{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:montana:55b00922b957", "title": "MONTANA", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "8c1cd7daad08c2d1a58496a410f4e6cde2226b42302f65f8d808b20a91c381a4", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "in 1920 montana had a population of 548,889, an increase of 172,836, or 46%, during the decade. the urban population was 172,011, or 31°3%; the rural 376,878, or 68-7%. in 1910 the ratio was 35-59% urban and 64:5 % rural. of—montana the relative increase of rural inhabitants over urban was due largely to the immigration of an agricultural population, particularly to the eastern part of the state. the total number of foreign-born whites in 1920 was 93,620. in 1920 there were 12 cities with a population of 5,000 or more, of which six had over 10,000. these six, with their increase in the preceding decade, were as follows:— 1920 1910 increase pane | — butte , ; : : al,611 39,165 6-2 great falls : 24,121 13,948 72-9 billings 5 ‘ 15,100 10,031 50°5 missoula ‘ 12,668 12,869 —i'6 helena. . j 12,037 12,515 —3:8 anaconda _. ___ 11,668 10,134 15:1 agriculfure and irrigation.—in 1o10 there were 26,214 farms with a total acreage of 13,545,603, of which 3,640,309 ac. were improved. in 1920 there were 57,677 farms with an acreage of 35,070,656, of which 11,007,278 ac. were improved. of the land improved, about 4,000,c00 ac. were under tillage. in 1925 the number of farms had decreased to 46,896. in 1920 about 1,700,000 ac. were irrigated; many new projects were under way, and in 1925 nearly 2,000,000 ac. were irrigated. in 1924 about 3,000,000 ac. were planted to wheat, the most important crop, and the crop was estimated at 51,668,000 bushels. flax, hay, sugar beets, oats, beans, potatoes, corn and peas rank next in order of value, but wheat in 1924 was worth more than all other crops combined. the total value of crops in 1924 was $144,463,000. during the period from 1910 to 1925 the open range was superseded by the fenced ranch. the number of sheep declined from 5,381,000 in 1910 to 2,083,000 in 1920, but increased to 2,536,000 in 1925. in 1910 there were 943,000 cattle; in 1920, 4,269,000; and in 1925, 1,503,000 (estimated). in 1925 there were 220,000 milch cows, and dairying has become an important industry. in 19ro there were 316,000 horses; in 1920, 669,000; and in 1925, 593,000. all livestock in 1925 was valued at $94,000,000. forests —in 1923 the national forests in montana included 15,881,715 acres. the state owned 566,000 ac. of forest land and. there were 5,000,000 ac. in private hands. a part of this forest area is valuable also for agricultural land and will be so used when the timber is removed. the remainder will be re- forested as the old trees are cut. afines——the world war gave a great impetus to the pro- duction of copper and other metals, but after the armistice the output declined acutely. in 1910 the production of copper was 283,000,000 ib.; in 1916, 352,000,000 ib.; and in 1921, 49,000,000 pounds. since then it has increased to 224,000,000 lb. in 1923 and to 249,000,000 ib. in 1925. in r918 the production of zinc was 104,624 tons; and in 1922, 59,535. the production of lead dropped from 18,568 tons in 1918 to 11,565 tons in 1921, increasing to 21,226 tonsin1rg24. silver production has remained steady at about 12,000,000 0z. per year, but gold dropped from 158,704 oz. in 1918 to 80,145 0z. in 1922. the output of coal in 1924 was estimated at 2,700,000 net tons. in 1915 cil was discovered in the state, and the output has steadily increased until in 1924 it was estimated at 2,781,000 barrels. afanufactures.—the vast supplies of water-power in montana give hopes of great industrial development. the hydroclectric plants in 1923 had a capacity of 400,000 h.p., an increase of 120,000 in three years. much of this was used for the operation of electric trains. the potential hydroelectric development is estimated at 4,000,000 horsepower. in 1920 congress passed a bill authorising the secretary of the interior to lease the undevel- oped power-sites, and the completion of such enterprises will add greatly to the electric power available. in 1009 the total value of manufactures was $73,000,000; in 1923 it had increased to $174,874,000. in 1920 there were 195 lumber-mills, 75 flour-mills, 31 creamertes, 7 cheese factories, 2 canning factories. the most promising field for manufacture appeared to be products of copper and wood. one plant for turning out copper rods and wire had a capacity of 6,000,000 ib. of copper per month, montelius—montenegro education.-in 1920 the russell sage foundation of new york ranked the montana schools first among all the public- school systems of america. the public-school fund belonging to the state amounted in 1924 to about $20,000,000, the income to nearly $1,000,000 per year. the total expenditures for schools in 1924 was $14,878,000. in 1924 there were 118,000 pupils in elementary and high schools out of a school population of 157,745. in 1or2 president 1%. b. craighead, of the state university, started a campaign for the consolidation of al! the state institutions of higher education into one university. his plan was defeated, but all the institutions were placed under one administrative head called the chancellor. legislation.—the state has made steady progress in jabour legislation. in 1911 the legislature provided an eight-hour day for miners. in 1914 the state limited the working day for women in factories, jaundries and stores to nine hours, and in 1917 reduced this to eight hours. in 1915 a workmen’s compensation bill was enacted. in 1915 provision was made for state in- spection and grading of grain, and a farm loan act was passed. in 1917 the state provided insurance against hail for farmers. in ro1x the legislature authorised cities to adopt the com- mission form of government, and in 1917 sanctioned the com- mission-manager plan. in ror2 the people established through the initiative a system for direct primarics to nominate all state and local officials and to express their preference for presidential candidates. they also passed a rigid corrupt practices act limiting campaign expenses, providing for their publicity and forbidding electionecring on election day. in 1914 the people ratified a constitutional amendment for woman suflrage. the important social legislation in recent years included a mothers’ pension law; a teachers’ retirement pension law; and an act to provide for the establishment and maintenance of county libraries. in 1921 gov. dixon proposed an income tax, an in- heritance tax and a tax on the production of oil wells and of coal and metal mines. the legislature opposed these recommenda- tions as radical, but finally agreed to a small tax on oil and coal production. in 1924, however, the people passed an initiative measure providing for a graduated tax of from 0:25% to 1% on the gross product of metal mines. in 1923 the legislature passed an effective inheritance tax law. 1 history—montana entered upon the second decade of the zoth century under very prospcrous conditions. a new railway had just been built across the state. mines were operating successfully, and there was a growing demand for montana lumber. great irrigation projects were under way, and in many sections of the state dry-farming was proving a success. ‘the world war stimulated the mining and lumber industries, but it put a stop to the great reclamation works. during the jater years of the decade drought seriously hampered the dry-lanct farmers and there was a decline in farm production. state politics have largely hinged upon matters of taxation, particular- ly the taxation of mines. the constitution provides that mines ““ shall be taxed at the price paid the united states therefor,” although the “‘ net proceeds . . . shall be taxed as provided by law.’ the mining interests maintain that, since mining is a speculative business and the mines are being gradually ex- hausted, the net proceeds should be taxed at no higher rate than real estate or personal property. their opponents maintain that since practically no tax is imposed on mines as such, the tax on “‘ net proceeds ” should be much higher than the property tax. the constitution limits taxes for state purposes to two mills on the dollar unless increased by special vote of the people. this was adequate during the early years of the state’s history. since 1910, however, due to greater demands upon the state government, this constitutional restriction has produced a serious deficit. in 1920 the deficit amounted to about $2,500,000; june 30 1924 it was $3,595,558; and june 30 1925 it was $3,817,402. in the fall of 1925 the metal mines tax provided an income of approximately $500,000, and through the death of w.. a. clark the inheritance tax produced about $900,000. in 1914 jeanette rankin was elected representative to congress as a republican, the first woman to be a member of 947 that body. during the world war the non-partisan league spread over the state. it started first among the farmers, but soon extended among the labour groups. in 1918 it elected a number of members of the state legislature. in 1920 the farmers and labour men went into the democratic primaries and nominated a former u.s. district attorney, burton k. wheeler, for governor. the merchants and other business interests organised the montana development assn. to oppose the non- partisan league. ‘this organisation supported joseph m. dixon, former senator and manager of roosevelt’s campaign in 1912, for governor on the republican ticket. the republican platform declared for a conservative programme, and the entire republican ticket was elected. gov. dixon’s demands for the taxation of mines, and for other special taxes, however, jost him the support of the larger business interests. in 1924 he was defeated by john e. erickson who announced a programme of economy and no increase in taxes. the governors of montana after roro were as follows: edwir l. norris (dem.), rg90q~13; sam v. stewart (dem.), 1913-213 joseph m. dixon (rep.), 1921-5; john e. erickson (dem.), 1925-. see helen f. sanders, j7vistory of montana (3 vol., 1913); tom stout, \\jontana, its story and biography (3 vol., 1921); montana dept. of agriculture, labor and industry, the resources and opportunities of montana (9 vol., 1912-22); montana farm review (1922- ). (pyge fp) montelius, oskar (1843-1921), swedish archaeologist, was born in stockholm sept. 9 1843. hestudied at the university of stockholm, and took the degree of ph.d. in 1869. in 1888 he was appointed a professor in the museum of national antiq- uities, stockholm, and in 1913 became state archaeologist. as an archacologist his aim was to utilise and develop the typo- logical method explained by him in his book die typologische methode (1903). his numcrous other works are devoted prin- cipally to swedish and italian archaeology and include the civilisation of sweden in heathen times (1888); les temps prehistoriques en suede et dans les autres pays scandinaves (1895); kulturgeschichte schwedens (1906); and la civilisatier primitive en italie depuis lintroduction des metaux, 3 vol. (1895- 1910). montelius died in stockholm nov. § 1921. see oscar montelius in memoriam (stockholm, 1922). montenegro (see 18.766), a territory included in yugo slavia, formerly an independent kingdom. the area of the dis- trict which corresponds to the old kingdom is 3,733 sq. m. and the population (1921) 199,857. . montenegro as a kingdom roro-8.—in roto prince nicholay took advantage of an apparent lull in the balkan sittation to proclaim himself king, a step welcomed in vienna as 12 fever- sion to the old position of two competing serb dynasties. but the unrest in turkey soon forced montenegro once more into close alliance with serbia, and nicholas, so far from resisting the current, was the first to embark on war in oct. 1912. his lack of heavy guns and the imperfect discipline of his gallant troops compelled him to resort to serbian military aid on a considerable scale before scutari could be reduced in april 1913. austria-hungary insisted upon the surrender of scutari to the new albania, and threatened war. nicholas only yielded to an international naval blockade of the montenegrin coast, and serbian troops were withdrawn from the adriatic. the first balkan war gave montenegro and serbia a joint frontier, the former sanjak of novi pazar being partitioned between them; and montenegrin troops joined serbia against bulgaria in the second balkan war. early in 1914 the montenegrin statesman, miuskovie, began serious discussions with pasi¢ for a financial and customs union between serbia and montenegro, a fusion of the two armies, a joint foreign policy and diplomatic repre- sentation, but retention of the two dynasties. these negotiations became known to vienna, who warnec petrograd that “* austria-hungary would not remain a silent observer,” and regarded union as a challenge to her adriatic interests. on this, sazonov advised pasie to postpone the negotiations. but the movement for union was rapidly becoming 948 irresistible when the world war broke out and the two states found themselves side by side in resistance to austria-hungary. prince nicholas and his sons were, however, jealous and re- served, blocking the action of the serbian general jankovie, who had been sent at russia’s instance to reorganise the monte- negrin army. in may rors prince peter had a secret meeting in dalmatia with the former austro-hungarian military attache, hubka, and in nov., during the invasion of serbia, crown prince danilo, through his friend baron de kruyff in sofia, made overtures to the central powers, offering to cut off the serbian retreat to the coast in return for territorial concessions to montenegro in western serbia and northern albania.! during the retreat the attitude of the montenegrin dynasty remained highly equivocal and the key position of mount lovcen was surrendered to the austrians almost without a struggle. parliament voted unanimously in favour of holding out to the end with serbia, but the king negotiated on his own initiative without authorisation from his government, and on jan. 1916 addressed a telegram of submission to francis joseph. failing to obtain the terms’ which he had hoped, he and his family, with the premier miuskovie, fled to italy. during the next two years his second son, prince mirko, intrigued in vienna and was connected with various austrophil projects for a vassal yugoslav state under the petrovie dynasty; he died in 1918 in an austrian sanatorium. meanwhile, king nicholas resided in france and tried to silence criticism from-the left by making radovie his premier. but when the latter advocated the formal proclamation of union and a simultaneous abdication of nicholas and peter in favour of the prince regent alexander, nicholas threw himself definitely into the arms of the anti- unionists, and by the end of the war found his court reduced to a tiny clique of personal dependents and adventurers. union with serbia——when austria-hungary collapsed in oct. 1918 and national councils were erected in all the yugoslav provinces, the current in montenegro set more strongly than ever in favour of union. a national assembly was convoked on nov. 12 at podgorica and proclaimed the deposition of the petrovie dynasty and the union of montenegro with serbia. on the death of nicholas the royal title fell into abeyance, as crown prince danilo did not wish to assume it and his nephew michael was a minor. even before the balkan wars montenegro was desperately poor, and in normal years had to import grain for its scanty population; only the dynasty had grown rich by its arbitrary methods. the long strain of war increased the misery tenfold, and acute discontent was aroused by the bad administration, favouritism and centralist tendencies of belgrade. there were numerous cases of brigandage and party vengeance which were conveniently misrepresented abroad as a movement for independ- ence. in 1924, however, a marked improvement began. in the summer of 1925 king alexander paid his first official visit to montenegro, and the remains of his great-great-grand-uncle the viadika peter (the greatest of serbian poets) were transferred to a mausoleum built at the king’s expense on the summit of loveen by the dalmatian sculptor mestrovie. (see balkan wars; serbia.) (r. w. s-w.) montero rios, eugenio (1832-1914), spanish politician, was born at santiago de compostela, corunna, nov. 13 1832. he was originally intended for the priesthood, but became a barrister and a teacher of ecclesiastical history. in 1864 he was appointed professor of canon law at the university of madrid, and in 1869 entered the cortes. he followed ruiz zorilla and as minister of justice in general prim’s cabinet he introduced a number of important judicial reforms and drew up the act of abdication of king amadeo. in 1881 he helped to found the radical party and became minister of justice in 1889. from 1894-5 he was president of the senate. he was chief of the spanish delegation which negotiated the treaty of paris with the united states at the close of the spanish-american war of 1898. in 1899 he was again president of the senate. in 1903 he 1telegram of tarnowski, to buridn, no. 1449, nov. 11 1915, transmitting danilo’s wire to kruyff. montero rios—montessori system was elected leader of the liberal party and in 1905 became prime minister. he resigned the leadership of the liberal party in 1906 and was president of the senate for the third time from 1909-14. he died at madrid may 12 rorq. montessori, maria (1869- ), italian educationist, was born at chiaravalle near ancona. she studied at the university of rome and graduated in medicine in 1894, being the first woman in italy to do so. she then took up the subject of educating defective children. from the experience thus acquired, she came to the conclusion that similar methods might be applied to normal children of a lower age, and after a series of experiments on a small scale she extended them to a large number of children in certain private and public infant schools in rome. dr. montessori encountered a good deal of opposition from advocates of orthodox methods in education who regarded her system as destructive of discipline. at the same time she was warmly supported by a certain number of enthusiastic reformers, experienced and otherwise. her system was applied on a larger scale in countries where elementary education was not under rigid state or municipal control and not carried out according to fixed programmes. from 1900 to 1907 dr. montessori lectured on pedagogical anthropology at the university of rome and in 1922 was appointed government inspector of schools in italy. her ideas on education are set forth in the montessori system (1912), which has been trans- lated into english and other languages. (see epucation; montessori system.) montessori system.—the montessori system of educa- tion aims at self-education by the pupils themselves. there are no time-tables, no set lessons, no classes. there are no re- wards or punishments of the ordinary kind. the pleasure of succeeding and gettings things right is the only incentive. “ each child is doing what, for the time being, pleases him best. when he is admitted to the school he sees small groups of chil- dren playing at various ‘ games,’ and he joins the group which happens to take his fancy. then and there his education begins. all kinds of interesting ‘ occupations’ are going on, and wherever he goes he will get help and guidance from the teachers. if he gets tired of playing at this thing he goes off and plays at that. but he is never idle, for whatever he does interests him.” ap- paratus, elaborately devised by dr. montessori, is provided for the educational games by which the children acquire knowledge; and this “ didactic material ” constitutes a distinctive part of the originality of the system. the first stage is to develop the senses of touch, sight and hearing; both by games of various sorts and by guiding the attention systematically to the association of things, names and ideas. when a child washes his hands, for instance, he is given first cold and then hot water, and led to observe and under- stand the difference; the distinction of rough and smooth is emphasised by the different cards for fingering and sorting. the child to know the words, “ hot,” “ cold,” “‘ rough,” “ smooth,” and thus the knowledge of language is extended in all directions (“ high,” “ low,” “ thick,” “ thin,” “‘ round,” “ oval,” etc.) be- fore any question of writing or reading arises. ideas of form and colour are given precision by games with blocks, cylinders, etc., of varying sizes, to be fitted into frames, or with shades of silk to be arranged to match; touch is practised by playing the games blindfold; hearing 1s developed by the ‘ silence ” lesson, and by the use of small cylindrical boxes containing stones, sands and different substances to be rattled by the children, who arrange them in order of intensity of sound and so forth. skill and neatness in the use of the fingers and movement of limbs are stimulated partly by the mobility of the light furniture, which the children rearrange for their own comfort, and partly by games at tying and untying, hooks and eyes, dressing and undressing, waiting on one another at table, washing up and soon. many of these occupations are preliminary to writing and reading, and lead naturally up to both. writing comes essentially before reading, on the montessori system. emery-paper letters gummed on cards are provided, with which the child is familiarised by games of hide and seek, montevideo—moody etc., so that, without any active teaching of the alphabet, he knows them by sight, by name and by feeling. he learns how to imitate them, partly by a touch game of passing the fingers over the paper letter, thus making the actual motion of writing, and partly by playing at pencilling and colouring with specially de- vised cards on which an outline is given. the child learns to write before he knows that “‘ writing ”’ is what he is learning; the sounds and shapes of the letters being knownit is a natural tran- sition to build up the letters and their sounds into words. the next thing is for the child to “ read ’—not merely to re-translate into sound a word he has translated into symbol, which goes with the acquisition of ‘‘ writing,” but to extract a previously unknown idea from written or printed symbols of the same sort not put together by himself. at any rate in so phonetically spelt a language as italian, this is very quickly learnt. numbers of words, well known to the children, are written on cards, and various games are played in identifying them with their objects; and from single words the children pass to phrases and sentences, the teacher writing on the blackboard, for instance, questions or orders which form part of a game. arithmetic is introduced to the children’s minds by the employment of count- ing games, in which an apparatus of striped pcles, counters, etc., is used. the whole curriculum is devised for the content and happy employment of the natural energies of the child, who is left free to respond to his own impulses, under the influence of ‘* didactic material,” rather than under the discipline of a teacher. bibliography.—-report to english board of education, by e. g. a. holmes, the montessori system of education (education pamph., no. 24, 1912) contains a critical examination of the system. see also m. montessori, the didactic material for the education of children from 7 to rz years; the advanced montessori method (1917-8); the montessori method (eng. trans. by a. e. george, 1919). ubecirn) montevideo (see 18.778), the capital city of uruguay, had a population on dec. 31 1923 of 407,249. the municipal revenues increased from $2,850,000 in 1916 to $4,590,000 in 1921, and for 1924-5 were estimated at about $5,342,000. extensive port improvements by the government deepened the entrance and part of the harbour in order to admit the largest ocean-going vessels, which formerly had been obliged to anchor outside. docks, warehouses and loading equipment also were much im- proved. three large meat packing plants (frigorificos), two of them american and one british, were added to the industrial establishments of the city. manufactures, though still relatively unimportant, included flour, paper, cigars and cigarettes, soap, candles, shoes, textiles and knitted goods; there were also tan- neries, breweries and a sugar refinery. the general appearance of the city was improved by new buildings and the extension of paving and lighting. the university of montevideo had in 1922 344 teachers and an enrolment of 1,615 students. montreal, canada (see 18.790), the commercial metropolis and the largest city of the dominion of canada, had an area of about 50 sq. m. and a population of 836,304 in 1924. the popu- lation at the dominion census in 1921 was 607,063, and was more than half french and about three-quarters roman catholic; jews, who have increased largely in number in recent years, num- ber about 6%. the port is the second largest in america, with eight miles of deep water and wharfage with berths for a distance of 17 m.; 18 vessels of 1,000 ft. in length can berth at the same time.: a large scheme of harbour improvements has been undertaken in recent years, including the reclamation of 30 ac. of land for a new dry dock, the electrification of the water front, the building of a huge elevator, wharves, warchouses, etc. the improvements to navi- gation in the gulf and river of st. lawrence have resulted in a large increase of tonnage; 1,194 ocean-going vessels of 3,032,637 tons passed through the harbour in 1922, as compared with 820 of 2,690,535 tonsin 1913. overa quarter of the total export trade of canada passes through montreal, which is the greatest grain port of the world. there were 2,820 factories in the city in 1924, including very large flour-mills. the form of municipal govern- ment underwent several alterations in the decade following 1911, and eventually the contro! of municipal affairs was placed in the 949 hands of an administrative commission of four, appointed by the provincial government. the construction of a tunncl under mt. royal and the centre of the city by the canadian northern railway co., was an im- portant engineering feat completed in 1918. the company (since merged in the canadian national railway system) built an imposing new terminal station in the centre of the city at the tunnel head, supplanting its old moreau street station. electric trains running through the tunnel to the northwestern side of mt. royal caused the growth of a new suburb on that side of the mountain. education.—important educational buildings erected since 191i include the mcgill medical building, a magnificent struc- ture that replaced the building destroyed by fire in 1907, the macdonald engineering building of mcgill university; a large and finely equipped technical school in connection with laval university; a new high school; a public library; an art gallery, anda fine pile of buildings to house loyola college, a jesuit school of high standing. mcgill university, benefiting by gifts from sir wilham mac- donald, was able to develop further its faculty of music, to estab- lish new degrees in law, commerce and household science, and to extend some of its departments. a schoo! of physical training was opened in connection with the university, and a department of social service was inaugurated. the mcgill stadium, one of the finest athletic amphitheatres in north america, was opened in 1918. after the death of sir william macdonald in rg1q, pro- vision was made for the further endowment of macdonald college at ste. anne de bellevue, the university’s agricultural centre, and in 1924 lady strathcona gave {24,000 for a zoological depart- ment. the administrative buildings of the montreal branch of laval university were destroyed by fire in the autumn of 1919. a movement, that had been gaining strength for some years, to separate the montreal branch from laval university at quebec, culminated in the foundation of the university of montreal, the buildings of the old branch of laval being taken over by the new institution. a number of new courses were added, including social and political science, and the faculty of applied science was further developed. considerably over $3,000,000 was raised by public subscription as a building fund. monypenny, william flavelle (1866-1912), british journalist, was born in ulster aug. 7 1866. educated at trinity college, dublin and balliol college, oxiord, in 1893 he joined the editorial staff of the times (london), and early in 1899 became editor of the johannesburg star in the transvaal. he played a useful part, as a publicist, on the side of the reform party there, and when war came he joined the imperial light horse and was one of the defenders of ladysmith. returning afterwards to his position on the star, he did much to promote lord milner’s work of reconstruction, but resigned in 1903 owing to his hos- lility to the introduction of chinese labour into the mines. he was then entrusted by the times with the task of writing the official biography of disraeli, and also did other work for that paper, becoming in 1908 a director of the company. owing to ill health the first volume of the life of benjamin disraeli, eart of beaconsfield (ultimately extending to six volumes) did not appear until roro, and the second shortly before his death. it was completed in 1920 by mr. g. e. buckle, formerly editor of the times. monypenny died in the new forest, hampshire, nov. 23 1912. moody, william vaughn (1869-1910), american poet and playwright, was born at spencer, ind., july 8 1869. he was educated at ilarvard university and was assistant in english there 1894-5. from 1895 to 1907 he was at the university of chicago as instructor and, after 1901, as assistant professor. he died at colorado springs oct. 17 1910. moody was the author of the afasgue of judgment (1900); poems (1901); the fire- bringer (1904); the great divide (1907) and the faith healer (1909). ile compiled (with robert m. lovett )a first view of english and american literature (1902), and edited the com- plete poetical works of john milton (1899, cambridge ed.) and (with george cabot lodge and john ellerton lodge) the poems 950 of trumbull stickney (1905). his complete works were edited with an admirable introduction by prof. john m. manly (1912). mookerjee, sir asutosh (1864-1924), indian jurist and educationist, son of a medical practitioner, was born at bhawani- pur, calcutta, on june 29 1864. graduating at the presidency college, calcutta, in 1885, he gained the doctorate in laws in 1894. he wrote much for learned societies on mathematical subjects, and his “geometry of conics”’ (1892) and other papers were in- corporated in text-books for cambridge university. he became a fellow and syndic of calcutta university in 1889, and was appointed to the tagore law professorship in 1898. from 1904 until his resignation in 1923 he was a judge of the bengal high court, and won a great reputation as a jurist. he was knighted in 191t. his spare time from the bench was devoted with un- flagging zeal to the affairs of calcutta university. he was a member of the calcutta university commission 1917-9, and signed the report without dissent, but afterwards offered strong opposition to the projected legislation. though advanced in some matters of social reform, he lived very simply as an ortho- dox brahman. he died at patna on may 25 1924. his ad- dresses, academic and literary, were published in rors. moore, george (1853- ), irish writer (see 18.808), lbroke fresh ground in t916 with the brook kerith, a work of fiction based on the gospel story. he had professedly taken leave of literature in three remarkable volumes of quasi-remi- niscences, entitled ave (ro11), salve (1912) and vale (1914). later he produced two privately printed volumes de luxe, avowals (1918) and a story teller’s itoliday (1920), and retold the story of abelard and ieloise (1921). in 1922 he published in single strictness and 1926 ulick and lorachal. moore, john bassett (1860- j, american jurist, was born at smyrna, del., dec. 3 1860. he graduated at the univer- sity of virginia in 188c, studied law in an office in wilmington, del., and was admitted to the delaware bar in 1883. two years later he entered the dept. of state as a law clerk, and in 1887 was appointed third assistant secretary of state. he was secretary to the conference on samoan affairs in that year and uss. secretary at the conference on the north atlantic fisheries, 1887-8. he was appointed professor of international law and diplomacy at columbia university, 1891, frequently being granted leave of absence to accept appointments in the national interest. on the outbreak of the war with spain in 1898 he was appointed assistant secretary of state, and he acted as secretary and counsel to the u.s. peace commissioners at paris at the close | of the war. among the later official positions which he filled were those of u.s. agent before the united states and dominican arbitration tribunal, 1904; u.s. delegate to the iourth inter- national american conference at buenos aires, ro10; special u.s. plenipotentiary to the chilean centenary, tgro; u.s. delegate to the international commission of jurists, rio de janeiro, 1912; counsellor to the dept. of state, 1913; a member of the permanent court of arbitration at the hague, 1913; u.s. delegate to the pan-american financial congress, rors. he was appointed in 1921 a judge of the permanent court of international justice. he was also the u.s. delegate and chair- man of the international conference on rujes for aircraft and 1adio in time of war held at the hague 1922-3. moore’s publications include extradition and interstate rendition (1891); itistery and digest of international arbitrations, 6 vol. (1898); american diplomacy: its spirit and achievements (1905); digest of international law, 8 vol. (1906); four phases of american development (1912); principles of american diplomacy (1918); international law and some current illusions (1924); and the permanent court of international justice, a pamphlet (1924). morale: in war.—modern conditions of war are gradually extending the domain of morale and increasing its influence. for, among belligerent nations, war affects a greater number of people and does so with methods of increasing violence. i. the soldier in the ranks in battle, an enemy’s long-range guns make their effects felt as far back as 5, 10 or 15 m., and, as they are capable of rapid firing, their effects become formidable to troops even at those dis- mookerjee—morale: in war tances. difficulty in seeing their objective does not limit their powers, for they are aided by aeroplanes which inform them con- cerning the situation of their objective and the results of their fire. at lesser distances they are supported by light artillery in jarge numbers, mobile, and capable of making the most ad- vantageous use of chance features of the ground over the whole of the area at their command; and further support comes from machine-guns, which, of light weight and slender dimensions, can penetrate everywhere to equip in a short time the whole of the terrain. range of fire.—it follows, then, that the soldier who ap- proaches the battlefield and advances to carry the enemy posi- tion, finds that, at great range and over an extremely wide extent, that is to say during a long space of time, he is exposed to a heavy fire, the effects of which are multiplied in severity the further he advances to the position. frequently, before being able to advance, he is forced to wait until, thanks to supplies of material, cannon, trench mortars and machine-guns, his army has gained a mastery of the fire, and the destructive capacity of the adversary has been thus reduced. in this time of waiting hours succeed hours, nights follow days and weeks go by, always under the rain of steel from the enemy. it is under incessant bombardment that the march to victory has to be resumed and continued. rarcly is the battle decided in one day. and the nervous tension, the crisis imposed on the combatant, lasts the same time. during all this wearing period he must fulfil, automatically and often left to his own resources, his function as soldier, marksman, machine-gunner, pioneer, link in the chain of intelligence, carrier of supplies and so on. that is to say this function must be part of his own na- ture, and to fulfil it he must have received a serious training. interception of supplics —furthermore, bombardment spreads iis havoc no less widely on the rear of the battle-front, cuts communications, prevents the arrival of supplies. not only has the combatant to show a bold face to the danger which threatens him, but he often finds himself reduced to a most precarious existence; along with the rigours of nights in the open, he has to put up with shortage of supplies. and thus physical exhaustion comes to be added to nervous shock, and the severity of the ordeal is heightened. tenacity and endurance.—in the wars of the past, movement and enthusiasm, the qualities of dash and courage and personal pride, could suffice the soldier in a moment of intoxication to meet, with brilliance, the crisis of collision with the enemy. but to-day, if he is to traverse the long road of the hell which is the modern battle and reach a decision, he must possess an un- breakable tenacity and an energy ready for any sacrifice, and both must be unwavering for long days on end. to what great- ness of soul must we not appeal, then, to see the emergence of virtues so solid, so tenacious, so generous? we must leave the answer to the soldiers of the marne and yser, ypres and verdun. i'urther, who can forget the moving spectacle of the british leave-trains returning to the front during the war? the men were accompanied to the station by a silent throng composed for the most part of women and children. a few handkerchiefs furtively sought the eyes of those who were left behind, especially when the train began to move off. on board the vessel at dover, the returning men donned their life-saving waistcoats, and stood closely’ crowded together on deck, imprisoned in their own thoughts. if, from a group here and there, came a song or a noisy demonstration, it was from young soldiers going out to the front for the first time. the others remained impassive, silent, gloomy, and their eyes gave token of the cold energy and the spirit of savage resolve on which they had fallen back. it was to the cry of “lusitania!” that they would soon be marching to attack. experience had taught them that mere knowledge of their duties and a fine, fleeting ardour would not suffice to bear the long and bitter ordeal of the modern battle. they required a spin which must be imbued with the highest feelings, and, quickened with them, a spirit proved in the crucible of discipline, the soldier of our national armies has drawn the spirit of sacrifice, the sentiment of discipline and duty, from love of his morale: country, from attachment to the family as to the race, and from the indispensable military training, which left its strongest impres- sion. of this he gives proof in action by strict obedience to orders. but let there be no mistake; he conserves and maintains these virtues in lasting fashion only in proportion as the commanders have won his confidence by the care with which they surround his daily life; only in proportion as they know how to conserve that life by their vigilant economy of his blood. asa whole, the war of the present day demands of the soldier a moral greatness, and a professional training, both developed in very high degree. the conservation of those forces, a conserva- tion which alone can assure victory, is incumbent on the com- manding officers. and in this way the rele and responsibility of the officer expand in an exceptional degree, and grow sharply defined, especially in battle. il. the: officer in the course of any action of necessarily long duration, the officer can conserve the value of his unit, seclion, company or battalion, only by protecting it from the disasters which are continually menacing it, and by jeading it step by step to the goal, to the final objective which has been assigned to it by the higher command, and the gaining of which constitutes for it the victory. ile cannot confine himself to being a daring soldier, superior to his subordinates by his courage and personal example. he must show himself to be constantly dominated and impelled by a double preoccupation: to avoid the destruction of his unit and to bring it nearer its objective. : anoidance of loss.—to avoid its destruction, because he is in the presence of an armament capable, by suddenly inilicted losses, of destroying the unit, or at least of shattering its morale for a long time, if adequate precautions have not been taken in time. ience springs the necessity that he should be familiar with the dispositions appropriate to this continual menace, and that he should be able to order and put readily into practice these dispositions, which by his selection of rencezvous, his tactical formations, by hastily constructed earthworks or by any other procedure, keep the troops halted under cover from the observation, projectiles or poison-gas of the enemy. how many long hours will not troops have to pass in waiting, in preparation, before secing the moment for action arrive? how often has not the officer to provide for these secure dis- positions? yet in this situation the slightest negligence is un- pardonable. at that moment will appear all the vigilance and all the power of decision which the officer must bring to the field of action, in addition to the acquired knowledge and the experi- ence, necessarily incomplete though this be, of manocuyres. what is required of him, even at these moments, is the all-embrac- ing eye, the sense of fitting opportunity and the gift of decision. precision in altack—~-then, the moment of action having arrived, the operations of the unit must be carried out without hesitation or disturbance, in the presence of an adversary who, flinging all his resources again into action, may be able to regain some of his preponderance, to restore to his armament its formidable strength. that is to say, the operations must have been directed in all their details by a commanding oflicer who has previously assured himself of the participation of neighbouring troops, and has gauged as exactly as possible the position of the enemy which he is approaching. to sum up, together with the fecling of readiness for action called up by the receipt of orders, but before the moment for action has come, it is by foresight and precision that an officer should be inspired and guided in his procedure. without these he steps into imprudence, and he draws his troops along with him. they run the risk of not returning. he, and he alone, is to blame. value of experience —without going into the increased need for technical knowledge resulting from the employment of ma- terial, at once more various and more potent and also more deli- cate, the art of bringing troops on to the battleficld has assumed in our day a capital importance. every officer ought to concern himself with this, and shape himself for it in time of peace as fully as he devotes himself to the instruction of his men, so that in war o51 he may be able, when the great day comes, to present himself armed with a certain peace-time experience, and armed above all with faculties well maintained, developed, and turned ever on the alert in the direction of the march toward the absective. he must be ready on that day to resolve the difficulties of this march, difficulties which only the actual conditions will reveal to him, for peace gives no complete idea of the cifects of modern weapons on a body of troops. war will bring him face to face with new problems, and will demand that he possess, over and above his professional knowledge, the habit of reilection and prompt de- cision on fresh circumstances. itisa habit which he will need to have acquired during peace-time. it is needless to remark that these faculties of foresight, of adaptation to new problems, ought to be developed the more fully in an officer the higher his rank and the greater the instru- ments of control which are in his hands, for in this case his orders cover vast spaces, are laden with more far-reaching con- sequences, and are more difficult to modify in their execution. the moral forces and the capacities which the commander must bring to war, if he is to act in such a way that negligence or im- prudence, both always disastrous, may be avoided, have in- creased in notable proportions, even for the lower ranks. ill. the nation but war, to pursue the theme further, does not confine its material and moral effects to the battlefields and the invaded regions. it extends them toward the rear, to populations which were formerly kept aloof from it by the barrier of distance. it spreads them overseas in every direction, even to non-belliger- ents, and produces the most complete upheaval. the non-combatants—in the rear, not to speak of refugee populations fleeing before the ravages of invasion, and terror systematically loosed in defiance of the laws of humanity, it is the women, the children and the aged who live in the emotions of the struggle, as a result of the facility and speed of communi- cations; who undergo on occasion the stress of hostile bombard- ment from the air; who in any case suffer privations of every kind. this means that the field is open, in the heart of the coun- try itself, to the most opposed sentiments and passions, as also to nervous shock and physical exhaustion. but, despite these difficulties, the interior of the country must hold firm to the end, and, what is more, must maintain in foodstuffs, arms, and muni- tions and support in energy of spirit, those who fight at the front. in its united aspects, the country becomes and must remain by its sentiments and its productive activity the source of the warring capacity of the armics. thus, in the old europe, each country ts perforce the near neighbour of powerful states, sees its warlike resistance measured by the degree of union between the interests and sentiments which it comprises, by its jealous watch over its independence, by its progress toward that moral unity which is the essence of a nation, and consequently by the depth of its national sentiment. only in these moral factors is to be found the energy which will resist concussions of every kind, and will pursue, through ever- increasing sacrifices and through all the vicissitudes of the struggle, the success of the enterprise which will liberate it, once and for all, from all its anguish. and if, among the states of the new world, where’menace is less direct, the immediate danger does not demand the organisa- tion of territorial defence, a blow struck against the principles whereby they live will awaken the apprehensions of the peoples and, in community of sentiments, will arm them for the safe- guarding of their free civilisation. in short, a sturdy sentiment which binds the entire people as one, imposing itself upon them by the justice of their cause and the necessity for defending it, is indispensable to the success of a modern war, for that alone is capable of obliging them to the privations and sacrifices which war entails. iv. the government to maintain and guide this sentiment during the days of the struggle, to exploit it and to extract victory from out of it— 952 such is the task of the government. in these days the govt. must not be simply the representative of the interests of the country, but rather the expression of the passions which are animating it, and to that end, the organiser of defence, the creator of the material resources, the arms, munitions, foodstuffs essential to the struggle, and the motive and inspiring power and of the forces assembled on the field of operations. it must show itself a “ war government,” with an active and effective policy, taking a wide view of the ends which it is possible to attain, bear- ing in mind the means at its disposal. and it must be animated by the will always to augment those means to hasten those ends, while still maintaining, in the interior of the country, the spirit which does not disarm. it is obvious, then, that war calls for peculiar qualities in the statesmen who preside over it. without these, it must inevitably end in impotence, or even defeat. v. conclusion to sum up, whether we are dealing with the soldier, the high command, the nation or the govt., in each of these divisions war demands an ever-increasing share of the moral forces whose close union and wise combination are alone capable of producing victory. it is to the insufficiency of certain of these forces, or to the lack of cohesion between them, that we must look to grasp and explain the collapse, in the course of the last war, of certain great powers, and likewise of armies of formidable repute, which in themselves certainly did not fall short of that repute. bibliography.—the most important works to be consulted are those of marshal foch himself: des princtpes de la guerre (1903) with english translation by hilaire belloc (1918); de la condutte de la guerre, 3rd ed. (1915); preceptes et jugements du marechal foch; extraits de ses oeuvres, precedes d'une etude sur la vie militaire du marechal par a. gasset (nancy, 1919), with english translation by hilaire belloc (1919). see also j. r. (ancien eleve de i’ecole supe- rieure de guerre), och. essai de psychologie militaire (1921), and emile mayer, la psychologie du commandemeni: avec plusteurs lettres inedites du marechal foch (1924). (fe, fo.) morant, sir robert laurie (1863-1920), british civil servant, was born at hampstead april 7 1863. he was educated at winchester and new college, oxford, and on leaving the university was for a few years a schoolmaster. later he went to siam as educational adviser, and was entrusted by king chula- longkorn with preparing a scheme of education for the whole country. in a few years he returned to england, and after some experience of social work in the east end of london, was appointed in 1895 to assist in the direction of the oflice of spe- cial inquiries and reports in the board of education. he be- came private secretary to successive ministers, and on him devolved a great deal of the preparation of mr. balfour’s edu- cation act of 1902. in 1903 he was appointed permanent sec- retary of the board of education. in this capacity he proved himself a most eflicient administrator, and in 1907 he was created k.c.b. in 1912, on the introduction of the national insurance bill, morant was appointed chairman of the insurance com- mission, a position which led naturally to his appointment as secretary to the ministry of health on its formation in 1919. he died in london, after a few days’ illness, march 13 1920. more, paul elmer (:864- ), american author, was born at st. louis, mo., dec. 12 1864. he was educated at wash- ington university and ilarvard, and he was assistant in sanskrit at harvard, 1894—5, and associate lecturer in sanskrit and classi- cal literature in bryn mawr college 1895-7. he was literary editor of the independent 1901-3, and of the new york evening post 1903-9, and editor of the nation 1909-14. in 1915 he was elected to the american academy of arts and letters. he is the author of shelburne essays (11 vol., 1904- )+ life of benjamin franklin (1900); platonism (1917); the religion of plato (1921); lellenistic philosophies (1923); and the christ of the new testament (1924), in addition to a number of translations from the greek, moresnet: sec eupen and malmedy. moret y prendergast, segismundo (1838-10913), spanish politician, was born at cadiz june 2 1838. he was morant—morgan, john pierpont educated at the central university, madrid, and became pro- fessor of political economy there. in 1863 he entered the cortes as a liberal, took part in the revolution of 1868 and in the con- stituent assembly of 1869. colonial secretary in 1870 under general prim, and later finance minister, he was for a few months in 1872 spanish ambassador to great britain, and after resigning this post accepted the directorship of a large london bank. a year later he returned to spain, he re-entered parliament in 1879, and helped to found the democratic dynastic party. he was minister for foreign affairs under sagasta in 1885 and again in 1893-4, minister of the interior 1885-8, and minister of colonies 1897. in this capacity he advocated the grant of autono- my to cuba and porto rico, and was opposed to the war with amcrica of 1898. he was prime minister in 1905-6 and again in 1909, and at the time of his death in madrid on jan. 28 1913 was president of the chamber. he had a cultivated mind and a noble spirit but was not sufficiently resolute for the difficult political times in which he lived. : morgan, arthur ernest (1878— _—s—+),,: american engi- necr and college president, was born at cincinnati, o., june 20 1878. he received his early education in the high schools at st. cloud, minn., and then spent three years in colorado in various occupations, including a short term at the university of colorado. returning to minnesota, he worked for his father, a land surveyor, and studied engineering at night. in 1902 he commenced practice for himself at st. cloud, making a special study of floods and flood control. in 1907 he became supervising engineer of u.s. govt. drainage investigations, but in 1909 founded the morgan engineering co., of which he became presi- dent. his firm undertook many reclamation projects in the southern states. in 1913, after the dayton flood, he was con- sulted on behalf of the sufferers with a view to prevent a recur- rence of the disaster, the result being the formation, under special statutory powers, of the miami conservancy district, consisting of all cities, towns and land within the flood area, and the necessary work was done under his supervision as chief engi- necr. in 1921 he acted as chief engineer to the pueblo conserv- ancy district, formed to protect pueblo, colo., from floods. he planned and superintended a large number of projects for water control, and drafted or assisted to draft drainage codes for a number of states. in 1921 he was appointed president of anti- och college, yellow springs, o., which was reorganised, under his inspiration, in order to carry out a comprchensive experi- ment in the correlation of cultural and industrial education (see antioch college). he was the author, among other works, of the drainage of the st. francis valley in arkansas (u.s, govt. 1911); and the miami valley and the 1913 flood (1917). morgan, john pierpont (1837-1913), american financier and banker (see 18.834), died in rome march 31 1913. in jan. 1913 he sailed from new york for egypt, where he became seriously jll. he was carried to italy but never recovered. [fis will provided that after the distribution of enumerated bequests amounting to about $17,000,c00, chiefly to his family, the residue of his estate should pass to his son, john pierpont morgan. in 1916 the estate was finally appraised at $69,499,732. he left only some $700,000 to charities; but while living he had been a generous giver, and in his will suggested that his son continue certain accustomed annual contributions. his works of art and books were left to his son without restrictions, although in his will he said: ‘it has been my desire and inten- tion to make some suitable disposition of them or of such portion of them as i might determine, which would render them per- manently available for the instruction and pleasure of the american people.” in the summer of 1913 most of the art collection was placed as a ioan exhibit in the metropolitan museum of art, new york city. later, some items, mostly replaceable, were sold. the remainder, consisting of over 3,000 pieces, was presented to the museum by the son in dec. 1917, and a new wing was added to the building to house them permanently. this was opened in jure 1918. this collection covered all periods and included matchless bronzes, ecamcels, morgan, john pierpont, jr.—morocco porcelains and tapestries. the library ( of the total surface in european hands; large farms (over 1,250 ac.), 14°3%. the rest (40-9 °) varies between 250 and 1,250 ac. (colonisation moyenne). of the total surface, 179,000 ac. had been given away by the official colonisation system (sales), and the rest bought directly from the natives. about half the french colonists come from algeria and tunisia and are already familiar with local conditions. the establishment of french power brought about a great change in economic and social conditions in agriculture as elsewhere. both the soil and the climate are, in many parts of morocco, far more favourable to settlement than to nomadism. the feebleness of the - central native power (maghzen) and continual intertribal strife used to render private property (mefk lands) almost illusory, but, espe- cially since 1919, in the pacified parts, the natives have settled on the land which was, before, ‘‘ common” land (arch), inalienable according to mussulman law and custom. it is both wise and just to reserve a part of them (it is estimated that about 5,000,000 ac, can be cultivated instead of being left for sheep grazing) for french and other colonists, who can put them into far better valuc.2, there are also maghzen and habu (religious property) lands that can be better utilised. land registration has been introduced in morocco since 1913, and 5,826 titles had been registered at the end of 1923, on which, at that date, 186,000,000 fr. had been borrowed on mort- gage. natives are also beginning to register their lands. the colonists cultivate the same crops as the natives: wheat (durum principally), barley, oats, beans, etc.; the olive tree, flax (for seed). there have been a few experiments in growing castor-oil seed and in cotton and hemp since the war. orange culture in the regions of meknes and marrakesh is promising. vineyards only occupy a few hundreds of acres; and for the moment the raising of early vegetables (so successful in algeria) is confined to the suburbs of a few big towns for their european inhabitants. stock raising (sheep especially) is also carried on, sometimes in association with natives; the number of sheep was estimated in 1924 at about 10,000,000, of which 7,200,000 paid the tax tertib, and about 100,000 were in european hands. the amelioration of the local breed, both from the point of view of the flesh and the wool,’ is being steadily pursued; as also the study of several other important agricultural problems in the official farms and experimental fields. budget.—the 1924 budget foresaw 312,629,000 fr. ordinary reccipts; of which, customs produced 83,000,000 fr, ; tertib, 66,000,000; taxes on consumption (sugar, tobacco, etc.}), 60,000,000. the 312,442,000 fr, of expenses were principally distributed as follows: public debt, 62,000,000; justice and general administration, 72,000,- ooo; services of economic interest (public works, agriculture and 1“ urbanism ” was a great feature under lyautey. if casablanca is certainly an overgrown town, the plans for the extension of the principal towns (drawn up by me. henri prost) are remarkable, and carefully preserve the native quarters. 2 in tunisia, for instance, in 1921, the 190,000 ac. cultivated in wheat by europeans produced 68,000 tons, whereas the 1,250,000 ac. in native hands only gave 120,000 tons. in morocco, where a french colonist loses 7 °5 of his sheep stock, a neighbouring aaid will lose 48 °4—a case of direct observation. 3 wool of the aeudia commercial type, of the beni flassen, is already of a superior quality; it is perhaps the original merino. 955 commerce, etc.), 91,000,000; services of social interest (education, health, etc.), 29,000,000, etc. the total actual debt of the protectorate amounts to 705,624,000 francs, morocco contributed (1924) 46,000,000 fr. to the french military expenses in the country. at the end of the same year france had spent 4,271 million fr. since 1907 in morocco. but if the ordinary garrison expenses (not special to morocco) are deducted —2,501 million fr., or 63-6% of the total—the total cost pee of morocco to france represented at that date 1,431,000,000 rancs. ratways and public works.—the 1,300 km. of narrow gauge military railways existing in 1923 registered that year 61,620,000 kilometric-passengers and 67,750,000 kilometric-tons of merchandise. they are gradually being replaced by the standard gauge, 400 km. of which were already in operation in 1926, and which will be partly clectrihed when the casablanca central power station is finished. including the tangier-lez line (310 km.), the new system will have a total length of about 1,000 kilometres. the admirable phosphate region of el boruj-wed zem is already linked up with the port of casablanca, which now possesses a length of 425 metres of quays for big ships (depth 48-50 [t.) under the protection of a jetty over a mile jong (2,000 metres). the other ports are qnitra, rabat, fdala, mazagan, safi and mogador. the network of roads consisted (end of 1923) in 2,665 km. of prin- cipal and 577 km. of secondary roads, and 933 km. more were being constructed or projected. there existed at the same date 12,300 km. of telegraph lines. besides the sea postal service, casablanca is in daily postal connection by aeroplane with toulouse, by algeciras, barcelona and perpignan. the year 1925 marked important progress in the value of moroc- can commerce: 1,754,000,000 fr. (imports, 1,189; exports, 565), as against 139,0,000,000 fr. in 1924, and 850,000,000 in 1923. figures in tons are still more decisive. . 1923 1924 1925 exports 339,236 815,160 982,921 imports 448,293 426,572 569,640 total (tons) 787,529 1,242,732 1,552,560 the great growth in exports is due to the progress in the exploita- tion of the magnificent phosphate beds of wed zem (finer than those of tunisia): 720,000 tons exported in 1925. by far the greater part of moroccan commerce is centred in casablanca (1,135,600 tons, 1,082,000,000 francs). the two ports ranking next are qnitra (138,700 tons) and safi (90,600 tons). fdala is last on the list. commerce by land with algeria (taza-ujda) amounted to 77,860 tons. on jan. 1 1924 there were 615 industrial establishments in european hands in morocco, employing 7,223 hands and 22,868 horsepower. the capital invested amounted to 273,600,000 francs. electricity heads the list; flour-mills, slaughter houses, lime and cement factories come next. casablanca comes first (140,000,000 fr. invested). rabat, marrakesh, lez, qnitra and ujda rank after- wards, in the order named. bibliography.—otficial and general publications and periodicals: annuaire econonique et financier (casablanca); archives maro- catnes and itesporis (rabat); bulletin de uafrigue francaise, with its remarkable supplements (paris); la renatssance du maroc, dix ans de protectorat (rabat, 1922); prosper richard, le afaroc (paris, 1925), with an english adaptation by c. heywood, daforocco, mysterious islam; p. louis riviere, traites codes ef lois du maroc (paris, 1925, 3 vol.); victor pictet, le peuple marocain, le bloc berbere (1925); ali bialelse, ze collier de perles, tin des discours de politique andigene du murechal lyautey (rabat, 1925). special: j. ladreit de la charriere, le reve d’ abd ef kerimt (paris, 1925); l. milliet, les terres collectives (blad djemaa) (paris, 1922); paul marty, le afaroc de demain (paris, comite de lasie francaise, 1928), important on the vital question of the education of the natives. (h. br.*) iii. spanish morocco the spanish zone in morocco extends over an area of 18,360 square miles. accurate returns of the population are impossible. the civil population in the towns in 1923 was estimated at 118,305, of whom the majority were mahommedans. tetuan, the capital of the protectorate, had an estimated population of 23,447 in 1923. other towns were melilla, 60,000; larache, 15,4303 alcazarquivir, 12,368. education in spanish morocco is conducted under the auspices of the different creeds. catholics, mahommedans and jews have their own schools. the budget of the protectorate provides the salaries of professors at the university in tetuan. there were 175 primary schools, of which 74 were specially for moorish children. the total number of pupils attending the primary schools in 1923 was 24,679. administration.—-by a royal decree of jan. 18 1924 the direc- tion of affairs in spanish morocco was entrusted to the premier 956 of spain, with the exception of military matters, which were confided to the ministry of war. the spanish govt. is repre- sented in the protectorate by the high commissioner, who pre- sides over the civil services. a royal decree of march 1925 fixed the limit of the spanish forces in the zone at 80,o0o—65,000 europeans and 15,000 natives. the intermediary between the higher command and the moorish troops is the officer known as the caid interventor. the reverse suffered by the spanish arms in 1921 through the defection of a friendly tribe, when gen. silvestre was killed, pre- cipitated a political crisis in spain, which culminated in the proc- lamation of the military directory in sept. 1923. the policy of the president of the directory, gen. primo de rivera, was to establish a single front, to eflect which the army was withdrawn from portions of the occupicd territory and a number of positions were evacuated. spanish subjects in the protectorate enjoy all the civil rights recognised by the law in spain; forcign residents enjoy the same rights subject to certain provisions. all residents, whether spanish subjects or not, must conform with regulations relating to the police and public security. the budget for the zone for 1924-5 was 15,607,500 pesctas. the total trade values, in pese- tas, for 1922 were: imports, 4,367,401; exports, 7,080,413—a favourable trade balance of 2,713,012 pesetas. agriculture in the spanish zone has made progress since 1923, and of the 330,000 hectares of land available for cultivation in the east- ern zone 120,000 have been taken up for production. lemons, oranges, olives andl many cereals are grown. the agrupacien agraria at alcazarquivir has inaugurated a new era of agricultural progress. the spanish zone is served by three railways: ceuta-tetuan, nador-titztutin, larache-alcazar, with a total mileage of 90 miles. public highways have been construcied in the central, eastern and western regions. morocco, campaigns in.—the colonisation of morocco has always been attended by violent encounters with the numer- ous tribes inhabiting that country. since rgro france and spain, the two protecting powers, have both had to contend afresh with native hostility, encouraged and assisted to some extent by agents of germany. the following account of this aspect of moroccan history is given under three headings, namely, i. spanish campaigns; ii. french campaigns; and iii. franco-spanish campaigns. the last deals with the combined action of france and spain against the tribes of the rif. i. spanish campaigns the history of spain in the rif has been one of intermittent warfare ever since, at various dates in the middle ages, she obtained possession of and occupied her ‘ presidios ” on this coast of north africa—mclilla, the zaffarin islands (islas chafarinas), alhucemas, pefion de la gomera and ceuta. con- fined to the narrow limits of these possessions, it was ever spain’s desire to obtain more breathing-room so as to be able to put them to a greater utility than mere penal settlements. at various pcriods, for instance after the spanish moroccan war of 1859-60, the spanish government had demanded and obtained some territorial expansion at ceuta and melilla, but the other points, rocky islands off the coast, remained at the mercy of the tribesmen of the mainland and could only with difficulty be provisioned. as was only natural the relations between the spanish and the rifis were difficult. spanish expansiton.—the loss of her colonics at the end of the 19th century caused spain to seek compensation in africa; and the franco-spanish treaty of 1912, to which great britain was a consenting party, gave her the opportunity she sought. by this treaty the spanish zone in morocco was delimitated and spain’s hands were freed to undertake its occupation. already in 1909 she had fought a costly campaign in the melilla district which had left a comprehensible desire in the spanish army for revenge. in 1912 the occupation of various parts of the spanish zone was begun and in that and the succeeding years tetuan, larache, el qsar (alcazar), and arzila were reached and the morocco, campaigns in - neighbouring districts occupied. at the same time spanish forces marching south and westward from melilla succeeded in penetrating some distance into the rif without meeting with serious resistance. effect of the world war.—the spanish task was at first much facilitated by the world war, during which the spanish zone was used by the germans as a base of active propaganda and action against the french protectorate. money was lavishly distributed amongst the tribesmen for the purpose of raising rif forces for inroads into french territory, and rifi attention was largely withdrawn from the more imminent danger of spanish invasion. the end of the war put a stop to this anti-french action and the rifis, who had received from the germans large sums of money and no small quantity of arms, turned against the spaniards. in r91g gencral berenguer, the spanish high commissioner, was forced to open a campaign in the jibala highlands which led, in the following year, to the occupation of sishawen (sheshuan). raisuli, sherif and ex-brigand, whose influence amongst the tribes was great, facilitated on this occasion spanish action. ‘abdel krim.—further east ‘abdel krim, the son of a beni uryaghel (ouriaghel) chief, had deserted the spanish service and was stirring up resistance to the spaniards in the rif. in 1921 a spanish army of nearly 20,000 men holding the country between melilla and alhucemas was annihilated by the rifis. this disaster, which began with the fall of the advanced post of . anual and the death of general silvestre, leading to a subsequent panic, ended in the loss to spain of all that had been acquired in several years of campaign and diplomacy. at least 16,000 soldiers were killed, after the perpetration upon many of them of every kind of atrocity. melilla itself was for a time at the mercy of the tribesmen, but for some unexplained reason they did not enter the town. these moroccan events led to a crisis in spain and in sept. 1923 the constitutional government was replaced by a military directory under gen. primo de rivera. the situation in africa - was serious. the outlying spanish positions, often cut off alto- gether, were threatened in every direction and the president of the directory recognised that immediate action was necessary if the spanish garrisons and spanish prestige were to be saved. iie decided upon the wise and courageous course of a general withdrawal from the front, including the evacuation of shishawen. it was not until the autumn of 1924 that this difficult manocuvre was accomplished, after considerable loss in men, in artillery and in arms and ammunition. new lines were occupied, passing from the immediate south of tetuan to the fronticr of the tangier zone and thence southward to near fl qsar and the frontier of the french protectorate. the road from tangicr to tetuan was preserved as a couloir, strongly guarded on both sides, through enemy country. the evacuation by the spaniards of those extensive regions added not a little to ‘abdel krim’s influence and prestige. raisuli, ill and bedridden, was taken prisoner by the rifis and died a few months later, a captive at adir, “abdel krim’s headquarters. (w. b. h.) ii. the french campaigns the fez rising which took place in oct. r910 (see morocco, was followed by continued trouble in the fez-sefru district during the autumn of 1911. a new pretender, named el hiba, occupied marrakesh in aug. rg12, but he was expclied in sept. and therepon filed south. in oct. gen. lyautey occupied agadir. fighting in western morocco continued for some months; but this district and that of fez were occupied by the spring of 1913, and the french concentrated their attention on eastern morocco. the important strategic point of taza, which commands communications with algeria, was occupied in may 1914, khenifra captured in june. the world war period—on the outbreak of the world war, the french commander received telegraphic orders from the ministers of foreign affairs and of war (july 27-28 1914) “ to reduce the occupation to the principal points on the coast,’ as “ the fate of morocco would be settled in lorraine,” and asking morocco campaigns english miles 0 50 100 150 kilometres 200 0 50 fete) 200 carriage roads ge a 4 1 ne i a: tnt l 0m, hy eg + ons me — of > any) a er . a i gs ee i sps sy wy a stn ag gate ws tns ns shee me ae gy +4 f & £ ai a s&s < } \\ a my yl tie eo thy a” 4, s . ment be te ia me, ae s pras phe f ie £ % “ae 74 = oo to mw jou ie) hap | wrifn, | € | . ag hee, + i ve 2, % i - py aa if pd < 3 # a> . ~*~ i? » ‘h oy, | ty 2f-e ati lyautey to send all available men and material to the french front. lyautey immediately dispatched 37 battalions and other troops; but refused to evacuate the interior. the tribes round taza, and the zayan in the west, promptly rose, but the kaids of the atlas anc the baskas of tarudant and tiznit in the south near agadir remained friendly, the latter keeping el hiba’s forces in check. the spanish zone was used by the germans as a basis of active propaganda and action against the french protectorate. the tribesmen received lavish donations of arms and money from the germans. throughout rors and ror6 chiefs in german pay conducted a campaign along the wad wergha. nevertheless, the small french force more than held its own. in may and june 1917 abd el malek was driven from taza. on march 24 1917 el hiba was severely defeated at wijan; his force was finally dispersed in the following spring. the tafilelt was definitely occupied at the end of 1917. in aug. 1918 a revolt began among the aid atta, which was sup- pressed by april rorg with the help of el glawi. french activity, 1918-2 3—-aiter the war the french continued their operations, taking the offensive, now on one, now on the other, of their four fronts: the northern (spanish zone; djcbala and rif tribes), the berber (central atlas), the front of the big kaids (el glawi, mi‘tongi, goundafi) and the southern front (kut aissa, tafilelt). in 1919 the 80,000 french troops were successfulin the bu dnib territory in the southeast (jan.-march), on the wenah (northwest) in april, in the taza corridor (june- oct.). in 1920 the chief activity was in the central atlas until sept., when wazzan, in the north, was taken, and operations began in nov. north of agadir. for 1921 the main operations were again planned for the berber front, but in feb. the djebalis, headed by kacem ben salah and abd cl malek, again rose un- morocco, campaigns in arzila hy © ual larache fae *shishaw a sm ees af * *, s . ae oar me $ s ae tt eee ar ax . me 26, ; = 2 <= — a me s e es “ ad * a: o \\. qmeknes .. ca 3 ne a\" f. &, att feige a ° \\ > as \\ qa oc @® *« © (ong.wof oreemmiche) tuan % eo seay ses are we eae % * covent kenadsa fe a tee, 4 expectedly. though reinforced by the beni mestara and the beni mesguilda, they were put down by general poeymirau in april. general aubert settled the beni waghrain question in june, and poeymirau once more filled up the bekrit “‘ pocket ” in the zayan country in the autumn. by the end of 1923 the french zone was pacified, 1923 being especially devoted to wiping out the taza “stain” (fa tache de taza). the last french operations were largely dictated by the need of gain- ing control, for irrigation and other purposes, of the ‘“‘ water castle ” of the central atlas. meanwhile the anti-french sub- ventions ceased and the rifi, now well-armed and financed, turned against the spaniards. (it. be.) ill, the franco-spanish campaign until april r925 the rifi had been at war with spain alone; but the gradual occupation by the french of the northern limits of their protectorate, which reaches as far as the southern bor- ders of the rif, brought a new factor into the field. ‘abdel kerim’s offensive-— abdel krim considered that his country was threatened by this advance and in april he jaunched a furious attack upon the french front to the north of the fez- taza-ujda road, the great highway between the moorish capital — and algeria. under this unexpected blow the french front col- lapsed. the rifi penetrated far behind the lines, forced or per- suaded the surrounding tribes to rebel and pillaged and massa- cred when obedience was refused. the situation became critical. for some reason the french govt. hesitated to send the rein- forcements necessary until the campaign had taken an impor- tance which might have been avoided had more troops been at once available. wazzan and taza were threatened and euro- pean women and children were withdrawn to places of safety. 958 by the end of june, fez, the capital, was in danger. the sul- tan, in order to give confidence by his presence, arrived there in the latter days of that month. the efforts to save i’ez were suc- cessful but many of the rich agricultural districts of this northern part of the french protectorate were overrun and pillaged. wherever it was possible the more distant military posts were evacuated, but many, with their garrisons killed, fell into the hands of the enemy with such artillery and arms and ammuni- tion as was in them, immensely increasing the rifis’ war material. in july the french govt. decided to send marshal petain to take supreme command of the french army, which now numbered over 160,000 men. marshal lyautey remained in charge of the political and administrative government.