506 24 1923-4. 174 4,175 64 1,964 21 597 8 406 19 1924-5 167 5,448 147 5,707 25 or o nis ge) dine nw he ba peas and beans 1070 reached, but heavy exports followed in the next three years, and in 1922 the number had fallen to 22,222,259. in 1925 a recovery had been made to 24,547,055. only a comparatively small proportion of the frozen meat exported from new zealand is beef, for the price of frozen beef on the british market is very low owing to competition with the chilled article from south america. as a result of this competition markets other than britain are being sought. shipments of frozen pork are rapidly increasing. in 1924 there were 46 meat freezing and preserv- ing works in the dominion, employing 7,361 hands. co-o peration.—one of the greatest aids to the development of the primary industries has been the application of the prin- ciple of co-operation, particularly in the case of the dairy industry. ‘the farmers have their co-operative companies, arrange their own finance, and receive monthly cheques——based on a percentage of the prices current on the british market, any surplus over the amounts paid out being subsequently distrib- uted proportionately as a bonus. this system largely obviates the necessity for extensive capital. after 1922 co-operative marketing was put into operation by the meat producers. under the meat export control act 1921-2 the meat industry obtained powers to set up a board, elected by all the sheep and cattle farmers in the dominion, to supervise the industry, shipment and marketing of the prod- uce. the board consists of eight members, five representing the producers and one the stock and station agents, while two are appointed by the government. since its inception much useful work has been done, chiefly in regard to the marking of parcels, grading of meat, loading and discharging, regulation of shipments and in arranging satisfactory rail and sea freights and freezing charges. the dairy producers obtained power under the dairy produce export control act 1923, to set up a similar board, but the act was not in full operation by the end of 1925. both bodies have representation in london, the former by a manager, and the latter by a board consisting of three members and a manager. the fruit and honey producers also have similar organisations governing their export affairs. a fforestation.—a very active and progressive policy is pursued in reafforestation. the first organised attempt with imported trees, chiefly european larch, austrian pine, corsican and western yellow pine and a variety of eucalypti, was made in 1896, when an afforestation section of the lands department was formed. this work continued with more or less progress until 1919, when a separate forestry department was set up, and was reorganised in 1920 as the state forest service. then in 1921-2 the forests act was passed defining the forest authority as the minister of forestry, the director of forestry, with a secretary, five conservators, a milling expert, an enginecr in forest products, a grazing specialist and various sub-officials. the total per- sonnel in 1925 was 95. at march 31 1925 the area dedicated to forestry and conservation was 7,485,590 acres. over 100,000 ac. were acquired by purchase between 1920-5. in 1923 a national forest inventory and stock-taking took place and a great deal of valuable research work in regard to the new zealand timbers was accomplished. the total expenditure on state afforestation up to march 31 1925 was £701,675, the area of state plantations being 62,945 acres. in the year 1924-5 local bodies, owners of private lands, tree and planting companies, etc., developed great afforestation activities, and to these the state has supplied some 13,670,000 trees. the area of private and company plantations and shelter beds was about 9,000 ac. in 1925. fisheries —although new zealand possesses a most valuable asset in the great quantities of edible fish in the seas around her coasts, very little had been done up to 1925 in the systematic exploitation of the industry. in the year ending march 31 1925 some 330,000 cwt. of fish, valued at over £400,000, were brought in from the fishing grounds. in addition, the produce of the oyster fisheries was valued at £23,268, and of the whale fisheries at {15,000. exports in 1924 totalled £67,896 in value, including fish, £58,417; whale oil, £6,515; and ambergris, £2,000. the whale fisheries declined considerably from 1920-4. in 1924, 2,921 persons were employed in the fishing industry. new zealand minerals and mining—the gold-mining industry has de- clined in importance: up to 1924 the total value of gold exported was {91,414,828, the value for 1924 being £551,788. work ona scheme for obtaining gold from the bed of the kawarau river, running from lake wakatipu (in otago), by damming the exit of the waters from the lake, was well advanced in 1925. silver is obtained in small quantities: up to 1924 total exports were valued at {£2,904,651. the exploitation of iron ore and iron sand, of which there are plentiful deposits of the best quality, has not greatly progressed, though in 1924-5 enterprise revived. during the world war, tungsten ore mining became very active, but the fallin prices during the post-war period caused a collapse in the industry: the output of sheelite (tungsten ore) fell from 266 tons in 1916 to 15 tons in 1924. copper, manganese ores platinum cinnabar, tin and sulphur are also found. coal is mined for local consumption. the deposits are very extensive, the proved resources amounting to 610,000,000 tons: in 1910 2,197,362 tons were produced, and in 1924, 2,083,207 tons. kauri gum, the fossilised resin of the kauri tree, is classed as a mineral, and during 1924 5,261 tons of gum valued at £443,576 were exported. the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1924 was 389,052 tons, valued at £21,108,085. secondary industries manufacturing industry had been but little developed up to 1925. the principal branches of industry, however, advanced considerably after 1910, with a tendency to greater diversity in production as the population increased. owing to changes in system of collecting industrial data, and in the classification of industrics mace in various periods, together with the fact that the statistical data avail- able include the dairy produce and meat handling estab- lishments, it is not possible to give accurate tables to in- dicate the progress made. including small-scale establishments, the dominion had about 100 distinct manufacturing industries in 1925. woollen factories supplied a large proportion of the internal requirements: much ready-made clothing is manu- factured locally, and also furniture and footwear as well as other commodities. engineering and the manufacture of metal products are in- creasing in importance. motor and cycle engineering, motor body building and the manufacture of chemicals, brushware and glassware are comparatively new industries which are making rapid headway. the government, through an indus- tries and commerce department, encourages and assists secondary manufacture, and the customs tariff is scientifically arranged to foster such industries as are capable of development. the total number of employces engaged in factories in 1923~4 was 77,661. the value of the products of manufacturing in- dustries in 1924 was £77,000,000. this sum includes semi-pri- mary industries engaged in the preparation of agricultural and pastoral produce for export with products valued at £32,000,000. water power.—the public works act 1908 vested in the crown the sole right to use the water power of the dominion, subject to any existing rights, and gave the government the right to develop such power. the aid to water power works act 19ro empowered the state to establish hydroelectric supply installations. the lake coleridge scheme to supply christchurch was the first undertaken and was completed in 1915; in 1925 it was being extended to supply 27,000 kilowatts. at the close of the war a policy of concentration on works to supply the whole dominion was adopted. the mangahao system to supply wellington and the wellington province came into operation in 1925. under legislation passed in 1918, and later amendments, 39 boards were set up to administer and finance the supply of power in created districts. the full development of the schemes in progress in 1926 will give the following results, though each scheme is capable of greater development :— north island h.p. mangahao (wellington province) 24,000 waikaremoana (east coast) 40,000 arapuni (auckland) . . 96,000 new zealand south island flp; coleridge (canterbury) 36,000 waipori (otago). 25,000 monowai (southland) : 16,000 the progress of development (in h.p. ) was as follows:— i910 iqi5 1921 1925 18,353 43,016 51,114 70,143 the total cost to march 31 1925, including capital outlay, stocks, and debit balances on trading accounts, was {4,010,666; statutory authorisations existed for £10,830,000. in 1925 there were 56 power distributing stations and a net profit was shown of 1-31%. the total water power resources are estimated at 4,109,950 horsepower. trade.—the external trade of new zealand rapidly developed after 1910, particularly in the post-war period, as is shown in the following t year exports | imports total trade 1910 {22,180,209 £17,051,583 £39,231,792 i9i4 26,261,447 21,856,096 48,117,543 1918 28,516,188 24,234,007 2,750,195 1922 2,726,249 35,012,561 771738,810 1923 45,967,165 43,378,493 89,345,658 1924 52,612,711 48,527,603 ioi, 140,314 1925 55,262,272 52,456,407 107,718,679 the per capita value of exports in 1910 was over £21, and in 1925 £39. the imports per capita in the same years were £16 and £38 respectively. (imports are valued at the current domestic value in the country of export plus 10% to cover “ charges, freight and insurance ”’; exports are valued f.o.b.) the following tables show the values in thousands of pounds and quantities in thousands of hundredweight or pounds, of the principal exports for certain years:— exports: frozen neat 1071 the principal import groups are: clothing and textiles, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor vehicles and accessories, chemicals, drugs and timber. imports of motor-vehicles and oils (including motor spirits) have increased very rapidly: before 1g11 their value was less than £300,000 annually, but in 1924 the amount was £4,567,4906. the following table shows the imports for tg1to and 1925 from great britain, other british countries and foreign states:— wicae great other british foreign : (brit: un countries countries ic £ ‘6 1910 10,498,771 3,967, 053 2,585.7 fg (61-57%) gr 27 1) (15-16 ".) 1925 25,535,332 12,726,269 14,194,806 (48-68°,) (24-26%) (27:06 6.) in ro1o the figures represent the countries of shipment, whereas those for the second period are of the countries of origin. in 1910 imports from australia were valued at £1,520,000, and in 1925 £5,238,773; imports from the united states were {1,390,737 and {8,977,840 respectively. customs duties —in 1915 changes were made in the rates of duty levied on certain articles to meet the extraordinary ex- penses of the year, and in 1917 additional war impositions were made, these rates remaining in force until the coming into operation of the 1921 revised tariff. the revenue from customs duties in 1910 was £2,954,980, and in 1924, £7,480,947. the dominion’s system of imperial preference extends to all british countries. the principle was greatly extended in 1921, when 425 items in the 644 subject to duty were made subject to the preference. at the same time, the average preference was raised from ro to 15%. australia has a special reciprocal values and quantities (ooo's omttted) a = la gpa rs, rem ip tsu | a a gg fl oe quantity value quantity £ ib. f£ cwt. 1910 8,308 204,369 3,851 2,654 1914 9,318 220,473 5,863 1230 1922 11,882 321,533 8,387 63,518 1923 10,905 217,566 9,013 3,044 1924 15,268 206,190 9,490 3,159 1925 17,739 as 11,215 3,349 t not available. the successful application of refrigeration to the sea-carriage of apples and eggs opened up great possibilities, and the volume of exports is rapidly increasing. in the 1926 season some 600,000 cases of apples were shipped to britain; in 1925 the quantity was only 200,000 cases, the value of which was £116,101. _honey exported in 1925 totalled 1,822,043 lb. valued at £53,156. increasing markets for these small lines are of very great im- portance to new zealand, because as industries, either allied or run separately, they provide local people and immigrants with limited capital and opportunity to start in land occupations. it is impossible for the dominion to consume the whole output, and success 1s dependent upon markets overseas, the chicf of which is great britain. there are many localities in new zealand eminently suitable for apple growing, and the industry is capable of very great development. other exports of minor importance and their values in 1925 were: hemp, £516,466; sawn timber (chiefly to australia), £573,879; kauri gum, £414,901; gold, £472,364; grass seed|, £113,046; and silver, £60,773. the following table shows the value of goods exported to each of the chief markets in 1925:— per cent of total £44,073,717 80 4,531,153 2,502,113 1,614,090 value to great britain ; to united states of america ; to australia | to germany skins, butter cheese hides and pelts value quantity value quantity value £ cwt. z, cwt. £ 1,812 357 | 1,195 452 1,129 2,339 434 ' 2,564 864 1,318 9,042 1,120 4,687 1,161 2,054 10,689 1,250 6,870 1,44! 2,380 11,642 1,269 7,02 1,594 3,144 10,240 1,245 5,501 eea7 7 ee a tariff agreement with new zealand, arranged in 1922, and does not come under the general british preferential provision. in 1924 about one-half the total imports from the british empire were admitted free of duty. communications and transport—considerable progress was made in state railway communication after i1qto, as is shown by the following table: | length open revenue (miles) (gross) expenditure £ i) 1910. 2,717 3,249,790 2,169,474 1920 2,996 5,752,487 4,105,067 3,085 7,112,524 5,545,416 the net receipts in 1925 represented £3 11s. od. on capital costs. the capital value of the railways (including unopened lines and assets) was £50,833,500. the state builds its own rolling stock and locomotives, and in 1925 was providing exten- sive new railway workshops. in 1924 the whole control of managerial organisation was changed, the affairs being placed under the control of a board responsible to the minister. important railway works were carried out during the post- war period. the north main trunk was extended from auck- land to beyond whangarei; sections were constructed on the east coast of north island, and a tunnel (5} m.) through the southern alps at arthur’s pass, to link up the railheads in the 1072 westland and canterbury provinces, was completed and electri- ‘fied in 1923. railway extension work has been slow and costly, as the sections of country requiring linking-up are of a mountain- ous character. duplications have been made in city suburban areas, and works are in progress to obviate the heavy grades running out of wellington city. in 1925 there were 64,625 m. of roads in the dominion, 28,553 m. of which were metalled. by the main highways act (r922) main highways are under the administration of a high- ways board which is responsible for their upkeep. this step has been rendered necessary by the heavy increase that has taken place in motor traffic. banking.—there are six banks of issue operating in the dominion, two of them, the bank of new zealand and the national bank of new zealand, being incorporated by special acts of the general assembly of the dominion. in 1925 the bank of new zealand had branches and agencies within the dominion numbering 219, and the other five between them 259, making a total of 478. development of banking 1910-24 deposits advances assets liabiiities | f f£ £ f igi0 . | 24,968,761 | 18,439,999 | 26,398,927 | 26,742,081 1920 59,405,341 | 38,241,932 | 56,111,433 | 67,318,469 ig2t 49,397,441 | 50,607,541 | 68,701,282 | 58,808,439 1922 45,913,394 | 44,768,178 | 61,779,570 | 53,868,834 1923 - | 49,039,482 | 43,322,242 | 59,641,235 | 56,204,292 1924 . | 49,502,499 | 44,559,06f | 61,325,865 | 57,131,235 the number of open accounts in the post office savings bank at the end of 1910 was 380,585; at the end of 1915, 509,085; and at march 31 1925, 735,148. in roto (calendar year) the pro- portion of open accounts to the total population was 1 in every 2-76; in 1925 (march 31) the proportion was 1 in every 1-88. the deposits and withdrawals in the calendar year tigro were {10,708,939 and £9,605,515 respectively; and in 1925 (march 31) {29,582,897 and £30,413,609 respectively. the amount standing to credit of all accounts in 1910 (dec. 31) was £14,104,990, and in 1925 (march 31) £46,948,628. bibliography.—j. park, geology of new zealand (1910); j. w. mellraith, 7he course of prices in new zealand (1911); s. playne, new zealand: its [[tstory, commerce and industrial resources (1913); l. cockayne, vegetation of new zealand (1921); a. s. herbert, /fot springs of new zealand (1921); g. m. thomson, naturalisation of animals and plants in new zealand (1922); c. a. cotton, geomor- phology of new zealand (1922). see also new zealand official year books 1910-26, (i2g:c.*) nicaragua (see 19.642) has an area of 49,200 square miles. nicaragua declared war on germany, may 7 1918, and acquired membership in the league of nations 1920. the western half of nicaragua contains three-quarters of the population, mostly of mixed spanish and indian blood. there are many nicaraguans of pure spanish descent. in the east the inhabitants are mostly zambos and caribbean indians and negroes. there are also a few americans. estimated population in 1923 was 700,000: managua, the capital, 60,342; leon, 47,234; matagalpa, 32,271; granada, 21,925. i. political history on the flight from nicaragua of president zelaya on dec. 24 1909 dr. jose madriz, one of his supporters, succeeded him as provisional president. the united states refused to acknowledge the succession, and madriz was superseded in 1910 by juan m. estrada, a member of the artisan class, who was supported by the conservatives and a few liberals. he was recognised by the united states and relations were resumed; but a fresh outbreak of factional quarrels amongst the political parties obliged estrada to resign. the united states intervened, and adolfo diaz was elected provisional president in 1910, being elected to a second term of office in 1913. during the first term of office of president diaz a private loan was negotiated in 1912, the currency re- formed, and the customs collections placed under american con- nicaragua trol. a claims commission, sitting from rorr to 1914, scaled down and adjusted claims. a revolt of the old zelaya party, led by gen. mana, was unsuccessful in its effort to seize power in op- position to american reform of finances. after dec. 1914 the government was supported by american marines stationed at the legation. in feb. ror3 a treaty was signed whereby nicara- gua gave to the united states for $3,000,000 exclusive inter-ocean canal rights through her territory together with accessory con- trol over the entrances on the corn is. and in the gulf of fonseca. protests by costa rica and salvador on the ground that this treaty infringed their sovereignity were sustained by the central american court of justice, but the decision was ignored by both parties to the treaty. the maintenance of the chamorro family in the presidency (emiliano to917-20, diego m. 1921-3), while securing peace, caused continuous dissatisfaction. nicaragua rejected the cen- tral american union of 1921, fearing that its operation would af- fect her status with reference to the canal treaty, though amer- ican official opinion denied this possibility. crimes by u.s. mirines in 192t and 1922, arising from feuds with nicaraguans, resulted in several courts-martial and the policy of frequent changes of personnel in the legation guard. there were border revolts in 1921. the movement of rebel troops upon managua in 1922 led to a conference on aug. 22 on board the u.s.s. “ tacoma,” in the gulf of fonseca, attended by the presidents of nicaragua, honduras and salvador, for the purpose of securing united action in stopping revolutions fo- mented by political immigrants. this conference renewed the ac- knowledgment of the treaty of amity of 1907, and invited costa rica and guatemala to reiterate their adhesion also; they de- clined on the ground that the pact was still in force. the wash- inzton conference of 1922-3 was called at the solicitation of the republics which were parties to the “ tacoma” conference. nicaragua had before mid—~aug. 1925 approved the first 13 of the washington agreements. diego m. chamorro died in 1923, and was succeeded provi- sionally by dr. bartolo martinez. in jan. 1925 carlos solorzano took office as president the united states, nov. 14 1924, ex- pressed a desire to withdraw its marines in jan. 1925, but nicara- gua asked that they be retained until the new government should b2 installed after an election to be held under a new electoral law framed by dr. h. w. dodds. they were ultimately withdrawn on aug. 3 1925 and replaced by native constabulary under an american officer. in 1924 claims of mosquito indians for land title adjustments under the british cession of 1906 were adjudi- cated by the british and american consuls sitting with the min- ister of foreign relations. defence.—-military service is obligatory between the ages of 17 and 55 years. active service is for one year. under the convention for the limitation of armaments signed at washington on feb. 7 1923 nicaragua agreed to limit its standing army to 2,500 of all ranks. in war time the army may be increasecl to 7,000. beyond a single small boat, stationed on the pacific coast, nicaragua possesses no. navy, and by the 1923 convention is pledged to acquire no more than 10 serviceable aeroplanes. education.— primary education is compulsory and free. secondary education, which is conducted under private auspices, is neither free nor compulsory. fifty per cent of the population is estimated to be illiterate. in 1923 there were 344 state elementary schools with 730 teachers and 21,651 pupils. there were three secondary schools, five provincial schools, two normal schools and 160 private and municipal schools. the total school population was 29,864. there are uni- versities at managua, leon and granada and a national industrial, commiercial and scientific museum at managua. ii, financial and economic history finance.—the revenues and expenditures of the government were, in cordobas:— 1925 1924 levenues 2,772,640 22117 expenditures 2,772,640 1,580,000 the surplus was used each year until july 1924 for public works and on treasury bills; the treasury bills being then paid, the surplus was thereafter used for government purposes. customs collections for the five years 1920-4 were, in cordobas: 1920, 2,055,989; 1921, nicholas 990,168; 1922, 972,024; 1923, 1,591,131; 1924, 1,988,865. the report of the collector-general of customs for 1924 showed a sound financial condition for the republic; the public debt of 32,236,223 cordobas in i91i was reduced to 7,390,590, march 31 1925. production and commerce.—agriculture continued to expand throughout 1924, though retarded by labour shortage. bananas on the east coast constitute an important crop, and coconuts, oranges, pineapples and yucca are raised. rice, wheat and tobacco also are grown on the east coast. coffee, the most important crop of nicara- gua, showed export values in cordobas (1 cordoba=1 u.s. gold dollar), as follows: 1920, 2,874,141; 1921, 2,352,487; 1922, 2,300,572; 1923, 3,937,833; 1924, 7,321,784. the total commerce for 1924 was over 20,000,000 cordobas, twice the average of 10 years previous. the increase was due to the excellent coffee crop, which was the largest in the history of the republic, and its high price. the other principal products exported—gold, mahogany, bananas and sugar-— showed a slight decrease. in the west, beans, corn, cheese, lard and sugar are exported. important lumber exports go from both coasts, as well as dye woods, gums and medicinal plants. the gold export in 1921 was 989,973 cordobas; in 1922, 1,065,733; in 1923, 823,554; in 1924, 771,375 cordobas. operations were curtailed in 1924 and several mines closed. leading exports for recent years were (in cordobas) :— 1920 5,242,189 754,975 370,804 665,660 cotton goods 2,504,670 676,727 244,973 439,294 since 1916 the united states has supplied from 73 to 84% of nicaraguan imports. for the same period the united states has taken from 62 to 85 % of the exports, save in 1924 when it took 57 °o. proposals to reduce import duties on manufactures used in develop- ment were pending in march 1925. aconvention between nicaragua and guatemala, sept. 10 1924, provided for free trade for five years in natural products or those manufactured with native raw materials. the trade movement for the four years 1921-4 was:— iron and steel mfr. leather and mfr. flour . : 1924 1923 1922 1921 all countries imports . $8,806,896 $7,268,432|$5,123,505|65,309,903 exports... 12,990,025, 11,028,309] 7,903,446] 8,070,949 united kingdom imports . £ 349,223/£ 235,773/£ 114,.425/£ 150,549 exports . 112,324 82,728 75,119 97,707 united states e imports . $5,453, 167/$5,509,254|$4,127,205|$3,857,202 exports . 6,250,499! 7,896,177] 5,617,507| 6,264,531 communications.—most of the roads in the country are nearly impassable in the winter season, but construction has been carried on as follows: from managua through matagalpa to jinotega, 104 m.; managua to diriamba 35 m.; leon to matagalpa, 80 m.; puerto diaz through juigalpa to la libertad, 50 miles. construction on these roads is intermittent. the pacific railway of nicaragua has a total length of 146 miles. it runsfrom corinto za leon, managua and granada to diriamba. the total railway mileage is 172. the government has contracted for the installation of wireless stations at managua, cabo, gracias a dios and bluefields. the station at managua was under construction in 1925. banking.—a new monetary unit was introduced in 1912, the cordoba, equivalent to the united states dollar and containing 1-672 er. of gold # fine. provision was made by law for a gold coinage of 10:5 and 24 cordobas, but no gold coins have been minted. cordo- bas in circulation amounted to 2,379,254 in nov. 1923. in 1912 the national bank of nicaragua was established in managua, the nominal capital being $300,000. bieliography.—f. palmer, central america and tts problems (1910); j. s. zelaya, la revolucion de nicaragua ylos estados unidos (1910); nicaraguan affairs; investigation by sub-commuttee of com- mittee on foreign relations u.s. senate, as to alleged tnvaston of nicaragua by armed sailors and marines of the united states, state- ment of juan leets (washington, d.c., 1913); corte de justicia centro-americana, cartago, costa rica, decision and opinion of the court on the complaint of the republic of costa rica against republic of nicaragua (costa rican legation, washington, d.c., 1916); w. h. koebel, central america, south american series (1917); d. g. munro, the five republics of central america, carnegie endowment for inter. peace, div. of econ. and history (washington, 1918); w. s. robertson, history of the latin-american nations (1922); department of overseas trade, annual series, honduras, nicaragua, el salvador and guatemala republics 1921-22 (1923, etc.); h. g. james and p. a. martin, the republics of latin america (1923); l. e. elliott, central america (1925). ch ps) nicholas (1841-10921), king of montenegro (sce 19.651), was the last member of his house to reign over a separate mon- 1073 tenegrin realm. the story of the last 20 years of his life is very largely the contemporary history of montenegro. his grant of a constitution in 1905 was followed by a period of violent in- ternal conflict between him and his opponents, whose position had been strengthened by the elections to the skupshtina, whom he sought to discredit by the cetinje bomb plot mystifi- cation. his assumption of the kingly title in 1910 marked a further stage in the evolution of his plans, of which it consti- tuted a public notification, and aroused hostile comment among his own people as well as in serbia. the balkan wars resulted in a marked diminutio capitis for nicholas, who failed to play a conspicuous part in them and was forced to call in serbian aid before scutari. at this time already the survival of a monte- negrin throne appeared a doubtful problem. in the world war the breach between him and his people was complete, and even before the final act the old monarch was apostrophised derisively as nicholas the first and petrovich the last. he died at antibes march 1 1921, and was buried at san remo. nicholas (1856— \, russian grand duke and soldier. nikolai nikolaievich was born nov. 6 1856, the grandson of the emperor nicholas i. and first cousin of the emperor alexander ill. educated at the school of military engineers, he received his commission in 1872, and in the following year, at the early age of 16, entered the military academy. in the war of 1877-8, as a general staff officer for special service, he joined the staff of his father, the very popular grand duke nikolai nikolaievich (senr.), who had been appointed commander-in-chief of the russian forces. at the crossing of the danube at zimnicea on april 15 1877 he was awarded, for his courage, the cross of st. george, 4th class. in the attack on the shipka he acted as chief of staff to one of the columns, and received the distinction of the golden sword. after the war the grand duke joined the guard hussar regiment, in which the emperor nicholas afterwards served, and passed through every stage as officer till appointed commander in 1884—a position he occupied for 63 years. he then com- manded in succession a brigade and a division, and in 1895 was appointed inspector-general of cavalry. he held this post for 10 years, a period which is regarded as a bright epoch in the history of the russian cavalry, for he carried through funda- mental reforms in training and in the organisation of the cavalry schools, of the cavalry reserves and of the remount service. in 1905 nicholas was appointed commander-in-chief of the st. petersburg military district, a post he held till the outbreak of the world war in aug. 1914. here, as elsewhere, he gave proof of his zeal for efficiency. setting himself the task of in- stilling the lessons of the japanese war, he encouraged musketry and work in extended order, but at the same time allowed no slackness in ceremonial. to help him in his work he called from the far east men like generals ivanov, lesh and lechitski, who were of comparatively humble origin but had made their repu- tation in the field. the appointment of such men to high com- mand in the imperial guard was characterised in his diary at the time by another grand duke as “revolutionary,” but the men selected justified their choice in the world war. in the same year (1905) as he was appointed commander-in- chief of the st. petersburg military district, nikolai nikolaievich became the first president of the newly created council of na- tional defence, and he held this position till 1908, when the council was abolished. during this time the empcror seems to have hesitated between the final adoption of a military system analogous to that of germany, under which the chief of the general staff, as well as the minister of war, should have the right of access and of direct report to the sovereign, and of the system in vogue in countries with a constitutional government, under which that right was confined to the minister of war. on the council the grand duke worked in close co-operation with general palitsin, who, in 1908, on the emperor’s decision in favour of the latter system, gave way to general sukhomlinov as chief of the general staff, the latter, in the following year, replacing general rediger as minister of war. from 1908 to 1914 nicholas took no part in the strategical 1074 preparation for the war, the work being delegated by the emperor to general sukhomlinov and his nominees on the general staff. at the outbreak of war the emperor first in- tended to take command himself, and actually appointed the grand duke commander-in-chief of the 6th (reserve) army at st. petersburg (leningrad). it was only on the evening of aug. 1, the day of germany’s declaration of war, that he yielded to the entreaties of his ministers and decided to hand over the supreme command to the grand duke. services during the war—the position the commander-in- chief was called upon to fill was a peculiarly difficult one. he was responsible for carrying out a plan which he had no hand in drawing up, a plan which was dependent on promises previously made, without his cognisance, to the french general staff. he had to work in accordance with the “ regulations for the direction of the army in the field,” a new edition of which had been issued on the very eve of the war, handing over much power to the two group commanders. finally, he was compelled, by the emperor’s directly expressed personal wish, to take as his chief of staff and general quartermaster, generals yanushchk- kevich and danilov in preference to generals palitsin and alexeyev, whom he would have preferred. the plan of the russian general staff consisted of the invasion of east prussia by a right group (i. and ii. armies), while a left group (iv., v., iii. and viii. armies) operated against the austrians in galicia, and a centre group (ix. and x. armies) assembled at warsaw to advance on posen. it was owing to the decision of the grand duke that this centre group was broken up, the x. army being sent north to fill the gap left by the failure in east prussia, and the [x. army sent south to over- whelm the austrians in southern poland. | when the germans came to the rescue of their discomfited ally by advancing in oct. 1914 to the outskirts of warsaw, the trans- fer of the russian armies from left to right in rear of the vis- tula, and the concentration of superior forces on the enemy’s left or northern flank which compelled his retreat, were masterly movements. if the next german advance, culminating in the operation of £6dz owing to mistakes by russian army com- manders, definitely removed all possibility of an invasion of posen, the russians held on through the winter of 1914-5 to the line of the narev-vistula-san-carpathians, and were only com- pelled by lack of munitions in the spring and summer of 1915 to retreat to a line that they held substantially throughout 1916-7. with the cause of this retreat from poland and the lack of muni- tions the grand duke had nothing to do, but to him must belong the credit for the harmonious carrying out, without in- curring a sedan, of this movement with such skill that the russian armies, when they reached the line on which they were to rest for the winter, were still a fighting force with confidence in their commandcr. there was no demand from the fighting men at the front for the change at g.h.q. which occurred on aug. 21 1915, when the emperor announced that he would assume the supreme com- mand. it is said that rasputin had prophesied that the russian armies would continue to be defeated till the emperor placed himself at their head. certainly the impostor had no reason to love the grand duke nicholas. a story repeated among the soldiers relates that he had applied to the commander-in-chief for permission to come to the front ‘“ to bless the troops,” and the latter had telegraphed in reply two russian words which being translated run—‘‘ come, i shall hang you.” the grand duke was appointed viceroy and commander-in- chief in the caucasus. upto that time the brunt of the fight- ing against turkey had been borne by the british in gallipoli, the sinai peninsula and mesopotamia. the advent of the new commander put new life into the russian forces. he pushed forward an expeditionary force under general baratov through enzeli and hamadan to screen persia from further german pene- tration, and to establish touch with the british troops in meso- potamia. he collected guns and stores, and raised and trained efficient troops, and, in spite of immense difficulties in supply, ably assisted by generals yudenich and prjvalski, occupied in nicholas ii. three successful offensives all armenia, including the fortress of erzerum, the port of trebizond and the town of erzinjan. the revolution of march 12 1917 found the grand duke still in the caucasus. the emperor’s last official act was to nomi- nate him to be once more supreme commander-in-chief. his journey from the caucasian headquarters at tiflis to the head- quarters at mogilev was in the nature of a triumphal procession, patriotic demonstrations and crowds of people greeting him at every station on the way. twenty-four hours after his arrival at mogilev he received a telegram from prince lvov, the chief of the provisional government, cancelling his appointment. the next two years the grand duke spent in the crimea, taking no part in politics. at last, in march rorg, he left russian soil on the british cruiser “‘ marlborough,” and went to live quietly near paris. nikolai nikolaievich was, before everything, a patriot with a strong sense of duty. though destined by birth to great wealth and high position, he devoted himself to the scientific study of his chosen profession of arms. his active career showed that he possessed the qualities of a real leader of men. of commanding stature, and extraordinarily handsome, he was gifted with boundless energy, a strong will and the power of rapid decision. every form of intrigue was absolutely foreign to his nature. that he had the broad mind of the true statesman was proved by his conciliatory proclamation to the poles at the commence- ment of the world war. he possessed to an extraordinary de- gree the power of inspiring love and trust. his sense of justice made him treat general and soldier exactly alike, and the many stories of his doings told by the peasant soldiers of the russian army showed that he was regarded as a sort of legendary cham- pion of holy russia in the struggle against germanism and court corruption. they felt that, though he was a strict dis- ciplinarian and very exacting in his demands on their strength, he would ask from the private soldier no greater effort than he did from his generalor imposed upon himself. (see eastern front campaigns). (a. w. f. k.) nicholas it. (1868-1918), tsar of russia (see 19.655).—in view of the tragic end of the tsar nicholas ii. and his family in the russian revolution, it may be noted that, even in the lifetime of his father, alexander iii., his mind had been deeply imbued by mystic belief in divine rights and providential guid- ance, and he was prepared to suffer and to endure, if neces- sary, in carrying out the duties of his office. his intellectual preparation as heir to the throne was very insufficient. as the second son he had been left in the background for some time, and even when it became clear that his elder brother, george, was doomed to untimely death by consumption, no special efforts were made to prepare him for his task by any elaborate teaching. an english tutor, mr. heath, taught him excellent english, and inspired a love of sports and healthy exercise, while a russian general, danilovich, supervised his military training, but there was no attempt to provide him with the comprehensive knowledge required from one whom fate had destined to rule an immense empire. the only occasion which was offered to the young tsarevich to acquaint himself with the problems of the world was his journey to the far fast, so abruptly cut short in kyoto by the sabre cut of a japanese fanatic. it is not strange that nicholas it.’s range of ideas was not very wide or profound, although he was by no means unintel- ligent, and possessed in high degree the royal habit to move with ease and tact in complicated personal surroundings. his disposition towards fatalistic mysticism made him particularly amenable to the promptings of superstitious and irrational suggestion. he told stolypin on one occasion, when he had to take an important decision, that he was leath to do so, because he was sure that his interference would be accompanied by bad luck; he saw a warning in the fact that he had been born on may 6, the day when the church honoured the memory of job; he was predestinated to say with job: “ as soon as [i apprehend a danger, it occurs, and all the misfortunes dreaded by me come over me.” he wedded princess alix of hesse at the deathbed of his father; at the festival of his coronation more than 3,000 nicholas ii. people were crushed to death through the negligence of the offi- cials who had to arrange a distribution of bounties; and during the coronation itself the imperial chain on his breast fell to the ground, such impressions contributed strongly to inspire him with a mystic resignation, especially unsuitable for a monarch who had to lead the nation through times of great crisis at home and in foreign affairs. nicholas ii.’s political outlook was dominated by a kind of theocratic or hieratic spirit; he was looking back for inspirations to the ideas and customs of the moscovite period; he was induced to impersonate the figure of alexis mikhailovich, the father of the western reformer peter the great; in 1913 the tercentenary of michail feodorovich’s accession to the throne after the “‘ great troubles ” was celebrated with much splendour and emphasis. pilgrimages were performed with great devotion and circumstance. the courtiers and bureaucrats in the immediate surroundings of the tsar, men like sipiaguin, nicolas maklakov and sabler, took advantage of these prepossessions in order to keep up a constant hostility against progressive reformers and western adaptations. but the most dangerous representative of mys- tic reaction was the tsar’s consort, the empress alexandra feodorovna. of german descent on her father’s side and of english descent on the side of her mother (princess alice, the daughter of queen victoria), she had received her education in england, but, on coming to russia, she surrendered completely to the most extreme form of theocratic exaltation. while her sister, the widow of the grand duke sergius, killed by a terrorist, had devoted herself to a simple life at the head of a community of hospital nurses, alexandra feodorovna, highly strung and hysterical, sought providential guidance in the midst of unbalanced women and false prophets like the french medium philippe and the famous rasputin. the latter obtained a hold on her through the hypnotising influence he exercised over her son, the tsarevich alexis, a boy affected by the rare disease of hereditary haemophilia. but the crafty peasant had contrived to obtain gradually a psychical domination over the empress and her friends which made it possible for him to dis- tribute political favours and to have his say in the most impor- tant affairs of state. the empress considered him as the god-sent representative of the russian nation, of that mass of peasants which, as she was convinced, was the firm mainstay of autocracy in russia. and in the later years of nicholas ii.’s reign, the years of great trial and danger, alexandra feodorovna stepped in more and more often to direct the tsar’s choice of his ministers and to prevent him from making concessions to the spirit of the time. the suspicion that alexandra feodorovna was secretly fa- vouring the cause of germany and revealing military secrets to the kaiser—a suspicion often expressed abroad and popularly accepted in russia—is, according to most competent witnesses, devoid of any basis in fact. the empress was intensely patriotic in her own way, opposed to the aggressive policy of the hohenzol- lerns, and never advocated a treacherous compromise with the central powers. a former lady-in-waiting, princess vassiltchi- kov, who towards the close of 1916 brought the project of such a compromise from germany was promptly ordered out of st. petersburg (leningrad). nevertheless, alexandra feodorovna proved to be the evil genius of the russian dynasty, by her blind and obstinate support of reactionary tendencies and of worthless adventurers, at a time when a wise and firm policy of reform was more needed than ever. all the better representatives of the dynasty—the dowager empress maria feodorovna, the grand duke nicholas mikhailovich, the grand duchess victoria, warned the empress alexandra feodorovna of the imminent danger of that regime of fleeting ministerial shadows which set in after the catastrophe of the war office in 1915. the emperor remained passive as commander-in-chief at headquarters while the empress alexandra spurned all advice with contempt and continued to pull the strings by dismissing men like sazonov and palivanov, and appointing timeservers like sturmer, protopopov or galitzin. the assassination of rasputin did not frighten but enraged her; she erected a kind 1075, of shrine over the body of the prophet and sent the grand duke dmitry pavlovich, who had taken part in the murder, into exile. her power was broken only by the revolution. the thread of the romanov dynasty was cut withont much resistance. when in march rg17 the emperor received at head- quarters a telegram from the president of the duma informing him of the events of st. petersburg and demanding his abdica- tion, and mm. gutchkov and shulgin arrived with the act of abdication itself, he submitted with fatalistic composure. he refused to give up his crown to his son with grand duke michael as regent, because he did not wish to trust the boy to the danger of a political storm; and his abdication was made in favour of the grand duke michael, who in his turn refused to accept the crown unless it was tendered to him by the will of the people. the last chance of a regime of constitutional monarchy was cut short. proposals were made on behalf of the british govt. to allow nicholas ii. and his family to take up their abode in eng- land; but the provisional govt. in st. petersburg did not accede to that plan. kerensky and milyukov declared that the imperial family were in safety in russia. later on the emperor submitted meekly to be transferred from pskov to tsarskoe selo and thence to tobolsk, where he was interned with his family—his wife, his son and his four daughters—for months. the life in tobolsk has been described by a french tutor, m. gillard, who followed the imperial family into exile. all the qualities of the unfortunate prisoners of state came to the fore in these sad times. the tsar taught his son history and russian literature, the family circle assembled in the evening to read and converse, they prayed and attended the church services with touching devotion. in ekaterinburg, where they were trans- ferred by the bolsheviks in 1918, their captivity assumed an oppressive form. they were huddled together in an apartment consisting of two bedrooms and one sitting-room, their guard consisted mainly of lettish soldiers, while russians were kept on the outskirts of the house; they had to listen to the uproar and the ribald songs of their watchmen; the walls of the sitting- room were covered with obscene drawings and inscriptions; the head gaoler, yourkovsky, was a fanatical communist, a jew, who harboured feelings of fierce hatred against the poten- tates of holy russia, the end came in connection with kolchak’s advance on the ural in r918. the soviet of commissaries in moscow enjoined the greatest vigilance to the ekaterinburg commissar, your- kovsky, and the commander of the guard, medvediev, without indicating any means for removing the prisoners from the threat- ened zone. the communists of ekaterinburg held a secret meeting in which they decided to put the tsar and his family to death, and sent an order in this sense to yourkovsky. the latter demanded that it should be duly signed, and 16 signatures were affixed to it. on the night of july 16 yourkosvky roused the prisoners and conducted them into a cellar of the house. med- vediev, with the lettish guards, entered the room while some russian soldiers were looking in from the staircase. yourkovsky placed the seven doomed persons at one end of the room and read the sentence hurriedly by torchlight. the tsar stepped forward and said something indistinctly, when yourkovsky drew his revolver and shot him in the head. a general fusillade followed, and, not content with this, the executioners pierced the bodies with their bayonets and struck them with the butt-end of their rifles. the grand duchess tatiana is said to have recovered consciousness for a while, but she was struck down once more and forever. besides the seven members of the imperial family four of their attendants were probably slaughtered the same night. in the course of the next few days the corpses were re- moved to an isolated spot in the neighbourhood of ekaterinburg and destroyed by fire, after having been soaked with petroleum. a few objects of apparel were later picked up on the spot. (see russsia.) (2. - vir) bibliography.—c. rivet, le dernier romanof tas): letters from the tsaritsa to the tsar 1914 —6 (1923); and further letters pub- lished in the manchester guardian, jan. 9 and feb. 7 1924: journal intime de nicholas ii., trans. by a, pictre (1925). 1076 nicholson, william gustavus nicholson, ist baron (1845-1018), british soldier, was born march 2 1845, and joined the royal engineers in 1865. he served in the afghan war, 1878- 80, and in the egyptian campaign of 1882. ife next served as chief of the staff in the tirah campaign, and as adjutant-general in india. in 1899 he went out to south africa as military secretary to lord roberts, but on arrival he was placed at the head of the transport service. early in 19004 he went to the far east as chief military attache with the japanese forces. at the end of 1905 he was appointed quartermaster-general; in 1908 he was transferred to the post of chief of the imperial general staff, which he held during the important period of the haldane re- forms. he was promoted field-marshal in ror1 and, on vacating his appointment at the war office in the following year, was raised to the peerage as baron nicholson of roundhay. in 1913 he was chairman of a commission on indian military expenditure, and in 1916-7 he was a member of the dardanelles commission; this was his last public service. he died in london on sept. 13 1918. lord nicholson was a man of high intellectual attain- ments and, although somewhat given to controversy, a successful military administrator. nicholson, meredith (1866- ), american writer, was born at crawfordsville, ind., dec. 9 1866. he was educated in the public schools of indianapolis, and engaged in journalism from 1885 to 1907, being reporter and later editor on the indian- apolis news. his works include the following novels: the afain chance (1903); the house of a thousand candles (1905); the port of missing men (1907); the liitle brown jug at kildare (1908); the lords of high decision (1909); a hoosier chronicle (1912); the madness of may (1917); broken barriers (1922); the hope of happiness (1923); and they lived happily ever after (1925); also a volume of poems (1906); and four volumes of historical and critical essays, including the valley of democracy (1918) and the man in the street (1921).