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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:neuromuscular system:ef8b64a45418",
    "title": "NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM",
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    "verified_text": "briefly, recent contributions have dealt largely with the anatomical nerve- supply of the striate (so-called ‘‘ voluntary ”’) skeletal muscular system, the discrimination of the different functions of muscle substance, and the integration of neural and muscular activity. from consideration of the action of the simplest neuromuscular unit, prosecution of the subject leads us by consecutive and logical steps to matters of deep interest and significance in rela- tion to the function of the nervous system as a whole and to age- old questions such as the meaning of “ the will.”” the problems of the neuromuscular system may be approached from various viewpoints; it is natural to commence with that of morphology: anatomical considerations —the striate skeletal muscular system is supplied by efferent motor nerves from the anterior or ventral horns of grey matter in the spinal cord; the course and distribution of these nerves, and, conversely, the representation of individual muscles in the nerve-cell groups of the anterior spinal horns, are all well known. when a motor spinal nerve enters a skeletal muscle at its so-called “ motor point” its fibres divide up and ramify to the various companent muscular 1039 fibres of the muscle, ending on these latter structures by ‘‘ motor- nerve end-plates.”” according to the views of langelaan, each motor nerve-fibril is in communication with the sarcoplasm of the muscle fibril which it is supplying. in addition, however, to this accepted spinal nerve supply, close study has been given in the period under review to the question of a sympathetic nerve supply to the skeletal muscula- ture (apart, of course, from the familiar sympathetic mnnerva- tion of non-striped, visceral muscles). suspected long ago by ranvier and others, and held in more recent times by fano, botazzi and tekelharing, the notion of the duality of nerve- supply to the “ voluntary ”’ muscles has been set on a firm his- tological basis especially by the work of boeke, kulschitsky, dusser de barenne, agduhr, hunter, latham and a number of other investigators. even so, we are still confronted with the question whether spinal and sympathetic motor nerve fibrils end in the same, or in different, muscle fibrils. on the determina- tion of this point much will depend. while boeke and others claim that both kinds of nerve end in the same muscle fibre, hunter and his collaborators contend that as there is a double neural supply, so there are two distinct sets of muscle fibres, each having its specific function, and they maintain, in conse- quence, that each skeletal or “ voluntary ” muscle is anatom1- cally and physiologically a couple, a doubled structural and functional unit, and that by experiment or by disease one of these may be destroved and the other left. their theories of muscle function are based on the histological claim that the actual innervation of muscle fibres is single, not dual, the sym- pathetic system sending its fibrils to muscle fibres wot linked to the spinal motor system, that is, not furnished with spinal motor-nerve end-plates. in his most recent work, on the other hand, langelaan takes the view that the sarcoplasm of one and the same muscle fibril is reached anatomically from both spinal and sympathetic sources, though he distinguishes the function of the two. since the question has an obvious physiological! bearing, it may also be approached from that standpoint. physiological considerations —among the problems of the functions of muscle substance one has emerged more definitely in recent years as being of fundamental significance, viz., the relation of the function of contraction to that of maintenance of muscle tone. we owe largely to the work of sir charles sher- fington our current conceptions of muscle tone, according to which it is commonly understood as being that condition of con- traction of a resting muscle which exists without “ voluntary ” innervation and is also present though the limb is passively supported, since the muscles do not then “ sag ” or hang flaccid. tone gives a shape to muscles, and is in evidence both in resting (static) and in moving (kinetic) states of the musculature. sher- rington has shown that tone is in reality postural contraction, that is, it is a mild contraction of muscle-fibres praduced retlexly by sensory excitations arising in peripheral sensory end-organs substantially those of the muscles themselves, the impulses passing therefrom by sensory paths to the spinal grey matter and back to the muscles by spinal motor nerves. this is he proprioceptive reflex arc of sherrington, and interruption of it at any point is followed by loss of tone in the muscle concerned. in virtue of this reflex contraction, further, a muscle can adapt itself to its varying length; in other words, whether its fibres are as a fact in a shorter or longer anatomical state the reflex con- traction ts maintained. this property was described by sher- rington as “ plasticity,” whence the term “ plastic tone.” plasticitv.—the exact sense in which the expression “ plasticity ”’ is employed is of importance, for others have understood it some- what differently. when an ordinary nerve-muscle preparation is taken from such an animal as the frog it must by definition be ab- solutely toneless, since it is separated from the tone-maintaining proprioceptive arc, and cannot therefore exhibit that quality of tone describe as “ plasticity.”” in his recent communications, how- ever, langelaan states that the preparation, though contraction-less, possesses “ plasticity,” signifying thereby a property of having its form modifiable slowly by external force. most physiologists and neurologists follow sherrington in regarding “‘ plasticity \"' as being a muscle property derived solely from somatic proprioceptive arcs in a condition of integrity. 1040 movement and posture—it is now commonly declared that a distinction is permissible between “‘ contractile tone” and ‘« plastic tone ’’; more especially during the last decade a hypothe- sis has gradually taken shape, to the effett that movement can be legitimately distinguished from posture, that these are sub- served by different mechanisms, and that whether initiation of movement and maintenance of posture are “ active ” (“ volun- tary ”’), or “ reflex ” (“ involuntary ”’), each is the expression of a neural activity different from that of the other. in respect of reflex activity, the form the hypothesis takes (according to the late irvine hunter, one of its chief supporters) is that “ postural tone ’’—the mild postural contraction defined above as being of reflex proprioceptive origin—is in reality compounded of two subvarieties, acting together but distinct, viz., ‘ contractile tone ”’ and “ plastic tone.” when in response to suitable stimuli a muscle or muscular group in a limb contracts reflexly, that is, ~when the limb or a limb-segment changes from one posture to another, this is efiected by the contraction of muscle fibres which are innervated by the spinal (somatic) nervous system; such fibres are considered to be responsible for “ contractile tone,” the tone that is in evidence during contraction. when, next, a posture reflexly assumed comes into being at the end of a reflex movement, that posture is held or maintained by the action of a different set of muscle fibres, whose postulated function, in hunter’s view, is to remain at a given fixed length, once move- ment of the contractile fibres has ceased, thus immobilising the muscle for as long as may be. these are thought to be responsi- ble, therefore, for “ plastic tone.” at this point we revert to the considerations in the first section, since hunter argues that it is the sympathetically-innervated fibres which develop “ plastic tone,” and the spinal fibres which underlie the manifestations of “contractile tone.” further, he states that the former are essen- tially won-contractile; he assumes their length is passively altered during the contractions of the contractile set. dual theory—the dual theory of the neuro-muscular sys- tem, as it may be termed, has had in recent years various other exponents whose views by no means harmonise with those of flunter outlined above. reference may be made to one or two pertinent considerations. re-examination by langworthy of vulpian’s phenomenon (1862) would seem to show the possi- bility of muscular contraction via the sympathetic nervous system. langworthy has found that stimulation of the lingual nerve (containing bulbar autonomic fibres) leads to slow, wavy contractions of the tongue muscles after complete degeneration of the hypoglossal nerve end-plates by previous section of that nerve. it is more than doubtful, therefore, as regards hunter’s theory, whether non-contractile, sympathetically-innervated mus- cle fibres actually exist. not a little can be said in favour of the view, however, assigning some function connected with the tension of muscular tissues to a sympathetic innervation, seeing that the actuality of a sympathetic supply to striped muscles cannot be gainsaid. langelaan, for instance, considers that the sympathetic supply to muscle sarcoplasm maintains the latter in a state of appropriate tension such as to facilitate within it the passage of an innervating current of somatic motor-nerve origin. movement analysed—other arguments go to show that a rigorous and schematic differentiation as between movement and posture can scarcely be sustained. movement is in reality a continuous series of changes of posture, and sherrington has demonstrated that no clear-cut distinction can be drawn physi- ologically between reflexes of posture and reflexes of movement. from still another standpoint, experiments with the string- galvanometer have proved that an action-current exists in a healthy muscle when at rest and in a state of normal tone, and that no qualitative difference can be detected between it and the action-current when the same muscle is either actively (“ vol- untarily ’’) innervated or passively moved (von weizsiickcr, wachholder, mann and schleier}. such data favour the view that tone and contraction are identical and that no fundamen- tal or essential distinction is to be drawn between them; and they militate against any conception of neuromuscular activ- neuromuscular system ity which entails the existence of completely separable neural mechanisms for posture and for movement. automatic action.—a second aspect of the problem furnished by the activities of the neuromuscular system concerns reflex or automatic action. speaking generally, ‘“ voluntary ” action has always been thought, for seemingly cogent reasons, to con- trast specifically with “ involuntary ” action. the experimental- ist and the clinician have long been familiar with so-called spinal automatisms, with co-ordinated grouping in action of neuro- muscular units, forming a “ pattern’ which has an apparent meaning or purpose. in the “ spinal animal,” for example, fol- lowing transection of the neuraxis at the level of the junction of medulla and spinal cord, numerous reflex activities can readily be demonstrated, of which the “ scratch reflex ” is a classical variety. similarly, in suitable cases in man (of which the war furnished us with many instances) it is quite simple to demon- strate that the isolated spinal cord can live by itself and that it possesses capacities for activity in a co-ordinated form, primitive neuromuscular mechanisms usually hidden in health but capable of expressing themselves in the form of rclease-phenomena when the cord is separated by disease from higher physiological levels. the apparently purposive character of many of these reflex activities (automatic emptving of the bladder, attempts at spinal walking or stepping, biologically old reflexes connected with the genital apparatus, etc.) is of considerable importance and sig- nificance, for they are entirely independent of conscious control and of intelligent guidance, since in the given circumstances (gunshot wounds of the cervical cord, experimentation) the cord with its neuromuscular patterns is physiologically severed from the brain. thus muscular action of a strictly reflex kind, pro- duced solely by appropriate stimuli at the same low physiologi- cal level, may, and does, exhibit outward characters which render the discrimination from “ voluntary ” action not a little ardu- ous—as far, that is to say, as externals are concerned. neuromuscular functions at higher levels —pursuing this line of investigation, the physiologist is led to examine the neuromuscular functions of the animal in which transection is performed at higher levels than the spinal. during the last few years a whole scries of apparently purposive reactions superfi- cially indistinguishable from combined movements of the order usually called “ voluntary,” have been demonstrated by prof. r. magnus, of the university of utrecht, and his colleague, prof. de kleijn, and other collaborators, to occur in the higher animals through the agency of mechanisms that are purely and rigidly automatic. magnus and de kleijn’s method has been to study the reflexes and reactions of the “ spinal ” animal; then to take the “‘ midbrain ” animal (transection at the level of the corpora quadrigemina of the mesencephalon) and observe what additional functions it is capable of executing; they next take the ‘thalamus ” animal (separation from cerebral cortex and corpus striatum at the level of the internal capsule) and investi- gate its functions. they then argue for the localisation of the mechanisms underlying these respective additional functions within the corresponding limits of the respective additional areas of the neuraxis above the upper spinal cord. they have thus been able to demonstrate with precision that a large group of seemingly purposive movements, by which man and the higher animals balance their bodies, maintain normal postures and adjust themselves to forces disturbing equilibrium, are as a fact nothing else than reflex actions of ascertained neuromuscu- lar mechanisms, static and stato-kinetic reflexes under the former are included: (1) standing reflexes. the head influences the posture of the body by means of tonic neck-reflexes acting on the limbs. when the position of the head in relation to the body is passively altered, specific corresponding changes take place in the attitude of the limbs. if the head is fixed in its relation to the body, and then its position in space altered, the musculature of body and limbs is cor- respondingly modified by means of tonic labyrinth-reflexes. (2) eye reflexes of compensation. for each position of the head in space there is an appropriate reflex setting of the eyes in the orbits, effected both by tonic neck-reflexes and labyrinth-reflexes, acting on the eye musculature. (3) “‘ correcting ’’ or ‘righting ” reflexes. animals whose midbrain is intact are capable of reassuming correctly a neuve chapelle, battle of normal attitude, through reflex action, from which they have heen passively deflected. ‘lhe machinery tor this reflex “ righting ”’ is complex, there being at least four different sets of reflexes. the discoveries of magnus and de kleijn have made a large addition to the long series of automatisms of which the physiolo- gist has been cognisant. into them no element of choice enters. activities hitherto considered intelligent must be relegated to the category of automatisms, of retlexes, almost, indeed, of tropisms. cerebral afotor. cortex.—finally, in respect of the cerebral motor cortex itself, recent investigations indicate that revision here also is required. classifying in a general way as belonging to the “‘ old motor system ” the motor reactions of infracortical physiological levels (cf. supra), the neurologist has been in the habit of regarding as the “ new motor system ”’ that comprised in the electrically excitable motor area of the cortex with its corticospinal prolongation to the motor cells of the anterior cornua of the spinal cord. this corticospinal system (with its analogues) is usually understood to be the “ voluntary ”’ motor system and to exercise a controlling influence on infracortical motor centres. in some respects it is unquestionably the master system, yet in other respects this is no more than a facen de parler. the writer has shown (croonian lectures before the royal college of physicians of london, 1925) that many of the “involuntary ’’ movements of discased conditions, e.g., those of chorea, are as a fact identical in all essential respects with “voluntary ’? movements of cortical origin, except that the patients’ “ volition’ neither initiates nor is able to inhibit them. they constitute cortical reflexes, the expression of activity of neuromuscular mechanisms whose anatomical site reaches to the cortex and which are nevertheless outside “‘ volitional ” control. other recent work points in the same direction. mon- akow, for example, has come to the view that the function of the pyramidal areas seems to be in the class of reflex activity. lashley, who has done much experimental work on cerebral function, concludes that the conception of “ volitional ” activity is too vague to have any scientific value, while years ago hughlings jackson taught the neurological world that, in respect of movements, “ voluntary ” and ‘‘ automatic ” were not terms of differentiating quality, that gradations existed between the two, and that the progression is in reality from “ least auto- matic’ to “‘ most automatic.” conclusions —the conclusion from this very brief survey of recent developments in the field of the neuromuscular system cannot, however, be expressed in any definite form. on the one hand, some will hold that these accretions to knowledge widen the gap between intelligence and automatism, even though they appear to bring that gap higher up in the scale of motility. others will argue that if some part, at least, of cortical motor activity is shown to be “ non-volitional,” then ‘ volition ” ts driven further back, physiologically, to a transcortical level, and that it can be little else than transcortical inhibition. (s) rav) neuve chapelle, battle of.—the german failures at ypres in oct.—nov. 1914 had caused them to alter their strategy. they abandoned the effort to obtain a decision in the west, adopting a defensive attitude there, and concentrated their strength on crushing the russians, who were isolated, short of equipment and munitions, and in consequence unable to utilise fully their vast resources in men. in the west the germans could profit by all the factors which so greatly favour the tactical defensive in modern warfare, barbed wire and machine-guns in particular; they could hold their lines lightly and yet keep occupied allied forces much stronger than their own. the allies, to whom the expulsion of the germans from [france was an urgent necessity, economically as well as politically, were impelled to pit themselves against the german defences before adequate measures could be devised for neutralising the special sources of the defensive’s strength. in selecting the locality of 1tt was calculated that in may 1915 the germans had under 2,000,000 men on the western front, a force considerably inferior to the french alone, while the british then numbered nearly 500,000. 1041 their attacks they were directed to artois by the fact that the german lines in artois covered the main railways by which the german armies on the western front were supplied at their most vulnerable point, the plain of douai. a break through in artois therefore ofiered special advantages. the various plans.—while the winter months saw incessant local fighting, at the allied headquarters more ambitious pro- jects were being contemplated. neither sir john french nor gens. joffre and foch would admit that the german lines could not be broken, and both entertained hopes of a substantial strategic success. joffre’s chief project was the recovery of the ]lorette and vimy ridges as a preliminary to an advance in force into the plain of douai. sir john french was particularly keen on recovering the aubers ridge and so getting his right centre out of the water-logged lys valley; success here, moreover, would threaten the german hold on lille and might open the way to effective co-operation with french operations nearer arras. actually, owing to the diversion to the dardanelles of the 29th div. which had been earmarked for relieving french troops at ypres, the first serious offensive of 1915 was under- taken by the british alone, the french x. army being unable to co-operate unless this relief could be carried out. opening of the attack —the british offensive took the shape of an attack on neuve chapelle, where a nasty salient had been driven into the british line when the germans captured that village in oct. 1914. to recapture neuve chapelle would greatly improve the position tactically, and might lead to gain- ing a foothold on the aubers ridge, an indispensable preliminary to any major operation on the i. army’s front. the attack delivered on march 10 began well. the germans, far from expecting it, had thinned their forces opposite the british and had only three battalions on the frontage attacked. the bom- bardment had been effective and, except on the extreme left, the wire was well cut. the centre of the attack reached and cap- tured neuve chapelle without much difficulty, but the uncut wire on the extreme left held up the flank of the 8th div., which only secured its final. objective after several hours’ delay. on the extreme right also one battalion of the indian corps lost direction and found itself separated from the rest by a stretch of untaken trenches in which germans were resisting. here also there was delay, and the diversion of supports and reserves to help overcome the obstacle. meanwhile the centre was held up until the flanking brigades could get up level, though had it pressed on at once, regardless of its exposed hanks, it seems doubtful if there was anything at hand to stop it. but it was considered essential that there should be no advancing with unprotected flanks and the centre had to wait. when at last the flanking brigades came up, the opportunity had gone, for sufficient german reinforcements had arrived to man the redoubts in their half-finished second line. on the right two gurkha battalions reached the bois de biez about nightfall, but being too much in advance of other troops were withdrawn, and on the left the leading brigade of the 7th div. passed through the 8ih, but too late to make much prog- ress before darkness stopped its advance. one main cause of delay had been difficulties in transmitting accurate information from the front line to the higher commanders and in forwarding orders back to the front; another was the holding back of reserves until the situation was accurately known. second and tlard days.—next day (march 11) saw efforts made to push on, but with little success. mist hindered the observation of artillery fire, the interruption of communications with the front line hampered co-operation between artillery and infantry and caused much of the precious ammunition to be ineffectively expended. german reinforcements arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the second line and even to counter- attack in force early on march 12. there was very heavy fight- ing, ending in the repulse of the germans with great slaughter, and the 7th div. profited by this chance to storm a strong redoubt north-east of neuve chapelle. elsewhere, however, no progress could be made and on march 13 it was decided to suspend the attack. the advantage of surprise was lost, the germans were 1042 now in force on the front, the ammunition expenditure had exceeded expectations and used up the available supply. sir douglas haig was anxious to renew the offensive without delay and to recover the advantage of surprise by attacking at a new point. unfortunately, the ammunition shortage forbade this and postponed any renewal till a fresh reserve had been accumulated, and the delay allowed the germans to strengthen their defences greatly, and remedy defects in them which the battle had revealed. (see wori”p war: bibliiographyy.) (ct. ae) nevada (see 19.450), a state of the united states of america. the population in 1920 was 77,407, a decrease of 5-5 °% compared with 1910 as against an increase of 93-4°%> for the preceding decade. the native white population in 1920 numbered 55,897; foreign-born whites 14,802; indians, 4,907. the density of popu- lation in 1920 was 0:7 per square mile. the urban population (in places of more than 2,500 inhabitants) was 19:7°% and the rural 80-3 per cent. reno, with a population of 12,016, an increase of 10:6°% over 1910, was the only town having more than 5,o00 inhabitants. agriculture—the number of farms in 1920 was 3,163. the value of farm property increased in 1910-20 from $60,399,365 to $99,779,666. the value of crops more than doubled between 1915 and 1920, largely owing to higher prices. since 1919 the value of agricultural products has surpassed that of mineral production. sheep and cattle are nevada’s chief assets. the average wool clip from about 1,000,000 sheep is 7,500,000 pounds. the chief crops are hay, potatoes, wheat, barley and corn. turkeys are raised, and cantaloupes (melons) are grown exten- sively on the truckee-carson irrigation project, while dairy- farming is the chief industry near reno. the better utilisation of the water supply for irrigation and power is one of the most pressing needs, as the old laws gave vested rights in water to those who used it for irrigation; but marked progress has been made, through court decisions, in the adjustment of water rights for the truckee, humboldt, carson and walker river systems. the next step is the development of storage projects, of which the newland irrigation district is the first unit. the walker river irrigation district is a state project which has reclaimed over 150,000 acres. an appropria- tion was made by congress in 1925 for the spanish springs reclamation project, near reno. minerals —from 1907 metal production steadily increased until it reached its peak in 1917, in which year gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc were produccd to the value of $54,424,580. from 1018 to 1921 production steadily decreased, the decline of 1919 being more than 50% of the figure of 1918. a further fall took place in 191g and again in 1921, in which latter year the mineral output was only valued at $12,137,000. increased operating costs and low prices for metals because of accumulated war stocks, together with exhaustion of ore and scarcity of labour, were the prime causes. the pittman silver purchase act of congress kept the silver industry in better condition until the expiration of the act in june 1923. in 1922 the output increased in value to $18,374,023; in 1923 and 1924 metal pro- duction again showed an increase, reaching about one-half the normal output. production for 1924 was valued at $23,800,000 and the output gradually improved, the production of base metals—copper, lead and zinc—becoming the most important. nevada contains valuable tungsten deposits which were not at first profitably worked because of foreign competition, but which, in 1925, were advantageously operated in several places. other minerals commercially developed are quicksilver, antimony, manganese and platinum. the production of non-metals, such as gypsum, borax, lime, fluorspar, diatomaceous and fuller’s earth, alum, potash, sulphur and other rock products has increased. large quantities of pure rock salt exist. a shale-oil plant near elko produces oil and a large number of by-products. opals and turquoises of value are mined. industries —manufacturing industries are of little importance. the value of all manufactured products increased by 77:5°% nevada—nevill between 1909 and 1919, but the value added by manufacture in 1919 showed a decrease from 1914 of 5-7%, due to the decrease in the smelting and refining of copper. the most impor- tant works are for grist, flour, dairy products, the making and repairing of cars and the smelting of ores. transport.—since 19to the western pacific railroad has acquired a part of the nevada-california oregon line and has altered it to broad gauge, thus making connection with reno. in 1923 a new line was completed from the idaho line to wells, where it connects with the southern pacific and the w estern pacific. in 1924 there were over 2,000 m. of railway in the state. the las vegas and tonopah railway discontinued operation from beatty to las vegas in 1918: the legislature of 1919 designated the line as part of the state highway system, and the highway dept. converted the road bed into a modern highway. between 1916 and 1925 nevada expended over $7,000,000 on road building. government, education and finance.—state social service has been extended through numerous commissions and a few new departures, such as the industrial school and the grant to the florence crittenton home. nevada was one of the first states to have industrial insurance. counties are permitted to arrange fur mothers’ pensions and old-age pensions. an extensive build- ing programme for state institutions was begun in 1917, and included new prison and asylum buildings, a heroes’ memorial building, additions to the orphans’ home and the nevada school of industry and several new buildings at the university of nevada. state recreation grounds are being developed on the sites of the prehistoric cities in clark and nye counties, at the chloride cliffs near beatty, at the lehman caves and other points of interest in white pine county, and at the valley of fire in southern nevada. illiteracy, mainly among the indian popula- tion, was reduced from 6-7°% in 1910 to §-9%% in 1920. in 1924 there were 319 elementary public schools and 46 public high schools in the state. the bonded debt on jan. 1 1925 was $1,660,000, and state-owned bonds had a value of $3,055,357. vhe total assessed value of taxable property in 1924 was $ 201,292,000. itistory.—in 1912 the progressive party polled a vote second to that of the democrats. ‘the democratic party continued in undivided power until the election of 1920 gave many impor- tant offices to republican candidates. emmet d. boyle, demo- crat, was elected governor in r9r5 and was re-elected in 1919. james g. scrugham, democrat, was elected to the same office in 1923. the most important amendments to the constitution of nevada were those of 1911 and 1913 for the recall and for female suffrage. a state prohibition law was enacted, pursuant to a direct vote of the people cast nov. § 1918. the legislature ratified the 16th amendment (income tax) to the federal constitution in 1g11, the 17th (direct election of senators) in 1913, the 18th (prohibition) in 1919 and, in 1920, the roth (woman suffrage). (j. be. w.*) nevill, lady dorothy fanny (1826-1013), british writer, was born in london april 1826, the daughter of horatio walpole, 3rd earl of oxford. she married in 1847 mr. reginald henry nevill (d. 1878), a grandson of the rst earl of abergaven- ny. she travelled adel. and had a very large circle of ac- quaintances, including disraeli, of whom she was a great admirer, richard cobden and joseph chamberlain. she was noted for her amusing conversation and powers as a hostess, was 2 member of the first committee of the ladies’ branch of the primrose league, and was the author of various volumes of entertaining reminiscences; reminiscences of lady dorothy nevill (1906); leaves from the notebooks of lady dorothy nevill (1907); under five reigns (1910); my own times (191 2). she died in london march 24 t913. her daughter, meresia dorothy augusta nevill (1849-1918), was born dec. 14 1849 and was also a devoted and energetic worker for the primrose league. she died in london oct. 26 1918. the life and leiters of lady dorothy nevill (1919), were edited by her son ralph, author of sporting days and sporting ways. newark—newfoundland newark, n.j., u.s.a. (see 19.460), began in to14 to develop its waterfront on newark bay as a shipping terminal and in- dustrial centre. about 1,100 ac. of meadow land on the west shore of the bay were bought, an approach channel was dredged from the government channel in the bay, which leads out through the kall van kull into new york bay, and the adjacent land was reclaimed. on the entrance of the united states into the world war in 1917 the war dept. leased 133 ac. of the newly filled land for one of its largest army supply bases, spencing $12,000,000 on docks, warehouses and equipment for handling freight; and the u.s. shipping board established here a $30,000,0co0 shipvard, employing 17,000 workers, where 150 steel cargo vessels were constructed by the submarine boat corporation. at the close of the war the army base (including nine ware- houses with 2,000,000 sq. ft. of floor space) became a commercial terminal, and the city resumed its original programme. with aid from the federal govt. the channel was deepened to 31 ft. and widened to 400 feet. additional land was reclaimed, making available over 200 industrial sites. the aggregate value of the products manufactured within the city limits was $201,888,coo in 1909; $577,609,000 in 1910} $336,8009,453 in 19213 and $448,172,394 in 1923, when there were 1,863 plants, with 70,056 wage-earners. the leading industries, measured by value of output in 1923, were electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies, leather, jewellery and chemicals. ninety new factories were established in the newark industrial district in the year ending oct. 1 1925. important improvements in the city’s equipment include the public service terminal at park place, opened for street railway operation april 30 1916; a trunk sewer, constructed in co-operation with paterson and 13 other municipalities, to collect the sewage of towns in the passaic valley, carry it across newark bay, and discharge it in upper new york bay; doubling of the water supply by development of the wanaque watershed, a new public market and a city stadium, seating 12,000. a magnificent group of bronze statuary, “phe wars of america,” by solon borglum was placed in military park in 1925. at a special referendum election held oct. 9 1917 the commission form of government was adopted. population (1910), 347,469; (1920) 414,524, of whom 16,977 were negroes and 117,549 foreign-born; (1925), according to census bureau estimate, 452,513. new bedford, mass., u.s.a. (see 19.462), took first place in 1919 in the manufacture of cotton goods, as measured by value ($177,058,520), ranking above fall river. the aggregate value of all its manufactured products rose from $53,238,000 in 1909 to $210,773,000 in 1919; dropped to $110,014,358 in 1921; and rose to $149,998,604 in 1923. the number of wage-carners in factories was 26,566 in 1909; 41,630 in 1919; 37,917 in 1923. the population increased to 121,217 in 1920; but in 1925 was 120,494 according to the massachusetts state census, indicating that the loss during the period of depression had not yet been recovered. the proportion of women and children employed was exceeded in 1920 only by washington and fall river respectively. hous- ing conditions, severely taxed during the war, were studied by a special commission in 1919. a thorough survey of the public- school system was made by its own personnel (1921-2) under the direction of an expert, resulting in a programme of “ princi- ples, policies and plans,” which was adopted by the school com- mittee. a state pier, 750 ft. long, with 25 ft. of water on all three sides, was an important addition to the harbour facilities. new bedford is the spot cotton market of the north. new brunswick (sce 19.464), a province of the dominion of canada. the population in 1921 was 387,876, an increase of 35,987 since 1911. of the total 70% was rural; 30% was of french extraction. the towns having over 5,000 population in tg2t were st. john (47,166), moncton (17,488) and fredericton (8,114). the government consists of a lieutenant-governor and a legislative assembly of 48 members; an executive council con- sisting of the premier and eight other ministers is formed from the legislative assembly. the province is represented in the federal parliament by 10 senators and 11 members of the house of commons. 1043 education.—primarv education is free and undenominational, being supported by legislative grants supplemented by local taxation. in 1924 there were 2,195 schools, 2,395 teachers and 72,713 pupils. a noteworthy fact, however, is that in 1921 12°46° of the population were illiterate, the highest percentage of any province in the dominion, production and indusitry.—agriculture is limited chiefly to the production of potatoes, hay and clover, oats, turnips and buck- wheat, this order representing production value in 1924. the area under wheat showed asteady decline between 1920 and 1925. ‘the total area under crops in 1925 was goo,033 ac., as compared with 1,335,118 ac. in 1919, the highest on record. the total value of field crops in 1925 was $25,681,100. farm livestock greatly decreased during the years 1922-3, the number of horses falling from 70,152 in 1922 to 50,644 in 1923, cattle from 303,115 to 212,901, sheep and lambs from 236,031 to 157,808, and swine from 85,260 to 66,182. from 1923 to 1925 numbers remained steady, the total value of livestock in 1924 was $15,390,800. the production of butter and cheese is relatively unimpor- tant, the total value of both in 1924 amounting to $592,605. the forest area of the province comprises about 15,000,000 ac., one half of which are crown lands. of the timber cut in 1924, amounting to 362,000,000 superficial {t. 27° consisted of fire- killed spruce, cedar and fir, and 20% % of spruce and fir killed by the bud-worm. the average annual value of the lumber output in the years 1917-21, not including wood used by settlers, was $13,235,128: in 1924 lumber production was valued at $12,407,- 262. reseeding of the burnt-over lands was commenced in 1924. there were five pulp-mills in 1923, with a production of 111,126 tons valued at $6,986,208. the first paper-mill was put in operation in 1923. the total value of the fisheries in 1923 was $4,548,535, as com- pared with $6,298,990 in 1918. the province possesses some mineral resources, coal, gypsum and oil being the most important. ‘the manufacturing industry of new brunswick has shown sustained progress. in 1922 there were 885 establishments with a capital of $81,789,934, employing 14,199 persons and having a total production valued at $64,614,137. in 1923 the total value of manufactures had increased to $70,114,006. of the 120,000 ii.p. available some 45,000 h.p. had been developed by 1925. the development of grand falls, the largest undeveloped water power in eastern canada, was post- poned owing to a change of government. communications.—there was a marked improvement in the roads of the province during the post-war period: 1,100 m. out of a total of 1,763 m. of main road were reconstructed. the policy followed in 1)24 involved an expenditure of $860,000 or $2.20 per capita on roids. the province had 1,947 m. of railway in operation in 1923, most of which is controlled by the canadian national railways. st. john is the eastern terminus of the canadian pacific railway. (see canada.) (s. le.) newcastle-upon-tyne, england (see 19.472), with a pop- ulation of 275,009 in tg2r and an area of 8,452 ac. (including the town moor of 927 ac.), maintained a large output of ships, guns and munitions during the world war, but suffered sub- sequently from trade depression. since 1918 the city has re- turned four members to parliament. the port is constantly being improved; the channel from newcastle to the sea has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., and to 25 [t. for a distance of 11 m. westward from northumberland dock. a quay extension, providing three berths, was opened in 1924. in 1925 schemes for further quay extensions, for a new road through the centre of the city, for the purchase of the tyneside tramways, and for lifts from the quay to a new bridge across the tyne (then in course of construction), were submitted to a vote of the ratepayers, but only the last mentioned scheme met with approval. a large ex- tension of the royal victoria infirmary was opened in 1920, and the princess mary maternity hospital in 1923. a war mem- orial in eldon square, and a monument at barras bridge to com- memorate the raising of several battalions, were unveiled in 1923. a memorial to men of the 6th battalion northumberland fusiliers was erected in 1924 (see durmam, university of). newfoundland (see 19.478), a dominion of the british empire. the area of the island is 42,734 sq. m., and its popu- lation at the census of 1921 was 259,259. the total population 1044 of the colony, including its dependency of labrador (q.z.), which has an area of about 120,000 sq. m., was 263,259. l. political tistory the inauguration in 1912 of the fishermen’s union, which established large trading stores in all the principal outposts and had as its political object the safeguarding of the interests of the fishermen by means of representation in the legislature, was the outstanding political event of the immediate pre-war period. in the elections of nov. 1913, although the government of sir edward morris was re-elected, the candidates of the fishermen’s protective union (f.p.u.) won all the constituen- cies in the north and northeast. on the outbreak of the war a newfoundland regiment. was formed and served overseas in gallipoli, egypt and france. altogether some 6,500 men joined up for service during the war. in 1917 the morris government was enlarged into a national government by the inclusion of the opposition, in order to expedite measures dealing with war requirements. at the end of ror7 sir edward morris resigned, and was succeeded by mr. (sir) william lloyd, the former leader of the opposition. in roro sir william lloyd attended the peace confe rence as the representative of the colony. during his absence his gov- ernment was destroyed by internal dissensions, and mr. (sir) michael cashin became premier. the elections of nov. 1919 were marked by extreme bitterness, religious fecling being intro- duced to a great extent. a considerable turnover of votes re- sulted, and the government was defeated by a party led by mr. (sir) richard squires, consisting of his own supporters and those of mr. (sir) william coaker, the leader of the fisher- men’s protective union. the year 1920 was marked by a dis- pute with quebec over the labrador boundary, and the question was finally referred to the privy council. the government was re-elected in 1923, but shortly after- wards sir richard squires resigned as a result of grave charges preferred against him in the legislature, including, amongst others, the receipt of money from private corporations and the diversion of government funds to persons occupying high official posts. subsequently these charges were investigated by mr. t. hollis walker, k.c., recorder of derby, england, who was obtained to act as a commissioner for this purpose, and his finding was adverse to sir richard squires on certain points. thereupon a criminal indictment was preferred against the latter in the supreme court, but the grand jury found “ bill,” and the crown did not pursue the matter further. the attorney-general, mr. william warren, had assumed the leadership, but on the opening day of the legislative session of 1924 his ministry was defeated. it was reconstructed, but with- out avail, and then mr. albert hickman, with the backing of the f.p.u., formed a ministry and went to the country. the leading political issues were the reorganisation of the public services and a greater honesty in the government, and the election resulted in a victory for the party led by mr. walter monroe, which assumed office in 1924. if. economic and financial history the colony enjoyed considerable prosperity between 1910 and the outbreak of the war. fishing, mining, paper-making, etc., made marked progress, but after 1914 the financial dith- culties of the european countries in which these products were marketed, coupled with difficulties of transport, brought about a serious depression, which was followed .by a financial crisis. later the food requirements of southern europe sent the price of codfish to a record figure, and the war demands for timber and fish resulted in a period of great prosperity, which continued until 1920. a reaction then set in, with disastrous consequences to the whole commercial community and to the economic sta- bility of the island. in the effort to overcome this, the govern- ment attempted a policy of control over the marketing of colonial fishery products in foreign markets, but it could not be enforced, and ultimately had to be abandoned after severe monetary losses. sales of iron ore were likewisc hampered by the economic newfoundland poverty of customers, and the depression in the paper market compelled wage reductions, which were followed by labour troubles which seriously affected the output of the mills. after 1923, however, a slow but sure recovery was being made to pre- war conditions of industry and trade. fisherics.—the cod fishery continued to be the chief industry, and the years 1924 and 1925 were marked by fair catches and good prices. the seal-hunt, owing to over-fishing, yiclded not much more than 100,0co pelts annually, against twice that number annually before 1914. the lobster fishery, for the same reason, suffered such decline that a “ close season ”’ for three years was put in effect in 1924. the herring fishery considerably improved during the post-war period. the salmon fishery also yielded better returns, and the whale fishery showed a slight improvement. efforts are being made to improve the curing and marketing of these products, to develop the canning industry and encourage the fishing for other species, heretofore neglected, but which it is believed could substantially augment the annual catch. the total value of the fishery products exported during the fiscal year ending june 1924 was $10,867,406. forest products—the development of the forest resources was very marked during the period 1910-25, notably in paper- making. the mills of the anglo-newfoundland development co., at grand falls, first designed to produce 200 tons of news- print paper daily, were enlarged to produce another 75 tons, the additional mechanical pulp required being pumped through underground pipes from a subsidiary mill at bishop’s falls, g m. distant. in 1923 still larger mills were begun at corner brook on the humber river, with a capacity of 400 tons of “ news- print ” daily, by the newfoundland power and paper company. these mills were completed and officially opened in aug. 1925. a third mill of similar capacity, to be located on the gander river, on the east coast, was projected by the reid newfound- land co. in 1925. mills for the manufacture of mechanical pulp were also projected, and the island seems destined to develop into a great paper-producing centre. lumbering on a small scale, entirely for local consumption, is also practised. ‘the total] value of the exports of paper, pulp, etc., in 1923-4 was $5,955,725, as compared with $428,459 in 1909-10. amfinerals.—mlineral development has been mainly connected with iron ore. the mines at bell island, which are estimated to contain 15% of the workl’s total available supply, were only partially operated during the war years, and during the post-war period, owing to chaotic financial conditions in europe, suffered considerably in their sales. after 1922, however, the export excecded 1,000,000 tons annually, four-fifths going to germany and the remainder to nova scotia. the total value of the mineral export in 1923-4 was $1,281,929. mining otherwise has been on a small scale and without any substantial results. finance and trade.—with tts population only slightly in- creased since rgri, while its burdens have been almost doubled by war outlays and post-war reconstruction, newfoundland has realised the necessity of encouraging other industries in order to avoid the former dependence on the fisheries. hence the efforts to stimulate paper-making, mining, etc., and the adoption of tourist and other policies. substantial success is being attained, so that emigration from the island, which was very great in the immediate post-war period, had virtually ceased by 1925, while a surplus revenue and swelling bank deposits attested the greater prosperity of the resident population. trade has con- siderably improved since 1921~—2, as is shown by the table below. the increase in the value of imports for the year 1924-5 was due year ss revenue ay seta imports | exports a ae eee ee 1919-20 . |43,033,035|10,597,561) 9,247,005 40,533,388|34,865,438 1920-1 149.033.7607! 8,4.38,039/10,949,053 28,909,727|22,441,207 1921-2 55,030, 027| 8,269,680} 9,127,542. 18,209,853/19,478,417 1922-3 54,957,765] 8,876,772] 9,552,301 19,321,824]/20,956,863 1923-4 bel 456,965 8, 401 ,669/10,022,1 37,27, 677,182 21,071,571 1924-5! . 68,964,665] 9,783,188] 9.436,185:36,374.674123,590,186| 1 this amount includes an issue of $2,500,000.00 in dec. 1925. new guinea—new hampshire: to the great demand for raw matcrials for development schemes, including the corner brook paper mill, the extension and repairs to the dry dock at st. john’s, and the re-laying of a section of the railway. communications. —the railway system, over 900 m. in length, with 1o subsidiary steamers covering in-bay and coast routes, proved a great boon to trade during the war, but ceased to be profitable after hostilities ended because of the increased cost of commodities and services. annually recurring deficits, in some cases exceeding $1,000,000, proved too great a strain for the resources of the reid newfoundland co., which was operating the entire system under a 50-year contract of which about 20 years had expired, and in 1923 the government bought out the reid interests for a payment of {2,000,000 and took over the railroad and the steamers. since then, these public utilitics have been operated under direct government control. the telegraph system, which is being gradually extended all over the seaboard, is similarly operated, and the wireless service has also been ex- tended. the ocean steamship services have been gradually improving, and in 1925 the government constructed a new steamer for the service which connects the newfoundland rail- way system at port-aux-basques with the canadian national railway system at north sydney. in the same year the govern- ment decided on a policy of constructing modern highways, suitable for motor traffic, to link up the best scenic and sporting areas in the island, and also secured the construction of a new modern hotel in st. john’s. brrliograpuy.—h. m. ami, north america, vol. 1; canada and newfoundland in stanford's compendium of geography and travel (london, 1915); j. p. howley, the boethucks or red indians, the aboriginal inhabitants of newfoundland (cambridge, 1915); lord birkenhead, the story of newfoundland (london, 1920); sce also the fisheries of newfoundland; the mineral deposits of newfound- land and the forests of newfoundland (british empire exhibition, 1924); colonial office reports (annual); colonial office list (annual); year book and almanac of newfoundland (annual, not, ae new guinea: see papua. new hampshire (sce 19.490); a state of the united states of america. the population in 1920 was 443,083, a gain of 12,511 since 1910, or 2-9%%, as against 4-6°% in the preceding decade. the urban population was in 1920, 279,761, or 63°10 of the whole, as against 59-2°> in rg1ro. the estimated popula- tion in 1925 was 450,175. the population of the cight cities having more than 10,000 inhabitants was:— | i9io 1920 | i9to 1920 manchester | 70,063 | 78,384 | portsmouth | 11,269 | 13.569 nashua 26,005 | 28,379 | dover 13,247 | 13,029 concord 21,497 ,|.. 22-867. |) inecne 10,068 11,210 berlin 11,780 | 16,0 laconia 10,183 | 10,897 agriculture—the statistics for farm property, showing the changes from 1910 to 1920, are as follows:— 1910 1920 20,523 number of farms 27,053 |. $118,656,115 value of farm property —. ; . |$103,704,196 average acreage, all land 120°! 126-9 average acreage, improved land 3453 34:2 av. value per ac. (farm property) . $31.91 $45.57 farms of from 1oo to 499 ac. constituted 42:9°%> of the whole: farms of 20 ac. or less had the greatest proportion of land improved, 67:4°5, and farms of over 1,000 ac. had the least— 13°3%. of all farms 90-6° were operated by owners, 2:7°% by managers, and 6-7°% by tenants, these percentages being without substantial change from 1910. native farmers decreased from 24,347 in 1910 to 20,509 in 1920. the table at top of next column shows the increase in agricultural production between 1909 and rot9. in 1925 livestock included 32,000 horses, 121,000 milch cows, 32,000 other cattle, 18,000 sheep and 28,000 swine. ; ferestry, highways and motors —the bienntal report of the forestry commission for the period ending june 30 1924 shows 1045 1919 | a 1909 dairy products sold . $5,130,057 $9,627,286 | all crops 12,112,260 23,509,665 cereals 879,631 1,456,623 hay and forage . 7,847,148 13,616,378 vegetables . ; 2 , ; 2,276,176 5,228,489 potatoes. f ‘ ; 1,204,620 2,952,351 miscellancous crops . 200,845 480,804 orchard fruits and grapes 730,703 2,420,837 maple sugar and syrup. 182,341 440,250 a total of 47 state reservations containing 20,538 acres. the estimate of forest-bearing land in the state is 4,434,793 ac., of which the federal govt. owns 9-42° and the state 46°. the total acreage of tree-bearing land is valued at about $95,000,000. the legislature of 1925 provided for the purchase of franconia notch, and its dedication “as a memorial to the men and women of new hampshire who have served the nation in times of war.” the policy of establishing and main- taining state highways has been continued with increased scope. during the year ending dec. 31 1924 the number of motor registrations was 71,929. in 1923 there were 1,239 m. of steam railway in the state: electric railways totalled 261 m. in length 1) 1924. afanufactures——according to the census of 1919 the nine leading industries, according to value of products, were: cotton goods, boots and shoes, paper and pulp, woollen goods, boot and shoe stock, lumber and timber products, worsted goods, foundry and machine shop products, and leather (tanned), ranging in value from $85,986,000, for the products of the first of these industries, to $7,309,000 for the last. the number of wage- earners increased, 1914-9, from 78,993 to 83,074; female employees from 23,115 to 83,074; workers under 16 from 485 to 859; wage-earners in the group ‘48 hours and under” from 5°7°% to 65-6°% >. manchester has the most wage-carners in the state, 25,512, hillsborough county, containing manchester and nashua, has 446° of the total and manufactures 45-1°% of the products. the tendency noticed in 1914 toward the diminution of the number of small establishments and of the number of wage-earners in them continues. the following table shows the development from 1909 to 1919:— 1909 iqty 1919 establishments . 1,961 1,736 1,499 employees . 84,191 $5,013 90,332 salaries and wages % 40,391,440 |$ 46,523,733 |$ 92,538,743 value of products 164,581,019 | 182,843,863 | 407,204,934 legistation.— important acts were those establishing a state board of conciliation and arbitration; providing employers’ lia- bility and workmen’s compensation; regulating child labour and hours of labour; providing for medical and surgical devices in factories; for safety and health of employees; and for reporting cf occupational diseases. the legislature of 1917 enacted a law pro- hibiting the manufacture and sale of spirituous liquors. the law took effect may 1 1918, superseding local option. finances and taxation—the following figures show the increase 11 expenditures:— 1910 | 1920 1924 $1 ,694,636.54)/54,344,322.20/$5,176,948.75 revenue i payments 1,662,694.07] 5,198,534.62] 4,296,724.69 : debe: 2 . | £,293,20).33} 3,040,524.17 181,966.65 | bonded debt 1,071,070.00| 2,589,500.00! 1,619,500.00 the increase in expenditures was on account of increased cost of maintaining public institutions and for highways. the increase in the bonded debt was nearly all due to the world war. in 1918 the state issued $500,000 of bonds to assist the federal govt. in the war; and in 191g it issued $1,489,000 in order to increase the war service recognition from $30 to proo for those who served. the total valuation of property for purposes of taxation in 1924 was $585,422,877; amount of taxes assessed was $14,599,100. the average rate was $2.49 per $100. poll taxes assessed were 235,765 in number. the total valuation 1046 of all public utility companies was $51,252,200. the tax on the income of intangibles for two-thirds of the year was about $220,000. education.—important work was done in 1918 by the state committee on americanisation. in the parochial elementary schools the principle was established that instruction in desig- nated branches and in administration should be exclusively in english. in the large industrial plants the plan was largely carried out by evening schools for adults. the system of public instruction was reorganised by the legislature of 1919. in the bill ‘‘ the work of americanisation is hereby declared to be an essential part of public-school education.” the legislature of 1923 changed the name of the new hampshire college of agriculture and the mechanic arts to the universily of new hampshire, and the legislature of 1925 provided for it a stable annual revenue of one mill on every dollar of assessed valuation. history.—the ninth constitutional convention, held in 1912, submitted to the voters 12 amendments, of which four received the necessary two-thirds vote, namely, defranchisement for treason, bribery and deliberate violation of the election laws; the substitution of plurality for majority vote in the election of governor, councillors and senators; extension of the jurisdiction of police courts; the substitution of a basis of population for that of property in the election of councillors. in ro15 the office of assistant attorney-general was created, and the number of bank commissioners was reduced to three, and in 1925 to one, and their term of office was made six years. the railroad commission became the public service commission in 1911, its powers were enlarge, and the term of ollice of the three members was made six years. in 1913 the fish and game com- mission was reorganised, and the number of commissioners reduced from three to one. the department of public instruc- tion was reorganised in 1913, so that the superintendent holds office indefinitely; it was again reorganised in 1919. in 1913 the department of agriculture was reorganised with a commissioner instead of a board, and in 1915 it was further reorganised. in roi the name board of equalisation was changed to tax commission; the members were reduced from five to three, and the tenure of office was extended from two to five years. the bureau of labour was reorganised in tori, and in 1963 a board of arbitration and conciliation was organised to work with it. in 1913 the license commission was reorgan- ised, in rots it was again reorganised and its name was changed to excise commission. the highway department was reorgan- ised in 1915 with a highway commissioner at its head appointed by the governor for five years. a department of institutions was created in 1913 and reorganised in 1919. the state mstitu- tions were managed by seven trustees, consisting of the governor and one member of the council, ex efficio, and tive appointed trustees. the institutions governed by the department were the prison, the hospital, the sanatorium, the industrial school, and the school for feeble-minded children. the legislature of 1925 vetoed bills to abolish the direct primary, and to limit the work- ing hours of women and children to 48 per week, and permitted absentees to vote for president of the united states, made examination of the finances of the state institutions, and revised the salaries of state officers. the governors after 1910 were: robert r. bass (rep.), 1911 -2; samuel d. felker (dem.), 1913-4; rolland h. spaulding (rep.), 1915-6; ilenry w. keyes (rep.), 1917-8; john h. bartlett (rep.), 1919-20; albert o. brown (rep.), 1921-2; fred h. brown (dem.), 1923-4; john g. winant (rep.), 1925- . (hi j.-b) new haven, conn., u.s.a. (see 19.499), enlarged its boundaries to include 22:4 sq. m. by 1925. its population grew to 162,537 in 1920 (of whom 4,573 were negroes and 45,686 foreign-born), and was estimated by the census bureau at 178,927 in 1925. the varicd output of its factories was valued at $50,870,000 in 1909; $125,455,000 in 1919; $113,924,862 in 1923, when there were 483 establishments, employing 26,108 wage-earners. the cedar hill classification yard of the new york, new haven and hartford railroad co., covering 1,160 ac., new haven—new jersey had a capacity of 11,000 cars in 1925. additions to the park system, including a large acreage with a bathing beach at lighthouse point, brought the total area to 1,549 acres. there were 59 public grade schools, a manual training school, two high schools (one for commercial training) and two junior high schools, with a total enrolment of 34,315 pupils. new construction in- cluded hotels, industrial and commercial buildings, a railway station, and buildings for yale university (g.v.). new hebrides: see oceanla. new jersey (see 19.501), a state of the united states of america. in 1920 the population was 3,155,900, as against 2,537,167 in 1910, an increase of 618,733, or 24-4%. the popu- lation in july 1925 was estimated at 3,506,428. the density of the population, exceeded in the united states only by that of rhode island and massachusetts, averaged 426 to the sq. m. in 1925. the proportion of people living in places of 2,500 or more inhabitants increased from 75-2% in 1910 to 78-7% in 1920—the urban population in 1920 being 2,482,289; the rural, 673,611. the to largest cities, with populations in 1925 as estimated by the census bureau, are as follows: newark, 445,606; jersey city, 312,157; paterson, 140,637; trenton, 129,705; camden, 126,399; elizabeth, 106,251; bayonne, 86,582; hobo- ken, 68,166; passaic, 68,045; and east orange, 58,284. agriculture—the state is steadily devcloping its industries, and is tending towards specialisation in agricultural production, particularly the production of fruits and vegetables. between tore and 1925 the number of farms decreased at the rate of about 1-5% per annum. vocational training in agriculture in the public schools was made possible by acts of 1914 and 1917. county farm demonstrators have been established since 1913 in 18 of the 21 counties in the state. the years 1920-5 witnessed a rapid extension of the highway systems, and the motor-truck has developed into the chief transportation unit for agricultural products. in 1925 there were 39 farmers’ co-operative organisa- tions in the state. the dairy industry is confined mainly to the production of milk for consumption in new york, philadelphia, and other large cities. the variation in the number of the chief farm animals from 1920-5 was as follows:— 1925 1920 livestock “i no, value no. value swine 113,000 |$ 1,978,000] 139,000 |$ 3,503,000 dairy cows 153,000 | 11,475,000] 148,000 | 18,944,000 hlorses and mules 73,000 | 8,035,000] 79,000 | 12,201,000 livestock products were worth about $20,000,000 in 1920, and approximately 15,000,000 in 1925. there are about 2,750,000 chickens on farms, and considerable numbers in urban districts, producing nearly 15,000,000 dozens of eggs each year, worth about $6,000,000. poultry products other than eggs bring the total value up to about $10,000,000. the state ranks among the leaders in the commercial pro- duction of many crops, viz.: peaches, sweet corn for market, sweet potatoes, asparagus, string beans, lima beans, tomatoes, carly irish potatoes, peppers and egg-plants. the most impor- tant single crop is hay, although it is not raised for sale to any extent, being largely used for feeding livestock on the farms. the total value of the tame hay crop in 1925 was $8,584,000. the corn crop of 1925 was worth over $7,820,000 and was pro- duced on about 206,000 acres. ‘the value of the wheat crop in 1924 exceeded $2,100,000. the oat crop is gradually declining in importance, the climate being too warm for the highest yields; in 1924 the crop occupied approximately 67,000 ac., and the product was worth about $1,372,000. rye, grown on 65,000 ac., was valued at $1,286,000, and buckwheat at about $250,000. the total net value of new jersey’s agricultural production each year is nearly $100,000,000, as compared with manufactured and mineral products worth over one and three-quarter billion dollars. mining —the output of zinc ore in 1923 was 584,891 tons. the iron-mining industry, which from about too mines attained a maximum output of nearly 1,000,000 tons in 1882 and then new mexico declined, has revived, and the post-war annual production was about 400,000 tons. eight iron mines were actively operated in 1923. raw clay production in 1923 was 375,854 tons: the total value of clay and clay products in 1923 was $47,618,171, of which $23,836,455 was for pottery. the state possesses in the green sand (marl) deposits vast stores of potash, 10,656 tons of which, valued at $131,123, were mined in 1923 and used chielly for softening water. manuf icturing—about 17% of the population is actively engaged in manufacturing. it ranks first in the list of states in the smelting and refining of copper, in the refining of oil, in shipbuil:liaz, in dyeing and finishing textiles, and in the manu- facture of paving materials, phonogranvhs and = upholstering materials; second in the manufacture of linoleum and silk goods; third in the manufacture of iron and steel, pottery and electric fixtures; and fourth in the manufacture of electrical machinery and paver goods. in 1923 the value of the products of ths state’s 8,765 manufacturing establishnents was $3,321,301,524;3 wages p1il to 447,918 employees amounted to $578,9909,234. ede itio1.—the russell saze foundation, after an exhaustive examii1tio1 of the public-school systems of the various states, ranked new jersey in 1920 first anon the states east of the mississippi river, and fourth in the whole country, and added that it was “ the only state in the eastern division that has gainel in relative rank during a period of 28 years, 1890-1918.” the state board of education, which had consisted of eight members, was enlarzed in 1921 to 10, of whom at least two must be women. in 1923-4 the total enrolment of pupils was 715,877, an increase of 136,916 over 1916. the number of teachers was 22,693; of school buiklings, 2,210. nearly 310,000 pupils receive] manual or industrial training of some sort, and 16,099 son2 form of vocational training. the current expense for op2ritinz the schools durinz the year 1923-4 was $63,528,320, an increase over that of rg18-9 of $38,077,241. of this total more thin $38,500,009 was for salaries of teachers, superin- tendents and principils, the averace salary being $1,757. the catholic parochial schools numbered 201 in 1924, with about 91,009 pupils. a legislative act of ro1r7 designated the state colleze (rutgers) which in 1923-4 had 2,653 students, as the * state university of new jersey.” a colleze for women aflii- ated with it was opened in sept. 1918. stevens institute of technolozy in r924 had an attendance of 529; princeton, of 2,446 (see princeton university). legis! uwion.—for more than two generations new jersey had sedulously fosterel the agzrezation of capital in corporate form, but this policy was reversed by the passage in 1913 of the seri23 of acts widely known as the “ seven sisters,”’ the purpose of which was the elimination of the power of trusts to create monopoly, limitation of production, price-fixing and restraint of trade. in 1920 the lezislature proposed and the people ratified an issue of bonds to the amount of $28,000,000 for the con- struction of a bridge across the delaware and a tunnel under the hudson river. bonds subsequently authorised for the high- way systen and water-supply conservation brought this total, in 1925, to $76,000,000. the laws governing elections were radically changed in rorr and subsequently, by provisions extending the application of the direct prinary law and providing the blanket ballot and safe- guards against frauds. in r1gr1 also, the commission form of municipal government was introduced. the practice act of 1912 is noteworthy as simplifying procedure in the courts. the legislation of this period further embraced the following subjects: the regulation and control of public utilities; jury reform; employers’ liability; workmen’s compensation; conditions and hours of labour; labour of women and children; juvenile courts; sanitary and safety conditions; motor vehicle control; a state system of highways; inheritance and bank stock taxation; regu- lation of insurance; water supply; food laws and storage of food; civil service in state and municipalities; state administration of municipal sinking funds; and the establishment of a police force. political history.—woodrow wilson was elected governor in 1910 as candidate of the democratic party, receiving a plurality 1047 of 49,056; in r912 wilson secured a plurality of 24,873. he lost the state to ifughes in 1916 by 57,964 plurality. in 1924 coolidge (rep.) received 675,162 votes; davis (dem.) 309,743. in the elections for the state executive the democratic party was successful from 1910-25 with the exception of the election in 1916. from ro14 the republicans controlled both branches of the legislature. in 1925, of the 21 senators, 18 were repub- licans, 3 democrats; in the assembly there were 13 democrats; the other 47 were republicans. despite the predominantly republican complexion of recent new jersey politics, no repub- lican governor was elected later than 1916, a fact largely due to the anti-prohibition stand of the democratic party in the state. new jersey’s governors were: woodrow wilson, 1911-3; james p. fielder (acting), 1913; leon r. taylor (acting), 1914; james p. fielder, to14—7; walter fe. edge, 1917-9; william n. runyon (acting), 1919-20; edward i. edwards, 1920-3; george s. silzer, 1923-6; a. iiarry moore, 1926- . (w. n. r.) new mexico (see 109.520), a state of the united states of america. the estimated population in 1925 was 379,074. the population in 1920 was 360,350, as against 327,301 in rgro, an increase of 33,049, or 10-1%. the urban population (in places of 2,500 inhabitants or more) in 1920 was 18% of the total. the average number of inhabitants per sq. m. in 1920 was 2:9. the following table shows the growth of the principal cities for the period 1910-20:— city 1920 iq1o eer albuquerque. : ‘ : 15,157 11,020 375 santa fe 7.336 5,072 42°7 roswell 7.033 git72 13°9 raton . 5,544 4,539 22-1 clovis . 4.90 | 7 elericulture-—during the period tg1o-25 the number of farms decreaseil from 35,676 to’ 31,687. farm-land increased from 11,270,021 4¢, in 1910 to. 24,400,653 ac, in 1920, or 7116'6%; improved land from 1,467,191 ac. to 1,717,224 ac. or 17%. the value of farm property rose from $159,447,990 in i910 to $325,185,999 in 1920. the average acreage per farm in 1920 was 817-9; in 1910 it was 315-9. the average value of land per acre decreased [rom $8.77 in 1910 to $8.04 in 1920. of the 20,844 farmers in 1920, 25,756 were owners, 433 managers and 3,635 tenants. the figures in respect to the chief agricultural products in the years 1999 and 1924 are shown in the following table:— | : i value in > 4,620,000 934,052 crop year area production 4,200,000 bu. 1,164,970 210,000 ac. 85,999 1924 1909 1924 1909 corn wheat 163,000 32,341 110,000 20,766 2,551,000 499,799 3,188,000 508,726 beans 559,000 85,795 2,090,000 232,023 1924 190) 175,000 370,596 309,000 tons $33,504 4,759,000 4,493,918 hay and forage 1924 1909 of livestock on farms jan. 1 1925 it was estimated that there were 167,000 horses, valued at $6,179,000; 21,000 mules, valued at $1,218,000; 1,009,000 beef cattle, valued at $21,604,000; 47,000 dairy cattle, valued at $2,115,000; 60,000 swine, valued at $660,000; anid 2,360,000 sheep, valued at $18,172,000. the production of wool in 1924 was estimated at 12,408,000 lib., as against 15,076,000 ib. in ratg. in 1920 the number of farms irrigated was 11,390; the area irrigated was 538,377 ac., or 31-4°% of the improved land in farms. the capital invested in irrigation enterprises was $15,210,412 in 1920, as against $9,154,807 in ioro. manufactures —between 1914 and totg the capital invested increased from $8,984,000 10 $15,226,000, or 69:5°%; and the value of products of manufacturing establishments increased 1048 from $9,320,000 in 1914 to $20,422,126 in 1923, or 119%. the operation of steam-railway repair shops is the leading industry, as measured either by the number of wage-earncrs or by the value of the products. trans portation—in 1923 the railway mileage of new mexico was 2,959, excluding switches and sidings. the atchison, topeka and santa fe railway owned almost half of the total. mineral producis the total value for 1922 was $18,038,022, as compared with $40,631,024 in 1918. ‘the chief products in 1922 were: coal, 3,100,000 (in 1924, 2,550,000) short tons; copper, 31,937,207 {in 1924, 78,145,629) lb.; silver, 752,240 (in 1924, 783,338) o2.; gold, 19,964 (in 1924, 24,207) 0z.; also zinc and lead. in addition, granite, marble, limestone and sandstone are quarried. education.—on june 30 1924 the total school enrolment was 80,368. the number of school houses was 1,551, made up as follows: 1,358 public elementary schools, 164 public high schools, 26 indian schools and three public normal schools. ‘the univer- sity of new mexico, at albuquerque, founded in 1889, had in 1923 457 students and 23 professors. the museum of new mexico, established at santa fe in 1909 in the historic palace, built about 1630, of the governors of the old spanish province, contains a notable library of works on general linguistics and a remarkable collection illustrating american archaeology. the archaeological institute of america maintains there a special school of american research. finance.—for the first seven years of statehood—dec. 1 ro1r to nov. 30 1918—the aggregate state expenditure was $15,573,817, and county expenditure $34,227,143, making a total of $40,800,960. state receipts amounted to $16,520,448, and county receipts $34,235,224, making a total of $50,755,672. at the end of that period the bonded state debt was $3,355,500; county, $2,972,335; city, town and village, $3,250,000; school, $1,800,000, making a total of $11,407,835. the total assessed valuation of property was 360,961,891. in 1923 this total valuation had fallen to $313,065,248, upon which taxes were levied amounting to $1,493,625, being $7.03 per capita of the population. at the close of 1923 the funded debt amounted to $4,035,500, the net debt being $3,947,875, or $10.61 per capiia. legislution —in 1917 a workmen’s compensation law was enacted. in 1919 legislative acts included the establishment of state mounted police; a child’s welfare bureau; an annual franchise tax on corporation; state inheritance and income taxes; provisions, on petition, for the teaching of spanish in high schools; and the establishment of night schools for illitcrates. in ror8 an amendment to the constitution prohibited the manu- facture and sale of intoxicating liquors after oct. 1 1918 (28,732 for, 12,147 against). in rorg the state legislature ratified the prohibition amendment to the federal constitution, and in 1920 the amendment extending the right of suffrage to women. history —the most important historical fact concerning new mexico during the period 1910-25 was its admission into the union, jan. 6 1912, as the 47th state. following the ena- bling act, passed by congress june 20 1910, the territorial governor ordered an election of delegates to frame a constitu- tion. the election was held sept. 6 roro; the convention, consisting of 71 republicans and 29 democrats, assembled oct. 3; and the adopted constitution was approved by the pcople jan. 31 1911. the vote was 31,742 for ancl 13,300 against. the chief opposition came from the voters who favoured the inclu- sion of state prohibition. in 1916 the elephant butte dam, under active construction since 1910, was completed by the united states reclamation service at a cost of about $5,000,000. it is situated 12 m. west of engle, sierra county, and, built across canyons of the rio grande, governs the entire flow of the river and is one of the largest storage irrigation reservoirs in the world. the average width of the reservoir is 11 m.; maximum length 45 m.; area of water surface when full, 40,080 ac.; shore line, 200 m.; average depth, 66 f{t.; and maximum depth near the dam, 193 feet. when full it holds 115.498 million cu. [l., or 862,200 million gallons. it irrigates 185,c00 ac. of land lying in new mexico, texas and mexico. new orleans—new south wales the last territorial governor was w. j. mills (rep.), 1910-2. state governors were: w. c. mcdonald (dem.), 1912-7; i-zequiel de baca (dem.), jan. 1-feb. 18 1917; w. e. lindsey (rep.), 1917-9; a. larrazolo (rep.), ror9g—-21; m. c. mechem (rep.), 1921-3; james if, winkle (dem.), 1923-5; a. t. hannett (dem.), t925- . new orleans, la., u.s.a. (see 19.526), increased in popula- tion 14-2°% in the decade after 1910, reaching 387,219 in 1920 (of whom 100,930 were negroes and 25,992 foreign-born), and 414,- 493 in 1925 according to the census bureau estimate. foreign commerce grew from 3,754,705 net tons in ror to 9,239,546 in 1923; coastwise commerce from 733,021 net tons to 4,385,166; and the mississippi-warrior river federal barge line, established in 1918, handled 849,503 tons of cargo in 1924. harbour facilities and equipment were muchimproved. thestate commission which administers the port had by 1925 built wharves, steel sheds, public cotton warehouses, a grain elevator, a coal and ore tipple and a bulk commodity handling plant, along six miles of the 41 m. frontage on the mississippi river. railway terminals, u.s. govt. wharves and the private wharves and warehouses of over 30 industries, brought the total improved frontage to about nine miles, with berthing space for 90 vesscls 500 ft. long. the board of port commissioners constructed (1918~23), at a cost of about $20,000,000, the inner harbour navigation canal, commonly called the industrial canal, 53 m. long, which crosses the city from the mississippi to lake pontchartrain, serving as an inner harbour with still water, a navigation artery with advantageous industrial sites on its banks and on the banks of its proposed laterals, and which will eventually, after the construction of the necessary channels, provide a shorter route to the sea. the output of the manufacturing establishments within the city limits was valued at $135,184,088 in 1923, as compared with $78,794,000 in 1909. for the entire industrial area, with some 1,200 factories instead of 648, the value would be perhaps double that amount. by 1925 about $39,000,000 had been expended on the water drainage and sewerage system begun in 1903; there were 661 m. of water mains and 547 m. of sewers. the death-rate, though still high (17-7 per 1,000 in 1923), had decreased appreciably. enrolment in the public schools (1924) was 59,954; in tulane university, 2,605; 1n loyola university, established in 1911, 870. public improvements and important new buildings under con- struction in oct. 1925, or planned for the immediate future, represented a valuation of about $200,000,000. the cost of living is relatively low (93-2%> of the average for 31 american cities, dec. 1924). the commission form of government was adopted in 1912. the governing body 1s the commission council, consisting of the mayor and four other commissioners, elected for four years. newport, monmouthshire, england (see 19.533), with an area of 5,020 ac, and a population of 92,369 in 1921 has developed into one of the chief ports of great britain. over 7,000,000 tons of goods were dealt with in 1913, and trade is now again expected to increase. a number of large factories have been erected in recent years on and near the usk, and the national cartridge and box repairing factory was established here during the world war. shipbuilding has increased in importance. a sea lock, with a length of 1,000 ft. which gives direct access to the bristol channel and brings the port 13 m. nearer to the sea, was opened in 1913, and has resulted in the calling of an increased number of large ships. the town has grown rapidly under a town- planning scheme, and extensive building has been carried out at somerleyton and st. julian’s. the electricity and water services are being extended. the diocese of monmouthshire formed in 1921, has the church of st. woolos, stow itill, as its pro-cathe- dral. the parishes of st. matthew, st. julian and st. andrew have been formed, largely out of that of maindee. in 1924 it was decided to remodel the town market. the ruins of a castle on the usk were given to the corporation in 1924, on condition that they should be restored and preserved. new south wales (see 19.537), a state of the australian commonwealth. its area of 309,432 sq. m. had in 1925 a popula- newspapers tion of 2,271,944, 67-83% of which was urban, an increase of 625,210 since igrr. political history —in 1910 the first labour government of the state was returned, with mr. j. s. t. mcgowen as premier, followed by another labour government in 1913-14, with mr. w. a. holman as premier. in the latter year the liberals and moderate labour formed a coalition government which held office until rg20. between 1920 and 1925 power alternated be- tween labour and the nationalists supported by the progressive party. industrial legislation passed after 1918 included provision for a basic wage and a 44-hour week. the lang labour govern- ment in 1925 was the first government in australia to carry a measure providing pensions for widows. an attempt in 1926 to abolish the legislative council was defeated by the council. a movement for the formation of new states within new south wales gained much prominence during the post-war period. the movement aims at decentralisation from sydney by the opening up of deep-sea ports north of sydney served direct by railways from the producing centres. production.—new south wales produces nearly one-half of the wool, one-fourth of the agricultural products, two-thirds of the minerals and some 45% of the manufacturing output of the commonwealth. whilst wool was still the principal product in 1925, agriculture had made great progress. a vigorous state- aided migration policy between 1910 and 1914 brought large numbers of settlers from great britain for work on the jand. the area under wheat increased from 2,128,000 ac. in 1911 to 3,543,000 ac. in 1925 and the yield from 27,913,000 bu. to 59,785, coobushels. bulk handlingof wheat was introduced in 1920. dairy production also steadily increased, and in 1921 the output was more than 100,000,000 pounds. the industry is highly organ- ised, the butter factories being’ run on a co-operative basis under the strict supervision of government experts. trrigation.—irrigation schemes carried out by the new south wales govt. are playing a big part in the development of the state. the murrumbidgee irrigation scheme, the main feature of which is a storage dam across the murrumbidgee river at burrinjuck to retain the flood waters, will ultimately serve water to an area over 200,000 ac. in extent devoted to fruit and vegetable growing, dairying and stock-raising: the district is one of the greatest fruit-producing centres of the state and has a large output of fresh, canned and dried fruits. <a fruit- canning factory has been erected and is operated by the govern- ment, which processes fruit grown by the settlers. the govern- ment is also co-operating with the commonwealth, victorian and south australian governments in the scheme to lock the waters of the river murray. minerals and manufactures —broken hill is the great centre of silver production in australia. in 1913 the output of ore from its mines amounted to the record figure of 1,744,000 tons. in 1923 the production of ore was 878,537 tons, from which 7,233,236 oz. of silver, 124,570 tons of lead and 41,153 tons of zinc were produced. new south wales is the principal coal-producing state, the output in 1923 exceeding 10,000,000 tons, and is the centre of the iron and steel trade. in 1923 the lithgow iron works produced from local ores 94,350 tons of pig iron. the newcastle iron and steel works, established by the broken hill proprietary co. in 1915, produced in 1924 327,809 tons of pig iron and 302,384 tons of steel ingots. the works are capable of producing from 8,oco to 10,000 tons of ingot steel weekly. the total value of the manufacturing output of new south wales in 1924 was {146,359,260 of which metal works and machinery accounted for £38,121,000, food and drink, etc., £40,789,000 and clothing and textile fabrics {13,684,000. in 1924 there were 11 woollen and tweed mills in the state, besides a large number of hosiery and knitting mills. in 1923 the first up-to-date mill for the manufacture of cotton goods was erected in sydney for the treatment of australian-grown cotton. in 1924 the value of the output was £361,773. besides undertakings of a national character, such as the murrumbidgee irrigation works and the walsh island dock- yards, the state has engaged in various industrial enterprises 1049 since 191r, when the brick works at homebush and metal quarries were established. in 1913 the state took over the monier pipe industry. all three enterprises were operating profitably in 1925. other enterprises, such as the state bakery, state timber yards and state trawlers, were established but ultimately abandoned as unprofitable. sydney, the capital and principal port, had at dec. 31 1924 a population of 1,012,000, 45° of the total for the state. other towns of importance are newcastle, the coal-mining centre; broken hill, silver zinc and lead mining; and tamworth, bathurst, goulburn, wagga and albury, pastoral and agricultural centres. (see australia.)",
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