MOUNTAINEERING

the most important event of the period 1g10—25, was, of course, the assault on mt. everest, which is the subject of a separate article. everest, however, did not monopolise the attention of himalayan explorers. useful work was accomplished by the workmans during rorr and 1912 in the karakoram, by c. f. meade in the garhwal himalaya and by kellas who reached a height of 22,700 ft. on kangchen- jhau. the american continent has witnessed a series of campaigns which for energy and success have seldom been equalled. out- standing exploits have been the conquest of mt. mckinley in alaska (20,300 ft.) by belmore browne, a. aten, m. la voy in 1925 and ii. c. parker; the conquest of mt. logan (19,850 ft.) in 1925 and the ascent of mt. st. sandford, the highest peak in the selkirks by howard palmer and professor holway with swiss guides in ror2. in 1924 canadian climbers registered no less than 30 important first ascents, including mt. king edward. the main exploration of the new zealand alps was completed before ro10, but harold porter’s two expeditions (1923 and 1925) proved that interesting pioneer work still awaits the ex- plorer. ‘he caucasus have been a closed book to mountaineers since the war. a british expedition in 1914 made a number of new ascents. norway still offers the prospect of virgin ascents. stedtind, described by cecil slingsby as “ probably the most natural obelisk in the world and the greatest prize in all scandi- navia ’’ was climbed tn rgto by c. w. rubenson and friends. two oxford expeditions to spitsbergen in 1922 and 1923 accom- plished some excellent work. | alpine climbtng.—in the alps every peak worthy of the name had been ascended by rgro, nearly all of them from various sides. but alpine exploration is not a closed chapter, and new routes even on well-known peaks may excite as keen an interest as the conquest of peaks in unclimbed ranges. technically, the best work done in the alps attains a higher standard of difficulty than elsewhere. the problems which call for solution in great ranges such as the himalaya, are the problems of exploration rather than of climbing, in the more restricted technical sense of the word, a himalayan explorer has to organise transport, handle native porters, plan a route through unmapped country, and— in the final stages—struggle against mountain sickness, but cragsmanship and ice-craft of a high order are seldom called into play. | in the alps, the progressive elimination of unclimbed routes, implies a rising standard of difficulty among those that still re- sist attack. as an example of the thoroughness of the explora- tion of the alps, it is interesting to note that 16 different passes have been made across the range at the head of the lauter- brunnen valley on a front of less than eight english miles. the technique of rock climbing has developed more rapidly than the technique of ice-craft. the contrast between modern achieve- ment in the period under review and the period which closed with the seventies, is far more marked in cragsmanship than in ice craft. | alpine ascentsby britishers —another change is noticeable. the earlier exploration of the alps was, in the main, the work of brit- (sce dd’ aeit trench actor his sovvenirs mountaineering ish mountaineers with swiss guides whose technique their em- ployers helped to develop. since 1910 the prizes have often fallen to continental mountaineers, though no individual climber has a longer list of successes to his credit than g. w. young. in 1911, with professor h. o. jones (killed soon afterwards in the mont blanc range), he completed the ascent of the brouillard ridge of mont blanc and achieved the first complete traverse of the great west ridge of the grandes jorasses and the first descent of the ridge that stoops to the col des hirondelles. with professor jones and todhunter, he made the first ascent of the mer de glace face of the grepon, and just before the war climbed the gspaltenhorn by the terrible west ridge, perhaps his finest performance. his leading guide on all these climbs was joseph knubel of st. niklaus. among other first-class climbs by british mountaineers may be mentioned the conquest of the south face of mont blanc by oliver and courtauld with the brothers auf- denblatten in 1923, and the first crossing of the north face of the dent d’herens by a guideless party led by george finch. the direct ascent of this face was achieved by welzenbach and all- wein in 1925. the guideless conquest by raeburn and ling of the north face of the disgrazia also deserves mention, for the british mountaineers with new climbs to their credit during this period have almost been content to divide the credit with their guides. on the other hand the everest expeditions were guide- less, and some of the work done on the american continent by men of the anglo-saxon race has been guideless. among other fine alpine climbs of this period may be men- tioned the north arete of piz badile by a. zurchner, led by the guide walter risch, perhaps technically as exposed and diflicult a climb as had yet been done. the ascent of the north face of the lauterbrunnen breithorn by chevet and richardet, and the variation route taken by lauper and liniger up the north face of the monch, rank among the great mountaineering ex- ploits, involving as they did, difficult work both on rock and ice. richardet, lauper and chervet were members of the akademisher alpen club, berne. the students of the berne and ziirich univer- sities have long been known for their mountaineering exploits. one of the last classic problems of the oberland, the ascent of the mittcllegi ridge of the eiger, was also solved during this period by a japanese climber, yuko maki, led by the great grindelwald guide f. amatter. artificial aids were employed for this climb. ! french guideless climbing —a great feature of post-war mountaineering has been the revival of french guideless climb- ing. before the war, french climbers of the type of fontaine were few. since the war the ‘‘ groupe haute montagne ” of the french alpine club—a guideless group—have to their credit a consistent record of brilliant work, combining the spirit of adventure with the same british tradition. the “ groupe ”’ has been engaged in cairning the last untouched pinnacles of mont blanc, and among its most brilliant achievements may be mentioned the ascent of the north face of the aiguille du plan by lagarde, de lepiney and de segogne in 1924. german mountainecring.—in the dolomites and the kaiser gebirge german and austrian climbers have done some very re- markable climbs, but their successes have been paid for by an increasing death roll. there is a grave tendency among german climbers to take chances, to risk bad weather and impromptu bivouacs. their exceptionally heavy death roll is caused by the fact that these young climbers, fired by a spirit of emulation, often forget the penalty for too risky procedure. british climbers, have proceeded with equal skill but with greater circumspection, and if, in the alps at any rate, they have fewer new ascents to their credit since the war, they have avoided the accidents which have been so common among german and austrian climb- ers. the same may be said of rock climbing. there is nothing to choose in severity between the various climbs achieved by the germans and austrians and the new routes which have been exploited in cumberland, but comparatively few lives have been lost on our british hills. several of the british climbing clubs have shown great activity since the war. mention must be made of the imaginative enter- 989 prise of the fell and rock climbing club in purchasing for the nation the summit of great gable as a war memorial for those members of the club who fell in action. rubber soled shoes have given to the cragsman greater security and made it possible to accomplish more climbs than could ever have been achieved in the nailed boot epoch. during this period, the conquest of the alps by ski-runners has been practically completed. scarcely any peak of importance has not been ascended either partially or entirely on ski. the best period for mountaineering on ski is undoubtedly the late spring. summer ski-ing is growing in popularity and provides mountaineers with the opportunity of making ascents during prolonged periods of snowy weather. the canadian alps.—exploration of the canadian alps has been very active, aided by the alpine club of canada and its very energetic director, mr. a. o. wheeler, and the provision of swiss guides by the canadian pacific railway and later by the canadian national railway. the following are the principal ascents:— 1913. first ascent of mt. robson culminating summit in the canadian alps (12,972 ft.) by a. h. maccarthy and w. w. foster with the austrian guide conrad mkain. 1915. first ascent of mt. edith cavell (11,033 ft.) by professor holway and dr. a. j. gilmour. first ascent of mt. louis (8,800 ft.) the most difficult rock climb in the canadian alps by a. hf. maccarthy with conrad kain. 1919. first ascent of mt. king george (11,226 ft.) by v. a. fynn with r. aemmer (guide). first ascent of mit. douglas (11,174 ft.), mt. joffre (11,316 ft.) by j. w. a. hickson with e. fenz, jr. (guide). 1920. first ascent of mt. ferenitz (10,573 ft.) by a. howard palmer and allen carpe. 1922. first ascent of mt. queen mary (10,600 ft.) and mt. birdwood (10,160 [t.) by f. m. waterman and c. if. hogeboorn with r. aemmer (guide), ' tune ascent of mt. apex (10,625 ft.) by allen carpe and h. g. all. first ascent of mt. barnard (10,780 ft.), mt. trutch (10,690 ft.), nanga parbat (10,780 ft.) and gilgit (10,300 ft.) by floward palmer and j. monroe thorington with le. fenz, jr. (guide). 1923. first ascent of mt. saskatchewan (10,964 ft.) and north twin (12,085 ft.) by j. monroe thorington and w. s. ladd with conrad kain (guide). first ascent of mt. clemenceau (12,000 ft.) by de vilhiers-schwab’s guideless party. first ascent of mts. brazeau (11,250 [ft.), unwin (10,550 ft.) and henry macleod (10,600 ft.) by howard palmer, allen carpe and w. d. ilarris. first ascent of mt. spring-rice (10,745 ft.) by j. w. a. hickson with ef. fenz (guide) and of mt. rhondda (10,625 ft.) by the same and a. (gseoffrion. 1924. exploration in the cariboo group and ascent of cight new peaks ranging from 10,000 to 11,750 ft. by allen carpe and r. chambertin with w. d. harris and.a, l. withers of jasper. first ascent of south twin (11,675 ft.), mt. outram (10,670 ft.) and two other unnamed peaks by w. o. and f. v. f. field with e. fenz, jr. and jos. biner (guides). first ascent of mts. oates (10,200 ft.), kain (10,000 ft.), hlooker (10,782 ft.) and simmen peak (10,899 ft.) by j. monroe thorington, m. strumia, a. ostheimer with conrad kain (guide). first ascent of mt. erebus (10,234 ft.) and two other unnamed peaks by l. coolidge, g. higginson and j. johnson. first ascent of the often attempted difficult mt. geikie (10,854 ft.) by the famous alpine veteran v. a. fynn, c. g. water and m. d. geddes and of mt. barbican (10,too ft.) by the same party. first ascent of king edward (11,400 ft.) by h. palmer and j. w. a. ilickson with conrad kain. 1925. first ascent of mt. logan (19,850 ft.) by a joint party of canadian and american mountaineers led by a. h. maccarthy. first ascent of mt. alberta (11,784 ft.) by yuko maki of tokyo and five other japanese with ii. fuhrer and h. kohler, and mt. woolley (11,170 ft.) by the same party. there are still several unclimbed peaks in the selkirk range. the following ascents are notable:— | ? 1910. first ascent of grand mountain (10,832 ft.) by e. w. d. holway and howard palmer. a i911. first ascent of mt. austeritz (10,960 ft.) and mt. holway (10,000 ft.) by the same. 1912. first ascent of mt. sir sandford (11,590 ft.) by the same with fe. fenz, jr. and r. aemmer (guides) and of mt. adamant (10,980 ft.) by the same. . 1913. first ascent of mts. beaver (10,644 ft.) and duncan (10,548 ft.) by e. w. d. holway with fe. fenz and ch. hasler (guides). 990 1917. first ascent of mt. moloch (10,198 ft.) by j. w. a. hickson with e. fenz, jr. (guide). 1924. first ascent of mt. inconoclast (10,646 ft.) by dr. cora j. best’s party with ch. hasler (guide). the southern group or purcell range has been much visited since 1910. 1910. first ascent of mt. nelson (10,772 ft.) by c. d. ellis. ig1i. first ascent of mt. gleason (10,550 ft.) and mt. monica (10,060 ft.) by c. d. ellis and e. w. warnden. 1913. first ascent of mt. sir charles (10,830 ft.) by e. w. harnden and party. 1914. first ascent of mt. farnham (11,075 ft.), farnham towe eons ft.) by mr. and mrs. a. h. maccarthy with conrad kain guide). first ascent of delphine peak (10,975 ft.) by a. a. mccoubrey with e. fenz, jr. (guide). first ascent of mt. bruce (11,090 ft.) by e. w. harnden and party. 1915. first ascent of mt. ethelbert (10,450 ft.), jumbo peak (11,125 ft.), commander (10,950 ft.), st. peter (10,750 [t.), spearhead (10,500 ft.) and peacock (10,525 ft.) by dr. and mrs. w. w. stone, the maccarthys, h. o. frind with conrad kain (guide). 1916. first ascent of howson spires (10,900 ft.), bugaboo spires (10,250 ft.) by the maccarthys, frind with kain. 1924. first ascent of three peaks of over 10,000 ft. at the head of hamil! creek by the mccoubreys with e. fenz, jr. (guide). 1925. first ascent of mt. coppercrown (10,218 ft.) by a. a, mccoubrey with e. fenz, jr. (guide). generally speaking no mountain in the canadian alps ap- proaches in technical difficulty a first-rate expedition in europe. there is less risk of avalanches and the glaciers are much less complicated—on the other hand long distances have to be trav- ersed, while the arranging of transport and camps is a big and expensive business. there is still much exploration to be done. useful work is being done by the associated mountain clubs of america in exploring the less accessible regions, opening trails therein and securing protective legislation for them. breliography.—the alpine journal now (1926) in its 69th year continues to chronicle the mountaineering work of the world. the leading technical book is g. w. young’s mountain craft (1920). books on special topics are: himalayas: h.r.h. prince luigi amedeo, duke of the abruzzi, karakoram and the western [fimalaya (1909); hon. c. g. bruce, twenty years in the himalayas (1910) and kuin and lahoul (1914); dr. w. h. and mrs. f. b. workman, two summers in the ice-wilds of karakoram (1917); filippo de filippi, storia della spedizione scientifica italiana nel himalata caracorum (bologna, 1924). see also everest. the alps: sir claud schuster, peaks and pleasant pastures (1911); prof. t. g. bonney, the building of the alps (1912); rev. w. a. b. coolidge, alpine studies (1912); a. steinitzer, der alpinismus in bildern (1913); guido rey, peaks and prectpices (1914); walter larden, recollections of an old mountaineer (1919); sir martin conway, mountain memories (1920); f. f. tuckett, a pioneer in the high alps (1920); douglas w. freshficld, life of 7. b. de saussure (1920) and below the snow line (1923); g. i. finch, the making of a mountaineer (1924); arnold lunn, the mountains of youth (1925); w. lehner, die eroberung der alpen. canada: belmore browne, the conquest of mt. mckinley (1913); tloward palmer, mountaineering and exploration in the selkirks (1914); leroy jeffers, the call of the mountains (1923); j. m. thorington, the glittering mountains of canada; howard palmer and j. m. thorington, a climber’s guide to the rocky mountains of canada. other ranges: malcolm ross, a climber in new zealand (1914); rev. walter weston, the playground of the far east (1918); r. c. carr and g. h. lister, afountains of snowdonia (1925). mountaineering on ski: f. f. reget, ski runs in the igh alps (1913); arnold lunn, alpine ski-ing (1921); marcel kurz, alpinisme huivernal; the british ski year book (1920, etc.). (a.l*) mountain warfare.—the difficulties attending the prose- cution of a campaign in mountains arise primarily from the physi- _ cal features of the theatre of operations; and secondly, in a marked degree, from the effect those features have in moulding the character of the inhabitants. lack of communications —a mountainous district is, as a rule, undeveloped; and the means of communications, where any exist, are indifferent or bad. an invader is tied to certain existing roads or tracks as the only method of advance, and has little scope for effecting surprise by means of alternative routes. the obser- vation which the defender can obtain from the hill tops is as good as, and in some ways better than, can be obtained by the invader from aeroplanes. as a result, the invader’s intentions can be grasped almost from the start, and the uncertainty common to mountain warfare war in normal theatres is largely discounted. the country is usually barren, and all supplies and stores for the invading force have to be carried into the country. since communications usual- ly consist of mere tracks, or of some boulder-strewn dry river bed, “‘ pack ”’ is the only possible means of transport. conse- quently the invading commander is burdened with the guarding of long lines of slow-moving pack animals, and, owing to the fact that they have to convey their own and their drivers’ food, they are able only to carry a relatively small useful load. the climatic conditions in mountains tend to extremes of heat and cold. changes in weather conditions are also sudden. the melting of snows or the bursting of a thunderstorm in the moun- tains may mean the flooding of the valley forming the route of advance, and the washing away of the line of communications “road,” which has often been cut out with great labour. characteristics of the inhabitants ——the nature of their sur- rouncings reacts, as elsewhere, on the characteristics of the in- habitants. their life consists of a struggle with nature. the ease and luxury of the plains is absent. they live scattered in small hamlets close to such patches of ground as will yield to cultivation. industries are based on the village system, and the local weavers, potters, carpenters and so on supply the needs of the small community. there is no centralised life as in the plains. the inhabitants of a given area (probably emanating from a common stock) usually own a tribal allegiance to each other, but are often again sharply divided into subtribes, the boundaries of which are the valleys which they inhabit. life is hard, and the only physically fit survive early childhood. as a result the characteristics of mountaineers are exception- ally sound physique, bravery, great powers of endurance and ability to thrive on the bare necessities of life. they are, more- over, usually intensely patriotic (for it is a curious and almost universal fact that the wilder a man’s country the more attached heistoit). finally, they fight in mountains in their own element, on ground to which they are accustomed, and which confers on them a mobility twice as great as that of the invading plainsmen. theaboveare valuable military attributes. but they are tosome extent offset by others. the highly individualistic life in moun- tains, whilst leading to an admirable independence, also leads to a lack of centralised purpose and interest. whilst patriotism for the clan is great, patriotism for the sub-tribe is sometimes greater. there is consequently a tendency toward absence of cohesive effort if the operations be going adversely. this lack of cohesion renders them peculiarly averse to night operations, the suc- cess of which against mountaineers is noteworthy throughout history, though it must be added only when most carefully or- ganised and prepared. nevertheless, mountaineers have always been difficult opponents to overcome. operations of two kinds.—the consideration of operations in a mountain theatre falls naturally under two heads. first are operations in an area such as the austro-italian frontier. there, though the mountains exist, the area has been consider- ably opened up. communications are relatively good; heavy — stores can be brought up. the forces on both sides are possessed of all the appliances of war. better theatres for operations exist on the flanks of the mountains, and it is there that the real strug- gle will be fought out. neither attacker nor defender is in reality a true mountain race, for national armies are taking part. asa result, the operations tend more and more to take the colour of normal operations in the plains, modified, no doubt, but lacking most of the characteristics of campaigns against true mountain- eers. second are operations in an undeveloped mountain theatre against semi-civilised inhabitants. it is in such a case that the true attributes of mountain fighting are best brought out. in describing them the theatre of the north west frontier of india is taken as an instance. frontier warfare in india.—the inhabitants of this area pos- sess all the characteristics noted above. as regards supply during operations, they normally carry seven to 10 days’ food on them, and consequently are untroubled by anxiety about their line of communication. they are armed only with rifles and knives. but the rifles are modern for the most part; and it is for consid- mount stephen—mozambiquie eration whether the power of mobility conferred by such an ar- mament and supply system does not largely compensate for the absence of artillery and other arms. a commander entrusted with the subjugation of a frontier tribe has a difficult task before him. it may be possible to overawe the tribe by air action alone. but targets for aerial attack are limited in such a form of society, and if the opposition of the tribe be determined, air action alone, will seldom suffice; an advance over the ground will, as a rule, be necessary. planning the campaign.—the first difficulty is to select the objective. it can be said at once that the true objective is to bring the enemy to battle. but how isit to be done? owing to ab- sence of lines of communication, the enemy’s strategical mobility is always superior. owing to his upbringing, his tactical mobility is also superior, except against the best hill troops. normally, a threat against an enemy’s capital forces him to interpose, and brings on a battle. here, the enemy may not consider any of his hamlets worth defending resolutely. he may prefer to adopt a purely guerilla attitude, to be ubiquitous, and to worry the advance. that is the most difficult problem to deal with. as a rule he is ready to oppose an advance with resolution in measure as his hopes stand high. if defeated, he tends towards more guerilla methods. a commander therefore has usually to select the line of ad- vance most likely to produce massed resistance. in doing so he can advance as one column, or by several columns up several valleys. the first method has the advantage of simplicity and of inviting the enemy to concentrate. but the larger the force on one track the slower the movement, and so, if the enemy seeks to avoid decisive battle, the less hope there is of achieving it. a move in several columns has the advantage of speed, and gives greater hope of cornering an elusive enemy. but it involves a series of lines of communication, and is attended by all the diffi- culties of co-operation and mutual support between columns when separated by mountain ranges. progress of operations.—whatever the plan the method of conducting operations follows a fairly uniform course. the force advances up a valley protected by a strong advanced guard. this advanced guard throws out detachments to seize and hold tactical points on the hills flanking the valley, and so securing the advance of the column below. these detachments (or ‘“ pi- quets ”’) are withdrawn by the rear guard when the column has passed. since all commanding ground within rifle range must be denied to the enemy, it is clear that piquets often have to estab- lish themselves 2,000 yd. from the column, and to climb 1,000 ft. or more. the process is therefore laborious and slow, and limits the length of march possible in a day. defence at night.—for the night, all-round defence is essential against so ubiquitous an enemy. arrangements therefore take the form of a central camp, protected by self-contained piquets posted on tactical points round the camp. these piquets must be sufficient in number, and be placed far enough out, to prevent the enemy firing into camp at night. but since complete pro- tection against such sniping is impossible, a considerable amount of protection against fire has to be provided within the camp. the camp itself has also to be designed and organised to resist assault. it will be realised that there is, in consequence, an im- mense amount of heavy work to carry out at the end of an exhaust- ing day’s advance. moreover, it is of primary importance that all movement shall have ceased and the camp be made entirely se- cure before dark. because, though (as stated above) organised night operations frequently prove successful, unorganised move- ments are disastrous in face of a ubiquitous enemy who holds the initiative. it is frequently necessary to raid and destroy villages in order to induce the enemy to stand and fight. such raids need careful organisation in order to insure that the work is efficiently done in the time available. raids are usually carried out in various direc- tions, radially, from some semi-permanent camp, the force going out early and returning to camp before dark. the retirement is almost always followed up, and it is in harrying a retirement that the enemy is most dangerous. a running fight (with all its dis- 991 advantages) is unavoidable, because the enemy has no columns or guns moving on a road to deploy, but merely follows up de- ployed. the art of conducting such a retirement consists in the careful and timely laying out of troops in successive positions, so that the retreat of the rearmost is always efficiently covered and in the skilful co-operation of fighting aeroplanes. for the defence of the line of communication the system is a chain of piquets in assault proof posts dominating the route. these posts, often 2,000 ft. above the valley, have to be strongly built of dry stone, wired and the garrisons supplied with food and water for (say) 10 days. it is obvious that the work involved is laborious. at suitable intervals on the line of communica- tion larger posts are established capable of accommodating the convoys passing through. these posts also contain the mobile reserve for their section of the line of communication. win example.—derhaps a small example will best illustrate the difficulties which beset a commander in mountain warfare. a force of four battalions (and attached troops) camps for the night. it is found necessary to use one company per battalion for camp piquets. next morning theadvance continues, but owing to the necessity for an early start it is impossible to relieve the piquets before moving. they must be withdrawn by the rear- guard and rejoin units later. so the advance begins with all bat- talions only three companies strong. ‘‘a” battalion gives two companies as advanced guard, one available for piqueting. “b ” is allotted entirely for piqueting. ‘‘c” heads the main body. “ d ” finds two companies for rearguard and one as bag- gage escort. in the advance it is found that piqueting is heavy, that an average of a company to a mile is necded. the force ad- vances four miles (which means that the remaining company of “a” and all “‘b” battalion are used up on piquet) and is confronted by 1,500 enemy in position. in theory, a brigade is confronted by 1,500 men. in practice 1,500 men are being faced by the two advanced guard companies and the three companies of “ c” battalion, perhaps actually some 500 or 600 in all; for that is all that the commander has immediately available. the above crude example is typical of the dispersion of resources inherent in mountain warfare. two lessons.—as regards mountain warfare in general, history appears to point to two main lessons: firstly, that the true sub- jection of mountaineers can only be arrived at by opening up and developing the country. short of that, they may be over- awed and pacified for a time, but a change in the undeveloped and individualistic conditions of life is essential to their perma- nent pacification. secondly, that if the operations for their pri- mary subjugation are to be quickly and successfully carried out, the forces engaged must be definitely trained to the task, and the personnel composing the force should, as far as possible, be composed of men bred in mountains. (je pi ves.) mount stephen, george stephen, ist baron (18209- 1921), canadian financier (see 18.942), died at brocket hall, hatfield, herts., nov. 29 1921. mozambique (see 22.163) has a population (1923) of about 3,500,000, including some 10,500 europeans (mostly portuguese and british) and about 6,000 indians. the country is divided into (a) the province of mozambique, governed directly by portugal, with lourenco marques (q.7.) as capital, (+) the territory of the mozambique company (capital beira), (c) the territory of the nyassa company. the companies administer their territories under charter. the charter of the nyassa com- pany was for a period ending in 1927. negotiations for its renewal were conducted in 1926. history.— although portugal had been in nominal possession of the country for some 4oo years, it was not until 1912 that fairly effective control was obtained over all the hinterland, while in 1915 there was a widespread revolt in the zambezi valley. in 1918 the region north of the zambezi was ravayed by the germans under von lettow-vorbeck. this region had been marked, before the world war, for exploitation by the germans. early in 1914 german capitalists had obtained control of the nyassa co., the anglo-german agreement of 1913 (never signed) having recognised german economic interests as 992 paramount in that area (see arrica). the world war put an end to this project. in rgto the “ kionga triangle,” formerly part of german east africa, was added to mozambique—it gave portugal the right bank of the rovuma to the sea. the portuguese since 1910 have made serious efforts to im- prove the administration. in 1914 a measure of autonomy, enlarged in 1920, was granted to the province. in general the treatment of the natives was satisfactory, but labour conditions left much to be desired. compulsory unpaid labour in the prov- ince of mozambique was not abolished until 1925. early in 1926 the portuguese government appointed a commission of enquiry with instructions to see that nothing was permitted which gave colour to the charge that slavery in a disguised form. still obtained. economic conditions—leconomic development was con- siderable in the province and in the mozambique company’s territory. the portuguese, however, lacked capital to carry out large enterprises, while the constant ministerial changes at lisbon and the financial embarrassment of portugal reacted unfavourably on mozambique. development was most marked where british interests were concerned and british capital was forthcoming. the transit trade was large, lourenco marques serving the eastern transvaal, and beira being the chief port for rhodesia, katanga and british nyasaland. a railway from beira to the zambezi completed in 1922, was built with british capital to meet the needs of the nyasaland protectorate. this railway superseded the route by the zambezi and in consequence the british concession at chinde, at the mouth of the river, was given up in 1925. the beira-zambezi railway also opened up rich tracts suitable for sugar, cotton and other crops. moreover it brought a step nearer the exploitation on a large scale of the coalfields on the north side of the zambezi near tete. another railway, from inhambane to delagoa bay (280 m. long), built in sections, was nearing completion in 1926. this line also serves fertile regions. great progress was made in sugar growing, and sisal, cotton and maize were increasingly cultivated. the chief exports are sugar, copra and ground nuts. the three administrations have different systems of keeping accounts, but, approximately, the trade figures for the whole country in rorr were: imports £8,520,000 (including {6,800,000 in transit); exports £2,720,000. in 1923 the value of trade in the province of mozambique was, roughly £10,000,000, including transit trade valued at £4,800,000. in the same year the external trade of the mozambique company was valued at {11,000,000 including goods in transit £ 2,200,000. in the nyassa company’s territory imports in 1924 were valued at {90,000 and exports at {r11,000. a valuable export, which does not appear in the trade returns, is that of native labourers to the transvaal mines. revenue is derived mainly from customs, a hut tax (for which in 1925 a poll tax was substituted) and a tax on labourers who emigrate; the last source is not available in the territories of the chartered companies. in mozambique province in each year between 1908-9 and 1920-3, except in the first two years of the war, there was a surplus over estimated revenue. in 1923-4 the revenue collected was 50,957,000 escudos. in 1925 the exchange problem was acute and the province suffered severcly. in the mozambique company’s territory, where accounts are kept in sterling, revenue in 1923 was £361,000 and expenditure £281,000. (see africa). brn_iograpiy.—amozambique, british forcign office handbooks no. 121 (1918); a manual of portuguese iast africa and portuguese nyasaland, british admiralty publications (1920)—all with bibliog- raphies; the delagoa directory (1925); report on portuguese [ust africa (dept. of overseas trade, london, 1922); the south and east african year book and guide (london, annually). official reports are published in the anuario colonial (lisbon). of rc) muir, john (1838-1914), american naturalist and writer, was born at dunbar, scotland, april 21 1838. in 1849 he went to fox river, wisconsin. when 22 years old he entered the uni- versity of wisconsin, teaching and working on farms during vaca- tion. after finishing his course he began wanderings on foot through the united states and elsewhere. in 1868 he first entered the yosemite valley which for many years after formed muir—munch the base of his continued expeditions. in 1876 he joined the u.s. coast and geodetic survey, and in 1879 discovered the alaskan glacier that now bears his name. in 1881 he took part in the expedition in search of the de long party in the arctic region. it was largely due to his efforts that the yosemite region was set aside as a national park in 1890. he died at los angeles, cal., dec. 24 1914. he published, among other works; the mountains of california (1894); stickeen (1909), the story of a dog; the yosemite (1912) and the story of afy boyhood and youth (1913). in 1888 he edited picturesque california. the following appeared posthumously: unpublished prose and letters (1915); a thousand-amfile walk to the gulf (1916); the cruise of the corwin (1917) and steep trails (1918). mulcahy, richard james (1886- ), irish politician, was born in waterford, and began his career in the engineering department of the dublin general post office. he took part as a lieutenant in the irish rebellion of 1916, and was afterwards interned in frongoch. in dec. 1918 he was returned as sinn fein m.p. for the clontarf division of dublin and retained his seat until 1922. he played a prominent part with michael collins in the reorganisation of the irish volunteers, of which he had become chief-of-staff in 1918. he sat in the dail from 1921-3 as a member for the northwest division of dublin, and after the treaty of 1922 became minister of defence for the irish free state. he succeeded gen. michael collins, after the latter’s death in 1922, as commander-in-chief of the free state forces, and had the chief conduct of operations until the cease- fire order of 1923, in which year he was returned to the dail for dublin city north. he resigned office in the spring of 1924 upon the executive requiring the resignation of three of his principal officers in connection with troubles arising out of demobilisation and reorganisation. mulhouse or muuulhausen (see 18.960) was restored to france after the world war. the population was 99,226 in 1921, and a later estimate gives 105,000. a busy factory town and port on the rhone-rhine canal, it is thoroughly french in character. the french occupied mulhouse on aug. 8 1914, but evacuated it two days later. they were again on the outskirts on aug. 20, but the reverses in the north compelled a retreat, and the town was ruled as hostile territory by the germans during the world war. the french re-entered mulhouse in nov. 1918. muller, hermann (1876— __+), german politician, was born may 18 1876 at mannheim. from 1899 to 1906 he was editor of the socialist newspaper the gerlifzer volkszcitung, and from 1906 onwards was a member of the directing board of the german social democratic party. from 1916 to 1918 he was a member of the reichstag. on aug. 1 1914, he went to paris with the object of finding out whether international action by the socialists of france and germany could be initiated in order to avert the world war. his mission was unsuccessful, and he had great difficulty in making his way back to germany through the french lines. his report did much to determine the attitude of the german social democrats in voting in the reichstag for the first war credit. on june 21 1919 he was appointed minister for foreign affairs—under the chancellor- ship of gustav bauer—and in this capacity went to versailles and with the colonial minister, dr. bell, signed the peace treaty for germany on june 28 1919. after the resignation of the bauer ministry, which followed upon the kapp putsch (march 1920), miller was appointed chancellor of the reich, an office which he held till the following june, when the result of the general elections for the reichstag necessitated the formation of a coalition ministry with fehrenbach of the catholic centre party as chancellor. thereafter miller con- tinued to play a leading part in the affairs of the social-demo- cratic party. mummy: sce archarology: egypt. mun, adrien albert marie de, count (1841-1914), french politician (see 19.1), died at bordeaux oct. 6 rorq. munch, edward (1863- ), norwegian painter, was born dec. 12 1863 at leten, hedemark. he went to christiania (oslo) at an early age and studied at the royal school of drawing mundelein—munitions of war under krohg by whom he was introduced to the naturalistic school of painting. the inborn genius of munch however re- acted against this teaching. he was more inclined to express feelings inspired by a troubled mind than impressions engen- dered by reality, and did not hesitate to go his own way as an artist. the most famous work of this early period is “ spring ” (1899), justly considered one of the gems of the national gal- lery at oslo. in the beginning of the ’nineties, the undercurrent of mental agitation broke through in all its power, and in a num- ber of works (mostly in the oslo national gallery), munch revealed an extraordinary sensitiveness, displayed alike in the subjects of his pictures and the artistic method of execution which he employed. from the beginning of the 2oth century munch’s art assumed a more realistic character. this is par- ticularly evident from his landscapes of this period, the out- standing features of which are vigorous plainness and impressive colouring. in 1913 munch completed the fresco decorations of the university festival hall at oslo; he also established his reputation as an etcher of ability. | mundelein, george william (1872- ), american cardinal, was born in new york city july 2 1872. we received his education at the manhattan college, and st. vincent semi- nary, beatty, pa., subsequently proceeding to rome and studying theology at the urban college of the propaganda in that city. he was ordained priest june 8 1895, at rome, and became secre- tary to bishop mcdonnell of brooklyn, n.y., being made chan- cellor of the diocese in 1897. he was appointed auxiliary bishop of brooklyn, with the titular see of loryma, sept. 2 1909. he became archbishop of chicago, nov. 30 1915, and was created a cardinal by pope pius xi, march 24 1924. he was a prominent figure at the eucharistic congress held in chicago in june 1926. munich (see 19.5), the capital of bavaria, germany, with a population of 630,711 in r9r9, took a prominent part in the revolution of 1918, when bavaria became a republic (see bavaria). housing conditions were very bad after the worid war; in 1919 there were 7,919 applications for 23 houses available. a school of infantry is permitted under the provisions of the treaty of versailles. the war memorial was unveiled in 1924; 14,000 citizens of munich fell in the war. a german museum was opened in 1925, and a transport exhibition was held in the same year. the factory of the deutsche werke, formerly artil- lery workshops of the german army and subsequently converted to the manufacture of agricultural machinery, has been acquired by the municipality. munich, university of (sce 19.6).—between 1910 and 1912 seven new chairs were founded. no further developments took place till 1920, since when 12 new chairs have been created, including those in egyptology and race hygiene. the number of students averaged 6,800 up to 1914, and remained below this figure till 1916-7, when it amounted to 7,900. it rose in 1918-9 to 9,823, and to 10,333 in the summer of ro2r. there has been a decline since that date, and in the summer half of 1925 there were 8,006 students, of whom 938 were women. municipality: see clry government. munitions of war.—under this heading the production of munitions during the world war by the united kingdom and the united states is dealt with. i. the united kingdom the problem—when the british army of six divisions took the field in 1914 it possessed about 900 field guns, less than 200 field howitzers, about 60 heavier weapons of 6-in. and upwards and perhaps about 200 obsolescent types, such as the 4.7-in. 993 and the 85-pdr. howitzer, a reserve of ammunition of less than 1,000,000 rounds weighing some 20,000 tons and less than 2,000 machine-guns. by the end of ro18, the army had received 10,000 field guns, 6,000 other light guns, over 3,000 field howitz- ers and 7,500 heavier guns and howitzers; 217,000,000 rounds of artillery ammunition, weighing 5,500,000 tons and nearly 225,000 machine-guns. during to14 the war office limited its orders to government factories and the armament firms. in 1915 a few small con- tracts were placed with other firms, but on the appointment of the armaments output committee at the war office, and a week later of the treasury committee under mr. lloyd george, further extensions took place. foreign orders were extensively placed in the u.s.a.and canada. the passage of the ministry of munitions act in june 1915 and the munitions of war act in july rors and the transfer sept. 1915 of the ordnance factory at woolwich to the ministry of munitions placed the minister (mr. lloyd george) in a position to organise effectively production on the largest scale possible—by the most modern means—of the enormous quantities of material required and to deal with labour problems without delay. rifles —the rapid development of the army was impeded by difficulties in supplying rifles—weapons of precision manu- factured by highly skilled labour with specialised machinery. old pattern rifles were repaired and rifles were borrowed from japan. orders were placed in america, but the rifles were not available till the summer of 1916 and then needed adjustment. by this time the home supply was adequate. gunus.—heavy artillery was needed to break down the ger- man defences, and a programme was drawn up in june 191g by mr. lloyd george on a basis of roo divisions with proportion to reserves. wastage was heavier than was expected. aircraft defence developed; merchant ships had to be armed; tanks (g.v.) had to be equipped. nevertheless at the middle of 1918 the output of guns sufficed to meet all these requirements. ammiunition.—to provide adequate supplies of shells, with explosives, propellants, fuses, grenades and the score of other elements, national factories were built and proved highly efficient and economical. large orders were placed in america and canada. fitting factories were built, and intensive research at woolwich produced a satisfactory fuse. explosives and propellants——lord moulton presided over a committee appointed in 1914 to organise the supply of explosives. cordite was at first a propellant. the supply was fairly ample owing to the foresight and the policy of the admiralty. the new programme increased the demand for h.e. trinitrotoluol (t.n.t.) was mixed with amatol (ammonia citrate). out of about 625,000 tons of explosive supplied, only 210,000 (of which 3,500 tons were imported) was t.n.t., less than 80,000 tons prussic acid and the rest ammonia citrate. the production of cordite was limited by supplies of acetone, and eventually a nitro-cellulose powder manufactured by messrs. dupont of america was adopted. the gretna propellant factory, which | cost £8,000,000 to build, made nearly one-fourth of the cordite required at a great saving of cost. imports and home products are shown below. trench mortars and trench ammunition.—the total number of trench mortars delivered during the war period amounted to 19,096, and the output of trench-mortar ammunition to over 17,000,000 rounds. the total number of grenades delivered amounted to 100,103,000, and of aerial bombs to 4,738,000. of — the 5,316,000 rifles manufactured, 3,954,000 were made in great britain, and the army was entirely armed with rifles of table i. picric acid t.n.t : ammonium nitrate all explosives cordite . nitro- cellulose all propellants trade national factories imports 92 %o 63% 13 “0 21 63 16 65 | 30 5 53 39 8 ag 38 1s eon 2 98 26 _ 22 52 994 table ii. | new guns and flowitzers ; berore very light ; medium! | leavy ileavy up to june 30 1915. 802 242 6 31 1915 2nd six months 1,895 493 4 a3 1916 ist six months . 1,180 g69 205 116 2nd six months 1,045 679 495 258 1917 ist six months . 1,547 408 570 253 2nd six months ; 2,488 603 762 450 1918 ist six months . 3,990 966 1,164 264 2nd six months 3,056 797 875 270 munitions of war guns and gun ammunition toe errs ee ee, | filled ammunition (in thousands) total light medium | heavy tears total 1,081 1,877 °3 389-0 26-5 14-0 2,306-8 2,425 4,461-7 976-7 134-4 74°5 5,647°3 2;470 10,287°1 2,919-2 432-1 213°8 13,852-2 2,477 | 25,2043 | 8,392-6 2,492°7 | 1,654°7 377443 2,778 | 30,004-2 | 9,887-1 $,480-6 } 2,145°3 46,517 °7 2,303 22,556°7 9,528°8 6,693-i 2,381-1 41,159°7 6,384 | 18.4746 | 8,363-1 6,734 °6 i 625-4 35,197°7 4,998 | 19,067-7 | 6,421-0 7,547°3 | 1,479°5 34,615°5 the classification is that adopted by the [nter-allied munitions council. guns (13-pdr. and 18-pdr,), mountain guns (2-75-in. guns and 3-7-in. howitzers), anti-aircraft guns (13-pdr., other miscellaneous small guns. the medium guns include the 60-pdr. gun and 4-5-in. howitzer. 12-in. and 15-in. howitzers and guns. gun and the very heavy include 8-in., 9°2-in., 26,916 in the case of great britain it includes under “ light ” field 3-in. and 4-in.) and tank and the heavy include the 6-in. howitzer and table iil.—production of rifles, machine-guns, small-arms ammunition, aeroplanes, slero-e:ngines and tanks small-arms iat ais aero- . machine- a rifles : ammunition ae ‘aeroplanes fanks guns (thousands) engines up to june 30 boho 364,246 1,486 507,758 1,025 902 1915 3rd quarter 7s 397 1,719 395,881 730 692 : 4th quarter 198,641 2.033 570,029 1,015 948 : 1916 ist quarter 217,631 5,582 626,566 1,569 1,137 ; 2nd quarter 267,759 7245 738,355 1,615 1,537 ; ard quarter 457,732! 9,572 811,476 2,054 1,939 ace) 4th quarter 416,564? 10,801 803,607 1,989 2,020 40 i19i7 ist quarter 793,350" 16,637 697,536 2,704 2,730 100 | 2nd quarter 717,000' 19,836 250,878 3,507 3,640 324 3rd quarter 324,423 18,958 355,280 4,342 3,720 506 4th quarter . : : ; ; 323,542 24,007 4{o1,408 ,052 4,742 347 1918 ist quarter f : : . : 294,947 29,12 597,006 8,261 7,154 260 2nd quarter : . . , 293,039 33,884 954,362 7,873 7,870 507 3rd quarter : , 287,096 31,437 866,262 8.016 8,558 369 4th quarter 186,990 26,419 596,241 7,119 7,200 255 totals 5,316,277 239,840 9,172,645 57.931 54,789 2,818 of u.s.a. rifles. 1 including 186,000 ‘' acceptances "’ of u.s.a, rifles. 2 including 154,000 ‘‘ acceptances ” home manufacture. a total of 240,000 machine-guns were delivered. the total number of rounds of small arms ammuni- tion manufactured amounted to 9,172,645,000, nine-tenths of which was manufactured in great britain. the number of acroplanes manufactured amounted to 54,789. the number of aero-engines was 57,931. the first tanks were delivered in the third quarter of 1916 and numbered 110. owing to changes in design, etc., only 40 were delivered in the following quarter and roo in the first quarter of 1917. the total number of tanks manufactured amounted to 2,818. mechanical transport, railway material, efc.—the ministry became responsible for the supply of motor vehicles on sept. 1916. from this date to the end of 1918 there were delivered ' 33,000 heavy lorries, 2,500 four-wheel-drive lorries, 4,000 light lorries, 4,700 motor-cars, 1,700 ambulances, 4,100 ford cars, 1,400 ford ambulances, 12,000 ford vans, 2,200 caterpillar tractors, 27,700 motor-cycles, 7,000 motor-cy cle combinations and 185 armoured cars. the ministry of munitions from oct. 1916 supplied 2,300 m. of 75-lb. rails, 4,200 m. of light rails, 750 standard gauge locomotives, 800 locomotives for other gauges, 13,000 petrol tractors and 33,000 railway wagons of various types. during the war, great britain kept italy and france sup- plied with coal, with substantial supplies of iron and steel, with benzol, and italy with t.n.t., picric acid and other explosives. as regards finished munitions there was a certain amount of interchange between the various countries. for instance, great britain receiving aero-engines and some anti-aircraft guns from france and motor-cars from italy, and supplying heavy artillery and ammunition, incendiary and other special small arms cart- ridges for use in aeroplanes and machine-guns. british assistance to russia took the form almost entirely of finished products, in- cluding machinery. ‘ acceptances t including 462,000 ' "of uls.a. rifles, ‘ acceptances ”’ 4 including 391,000 ‘ of u.s.a, rifles. il. the united states no accumulation of war materials in excess of the amounts required for the regular army, which numbered 127,588 on april 6 1917, was made by the united states in satieipahiad of entry into the world war. the national army, 19 months later (nov. 11 1918), numbered 3,757,624, of whom 2,086,000 had been transported to france. war operations of americans, 1917-8 men in france fighting i,.400,000 men tn france behind lines 600,000 men in army in united states . 1,700,000 men in navy , 550,006 men in w ar work 7,150,000 women in war work . ; 2,250,000 men, women and children not in war work . . 91,350,000 total . . 105,000,000 the total number of american troops placed in the ficld was larger than could have been equipped with material of american manufacture. the european allies guaranteed their surplus for the use of american troops, and thus ensured an earlier and more numerous american participation upon the firing line. a large part of the munitions needed for maintaining an army of 4,000,000 men could be produced in the united states with- out difficulty. such articles as shoes, socks, uniforms, blankets, food and food containers, camp utensils and equipage required only the drafting of specifications and the speeding-up of in- dustry to produce the requisite amounts. the enginecr corps handled 3,225,121 tons of supplies during the r9 months of war; 1,303 locomotives and 18,313 freight cars were shipped to france; 1,002 m. of standard-gauge railroad track were constructed ‘there. most difficult of all was the problem of manufacture of delicate or heavy ordnance, siege guns, field artillery, machine-guns, rifles, aircraft, tanks and munitions of war clothing, etc., preduced and shipped to the a.e.f. between april 1917 and nov, 11 1918 produced shipped blankets 19,419,000 3,127,000 coats 22,603,000 294,000 drawers. 71,884,000 14,701,000 undershirts 69,764,000 15,693,000 shirts 22,198,000 6,401,000 stockings 89,871,000 29,733,000 shoes . ; ; 26,423,000 9,136,000 breeches and trousers 17,342,000 6,191,000 ' overcoats 7,748,000 1,780,000 motor transport, in which quantity production depended upon slow and painstaking preparation of the preliminary processes, upon the supply of labour and raw materials, and upon the wise selection of designs and types to be manufactured. con- siderable experience in the manufacture of ordnance and other munitions had been gained by private firms during the period of american neutrality through the fulfilment of contracts placed in the united states by the allied belligerents. most of the private capacity to make explosives, rifles, machine-guns and cannon was in use. the experience thus gained was an asset for the united states, but few of these resources could be di- verted to the supply of american armies without endangering the supply of allied armies already on the firing-line in the common cause. general munitions board—the advisory commission of the council of national defence early recognised that new fac- tories must be erected for the construction of guns, aircraft and other munitions of the elaborate type, and that a preliminary determination of standards must precede this in order that the types put into production should be as few in number and as useful as possible. on march 20 1917 the munitions standards board came into existence to advance this work as a sub-com- mittee of the council of national defence. on april 9 it was reorganised as the general munitions board. within a few weeks of the declaration of war numerous special bodies were created to carry on parts of the munitions work. ships.—the growth of shipping under the american flag (in vessels of 500 gross tons or over) was as follows:— | ships | gross tons } strength april 6 1917 : , 1,614 3,569,675 new construction to nov. 11 1918 704 2,287,034 ships otherwise acquired to nov. i1 1918 ; cud 3 : 95 274,366 enemy ships seized in united states 97 648,894 dutch ships requisitioned ; 87 354,278 total to nov. 11 1918 . « 2,597 7,134,247 ships lost april 6 1917-nov. 11 1918 by enemy action ; 103 313,569 by other causes 213 416,578 | gee —_—_—_—_———--} ’ strength nov. 11 1918. ; 2,281 6,404,200 | aircraft.—prior to april 6 1917 the united states had acquired in all 224 aeroplanes. the appropriations of congress for mili- tary aviation were as follows:— .$ 900,000 300,000 13,281,666 10,800,000 . 640,000,000 43,450,000 1gi2-6 . ; : : 1916-7 (urg. def. bill) 1917 (army approp.) . 1917 (milit. aeronautics) july 24 1917 ; 1917-8 (urg. def. bill) the policy adopted by the air service was to design a standard type of acroplane engine, put it into quantity production, and have ready for the campaign of 1918 a fleet of 22,000 effective aeroplanes. by july 4 1917 the first experimental “ liberty motor,” as the standard engine was named, had been con- structed. after further refinement of design it was turned over for production to the manufacturers of automobiles in the absence of large aircraft industries in the united states. the first finished liberty engines were delivered in dec. 1917, and 995 15,572 more followed within the next year. the first american squadron completely equipped by american production was reported by general pershing to have crossed the german lines on aug. 7 rg18. the a.e.f. was provided by the french govt. with 2,676 aeroplanes, and received from the united states 1,379 planes of the de havilland type. the delivery of aeroplane engines of all types to the government in the united states began with 66 in july tot7 and rose to 5,297 in oct. 1918, with a total of 28,509 to the end of 1918. gas manufacture and shipment toxic toxic seer le grenades, | materials | shelf, etc., 1918 ae gand shell, etc., | shipped shipped g tone) filled overseas | overseas mane (in tons) tan: .% 10 feb. . ; 61 march 211 april . 399 may . . 697 june... | 993 + july . . «| 41,351 73,201 aug. | 1,548 354,962 sept. ; gil 374,968 oct. 2,726 459,895 nov. | gio 151,043 ul total | 10,817 1,414,069 4,278 868,664 heavy ordnance.—only six government arsenals and two private plants had had experience in producing heavy ordnance before 19014; by nov. 1918 there were nearly 8,ooo plants at work upon ordnance contracts, light or heavy. up to the armistice 1,102 guns (from 3-in. to 9.5-in.) and 14,623 forgings (from which the finished guns are turned and bored) were made in the united states for the allies. fifteen additional heavy-gun factories were equipped to meet the american need, and the rate of production for oct. 1918 was above 24,000 guns per year. in mobile field artillery the french 75-mm. gun was accepted for the standard in quantity production, and its designs, with those for its intricate recuperator, were redrawn to meet ameri- can conditions in manufacture. the tolerances, which the french were in the habit of working out in the assembling plant, were reduced to figures and gauges in order to permit the american method of manufacture of separate interchangeable parts. in oct. r918 464 complete artillery units (guns, carriages and recuperators) were produced and delivered to the army by amcrican manufacturers, with an accumulated total of 2,058 units to the end of the year. but no 75-mm. guns or 155-mm. howitzers of american manufacture were on the front at the date of the armistice. the french govt. provided the a..f. with equipment of this sort sufficient for 30 american divisions. proditction of rifles | 190; 1903 1917 ingfield | spr enfield iqi7. . , . 128,475 302,887 igi8 jan. . .; ; 31,570 153,499 | feb. ; ; 9.370 170,857 | march 540 160,142 april 2,631 167,485 may 3,970 181,034 | june 6,759 191,354 july 16,879 231,193 aug. 28,617 191,769 sept. 33,583 199,635 oct. 39,176 187,477 nov. (1-9) 11,308 56,097 | total 412,878 2,506,307 _| machine-guns.—an american gun, invented by col. j. n. lewis, ‘‘ was a revelation when it came to the aid of the allies early in the great war,” and capacity for its manufacture was developed in private american plants on allied order. in may 1917 the machine-gun board tested and adopted two newly 996 designed guns, one heavy and one light, both the work of john m. browning. during oct. 1918 the war department accepted 14,639 heavy and 13,687 light browning guns. by the end of the year 226,557 machine-guns of all types had been accepted by the united states. naval ordnance—much delicate experimentation was done in search for new rangefinders and submarine detectors, various listening devices being brought forward for the latter purpose. the construction of the north sea mine barrage called for the development of a new mine and anchor. orders were placed for 125,000 mines, of which 56,611 were laid in the barrage by american mine-layers operating from bases in the north of scotland, near inverness. the whole barrage included 70,263 mines, of which 13,652 were british laid, covering a zone of sea from 15 to 35 m. in width, and to a depth sufficient to prevent submarines from diving under it. the complete barrier was in place by july 29 1918, although it was much tightened there- after. the barrage is known to have destroyed 17 submarines and to have closed the north sea outlet, particularly after norway announced a determination to mine her own territorial waters adjacent to the barrage. munsey, frank andrew (1854-1925), american pub- lisher and newspaper proprietor, was born at mercer, me., aug. 21 1854. he was educated in the public schools and became a telegraph operator in augusta, maine. in 1882 he went to new york city and established the golden argosy, a magazine for children, later changing this to the argosy, a magazine for adult readers. in 1889 he founded afunsey’s weekly, replaced two years later by munsey’s magazine, the first monthly of its class to sell for the popular price of 1o cents. he also founded the all-story weekly (1904) and the railroad mun’s magazine (1906) and purchased the baltimore news (1908), the new york press (1912) and the new york sux, both morning and evening issues (1916). he merged the press in the suz. in 1920 he bought from the executors of james gordon bennett’s estate the new york evening telegram and the new york herald, together with its paris issue. he combined the herald and the morning sun as the sun and the new york herald, but in oct. 1920, changed the name to the new york herald, at the same time continuing the evening paper as the sun, thus perpetuating intact two names famous in american journal- ism. he died in n.y. city dec. 22 1925. by his will, after providing for relatives, he left the residue of his estate, estimated at $40,000,000 to the metropolitan museum of art, new york. munsterberg, hugo (1863-1916), german-american psy- chologist (see 19.12), died in cambridge, mass., dec. 16 1916. among his later publications were american problems from the point of view of a psychologist (1910); psychology and industrial efficiency (1913); american patriotism and other social studies (1913); psychology and social sanity (1914); the war and america (1914); the peace and america (1915); the photoplay: a psycho- ote) study (1916) and tomorrow: letters to a friend in germany igi6).