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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:naturalisation:128d10a458f5",
    "title": "NATURALISATION",
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    "verified_text": "in the period 1910-26 there were many and important changes throughout the world in the laws respecting naturalisation, owing in part to the growth of national feeling, in part to the world war. the consolidation and amendment of the british law of nationality and naturalisation was recommended in 1901 by a departmental committee of the home office, but it was not until 1914, just before the outbreak of the world war, that the principal recommendations of the committee were embodied in an act of parliament. this was the british nationality and status of aliens act, ror4, subsequently amended by acts of the same name passed in 1918 and 1922, which, while not dis- turbing the general principles of the act of 1914, contain impor- tant supplementary provisions. these statutes, as their title implies, are comprehensive and deal with the law as to natural- born british subjects, british subjects by naturalisation and aliens within british jurisdiction. in the second of these cate- gories, the new statutes make three important innovations, viz.: 1. they abolish all legal distinctions between natural-born and naturalised subjects. a naturalised british subject, so long as his certificate remains in force, has the same rights and duties as if he were natural-born. 2. a certificate of naturalisation may be revoked by the secre- tary of state upon proper cause appearing to his satisfaction. 3. without prejudice to the power of the self-governing domin- ions to grant local naturalisation on such terms as they may see naturalisation ft, the statutes lay the foundations of a scheme of imperial naturali- sation by providing for the adoption of part i] of the principal act (as amended) by the dominions. part ii has (1926) been adopted by canada, australia and south africa. grant of naturalisalion.—in respect of the conditions prece- dent to the grant of a certificate of naturalisation to an alien, the act of british nationality and status of aliens acts 1914, 1918 and 1922, do not substantially depart from the provisions of the naturalisation act, 1870. the applicant must satisfy the secretary of state (a) that he has either resided in his majesty’s dominions for not less than five years, or has been in the service of the crown for not less than five years within the last eight years before the application, (b) that he is of good character and has an adequate knowledge of the english lan- guage, and (c) that he intends to reside in his majesty’s domin- ions or to enter or continue in the service of the crown. the residence required is at least one year’s residence in the united kingdom immediately preceding the application, and previous residence for four years, either in the united kingdom or some other part of his majesty’s dominions within eight years of the application. these conditions as to residence, however, do not apply to a british-born woman who has become an alien by marriage and who, after the death of her husband or the dissolution of her marriage, secks re-admission to british nation- ality; and the secretary of state may also in his discretion grant a certificate of naturalisation to a minor who has not complied with the prescribed conditions. but a certificate of naturalisation is not a matter of right. the secretary of state may grant, withhold or postpone it in his absolute discretion and there is no appeal from his decision. a certificate does not come into effect until the oath of allegiance to his majesty has been taken. the names of minor children of an applicant for naturalisation may be (and in practice usually are) included in the certificate. the children thereby become british subjects, but on attaining their majority they may divest themselves of their allegiance by a declaration. revocation of certificate-—under the naturalisation act, 1870, a certificate once granted was irrevocable, even if it afterwards ap- peared that the grant had been obtained by fraud. the act of 1914 cured this defect by giving the secretary of state a discretionary power to revoke a certificate obtained by false representations or fraud, and the act of 1918 converted the discretion into an obligation to revoke and considerably extended the principle of revocation. section 7, as amended, is as follows:— (1) where the secretary of state is satished that a certificate of naturalisation granted by him has been obtained by false representa- tion or fraud, or by concealment of material circumstances, or that the person to whom the certificate is granted has shown himself by act or speech to be disaffected or disloyal to his majesty, the secretary of state shall by order revoke the certificate. (2) without prejudice to the foregoing provisions the secretary of state shall by order revoke a certificate of naturalisation granted by him in any case in which he is satisfied that the person to whom the certificate was granted either— (a) has during any war in which his majesty is engaged unlaw- fully traded or communicated with the enemy or with the subject of an enemy state, or been engaged in or associated with any busi- ness which is to his knowledge carried on in such manner as to assist the enemy in such war; or () has within five years of the date of the grant of the certificate been sentenced by any court in his majesty’s dominions to imprisonment for a term of not less than twelve months, or to a term of penai servitude, or to a fine of not less than {100; or (c) was not of good character at the date of the grant of the certificate; or (d) has since the date of the grant of the certificate been for a period of not less than seven years ordina- rily resident out of his majesty’s dominions otherwise than as a representative of a british subject, frm, or company carrying on business, or an institution established, in his majesty’s dominions or in the service of the crown, and has not maintained substantial connection with his majesty's dominions; or (e) remains according to the law of a state at war with his majesty a subject of that state; and that (in any casc) the continuance of the certificate is not conducive to the public good. (3) the secretary of state may, if he thinks fit, before making an order under this section refer the case for such inquiry as is hereinafter specified, and in any case to which suhsection (1) or paragraph (a), (c) or (e) of subsection (2) of this section applies, the secretary of state shall, by notice given to or sent to the last- known address of the holder of the certificate, give him an oppor- tunity of claiming that the case be referred for such inquiry, and if naturalisation the holder so claims in accordance with the notice the secretary of state shall refer the case for inquiry accordingly. (4) an inquiry under this section shall be held by a committee constituted for the purpose by the secretary of state, presided over by a person (appointed by the secretary of state with the approval of the lord chancellor) who holds or has held high judicial office, and shall be conducted in such manner as the secretary of state may direct :— | provided that any such inquiry may, if the secretary of state thinks fit, instead of being held as aforesaid be held by the high court, and the practice and procedure on any inquiry so held shall be regulated by rules of court. a committee appointed under this section shall have all such powers, rights, and privileges as are vested in the high court or in any judge thereof on the occasion of any action, in respect of the following matters :— (a) the enforcing the attendance of witnesses and examining them on oath, affirmation, or otherwise, and the issue of a com- mission or a request to examine witnesses abroad; and (b) the compelling the production of documents; and (c) the punishing persons guilty of contempt; and a summons signed by one or more members of the committce may be substituted for and shall be equivalent to any formal process capable of being issued in any action for enforcing the attendance of witnesses and compelling the production of documents the revocation of a certificate of naturalisation, however, does not affect the status of the wife or minor children of the person con- cerned unless the secretary of state so directs, and no such order can be made against a british-born woman unless the secretary of state is satished that if she had held a certificate in her own right it could properly have been revoked under section 7. it is to be ob- served that no distinction is made between minor children who have acquired british nationality through their father’s naturalisation and minor children who are natural-born subjects. the anomalous re- sult follows that the british-born children of an alien are ina better position than the british-born children of a naturalised person. there are other difficulties involved in the construction of the act of 1918, the language of which is in many places very obscure, but they have never been the subject of judicial discussion. the com- mittee constituted has, however, given certain rulings which have a quasi-judicial force. thus, it has been held that innocent mis- representation is ‘false representation\" within the meaning of section 7 (1). again, the use of the present tense in paragraphs (a) and (e) of sub-section (2) have been interpreted to mean that action under these paragraphs can only be taken during the continuance of a state of war. (d. ca.) ii. the united states in the fourteenth amendment to the constitution of the united states it is provided that ‘‘ all persons born or naturalised in the united states, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the united states and of the state wherein they reside.’”’, this amendment was proclaimed july 28 1868, but the method of naturalisation had been prescribed previously. only a natural-born citizen may become president of the united states, but naturalised citizens may hold every and any other office. the practice in naturalisation 1s set forth in the natu- ralisation act of june 29 1906 and its amendments; that of expa- triation in the expatriation act of march 2 1907. naturalisation has two stages. the first 1s a declaration of in- tention on the part of the alien to become a citizen of the united states, the second is a petition for admission which.must be filed not less than two years nor more than seven years after the dec- laration of intention. every applicant must reside five years within the jurisdiction of the united states, although an occa- sional absence with intent to return does not break the continuity of residence. the last year of the residence must be m the state or territory in which naturalisation 1s to be acquired. two wit- nesses are required to the fact of residence and of good character. the general statute dealing with naturalisation applies only to white persons and persons of african race, hence the nationals of other races are not held eligible to citizenship under the naturalisa- tion laws of the united states. (united states v, bhagat singh thind, 261 u.s. 204; osawa uv. united states, 260 u.s. 178.) naturalisation is perfected by the decision of a judge of a federal or state court of record, the applicant taking an oath of allegiance to the government and renouncing absolutely and forever all allegiance to the foreign country of which he was a citizen or subject. the advantage of a declaration of intention was supposed to lie in testing the applicant’s devotion to american institutions. the dis- advantage is in the disagreeable, if not equivocal position in which he finds himself in the interval between the declaration of intention and final naturalisation. the government of origin naturally loses 1oo21 interest in such a person, who, if he wishes a passport, must apply to its representative in the united states. congress, however, has been unwilling to drop the provision, although frequently requested to do so by the executive department of the government. to obviate the disadvantages of the situation, the secretary of state was authorised by the expatriation act of 1907 to grant temporary passports to foreigners who had declared their intention to become citizens, under such regulations as he should prescribe. this portion of the act was repealed june 4 1920. the act of 1906 expressly mentions the intention on the part of the applicant to reside in the united states as an essential to legal naturalisation, and the absence of the intention may be proved asa fact in legal proceedings, or presumed from leaving the united states within five years. in the case of luria v. united states, 231 reports, 9 (1913), it was decided, however, that the intent was presumed in previous statutes. the govt. of the united states persistently maintained the right of expatriation, interpreting it, however, rather as the right of a foreigner to become a citizen of the united states without the con- sent of his government, than as a right of an american citizen with- out the consent of his own government to become a citizen or sub- ject of a foreign nation, the first statute of expatriation affecting american citizens as well as foreigners was the expatriation <act, passed march 2 1907. it provides that an american citizen, natural or naturalised, renounces his american nationality by becoming nat- uralised in a foreign country, or by taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign state. this became important in the world war when many :amecrican citizens enlisted in forcign armies, arrayed against the central powers. they had in all cases been obliged to take an oath of allegiance on entering the military service, and upon their return to the united states they were held to have ceased to be american citizens. to remedy this situation a statute was passed on may 9 1918 allowing such individuals to become american citizens upon taking an oath of allegiance to the united states. the united states has been a party to treaties by which it was p7o- vided that a naturalised citizen might forfeit his american citizenship by residing a certain number of years in the country of his origin. the expatriation act generalises that provision by stipulating:— when any naturalised citizen shall have resided for two years in the foreign state from which he came, or for five years in any other foreign state it shall be presumed that he has ceased to be an amers ican citizen, and the place of his general abode shall be dcemed his place of residence during said years. the act also stipulated that an american woman marrying an alien acquired his nationality, and that a foreign woman marrying an american citizen acquired american nationality. it further provided that minor children became naturalised through the naturalisation of their parents. finally, the act permitted american citizens who had returned to the land of their origin to overcome the presumption of renunciation of american citizenship by registering in the ameri- can consulate; and also required that americans born in foreign parts should register in an american consulate. the statutes provide easy terms of naturalisation of persons serv- ing in the land and naval forces of the united states, provisions which were amplified during the world war. the great change, however, was made in the law of citizenship by the cable act of sept. 22 1922, which provided that a foreign woman marrying an american citizen did not become an american citizen by the act of marriage; and that an american woman marrying a foreigner did not, by the act of marriage, lose her american nationality, it facilitated the reacquisition of american nationality by american women who had married foreigners before the passage of the act, be reducing residence in the united states to one year before taking an oath of allegiance. fromthis privilege, however, was excluded the american woman who had married a foreigner who could not become a citizen of the united states under its naturalisation laws. the act is in accordance with the tendency to recognise the person- ality of married as well as of single women, but it occasions incon- venience in the absence of treaties with foreign countries in the matter of passports from countries where the nationality of a wife depends upon and follows that of the husband. ii. germany the german imperial and state citizenship law of july 22 1913 which went into effect jan. 1 1914 has been much criticised. it contains two sections, 13 and 25, which have been considered generally objectionable to non-german countries. in view of the importance of the articles they are quoted:— sec. 13. a former german who has not taken up his residence in germany may on application be naturalised by the state (of ger- many) of which he was formerly a citizen, provided his case fulfils the requirements of nos. 1 and 2 of paragraph 1 of section 8; the same applies to one who is descended from a former german or has been adopted as a child of such. prior to naturalisation a report must be made to the imperial chancellor; if he raises objections, naturalisation does not take place. (the text of section 8 of the law referred to in the section just quoted is as follows: “1. if he is legally 1022 competent in accordance with the laws of his former home or would be legally competent in accordance with the laws of germany; or if the application is made by his legal representative or with the latter’s consent in accordance with the second sentence of paragraph 2 of section 7. 2. if he has ied a blameless life...” sec. 25. citizenship is not lost by one who before acquiring foreign citizenship has secured on application the written consent of the com- petent authorities of his home state to retain his citizenship. before this consent is given the german consul is to be heard. the imperial chancellor may order, with the consent of the fed- eral council, that persons who desire to acquire citizenship in a specified foreign country may not be granted the consent provided for in paragraph 2. the only comment necessary on provisions of this kind is the statement that by article 278 of the treaty of versailles of june 28 1919, germany was obliged to declare the provisions in ques- tion as null, void and of no effect. iv. other countries an examination of the laws of other countries dealing with naturalisation shows that there have been many and important changes since rgro, because the provisions were either in them- selves deemed to be inadequate, or not in accord with the newer conditions of the century. in the next place, new states had come into existence, and as they were without legislation on the subject, it was necessary that laws should be passed regard- ing the acquisition and loss of nationality. instead of attempting a summary of provisions which are in their nature local and therefore diverse, the principal constitutional and statutory provisions on the subject since rgro are set forth:— argentine republic.—law of nov. 27 igi1i, granting nationality to alien officers, etc., by virtue of lawof july 14 1911; aunuatre,! 1911. austria.—law of oct. 17 1919, annuaire, 1920:266; decree of aug. 20 1920, relative to acquisition of nationality by option, bfs? 113:879; constitution, 1920, bfs 113:883, 886, arts. 6, 11 (1). belgium.—law of may 26 1914, on renunciation of belgian nationality by persons who have acquired the same under law of 1909, bfs 107:587; law of may 11 1918, granting fresh term for acquisition of nationality by descendants of inhabitants of terri- tories ceded in 1839, bfs 111:652; law of oct. 25 1919, concerning right of option, bfs 112:989; law of may 15 1922, concerning acqui- sition and loss of nationality, bfs 116:643. bulgaria.—constitutional amendment, 1911, bfs 107:619, art. 55; law of dec. 8 i911, amending law of dec. 31 1903, annuaire, 1911:765. china.—law of nov. 18 1912, annuaire, 1912:625; law of dec. 30 1914, bfs 114:667. costa rrea.—constitution, 1917, arts. 40-44, 60, 99 (10), 105; la gaceta, june 13 1917. denmark.—law of nov. 27 1916, providing for naturalisation of persons of no nationality, b/s 110:838; law of sept. 5 1920, bfs 114:705; constitution, 1920, art. 50, bfs 114:715. dominican republic.—constitution, 1924, l’an american union, law and treaty series ne. r (1925), 6, 8, 10, 19, 21, articles 8, 18, 21, 55, 63; naturalisation law of oct. 31 1924, clunet, 1926:243. ecuador.—law of oct. 18 1921, bfs 114:731. finland,—constitution, 1919, art. 4, mcbain and rogers,’ 468. france.——decree of sept. 16 ig1o, regarding registration of citizens abroad, am. jour. sup.’ vi:92; law of oct. 3 1910, to facilitate acquisition of french nationality by tunisians, bfs 106:953; decree of may 26 1913, on acquisition of french citizenship by natives of indo-china, bfs, 107:771; decree relative to acquisition of foreign nationality by natives in some of french colonies, nov. 25 1913, bfs 107:776; law of march 25 1915, bfs 109:922; law of april 7 1915, on withdrawal of naturalisation decrees with respect to former subjects of enemy states, bfs 109:923; decree of april 24 1915, concerning withdrawal of naturalisation, bis 109:925; law of june 18 1917, bfs 112:1025; law of july 3 1917, concerning option in case of sons of foreigners born in france, bfs 112:1029; law of april 9 1920, concerning foreigners resident in french zone in morocco, bfs 113:1008; law of nov. 8 1921, bfs 114:753; law of nov. 8 1921, relative to french nationality in regency of tunis, bfs 114:755; law of july 5 1925, concerning descendants of foreigners (not germans) in alsace-lorraine, clunet, 1925:1187.5 germany,—law of july 22 1913, on imperial and state nationality, bfs 108:473. constitution of german republic, i91g9, arts. 1, 6(3), 110, bfs 112:1064, 1082. lannuatre de legislation ¢trangere of the societe de legislation comparee, paris. 2 british and foreign state papers. 3h. l. mcbain and lindsay rogers, the new constrtutions of europe (1922). 4 american journal of international law, supplement. § clunet, journal du droit internationat. natural resources, conservation of greece.—constitution, rg11, art. 3, bfs 108:483; decree of oct. 19 1922, concerning naturalisation of refugees, annuaire, 1922:314. itaitti,—constitution, 1918, arts. 3, 6, bfs 112:1113, 1114. italy.— law of june 13 1912, bfs 106:1071; decree of aug. 2 1912, concerning enforcement of law of june 13, bfs 106:1076; law of june 30 1918, annuaire, 1918:169; decree relative to registration for nationality, dec. 28 1919, annuarre, 1919:76; regulations of dec. 30 1920, rev. dr. tnt. pr.,®> 1921:416; decree of aug. 21 1921, bfs 114:846; decree of aug. 31 1921, authorising aliens to make declara- tion for italian naturalisation suspended during the war, annuaire, 1921:40; decree of sept. 10, 1922, annuaire, 1922:35. japan.—amendments of aug. 1 1916, to law of nationality of 1899, bfs 110:920. imexico.—constitution, 1917, arts. 27(1), 30, 37 73(16) bfs 111:787, 792, 794, 804. monaco.—constitution, 1911, art. § (3), bfs 105:737, 738; ordinance of april 13 1911, annuaire, 1911:382, 389. the netherlands.—law of feb. 10 1g1o, regulating status of neth- erland subjects of population of netherland east indies, bfs 103:600; law of july 15 1910, amending nationality law of dee. 12 1892, annuaire, 1910:321; law of dec. 31 1920, modifying law of ree 22 1892, annuazre, 1920:116; constitution, 1922, bfs 116:863, ct. 6. nicaragua.—constitution, rgr1, arts. 7-11, 111 (17), bfs 107: 1039, 1051-52. new constitution of 1913 contains same provisions. peru.—constitution, i919, arts. 60, 64, bfs 113:1142. portugal.— decree of dec. 2 1910, bfs 103:619; decree of march 28 1911, amending naturalisation law of dec. 2 1910, annuaire, 1911: 366; constitution, 1911, art. 74, bfs 105:779. rumania.—naturalisation law of aug. 31 1918, annuaire, 1920: 305; decree of dec. 29 1918, granting certain rights to nationals, annuaire, 1920:306; decree of may 22 1919, annuaire, 1920:310; law of feb. 23 1924, clunet, 1925:838, and 1926:300. russian socialist federated soviet republic.—constitution, 1918, art. 20, martin and george, constitutions,? 231: nationality decree of oct. 29 1924, clunet, 1925-548. san marino.—decree of jan. 21 igto, regarding citizenship law of sept. 12 1907, annuaire, 1910:236. serbia, —constitution, 1913, for annexed provinces of old serbia, arts. 6, 29, 144 (9); bfs 110:934, 936, 939-40. siam.—law of may 18 1911, bfs 105:793; decree of aug. 7 1911, regulating execution of law of may 18 1911, annuaire, 1911 :918; law of april 10 1913, bfs 108:585. spain.—decree of nov. 6 1916, bfs 110:946. sweden.—law of june if 1920, amending law of june i i9gi2, annuaire, 1920:220; law on acquisition and loss of swedish national- ity, may 23 1924, clunet, 1925:1192. switserland.—law of jan. 29 1918 concerning cantonal naturalisa- tion (tessin), annuaire, 1918: 239; law of june 26 1920, modifying law of june 25 1903, bfs 113:1187. turkey.—law of april 3 1917, concerning article 6 of nationality law, [nnuatre, 1919:262. venezuela.—law of may 24 1913, annuaire, 1913: 586; con- stitution, 1922, arts, 10, 11, bfs 116:1038. (j..2bes: natural resources, conservation of.—the term conservation came into common use and was given special significance about 1908, when president roosevelt inaugurated a movement in the united states to check the destructive ex- ploitation and wasteful use of many of the most important natu- ral resources. the underlying purpose of the movement was to make the resources render their highest service in the eco- nomic, industrial and social upbuilding of the nation. pro- ductive use of agricultural land, continuous production of forests, economy in the use of mineral resources, skilful development of waters coupled with the protection of their sources, the building up of fisheries, the increase of useful wild life and the proper handling and safeguarding of recreation resources are examples of conservation. use cf natural resources without waste, eco- nomic development to secure from them a maximum service, continuous production of renewable resources and permanence of industries and of community life lie at the basis of the con- servation principle. the national conservation commission.—the idea of handling all natural resources with a view to their highest economic and public service in the long run was new in the united states. the great destruction of the american forests by fire and wasteful exploitation brought the question to the front, and it was gifferd pinchot, then chief u.s. forester, who enlisted the interest of the president in this problem and the broader aspects 6 revue de droit international prive, 7c. e, martin and w. il. george, representative modern con- stitutions (1923). nauru of conservation of all natural resources. the first important step taken by president roosevelt was to call a conference of governors of the states, which assembled at the white house in may 1908. this was the first time the governors of the states had met in conference. as a result of the meeting, a national conservation commission was appointed by the president, and 42 states appointed state commissions to study the problems of natural resources, to assemble data regarding their quantity and condition, and to formulate a policy for their conservation. in 1909 the national conservation commission made its report to congress. in the same year president roosevelt invited the governor-general of canada, the governor of newfoundland and the president of mexico to appoint commissioners to discuss, with commissioners representing the united states, the prin- ciples of conservation as applied to the continent of north america. legislative action—the movement inaugurated by president roosevelt led to a radical change in public policy with reference to the resources owned and controlled by the government. not only were the national forests and parks placed on a perma- nent basis of protection and administration, but legislation was later enacted providing for the proper use under federal control of the lands still under public ownership which contained coal, oil, phosphates or potash or which were valuable for water- power development. the movement led further to action en- suring the conservation of fisheries, game and bird life. the influence of the conservation movement has spread far beyond the handling of federal properties. it has been the factor lead- ing to action by many individual states. the greatest progress has been made by them in the protection of forests from fire, although many of the states are not yet doing what is needed to attain this end. since the world war there has been increasing appreciation of the significance of natural resources as a primary factor in the industrial strength and prosperity of nations. the older countries have by very force of economic conditions been obliged to give attention to the careful husbanding of their resources. many of them have already been through the pro- cess of wasteful exploitation and have learned the lesson of conservation. the newer countries are still exploiting their forests without proper measures of replacement, still using wasteful methods of developing oil, natural gas and coal, still overstocking the cattle and sheep ranges, still using crude methods of agriculture, still failing to protect their natural supply of useful wild life. exhaustion of resources—in many countries, as the united states, which have been naturally endowed with an abundance of natural resources, the most accessible and most cheaply pro- duced of the raw materials are rapidly being exhausted. vast resources still remain, but the difficulties and cost of their ex- ploitation are constantly mounting. this situation is of very real importance to those nations which have to look abroad for raw materials. the exhaustion of the accessible bodies of virgin softwood timber in north america will be felt by importing nations which will be obliged to pay higher and higher prices for this class of material or go without. necessarily there will be in the near future a world shortage of softwood timber of the better grades (sce forestry). in the same way the wasting of oil, coal and minerals in one country becomes a matter of inter- national consequence. government action—since the war the conservation of natural resources has been given larger attention in many coun- tries. great britain has embarked on an ambitious plan of reforestation and has already held two imperial conferences to discuss problems of timber supply and forestry as affecting the entire empire. the forthcoming world forestry congress at rome is an event of very great significance in international conservation. various countries are adopting a liberal policy of developing their water-power resources with a view to greater independence in power for manufacturing, transportation, heat and light, and already there has been an important water-power conference of an international character in london. the in- 1023 stitute of agriculture at rome is a vital force in the development of the resource of greatest importance in most countries, and its work is directly in the interest of conservation. very gratifying also is the increased interest in the conservation of game and other wild life in those countries which heretofore have given little attention to the value of wild life. this is evidenced by the projects to conserve the big game in africa and elsewhere, the progressive steps in many countries to stock the streams and lakes with fish, and the new interest in european countries to protect the native insectivorous birds which are so important to agriculture. agriculture—in agriculture it is usually recognised that private ownership of farms is from every standpoint desirable. the objective is to develop a nation of small land proprietors. government, however, gives assistance to farmers in a great variety of ways—through loans on liberal terms, through aid in co-operative buying and selling, through highway development, through research and education, through help in securing seed at reasonable cost, etc. on the other hand, it is generally recog- nised that the public should have control of as large an area of forest land as possible, particularly those areas in the mountains where the forests should be well handled in order to protect the watersheds and to conserve the sources of streams. most coun- tries early in their history adopted a policy of distributing their forest lands to private individuals, and what they now own represents the residue after this policy of distribution was stopped; and most of them are endeavouring to recover by pur- chase what they once owned and never should have disposed of. in france 34:5% of the forests are publicly owned; in germany 52-79%: in sweden 23-6%; in great britain 3-6%; in the united states 21 per cent. some countries are obliged to impose restrictions upon private owners to prevent public injury to watersheds and to insure pro- ductive use of the land. as a rule, also, the public co-operates with private owners in forestry. in some cases, as in great britain, a subsidy is actually given for reforestation. the united states has adopted a policy of retaining control of the publicly owned water-power sites, with a view to ensuring full development and use, and of preventing possible abuse through monopolies. the united states is retaining also in public con- trol the coal, oil, phosphate, potash, sodium and certain other resources which are located on the public domain. how far the public will go in regulating the privately owned coal in the united states remains to be seen. the present system results in great wastage, at least in the bituminous fields; and the in- terruption of service to the public through strikes and other causes has resulted in serious public injury. other countries, as great britain, are facing a similar problem (see coat). broadly speaking, government takes part in conservation as far as may be necessary to prevent public injury. where such control is not necessary the aim is to secure the desired results by co- operation, education and research. scientific research.—a factor of very great hapertanee and significance in conservation is scientific research. never in his- tory has there been such a clear recognition of this fact; never has there been such liberal support of research by federal and state legislature, by the industries, by the great universities of the country and by contributions from benevolent foundations and private individuals. the foundations of conservation rest upon sound scientific research, and the work now being done holds out high promise for the future. the co-operation of nations in research in matters relating to natural resources is likely to lay the foundations for consideration of the problems of distribution of raw materials and many other problems of mutual economic interest. the countries which adopt an effec- tive policy of conservation of their natural resources are strength- ening the foundations of their industrial progress and national strength and they are rendering a service to the whole world. see d. drake, america faces the future, chap. 23 (1922); also coal; forestry; oi; etc. (h. s. g.) nauru or pleasant island, an atoll in the south pacific, midway between the marshall and solomon islands, with an 1024 area of about 5,400 acres. the population in 1923 was i10 europeans, 603 chinese and 1,296 nauruans and other south sea islanders. the island is valuable on account of its phos- phate deposits, which were worked before the war by a german company the rights of which were sequestrated during the war and vested in an english company. a german possession, placed under the german administration of new guinea, the island surrendered to the australian navy in sept. 1914, and was placed by the supreme council under british mandate on may 7 1919. side by side with the mandate assigning the island to the british empire arrangements were made for australia and new zealand to share with the united kingdom in the administration and the products of the phosphate industry, which together were to supply the necessary funds for the exploitation of the island resources. the first administrator was to be appointed by the australian government. the nauru agreement act was ratified by the three parliaments concerned, and received the roval assent on aug. 4 1920, subject to the provisions of art. 22 of the covenant of the league of nations. the phosphate deposits-—the deposits were discovered in 1900, and were worked by the pacific phosphate co., which also worked the deposits on ocean islands. the deposits in these two islands were estimated at about 100,000,000 tons. the interests of the company in these two islands were bought out in to19 by the british, australian and new zealand govts. according to the terms of the agreement at a cost of {3,500,000 subscribed in the proportions 42, 42 and 16. the deposits are worked by a phosphate commission of three members appointed by the governments and the output is divided in proportion to the investments of the parties. the pre-war output (1913) was 350,000 tons; the output in the first 10 years of the commission's management was over 360,000 tons a year. though the islands do not compete in quantity with the enormous output of north- ern africa, 2,000,000 tons, or of florida and other united states yields, 4,000,000 tons, the deposits are of exceptionally high quality see the reports on the administration of nauru issued by the aus- tralian govt.; particulars of the mandate are given in the year book of the commonwealth of australia (1923). naval academy (sce 27.736).—the expansion of the naval academy in the period roro-25 began before the entry of america into the world war. in tror2 the six-year course (including two years at sea as midshipman) was discontinued, and midshipmen were commissioned ensigns immediately upon graduation from the academy. by acts of congress in 1916 and 1917, the number of annual appointments to the academy al- lowed to each senator, representative and delegate in congress was increased from two to five; presidential appointments from ro to 15, and appointments of qualified enlisted men from r5 to 10o. thus the total number of authorised appointments reached 3,126; and the number of midshipmen increased from 758 in 1910 to 1,230 in 1916 and in 1923 to about 2,500. the naval appro- priation bill of r924 provided for the pay of three midshipmen for each senator, representative and delegate in congress in lieu of the five authorised by law. after 1920 physically qualified candidates were allowed to enter either by examination or by certificate from a recognised school. commencing with 1925 candidates for admission by certificate were required to pass a brief examination in mathematics and english. as a war measure, the class of 1917 was graduated in march of that year, and the class of 1918 in the following june. the course was reduced to three years; but by cutting down examina- tion periods, holidays and reviews, and increasing the academic year to nine months, practically the same work was covered. in tg19 the four-year course was resumed. between sept. 1917 and jan. 1919 five reserve officer classes, composed chiefly of former enlisted men who were graduates of technical schools, were quartered at the academy for periods of about three months’ training. in this way 1,622 officers were added to the service as temporary ensigns. the post-graduate school for officers, established in ror in the former marine barracks near the academy, was suspended naval academ y—navigation during the world war, but reopened in 1919 with about 50 student-olflicers. these spend a half-year or year at the post- graduate school before continuing their studies in civilian technical institutions. in 1918 two wings accommodating 1,100 additional midshipmen were added to bancroft hall, an ex- tension to the marine engineering building was completed in roig and a new seamanship building in 1920. in 1919 the civilian corps of instructors was reorganised with increased pay and systematic prontotion. the staff of the academy increased from 146 officers and civilian instructors 1n 1910 to nearly 300 in 1921 with a subsequent reduction to about 218 in 1925. in 1925 aviation training was included in the curriculum of the academy. (l.. mecen,) navigation (see 19.284) has progressed considerably in some departments since 1910, as the result of scientific dis- coveries and inventions. the advance made in the science of wireless telegraphy has been of considerable assistance to navi- gators; and it is probable that when directional wireless teleg- raphy is further developed, the methods whereby the position of a ship can be fixed by this means will come into more general use. astronomical navigation, that is the fixing of the position of a ship by observations of the heavenly bodies, alters little, and during the period 1910-25 no new methods were introduced. the use of position lines, however, came into more general use, and calculations have been simplified by the compilation and publication of special tables for finding the zenith distance. old and new meihods compared.—the accuracy of the post- tion of a ship obtained from observations of heavenly bodies depends almost entirely on the accuracy of the time shown by the chronometers carried on board the ship. to enable the exact error of the chronometer to be obtained and the daily rate deduced, it was formerly necessary to obtain the accurate time at ports where a visual time signal was installed, or by a series of observations made with sextant and artificial horizon at places the longitude of which was accurately known. in those ships which are fitted with wireless telegraphy wireless time signals enable navigators to obtain accurate time daily in most parts of the world. at the end of 1925 there were over 50 sta- tions working on various wave-lengths and situated in different countries for transmitting the time daily. the majority of these signals are sent by means of an automatic arrangement operated by the pendulum of a standard clock which is elec- trically connected with the transmitter. greater reliance can be placed on the accuracy of signals transmitted in this manner than on those which are sent by hand. the signals are, in many cases, transmitted according to the international system; it is, however, desirable to refer to the relevant publications for de- tails of procedure. the term greenwich mean time (g.m.t.) is considered to be the standard time of the meridian of greenwich commencing at midnight and reckoned throughout the 24 hours. both civil and astronomical time are, therefore, reckoned from midnight in- stead of from midnight and noon respectively. in the nautical almanac (abridged for the use of seamen) for 1925, and following years, the elements which prior to 1925 were given for every 2 hours of the astronomical day, which then began at noon, are given for every 2 hours of g.m.t. commencing at midnight. to avoid confusion a system of time zones for time-keeping at sea is in force in the navies of most countries. this system has been adopted so that vessels at sea, within certain defined limits of longitude, shall keep the same time as that used on land. the world is longitudinally divided into 24 zones of 15° each, the centre of the system being the meridian of greenwich. this centre division lies between the meridians of 73° east and 73° west and is known as the zero zone, or zone o; the zones lying to the eastward being numbered in sequence with a minus (-) prefix; those to the westward being similarly numbered with a plus (+) prefix. the limits of the zones on land are modified somewhat according to the geographical configuration of the country concerned. by this system the same time is kept wheth- er on land or sea throughout each zone except during the periods of summer time. navy directional wireless —determining the position of a ship at sea by means of directional wireless telegraphy (see wireless) became of importance during the world war and is of inestim- able value to ships in thick weather, when approaching the land. the bearing of the shore station from the ship can be obtained either by means of a directional receiving apparatus carried in the ship, or by the system whereby the bearing of the ship is determined by one or more directional receiving sets on shore; the result being communicated to the ship. owing to the cost of the installation and the necessity for great skill on the part of the operator, the former method is seldom used. to enable the latter method to be of use to ships wireless direction finding (d/f) stations are established in many parts of the world. the procedure varies to some extent for different stations and in different countries. a ship requiring a bearing calls up the sta- tion or stations concerned and finally receives her bearing from one or more of these stations. the position of the ship can thus be determined. the accuracy with which the bearing can be taken depends on several factors; bearings have sometimes been found to be unreli- able at night and when the direction runs approximately parallel with the coast-line. experiments have been made with a wireless beam which revolves in a similar manner to the beam from an ordinary lighthouse, the beam revolving through 360° at a con- stant rate in a definite time. wireless waves travel along the arc of a great circle, this being the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the earth. it follows, therefore, that the true bearing of the ship from the station, or vice-versa, must be corrected for convergency to obtain the mean merca- torial bearing which is required if a chart on mercator’s pro- jection is in use. a simple formula given in text-books enables this to be done. on a chart constructed on the gnomonic pro- jection d/f bearings can be laid down without any correction for convergency, since great circles appear as straight lines on this projection. if, however, a compass “rose”’ is used it is neces- sary to have one on the chart for each d/f station, to compen- sate for the angular alteration of the projection at that station. other systems in use —sound ranging (see sound ranging) also enables the position of a ship to be determined with accu- racy at a considerable distance from the land. the pressure wave generated by the detonation of a submerged explosive charge is received in hydrophones placed along a base line. this distant explosion affects the hydrophones in turn, and with the aid of time-recording instruments the position of the explosion can be deduced. to obtain accuracy at great distances it is necessary for two or more stations to co-operate. although this method was used with success during the war no stations at the close of 1925 had been installed as aids to general navigation. it was not at that time considered probable that this method would come into common use, partly owing to the expense of installing and maintaining the stations, and partly on account of the necessity for ships to carry explosive depth charges. the com- bination of d/f and sound ranging would be of considerable value to navigation, especially when approaching the coast in thick weather. the leader system assists vessels to enter or leave harbour or to pass through narrow channels in thick weather. a submarine electric cable is laid along the channel, the shore end being con- nected to a station producing an alternating current. a simple and inexpensive receiving apparatus on board the ship enables the signals to be heard in telephones, or other form of amplifer, placed at or near the position from which the ship is usually conned. two sets of coils are fitted, one on either side of the ship out of the water, and so arranged that they can each be connected up to the receiving telephones. by connecting first one set of coils and then the other, to the receiving telephones, it is an easy matter, when within range, to determine whether the cable is to port or starboard. with practice the distance of the cable can be estimated with comparative accuracy, because the signals become stronger as the cable is approached, the maximum intensity of the signals occurring when the ship is close to, but not vertically over, the cable. 1025 the same cable enables one ship to enter and one to leave harbour at the same time, provided of course the navigable channel is of sufficient width; it is a simple matter for each ship to steer to keep the cable a reasonable distance away on her port side, so that the two ships pass safely port to port. if space permits it is possible to lay two cables, one for entering and one for leaving, the signals produced in each cable being distinctive by their note and character. this system, which proved of value during the war, had not come into general use in 1925, owing presumably to the somewhat heavy initial cost and the cost of maintenance. in channels where frequent dredg- ing 1s necessary to maintain the depth the presence of a subma- rine cable would of course cause some inconvenience. echo sounding (see sounding), by which the depth of water is obtained by the acoustic method, is of value in cases where the depth of water, or the speed of the ship, makes sounding by direct measurement unreliable. to obtain an accurate sounding by this method, complete and sensitive apparatus is required. the apparatus consists of two microphones, one of which regis- ters the emission of a sonic signal and the other the arrival of the echo reflected by the bottom of the sea. a specially constructed time recorder capable of reading to one-thousandth part of a second is connected to the microphones and enables the depth to be deduced. sound travels through sea water at an average velocity of 4,900 ft. per second. consequently, by the acoustic method, very great depths can be reached in a brief space of time and the depths normally required for navigational pur- poses will be reached in a small fraction of a second. the gyro compass (see gyroscopes) is used in many ships. owing to the masses of iron and steel used in the construction of modern ships and the presence of dynamos and other elec- trical machines, the position in which to place a magnetic com- pass in a ship requires careful consideration, to avoid undue loss of directive force and the consequent large errors which would require correction. the gyro compass does not depend for its action on the earth’s magnetic field, but on gravitation and the earth’s diurnal rotation round its axis. a suitable position below is selected for the master-gyro; and repeater dials, con- nected with the master, can be placed in any desired position in the ship. these repeaters need not be placed with the dials horizontal, they can be fixed vertically or in any other desired position. the introduction of the gyro compass has made auto- matic steering possible. an efficient automatic steering appara- tus will keep a ship on a fixed course with greater regularity than can be accomplished by a skilled helmsman. for the navigation of the air see air navigation. bibliography.—british admiralty, signal department, techni- cal notes on the leader cable systenit (1921); l. h. walter, directive woreless telegraphy (1921); . j. willis, the afathematics of naviga- tion (1921); r. keen, direction and position finding by wireless (1922); capt. k. macdonald, afacdonald’s tables for correcting werreless bearings from latitude 5 deg. to 70 deg. north or south (1922); j. w. norte, a complete set of nautical tables (1922). c); bet, a.) navy (sce 19.299).—the most constant factor in naval affairs in modern times has been the predominance of the british navy in relation to the forces of other maritime countries, as they have successively risen and declined. but in the evolution of national policies a counterpoise has always existed, with the result that the british navy has seldom been, in fact, supreme. in the closing years of the 19th century the balance of power was maintained by france and russia, while, in the pacific, the united states and japan, which were then emerging as naval powers of the first rank, supplied an additional check on british predominance. i. great britain and germany german navy acts.—these were the conditions which existed when the first german navy act was passed in 1898, to be replaced by a more ambitious measyre two years later, which became known as “ the navy act.” this measure introduced a new factor in the situation. it provided for the creation of a fleet of 20 battleships, supported by cight coast defence ships, 1026 12 large cruisers and 29 small cruisers, with a second line of older ships. whereas british policy had always been based on the maintenance of exiguous military forces, but a strong fleet on the two-power standard, germany already possessed an army, if not larger, at least reputed to be more formidable and efficient, than that of any other country. france and russia, with frontiers running parallel with those of germany, were already making the maximum effort their finances and man-power per- mitted to neutralise the strength of germany as a military power, austria-itungary, with not inconsiderable military resources, being germany’s “ brilliant second.” neither france nor russia, though cach was vitally concerned to keep open its ocean communications and to defend its territories from invasion by sea, was in a position to make an adequate rejoinder to the menace which the german navy act suggested; japan was rendered increasingly nervous as to her position in the far fast, in view of german political and economic activity, while the united states was anxious to avoid any embarrassment in the pacific, in order that she might watch events in europe (sce germany: naval policy). effects of german expansion—in these circumstances the whole naval situation gradually underwent a complete change. a widespread feeling of nervousness led to “understandings,” or treaties, by which cach country which considered itself threatened by the growing naval strength of germany re-insured its interests. an alliance was concluded between great britain and japan in jan. 1902 which was strengthened three years later; great britain and france began to draw closer together towards the close of 1903 and eventually these two countries, in association with russia, formed “a diplomatic group,” which led to discussions between the several naval staffs with a view to the possibility of common action by sea and even- tually also by land; and the united states and japan signed a treaty pledging each country to respect the other’s territorial interests. it thus came about that as amendments to the navy act were carried in the reichstag in subsequent years, all of them author- ising further expansions of the german navy than had hitherto been provided for, as well as of its resources for repair (of which the creation of the dockyard at wilhelmshaven, the enlargement of the kicl canal and the development of krupps’s establish- ments at essen, were the most notable), the tendency was for the other naval powers to pool, in some degree, their naval inter- ests. this movement reacted powerfully on the british navy. a concentration of forces in the north sea was begun at the expense of the squadrons in the mediterranean, the pacific and other distant seas, and british shipbuilding policy was adapted to the new situation which was rapidly developing; while france withdrew most of her ships from her channel ports in order to increase her strength in the mediterranean; russia at the same time improved her position in the baltic. coming of the dreadnought.—by 1910 the rivalry between the navies of great britain and germany had become the dominat- ing factor not only to those two countries, but to every other country. since germany, though not neglecting the building of cruisers, was concentrating her attention on the creation of a great battle fleet, obviously, from the limited radius of action of the vessels, intended for service in the north sea, the british admiralty had also for some years turned its attention in- creasingly to the perfection of battleship design. germany was rising to a condition of parity in modern ships of the line in 1905, when, on lord fisher’s initiative, the all-big-gun ship— commonly known as the “ dreadnought ”—was evolved, being of two types—the battleship and the battle cruiser. germany, her policy thrown into confusion, felt herself compelled to follow the new policy, but as dreadnoughts were of greater beam than the ships of about 14,000 tons displacement which she had hitherto been building, she became involved in a complete reconstruction of the kiel canal, entailing an expenditure of £11,000,000, while further large sums had to be spent on deep- ening her shallow harbours. the german naval authorities had assumed that the british navy forces would continue to be dispersed over the seas and oceans of the world. when that assumption proved unfounded, the german plans for naval expansion were repeatedly varied; the final development taking place in 1912. this amendment of the german navy act, providing for a large fleet always in com- mission, was interpreted by the british govt. as a direct chal- lenge to british naval power. mr. winston churchill, the first lord of the admiralty, made a speech which revealed the anxiety with which the british cabinet, retlecting public opinion, re- garded the situation. he stated that the two-power standard no longer accorded with the conditions at sea which were rapidly developing and that in future the admiralty intended “to develop a 60°% superiority in vessels of the ‘ dreadnought ’ ivpe over the germany navy on the basis of the existing fleet law,” with “ other and higher standards for the smaller vessels.” ife also let it be known that for every additional keel laid down in germany, over and above those already provided for, two would be placed in position in british yards. it was revealed later on that the british naval authorities, having already dis- carded the 12-in. gun, which was mounted in the original “ dreadnought,” in favour of the 13-5-in., had decided to intro- duce a new 15-in. gun, firing a projectile twice as heavy as the 12-iin. weapon. germany, which had for many years been satis- fied with the r1-in. gun, had in recent designs provided for nothing more powerful than the 12-inch. these and other developments revealed the intensity with which the contest between the two countries was being pur- sued. informal conversations in berlin with a view to a “ naval holiday ” had proved fruitless. in the succeeding two years there was consequently no slackening of activities, either in the dockyards or at sea, in anticipation of a war, which lord fisher, studving the progress of the enlargement of the kiel canal, prophesied would not occur at any rate until 1914. on that calculation, as was subsequently revealed, british plans of naval development rested. the following statement shows the num- ber of ships built and projected from the introduction of the dreadnought design. table. 1. : capital | protected year ships crujsers | destroyers 1905-6 great britain a i 18 germany 1906-7 great britain 3 ; i4 germany 2 2? 12 1907-8 . | great britain 3 i 17 germany 3 2 12 1908-9 great britain 2 6 16 germany 4 2 12 1909-10 great britain 8 6 2 (sermany 4 2 2 i91o-1 great britain 5 5 20 gsermany 4 2 12 iqii- 2 great britain 5 4 20 germany 4 2 2 igl2-3 great britain f 8 20 germany 2 2 i2 1913-4 great britain 5 8 16 germany 4 2 12 i9i4-5 great britain 4 : mee germany 2 2 12 ¥ 1915-6 great britain 4 ae ee (sermany 2 2 12 1916-7 great britain ei 2 : germany 3 2 12 1917-8 great britain 4 ae a2 germany 2 2 12 ' germany also laid down an armoured cruiser—the “ bliicher.” 27no provision had been made in the programme for protected cruisers or destroyers. navy il. the navies of otiter countries during the years when the two naval protagonists were strengthening their fleets in feverish haste, the older navies of europe suffered a decline of relative strength which in the cir- cumstances was inevitable. france, italy and russia, even if they had had the will to do so, could not, owing to the necessi- ties of the military situation which occupied the minds of their governments, keep pace with the rapid and costly develop- ments which were taking place on either side of the north sea. france.—from the time when, in 1908, adml. germinet left the ministry of marine, the naval policy of tfrance lacked definite purpose and continuity. there were frequent changes of ministers, at the rate of about one a year, and each one, being a civilian, became the instrument of one or other of the rival schools of naval thought, while in the chambers, senators and deputies increasingly lost confidence in the administration of the naval service, both ashore and afloat, with the result that supplies demanded by the expert advisers were repeatedly denied. gradually the naval policy of the country became more and more based on defensive ideas. the guerre de course gained an ascendancy over the minds of those concerned with naval defence, with the result that the offensive ideal of warfare no longer dominated policy, and attention was concentrated on small craft. the french navy, which had ranked for many years as second only in strength to that of great britain, was consequently sur- passed in strength, first by germany, and then by the united states, although sums had been voted for its support (1896— tg11) which were 50° % larger than the amounts spent on the german fleet. in 1909, as the result of an inquiry carried out by a parliamentary committee, an organic law was at last adopted for the expansion of the french naval forces. but it came too late to change the situation, and on the outbreak of the world war the navy, though inspired by a new purpose, was still suffering from lack of continuity of policy, and in conse- quence all new construction was frequently delayed by repeated changes of design. . russia.—simultaneously with the decline of french naval prestige, the russian fleet also suffered. the recently con- stituted duma, established in 1905, refused to approve of measures for strengthening the navy on the ground that the admiralty and all the naval departments urgently required reorganising. when a building scheme was at last adopted, the decision that new vessels, instead of being built in foreign yards as had hitherto been the custom, should be constructed in russia, and as far as possible of russian materials, proved a further handicap to progress. in these circumstances, the russian flcet, which had sustained heavy material losses in the war with japan, failed to recover either its prestige or its material strength. though naval expenditure was maintained at a high level, the russian fleet continued to decline owing largely to the failure to carry out reforms in the naval administration, which were recog- nised as being essential if a higher standard of efficiency was to be attained. italy—in contrast with the misfortunes which sapped the strength of the allied fleets of france and russia, the italian naval authorities pursued a consistent and methodical policy. the increased attention which the austro-iiungarian govt., on the urgent representations of germany, was devoting to naval affairs, was responsible, in no slight degree, for the energy dis- played in italy, which had ceased to evince any enthusiasm for the triple alliance, of which she was nominally a member. navies 1n 1914.—in these circumstances the balance of naval power in european waters underwent a dramatic change as the anglo-german contest for naval power pursued its course, larger and larger sums being devoted cach year by these two countries to ship construction, the maintenance of bigger fleets at sea, and manocuvres for the training of officers and men. whereas british naval expenditure had been £26,000,000 in 1900, in the spring of 1914 the house of commons voted nearly £44,500,000. the outlay in germany over the same period rose from £8,000,000 to over £23,000,000. a new standard of naval 1027 efficiency was set up in these two opposing fleets, and the defi- ciencies of the french and russian fleets became more con- spicuous in contrast, while italy, watching with growing sus- picion the course of naval events in the austro-hungarian em- pire, occupied an ill-defined position between the two groups of naval powers. in 1914 the strength of the fleets in europe was as follows, the letters g.b. representing great britain, g. germany, a.il. austria-hungary, i. italy, f. france and r. russia. the abbreviation bt. indicates “ built”; the abbrevia- tion bg. indicates “ building.” table. tl. battleships: — modern battle cruisers . older battleships total cruisers: — ist class . light total destroyers . torpedo boats :-— ist and 2nd class submarines a leading naval authority—count reventlow—who was in close touch with the naval authorities in berlin, afterwards stated that when the war broke over europe in 1914 the ger- man fleet was'not ready. ‘in 1906,” he stated, “came the dreadnought revolution in shipbuilding which quickly rendered worthless all ships built before that time (pre-dreadnoughts) and compelled tremendous enlargements of wharves, harbours and canals, gigantic extensions of organisations, etc. the work of completing the german fleet would have extended far be- yond the year 1920 under these conditions.”’ british policy in this respect, as well as in regard to the political “ understand- ings” with france, russia and japan, which enabled the main british squadrons to be concentrated in the north sea, com- pletely upset all the calculations on which german naval policy had been based in the early years of the rgth century. eastern waters—during these years naval cofiditions in the pacific and adjacent waters also underwent marked changes. great britain and the other european powers reduced their forces to the lowest level compatible with the naval plans of germany. while neglecting the mediterranean and atlantic, these plans embraced a powerful cruiser squadron in china waters, which, in view of the high standard which it achieved in gunnery, became a considerable factor in the naval situation in the far east. public sentiment in japan and the united states having been somewhat reassured by the treaty of non-interfer- ence with cach other’s territorial interests, these two countries continued to increase their naval forces, but the movement was marked by no such political unrest as was being exhibited on the two sides of the north sea. , the japanese govt., which had placed reliance upon the anglo-japanese alliance for the preservation of the status quo in the pacific, slowly adjusted itself to the new conditions which british preoccupation in the north sea had made inevitable, while the united states, occupying a position of complete detach- ment from the troubles which were coming to a head in europe, began to occupy a position of some importance at sea. the world cruise of the american fleet, which had begun at the end of 1907 and lasted 14 months, had given the american people a new conception of their concern with naval affairs. reare adm. sperry, when his ships had made their furrow of 45,000 m. 1028 in the seas and oceans of the world, had stated that “ this cruise marks an epoch in our naval annals, for the fleet has found itself—being welded into a unity.”’ events in later years were to supply ample confirmation of this statement. ill. the world war and after during the years of the world war, both the united states and japan embarked upon schemes of naval expansion. uiited states—in 1916 congress adopted an act “ for the purpose of further increasing the naval establishment of the united states,’ which, in its methodical character, somewhat resembled the successive german navy acts. it provided for the construction of the following vessels: 10 first-class battle- ships, six battle cruisers, 10 scout cruisers, 50 torpedo boat destroyers, nine fleet submarines, 58 coastal submarines, three fuel ships, two destroyer tenders, two ammunition ships, two gunboats, a repair ship, a transport, a hospital ship and a fleet submarine tender. provision was also made for improving the navy yards at puget sound, philadelphia, norfolk, new york, boston, portsmouth, charlestown and new orleans, the work to be completed within five years. this act provided for nothing less than the construction of a new american fleet and fore- shadowed an expenditure far larger than any country had hitherto contemplated. it also contained clauses which attracted little attention at the time outside the borders of the united states, though the words pointed to ambitious hopes for the limitation of naval armaments. it is hereby declared to be the policy of the united states to adjust and settle its international disputes through mediation or arbitration, to the end that war may be honourably avoided. it looks with apprehension and disfavour upon a general increase of armament throughout the world, but it realises that no single nation can disarm, and that without a common agreement upon the subject every considerable power must maintain a relative standing in mili- tary strength. in view of the premises, the president is authorised and requested to invite, at an appropriate time, not later than the close of the war in europe, all the great governments of the world to send representa- tives to a conference which shall be charged with the duty of for- mulating a plan for a court of arbitration or other tribunal to which disputed questions between nations shall be referred for adjudication and peaceful settlement, and to consider the question of disarma- ment and submit their recommendations to their respective govern- ments for approval. the act also laid down that, if a conference succeeded in attaining the purposes for which it had been called, the con- structive plans might be varied in accordance with any engage- ment into which the united states had entered. the war in europe was to continue for upwards of two years after the passing of this measure, and consequently kecls were laid in american shipyards in accordance with the terms of the act, and the united states was definitely committed to this great programme of naval expansion before the treaty of versailles had been signed. japan.—the course of events at sea confirmed the importance of sca-power to an island state. japan had for several years entertained the project of building 16 capital ships, eight batile- ships and cight battle cruisers, none of which should at any time exceed eight years in age. on the assumption that such vesscls possessed an effective life of about 24 years, japan contemplated having at her disposal, in time, 16 capital ships of the latest design and constructions and 16 bordering upon obsolescence, with a similar number occupying a position midway between these two groups. the plan embraced the expansion of the dockyards and other establishments ashore, as well as provision of the necessary trained personnel. with the approval of the imperial diet, this programme of expansion was taken in hand in 1916. at that time japan was spending £15,000,000 annually on her navy; it was estimated that the votes might rise to nearly {60,000,000 by 1920, although the government declared that whatever other nations might do japan would not exceed the eight-eight programme, which it was proposed to carry out gradually as the financial position of the country might render possible. navy a new rivalyy.—lin place of the rivalries in naval armaments which had persisted in europe for so many years, a new race for naval power had begun between the united states and japan while the world war was still in progress. even after the united states had intervened in the struggle, the activities in the government and private yards continued with unabated energy, while, on the other side of the pacific, the japanese people settled down to the task of building up their fleet to the elght-eight standard, with all that was implied in cruisers, de- stroyers, submarines and other auxiliaries. not only was the american programme really more ambitious than that of japan, but the united states possessed within her own borders prac- tically all the raw material necessary for the creation of a fleet, while japan was confronted with the problem of obtaining from overseas no mean proportion of the steel and other material which she needed. on the other hand, the japanese, in virtue of their conscriptive law, were in a position to obtain all the officers and men which the larger fleet would require, drawing freely upon a seafaring population, but the united states was faced with the problem of competing in the labour market for recruits, which experience had proved were not always forth- coming in adequate numbers. post-war situation in europe —when the world war came to an end, the whole naval situation in europe had undergone a complete change. the german navy, by the surrender of all its modern units, had been reduced to the status of a third-class sea power, and denied the possession of either submarines or air- craft of combatant types. the russian fleet, after the revolu- tions, had, to all intents and purposes, ceased to be of any importance. france and italy had been so preoccupied in sup- porting their armies, tasks which necessitated the concentration of all their industrial activities on the provision of military munitions, that neither country had had either the man-power or the material available for the construction of new ships. the british fleet, which had borne the main burden of the war on the allied side, had been forced by the compclling circumstances of the naval situation to pursue a policy of expansion embracirg capital ships, cruisers and every type of auxiliary craft. it emerged from the struggle, in spite of the heavy losses which had been sustained, as the only first-class naval force in european waters. limitation of armaments—when president harding in the year following the signing of the peace of versailles issued an invitation to the leading naval powers to a conference at wash- ington to discuss the possibility of limiting armaments, the united states was already potentially the leading naval power of the world. all the battleships, battle cruisers and scout cruisers of the 1916 programme, as well as no mean proportion of the auxiliaries, including five destroyers, five fleet submarines, and 37 smaller submarines, were under construction. the british naval authorities had inherited from the war a great fleet, but, except for the battle cruiser ‘ hood,” none of the battleships embodied any of the lessons enforced by the struggle at sea, while the cruisers had for the most part been designed for service in the north sea, and, owing to their limited radius of action, were unsuited for ocean work. in these circumstances the british admiralty, urged to economy, had entered upon a vig- orous scrapping policy, one firm alone buying 113 war-ships, on the understanding that they shculd be broken up. at the same time provision was made in 1920 for laying down four new battleships, to displace 45,000 tons, as well as a submarine and a minelayer. javan had in hand three of her new battleships, as well as two battle-cruisers, eight cruisers, 10 destroyers and 15 submarines. a new phase in the competition in naval armaments had bezun, involving the united states, great britain and japan in vast expenditure. the washington conference (g.2.) arrested this movement, so far as the principal battle fleets of the world were concerned. the united states govt. suggested that all the battleships then under construction should be forth- with scrapped. as the result of discussion, the american scheme was slightly varied. japan made good her claim to retain two navy department post-jutland ships of the latest design, and the same liberty was accorded to the united states, while freedom was accorded the british naval authorities to lay down two new capital ships of 35,000 tons, which on completion should replace four older vessels. it was stipulated that no other capital ships should be laid down before 1931, and that gradually the british and american battle fleets should be brought to a condition of parity with a standard of displacement of 525,000 tons, japan being allotted 315,000 tons and france and italy 175,000 tons, a balance of power calculated on the same proportions applying to aircraft carriers. the treaty also provided that no capital ships built in replacement of older vessels from 1931 onwards should exceed 35,000 tons or carry a gun with a calibre in excess of 16 inches. while no restrictions were placed on the number of cruisers which might be built, it was also stipulated that no vessel of this type should exceed 10,000 tons displacement or mount any weapon of larger calibre than eicht inches. no limits were placed, on the other hand, on the building of destroyers or submarines. strength of navies.—in these circumstances the naval treaty was signed at washington and was subsequently implemented by the governments of the united states, great britain and the british dominions, japan, france and italy, the french govt. making sundry reservations. in subsequent years great activity developed in the construction of cruisers, destroyers and sub- marines in all the shipyards of the world. at the beginning of 1926 the strengths of the fleets in completed ships were as fol- lows (vessels building or projected are shown in parenthesis), the letters b.e. representing the british empire, u.s. the united states, j. japan, f. france and i. italy:— table iii. ships built and building be. us; ili r, i battleships 18 (2)| 18 6 9 7 battle cruisers 4 eae 4 = or cruisers 47 (15)]} 32 (8)|] 31 (8)] 15 (9) | ta (5) cruiser mine- layers. : (2) |) x 3 ee 70) armoured coast defence ves- sels and moni- tors ; e 3 i aircraft carriers 8 (1) 1 (2) 2 @)l.. @l 4 flotilla leaders 17 i ae 2- (20) 1 destroyers 172 (2)| 309 (12) | 103 (24) | 54 (36) | 52 (24) torpedo boats 7 < es a 54 submarines . | 56 (10)} 120 (8)| 53 (26)| 45 (58) | 42 (20) sloops ran ee | ke a 8 ee coastal motor boats 6 2 2 12 gunboats = and despatch ves- sels a ee oe 6 49 i2 river gunboats 18 2 minesweepers . | 61 40 all the naval powcrs were maintaining in 1926 a large measure of secrecy as to the designs of the cruisers, destroyers and sub- marines which were being built, and everything pointed to a con- tinuation of an active policy of construction. in the summer of 1925 the british admiralty announced details of a five-year shipbuilding programme (1925-30) embracing nine cruisers of 10,000 tons displacement, seven cruisers of smaller size, 27 destroyers, 24 submarines, five gunboats, four motor launches, two submarine depot ships, a net-layer and a repair ship, as well as a large floating dock to be stationed at singapore, on the development of which work had been begun the previous year. bibliograpiiy.—a. s$. hurd, the command of the sea (1912); d. hannay, the navy and sea power (1913); p. a. hislam, the north sea problem (1913); a. s. hurd and h. castle, german sea power (1913); f.t. jane, fighting ships, annual (1914); s. loeche mittler, die deutsche kriegsflotte sechs monateim kampfe (1915); m. cababe, the freedom of the seas (1918); lord fisher, records (1919); mem- ertes (1919); british parliamentary papers, conference on liniitation of armament, washinglon 1921-2 (1922); h. g. wells, washington and the tope of peace (1922); brassey’s naval and shipping annuul; e. s. bellasis, the fighting ships and their werk (1923). aes 1029",
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