{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:missouri:34d3937b8300", "title": "MISSOURI", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "cd82f5c740d2aff693fbcb7fc112f2e06890db1b7b9371d71f401040ae46596b", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "since roro missouri continued her transition from the period of frontier influences, of rapid growth of population and development of natural resources, to the stage of industrial development and growth of urban population. in 1925, however, the interests of the state were still primarily agricultural. the total population in 1920 was 3,404,055 as compared with 3,293,335 in r91o, an increase of 110,720, or 3:4%. the percentage of urban population (in centres of 2,500 or morc) increased from 42:5°% in 1910 to 46-6°% in 1920. the total population in 1926 was estimated by the u.s. bureau of the census at 3,498,143. of the total urban population 79-7° in 1920 was in the three cities of st. louis, kansas city and st. joseph. the rural population showed an absolute decrease in both toro and 1920. the population of the six chief cities was as follows:— esti- cities mate increase | of st. louis kansas city st. joseph . springfield joplin sedalia 772,897 324,410 77939 39,631 29,902 21,144 canocnk a griculture.—in 1924, 32,637,043 ac., or 79-1 °6 of the total area of the state, was in farm lands. the average size of a farm was 125-3 acres. the number of farms operated by owners decreased during 1920-5, from 185,030 to 174,390. in 1919 cereal and hay and forage crops continued to lead. cotton gained from 96,527 ac. in i909 to 110,027 ac. in 1919 and 475,729 in 1925. fruit, primarily apples, continued an important crop. after 1909 the acreage in indian corn decreased to 5,567,079 ac. in rorg, and 5,479,379 in 1924, while the acreage in wheat decreased from 4,564,990 ac. in 1919 to 1,441,071 ac. in 1924. the total value of all farm crops in 1924 was $351,017,000. indian corn was valued at $163,768,000, wheat at $32,756,000 and oats at $21,290,000. increasing progress is ensured by the extensive drainage operation in the southeast, and by the increased interests in improved farming methods and in co-operative or- ganisations. the agricultural college of the state university in co-operation with the federal govt. has been very active in agricultural extension work; on jan. 1 1926 farm-agent work was estabiished in 64 counties. on jan 1 1925 there were on the farms 714,154 horses, 390,046 mules, 1,657,682 beef cattle, 788,311 dairy cattle, 1,181,000 sheep and 3,584,399 swine. mines and quarries.—the slight increase from 1909 to 1919 in the value of these products of only 5:4°% to a total of $33,365,604 was due largely to the post-war depression of the latter year, when it was little more than one-third of the production of 1917, the peak of the war-time stimulation. lead and zinc continued to be the leading products, of a value of $15,879,177 in roro, giving missouri second rank among the states in its production. she ranked third in clay products, with a value of $1,420,585, missouri and second in barytes ($527,817). the other important procicts were coal ($12,077,845) and limestone ($2,355.736). since 1923 there has been a marked recovery both in amount produced and in value of mine and quarry products, especially in lead and zine. manufactures.—in 1921 the total value of manufactured products was $1,162,006,299, whereas in 1923 the figures were $1,547,167,429, representing an increase of 33-:1°%. sixteen industries in 1923 had a product valued at more than $30,000,- ooo each. slaughtering and meat-packing continued to furnish the largest single item—$152,916,678 of the total; motor vehicles were second with $137,447,034; boots and shoes third with $121,830,354. other important industries were foundries and machine shops $44,086,595, railway cars $38,191,307 and bread and bakery products $40,888,216. the two cities of st. louis and kansas city gave employment to over half the wage-earners and produced two-thirds of the total values of the state, st. louis contributing over half the latter item. government.—the movements to adjust the conservative con- stitution of 1875 to the problems of a modern state were the chief developments. of 42 constitutional amendments sub- mitted 1910-8, only one, permitting pensions for the blind, was adopted. the opposition to state prohibition (defeated in 1910, 1916 and 1918), and to the single tax (defeated in 10912 and 1918), contributed to the distrust of all amendments. but in 1920 nine amendments out of 13 proposed were adopted, in- cluding a provision for a constitutional convention; in 1921 all the three proposed, including the soldier bonus of $15,000,000, in 1922 two out of three, and in 1924 one of four, were adopted. the executive department was expanded by legislation by the creation of a food and drug commissioner, 1go9, a public service commission, 1913, a state highway dept., 1917 and a tax commission, 1917. the public service commission with real powers of regulation marked a departure from the earlier missouri practice of leaving the regulation of public utilities to local city boards. consolidation of executive departments, urged by gov. hadley and begun in 1917, was enacted on a comprchensive scale, including a budget dept. in rg21, but all the laws were defeated by referendum in 1922. constitutional convention.—the convention, approved by popular vote in 1921, and elected on a bi-partisan basis in 1922, was in session 266 days between may 15 1922 and oct. § 1923. it formulated and submitted to a special election on feb. 26 1924, 21 constitutional amendments, embodying a comprchensive revision of the constitution. all the more important proposals were rejected by the people. of the seven amendments adopted, all but one dealt with very minor or special problems. this one was a revision of the article on the legislative dept.; the main changes were the division of the state into senatorial «listricts by the governor, secretary of state, attorney-gencral, auditor and treasurer, instead of by the general assembly; increase of pay of state legislators; authorisation of the pensioning of mothers, and (by cities) of disabled firemen and policemen, and of a workingmen’s compensation law. missouri ratified the six- teenth amendment to the federal constitution (income tax) in 1909, the seventeenth (direct election of u.s. senators) in 1917, the eighteenth (prohibition) and the nineteenth (woman suf- frage) in 1919. missouri remained conservative in social legisla- tion; and a workmen’s compensation law in 1920 and 1921 was defeated by the referendum. it was again defeated when proposed by the initiative in 1924. a fairly comprehensive but very mod- crate act was passed in 1913 for the health and safety of employ- ces, including limitation of hours for women. the compulsory school-attendance law of 1919 incidentally limited child labour. revenute.—the revenue, inelastic through constitutioral limitations, proved increasingly inadequate after 1910, until the unpaid current obligations in 1917 totalled over $2,000,000. attempts to secure relief for special purposes such as schools and good roads by constitutional amendments had all failed. the assembly of 1917 passed new indirect taxcs, a state income tax, a corporation franchise tax, a direct inheritance tax, “ soft ” drinks stamps and wholesale liquor dealers’ licences, which yielded together nearly $2,400,000 in 1917-9. to secure missouri river—molnar greater uniformity in taxation and increased revenue the basis of assessed valuation was raised in 1921 to a (nominal) 100% of actual value. education.—missouri appropriates one-third of the general revenue to the support of public schools, amounting to $1,618,- 341 in 1910 and $3,219,163.35 in 1925. to this must be added $187,040, the interest on the state’s common school fund of $3,159,000. the estimated total expenditure for public schools from state and local sources rose (1910-25) from $13,905,188 to $48,760,059. the permanent county, municipal and township school funds increased from $9,825,991 in 1910 to $12,720,879 in 1925. the average daily attendance at the public schools rose from 490,374 in 1910 to 595,305 in 1925. although the public schools continued to lack sufficient revenue, there was much constructive iecgislation, especially as to the rural schools. additional aid was given to rural schools (1909, 1911, 1915) and to high schools (1913) in the poorer districts. ‘the requirements for teachers’ certificates was raised in 1911 and 1921, and pro- vision made for the training of teachers in the high school (1913). an effective compulsory attendance law was passed in rg1o. the enrolment in the state university at columbia and rolla increased from 3,083 {165 at the school of mines at rolla) in tolr to 5,604 (506 at rolla) in 1925. an extension division was organised in 1913; and a school of commerce in 1914, which was expanded in 1916 to include public administration. roads.—the state highway system dates from the hawes act (1917), passed to take advantage of federal aid, and the centen- nial road act (1921). the latter outlined the system and pro- vided for the expenditure of a $60,000,000 bond issue approved by popular vote in 1920. automobile fees (1922) and a gasolene tax (1924) provided additional funds. of the total mileage of 7.640 projected, on jan. 1 1926, 33 % had been hard-surfaced and 573% graded preparatory to surfacing. the work completed represents an expenditure of $73,540,686. iistory.— gov. hadley was a leading supporter of roosevelt for the republican nomination in 1912, though supporting tait in the election. wilson that year received 330,746 votes, taft 207,821, roosevelt 124,371. in 1916 wilson defeated hughes by 28,693, but the democratic candidate for governor defeated the republican by only 2,263. in 1918, however, folk, the demo- cratic candidate for u.s. senator, ran 35,283 behind spencer (rep.). the disorganisation in the local democratic party was increased by the opposition of senator reed to the league of nations and, with the general national reaction, resulted in 1920 in the election of a republican state administration and a republican majority in both houses of the assembly for the first time since 1870, and in a presidential majority for hardirg over cox of 152,363. senator reed (dem.) was re-elected in 1922, but in the presidential election of 1924 coolidge defeated davis by 75,733, and baker defeated his democratic rival for the governorship by 5,872. recent governors have been herbert s. hadley (rep.), 1909-13; elliot w. major (dem.), 1913-7; frederic d. gardner (dem.), r9i7-21; arthur m. hyde (rep.), 1921-5; sam a, baker (rep.), 1925- (j. vr.) missouri river: see mississippi river. mistral, frederic (1830-1014), provencal poet (see 18.616), in 1906 published a provencal translation of genesis and olivades in 1912, a collection of provencal poems. his memoirs appeared, under the title afes origtnes, in 1906. he died at maillane, near marseilles, march 25 1914. see p. brousse, frederic mistral (1903); e. lefevre, bibliographie mistralienne (1903); h. j. boeken, frederic afistral (1910); j. brochet, frederic mistral (1910); j. charles-roux, le jubile de fr. afistral (1912); e. ripert, la versification de frederic mistral (1917); p, lasserre, frederic mistral (1918); j. vincent, frederic mistral: sa vie et son influence (1918). mitchell, peter chalmers (1864- ), british zoolo- gist, was born at dunfermline nov. 23 1864, and was educated at aberdeen university, christ church, oxford and at berlin and leipzig. from 1888-91 he was university demonstrator in comparative anatomy at oxford, and for the next two ycars 937 was organising secretary for technical instruction to the oxford- shire county council. he subsequently occupied posts as lec- turer in biology at charing cross hospital and at the london hospital, and was in 1903 appointed secretary to the zoological society of london. he also did much useful work as a member of the committees on fishery investigations and on sleeping sickness. during the world war he was attached to the imperial general staff and in 1918 acted as liaison officer to the war office and to the british war mission. he was elected f.r.s. in 1906. his publications include outlines of biology (1894), the biological problem of to-day (1896), thomas henry hitx- ley (1900), the nuture of man (1904), the childhood of animais (1912), evolution and the war (1915) and various scientific memoirs in the anatomical journal, the quarterly journal of microscopical science, etc. mitchell, silas weir (1830-1914), american physician and author (see 18.618), died in philadelphia, pa., jan. 4 1914. after ro10 he published john sherwood, iron master (1911), hwestways (1913) and complete poems (1914). modernism: see fundamentalism. modjeski, ralph (1861- ), american engineer, was born at cracow, poland, jan 27 1861, his mother being the actress, helena modjeska. he graduated at the ecole des ponts et chaussees, paris, with high honours, and settled in the united states. from 1892 he practised as consulting bridge engineer at chicago and as a designer and builder of bridges he did distin- guished work. among his best known bridges are the govt. bridge over the mississippi at rock island; the mckinley bridge at st. louis; the bridges over the mississippi at thebes, ill., and at memphis, tenn.; the northern pacific bridge over the missouri at bismarck, n.d.; also bridges over the columbia and willam- ette rivers in oregon. he was a member of the quebcc bridge commission, and consulting engineer for the ohio river bridge at metropolis, iil., for the chicago, burlington and quincy railroad, and the thames river bridge at new haven, conn., for the new york, new haven and hartford railroad. he was chosen chief engineer and chairman of the board of engineers on the philadelphia-camden bridge over the delaware river, which, on its completion, in 1926, was the longest suspension bridge in the world. mohammedanism: sce caliphate; mahommedanism;, pan- islamism. | mohn, henrik (1835-1016), norwegian meteorologist, was born at bergen may 15 1835, and was educated at the cathedral school in that town and at the university of christiania (oslo). in 1861 he became observer at christiania university, where in 1866 he was elected professor of meteorology and from 1866- 1913 was director of the norwegian meteorological institute which he had been largely instrumental in founding. he carried out much valuable meteorological work, collaborating in 1876-8 with the mathematician guldberg in a study of the dynamics of the atmosphere and subsequently extending his investigations to the subject of storms, the meteorology and oceanography of the northern atlantic, the climate of norway, and use of the hypsometer. mohn also worked out and published the meteoro- logical observations of various polar expeditions, including those of nansen and amundsen. he died at christiania sept. 12 1916. molesworth, mary louisa (1839-1921), british writer (see 18.660), died in london july 20 1921. molnar, ferencz (1878- _—+), ‘hungarian dramatise, was born jan. 12 1878 in budapest. after studying in that city and at geneva, he entered journalism and attracted notice by writing short stories, novels and some brilliant farces. his best novel is the pdl-street boys in which child life is portrayed with much humour and power of characterisation. his chief metter, however, was the drama. ilis first successful play, the devil (1907), was exported and, produced in turin by zacconl, led to a great demand abroad for modern hungarian plays. the principal features of molnar’s dramatic works are a keen romantic sense of composition, brilliant technique and a witty and satirical representation of humble life. during the world 938 war molnfr was a prominent war correspondent of the central powers. his plays include liliom (1910); the lifeguardsman (1911); carneval (1917). moltke, helmuth von (1848-1916), german soldier, was born in gersdorf, mecklenburg, may 23 1848, being the nephew of the famous count von moltke (sce 18.677). from 1902 to 1904 he commanded the 1st div. of the guards corps and 1n 1906 be- came chicf of the gencral staff of the army. at the beginning of the world war he was the principal director of the german operations, and it is now known that his plans were based principally on the teachings of his predecessor, general von schlieffen. his modifications of the latter's plans seem to have been, on the whole, unwise, and on him has been placed the responsibility for the german defeat at the battle of the marne. on nov. 3 1914 his health being seriously impaired, he was re- lieved of his post to make way for general von falkenhayn and was appointed chief of the home general staff in berlin. he died suddenly, during a function in the reichstag building, berlin, june 18 1916. the following works by him were published after his death: erinnerungen, briefe, dokumente, 1877-1916 (1922), aufseichnungen, bricfe, schriften, reden (1923). mombasa (see 18.682), the chief port of kenya colony, east africa, had a population (1921) of 36,846, of whom 656 were europeans and 7,574 british indians. in 1924 the population had increased to 42,000 (821 europeans). mombasa harbour takes vessels up to 30 ft. draft, but is used mainly by coasting steamers and dhows; the principal harbour is kilindini, at the southwest end of mombasa island. spacious and land-locked kilindini accommodates vessels of any size and takes all the traffic of the uganda railway. a deep- water wharf with two berths provided with all facilities for loading and unloading, built by the government at a cost of over £1,000,000, was completed in 1926. much of the cargo had still, however, to be handled by lighters and the administration acquired large areas for development purposes. steamers entering kilindini in 1924 numbered 372 (226 british); over 1,400 sailing vessels, mostly arab dhows, entered mombasa harbour. see the fast african red book (nairobi, 1925). monaco (sec 18.684), had a population in 1913 of 22,956. in 1911 prince albert of monaco granted the principality a con- stitution, providing for a national council of 21 members, elected for four years by universal suffrage and scruein de liste. govern- ment is in the hands of a ministry assisted by a council of state, acting under the authority of the prince; and legislative power rests with the prince and the national council. the territory of monaco, which has an area of 8 sq. m., is divided into three communes: monaco, la condamine and monte carlo, each of which is administered by a municipal authority. on june 26 1922 prince louis ii. (b. 1870) succeeded his father, albert, as prince of monaco. the principality exports olive oil, citrons, oranges and _ per- fumes, importing in exchange coal and wine. the principal part of its revenue still comes, however, from the gaming tables. in 1917 £80,000 was paid to the govt. by the concessionaires; and a scale was arranged providing for the payment of £90,000 in 1927 and £100,000 in 1937. monash, sir john (1865- ), australian soldier, was born in melbourne june 27 1865, and educated at scotch college and melbourne university. he graduated in arts, engineering and law, and became a successful engineer. he was also inter- ested, as a volunteer, in military work, and at the outbreak of the world war held the rank of colonel. he went to the front in command of the 4th bde. of the a.i.f.; took part in the land- ing at gallipoli on april 25 1915, being thrice mentioned in dis- patches; and after the evacuation on dec. 19 1915, served in the suez canal zone till april 1916. he was then given a brigade in france and commanded the 3rd div. which fought at messines and passchendaele. in may 1918 he succeeded sir william birdwood as commander of the australian army corps. although not a professional soldier, he showed a thorough grasp of the principles of the new warfare, and by his brilliant leadership materially contributed to the failure and final collapse of the moltke—money market german offensive of t918. this campaign he lucidly described in phe australian wvictortesin france, 1918. ile was made k.c.b. in 1918 and after the war became manager of victoria’s morwell electricity scheme. mond, sir alfred moritz (1868- ), british politician, was born at farnworth, near widnes, lancs., oct. 23 1868, the son of the famous chemist ludwig mond (see 18.693). he was educated at cheltenham and st. john’s college, cambridge, and afterwards at edinburgh university. in 1894 he was called to the bar, and afterwards joined the north wales and chester circuit. efe entered the firm of brunner, mond and co., becom- ing a director in 1895, and also became chairman of the mond nickel co. and a director of the south staffordshire mond gas co. and various other companies. he was elected to parliament in 1906 as liberal member for chester, losing his seat in 1g10, but the same year was elected for swansea and created a baronet. in 1913 he was sworn of the privy council. on the formation of mr. lloyd george’s ministry in 1916 sir alfred mond became iirst commissioner of works, and in 1921 minister of health. he lost his seat at the general election of 1923, but was returned for carmarthen in oct. 1924. in jan. 1926, owing to his pro- found disagreement with the principles embodied in mr. lloyd george’s lanl policy, sir alfred mond seceded from the liberal party and declared his intention of transferring his allegiance to the conservative party. he published many articles on the alkali trade in scientific and economic journals, besides a volume of essays, ouestions of to-day and to-morrow (1912). money market (sce 17.732).—in no direction were the ef- fects of the world war more striking or far reaching than in the london money market: the great increase in banking de- posits, partly as the result of inflation, was but one of the many effects produced by the war upon its dimensions, machinery and general status. even at the end of 1925 the market was stillina transition state, though in such matters as the size of the floating debt and the value of sterling as related to new york currency there were not wanting signs of a return to more normal con- ditions. it has always been regarded as an essential point in the london money market that the bank of england, while constituting the centre and pivot of the svstem, should remain a private and independent central institution without state control. in prin- ciple, that position was still maintained tn 1925, but there were many influences operating during the war which at times made the distinction between a state bank and a private central bank somewhat difficult to determine. the introduction of currency notes, the great size of the floating debt, the growth in the na- tional debt, and, not least, the fact that shortly ‘after the out- break of war the state, through the bank of england, discounted practically all foreign commercial bills in lombard street ‘ with- out recourse,” were all developments tending in that direction, as leading to a domination of the money market by the state owing to the magnitude of its financial operations. some idea of the closeness of relations between the state and the bank during the war and post-war periods may be gathered from the fact that on more than one occasion the chancellor of the ex- chequer was asked questions in parliament relating to bank rate policy, as though that policy had been inspired by the government rather than by the bank court. on each occasion the chancellor very definitely disclaimed such responsibility, but it was none the less recognised that of necessity the con- nection between the treasury and the bank of england was more intimate than it had been before 1orq. following the virtual disappearance of the commercial bill during the war period came the huge flotations of government treasury bills. the effect of this was to make government operations still further dominate the course of the money market at the expense of the normal power of the bank of england. the potential power to create credit through borrowings on “ways and means ” was among the factors which, during the war, gave the government almost complete control over the money market, and which in the post-war period, greatly re- tarded its return to normal conditions. the de facto abandonment money market of the gold standard at the beginning of the war and the unre- stricted issue of currency notes were further circumstances ma- terially affecting the london money market, particularly the powcr of the bank to exert its normal control over the situation through movements in bank rate. with the inflation of the currency the bank rate lost its power to attract gold, and the exchanges fluctuated widely. market conditions —while no actual change took place during the period rgro to 1925 in the general construction of the money market, and while the bank of england continued to be the pivot of the monetary system, there were many important respects in which the money market was still abnormal at the end of 1925. in at least three important respects money market conditions were wholly abnormal when compared with the pre- war period. in the first place, the volume of commercial bills in lombard street was small as compared with the pre-war period. this was only partly due to trade depression, for the disarrangement of international credit machinery by the war, the fact that for many years international commercial transac- tions were conducted more or less on a cash basis, and, in smaller measure, the growth of the new york money market, were also responsible. in the second place, there existed an outstanding volume of treasury bills to the amount of about £635,000,000 as compared with a standing total in the pre-war days of under £20,000,000. this huge volume of government floating debt, together with the annual service of the national debt, which approached {400,000,000 (including the sinking fund) as com- pared with the pre-war figures of about £23,000,000 and the greatly increased national expenditure, which was about £8oo,- 000,000 as compared with {200,000,000 previous to the war, exercised a dominating influence upon the course of the money market. this, in its turn, brought the state and the bank of england into still closer relation, and heavy borrowing by the government at certain periods of the year to pay interest on debt increased the difficulty of making the bank rate effective. in the third place, although great britain had returned to the gold standard, there was, in addition to the bank of england note circulation regulated by the act of 1844, a government currency note issue to the extent of about £300,000,000, of which only a small part was covered by bank of england notes, which exercised a disturbing influence upon the normal relations be- tween the bank of england and the outside money market. the position of london previous tothe war london held unchallenged the position both of the leading monetary centre and of the world’s bunker. three- fourths of international bills of exchange were drawn upon lon- don, but, by reason of britain’s wealth and the supremacy of her banking system, london was the centre in which foreign countries raised their permanent loans. as a result of the war these conditions were greatly modified, and for the time being america may be said to have challenged london’s position of chief lender to foreign countries. during the war dealings in bills of exchange were almost suspended, international transac- tions being effected on a cash basis through the foreign exchanges, and, with new york as the one free gold centre during the war, there was a tendency for international transactions to take dollar rather than sterling form. also, by reason of the favourable trade balance obtained during the war years, her gold accumu- lations and her improved banking system, the united states not only became independent of banking aid from london, but, with the return to more normal conditions after the war, be- came the country with the largest margin of surplus resources available for foreign investment. nevertheless, it was the london money market which took the jead, under the auspices of the league of nations, in financ- ing the reconstruction of certain of the central european states. with a view to maintaining the level of sterling exchange, how- ever, a semi-official restriction was placed for a period upon british loans to foreign countries, and it was not until the end of 1925 that the embargo on foreign loans was completely re- 939 moved. it was, however, more in the direction of long-dated loans than in general moncy market facilities that relations be- tween london and other centres were temporarily modified; and, while there was a great reduction in bills of exchange dealt in in lombard street, foreign exchange dealings, which assumed colossal dimensions in the post-war period, tended to centre in london. relations with other afoney amfarkets—a further circumstance, however, which materially affected the relations of the london money market with other centres, and more especially with european centres, was the chaotic condition in many of the euro- pean countries after the war. this naturally disturbed the whole international credit system throughout europe, of which london may be said to have been the centre. not only, however, were there indications ai the end of 1925 of an increase jn the general volume of european international trade, but it was also clear that the london money market was holding its old premicr posi- tion in financing such operations. it should also be noted that, in unison with new york, london was responsible for recon- structing and setting in motion once again the banking and finan- cial machinery at other european centres, notably in germany and austria. results of the world war in considering the conditions under which the money market was working after the end of the world war, the changed economic position of great britain in rclation to other nations, and especially in relation to the united states, must be borne in mind. with a large visible adverse trade balance, with huge gold accumulations in the united states, with an improved bank- ing system in america as compared with the pre-war period, and with america as a large lender to other countries, it had yet to be demonstrated how far and how quickly the london money market would be able to resume its position, not only as the leading monetary centre but as the centre most able to control the furcign exchanges by movements in the bank rate. viewed from the standpoint of actual figures as measured by the wealth of america and of great britain, and measured also by the gen- eral movements of trade, the task seemed to be an impossible one. measured, however, by the actual progress made by great britain during the post-war period, in spite of the enormous strain suffered, the problem wore a more hopeful aspect. great britain is still in the position of one of the largest, if not the larg- est, holders of foreign securities, while her shipping and financial activilies contribute powerfully to her invisible exports. by general consent a great step forward towards a return to normal conditions in the money market was achieved by the return to the gold standard in 1925; but much depended upon whether, in addition to the activities of the london money market and lombard street, the industrial activitics of the country were so organised and arranged as to enable great britain to hold the position in international trade which she had occupied before ihe war and upon which the prosperity of the money market was largely based. the discount houses-——the discount houses and the bill brokers remained a very important part of the money market, though their business, especially as regards the discount houses themselves, was somewhat jess strictly confined to bills even before the outbreak of the world war. the deposit business of the discount houses grew materially in the post-war years, and in the matter of fixed deposits they competed somewhat keenly with the banks, upon whom, however, they were still largely dependent for regular weekly loans. during the period of the war, and as a consequence of the virtual disappearance of the ordinary commercial and bank bills, the business of the discount houses and bill brokers may be said to have been confined to treasury bills, and, owing to that fact and the abandonment for some years of the gold standard the expert knowledge both of bills and of international financial conditions was probably less required than at any time in the history of the london money market. with the gradual diminution of the volume of treasury bills, the growth in the supply of commercial bills and 940 mongolia—mongolia, palaheontologic discoverils in the return to the gold standard, the need for this expert know]- edge reasserted itself, and there was little doubt that in the future the discount market would continue to exercise its old and impor- tant functions in the london moncy market. this, indeed, was the more probable by reason of the fact that, in spite of the improvement in the banking system in the united states, the discount market at new york had not assumed any great impor- tance. meanwhilc, however, owing to the fact that the growth in the volume of commercial bills had not been commensurate with the decline in the supply of treasury bills, the london dis- count market earned no small amount of its profits by jobbing in short-term government securities on the stock exchange. moreover, the fact that the joint stock banks during 1924 and 1925 charged the bill market for weekly loans at a level of 1% below bank rate, whereas for many years the custom was to make the charge 13% below bank rate, somewhat adversely affected the discount houses and bill brokers. in one respect, conditions in the discount market had not altered greatly from the pre-war period, namely in the dependence of the market, and especially of the bill brokers, upon the bank of england for assistance at the end of each half-year. on these occasions the joint stock banks cail in heavily their short loans from the discount market, and, in connection with what has been described as half-yearly window dressing in the shape of the half-yearly and annual balance sheets, it has become customary for the dis- count market to have to borrow from the bank of england dur- ing the closing days of each half-year something like £30,000,000. the loans are usually for a period of a week to 10 days, and are almost invariably repaid within the prescribed period (see also banking; currency; stock exchange). bibliography.—hartley withers, war and lombard street (1915); the meaning of money, (1916), and war-time financial problems (1919); f. lavington, the english captial market (1921); r. g. hawtrey, currency and credit, 2nd ed. (1923), and monetary reconstruction (1923). (a. w. kx.) mongolia (see 18.711}.—in inner mongolia the most im- portant political development is the japanese claim to the eastern section as part of her sphere of influence. the history of outer mongolia, however, has been extremely chequered. in the main, there have been, as for a number of years past, three factors at work: mongol restlessness under foreign control, and china and russia. both of the latter, no matter what their government, have persisted in an ambition to control the country. at the time of the revolution in china, in tort, there was a growing unrest among the mongol princes against san-to, the manchu amban at urga, for the latter had adopted a vigorous policy of resisting russian intluence and of increasing the power of china through the promotion of chinese immigration and trade and the strengthening of chinese garrisons. the mongol princes therefore took advantage of the disorder occasioned in china by the overthrow of the monarchy to oust the amban and his subordinate (dec. 1911), to declare their independence, and to set up the urga hutukhtu (living buddha) as their ruler. this gave russia her opportunity, and on nov. 3 1912 an agree- ment was signed between the tsar’s govt. and that in urga, whereby the former pledged its assistance in maintaining the independence of the latter, and the privileges of russians in mongolia were confirmed and extended. china naturally was dissatisfied with this arrangement, and negotiations followed between china and russia. these resulted, nov. 5 1913, in an exchange of notes whercby china recognised mongolian auton- omy and russia recognised chinese suzerainty over mongolia. on june 7 1915, after nine months of negotiations, there was signed at kiakhta a tripartite agreement between russia, china and the urga government. by the terms of this agreement chinese suzerainty was to be represented at urga by a resident- general with deputies at three other places, but outer mongolia was to remain autonomcus under the virtual protectorate of russia. upon the collapse of the old regime in russia the chinese took steps to increase their power in mongolia, and in 1g1g hsu shu-tseng (‘‘ little hsu,” assassinated dec. 1925) was appointed ‘defence commissioner.” je arrived in urga in oct. roto, and within a few wecks coerced the mongols into a cancellation of their autonomy. the tyranny of his rule, however, created unrest. hsu lost his position after the overthrow at peking of the clique to which he belonged, the anfu club, in the summer of 1920, but the feeling against the chinese continued, and after one unsuccessful attempt in oct. 1920 baron ungern von stern- berg, leading a force made up of several nationalities and profess- ing bitter antagonism to the “ reds ” of russia, early in feb. 1921 drove the chinese out of urga. the living buddha now returned to urga, and an independent mongol govt. was pro- claimed with the hutukhtu as ruler and ungern as chief military adviser. ungern, who was probably mentally unbalanced, was extremely cruel to his enemies, and it is not surprising that he was defeated by red forces, suffered from a revolt of his troops, was captured by mongols (aug. r92t) and executed by the soviet authorities. red troops now organised a government at urga, and although the living buddha (died may 20 1924) was acknowledged as spiritual chief, and russia technically recognised the new government as independent, soviet troops remained in urga. a treaty of nov. 5 1921 provided for russian iniluence. the chinese naturally objected to this renewal of mongolian independence under russian “ protection,” and the situation became an obstacle in the negotiations between china and the soviet government. in the agreement between china and russia, signed may 31 1924, russia recognised outer mongolia as an integral part of china and agreed to withdraw her troops. in 1925 the soviet govt. announced that the withdrawal had been completed, but the influence of russia was still far greater than that of china. (see china.) brntiograpny.—m. p. price, siberia (1912); outer afongolia: treaties and agreements (carnegie endowment for inter. peace. div. of inter. law. pamphlet 41 (washington, 1921); w. kara- muishey, afongolia and western china: social and economic study (la libraire francaise, tientsin, 1925). (he tas) mongolia, palaeontologic discoveries in (sce 20.570). —an important new chapter in palacontology and geology, in the life history of the earth, has been opened by the discoveries of the mongolian expeditions of the american muscum of natural history under the leadership of roy chapman andrews. the most recent discoveries of 1925 reveal manin three or four culture levels of the stone age. during the year 1924 andrews projected a new five-year expedition, to be known as the central asiatic expeditions of the american museum of natural history, add- ing to the staff a botanist, an archacologist and three expert {opographers. with the full consent of the mongol officials of the urga govt., the expedition of 1925 completed a sur- vey of outer mongolia, extending their reconnaissance northwest in the direction of uhassutai. palaeontologic discoverics, 1922-—5.—central asia, especially the region east and south of chinese turkestan, had long remained the ferra incognita of geography, geology and palacontology. in 1900 the present writer predicted that this unknown region, rather than the well-known asiatic provinces of the south, such as the siwalik hills of india explored by falconer (1831-42), would prove to be the chief centre of mammalian origin and dis- tribution, from which radiated waves of mammalian life to the continents of europe and of north america. the explorations of the american museum of natural history have not only completely verified this prediction but have revealed the central asiatic plateau as the chief home of the terrestrial dinosaurian reptiles of cretaceous time. the epicontinental geologic column of mongolia, heretofore an entire blank, has been largely filled by the geologists berkey, morris and granger during three sea- sons of explorations, 1922-3 and 1925, and in the remaining three years of the central asiatic expeditions the remaining blanks may be successfully filled. the palaeontologic column, as it is known in 1925, is shown in table i. through these discoveries the quaternary, the tertiary and the cretaccous epicontinental formations, corresponding alto- gether with the unique “ han-hai ” beds of richthofen (1877) mongolia: palaeontological discoveries in plate i, cretaceous and tertiary formations, gobi desert, as discovered by the central asiatic expeditions up to 1926 rf hsanda gol formation, tsagan nor basin. altai mountains in the distance; in the foreground, ravine where skull of the giant baluchitherium grangeri was ound. iric. 2. ardyn obo formation of lower oligocene age. brontops gobiensis life-zone, on the uliassutai trail. mongoliense life-zone, of upper eocene age. near ula usu, on the uliassutai trail. fic. 3. shara murun formation, protitanotherium escarpment. ig. 5 . ic. 4. same as fig. 2. american museum camp at the left, at the foot of the f . ashile formation, oshih basin. psiftacosaurus life-zone of upper jurassic age. fic. 6. djadokhta formation. profoceratops andrewsi life-zone, of middle cretaceous age, where forty nests of fossilised dinosaur eggs were discovered. eastern altai mountains. fic. 7. the flaming cliffs of shabarakh usu. dinosaur beds of the djadokhta horizon, containing the fossil nests (see fig. 6 above). camel transport of the central asiatic expeditions, 1925, in the foreground. hase ur mongolia: palacontological discoveries 1n u. pleistocene = 1000. 7 noes : aon 5 po {hung kureh en x 2) -— ane, f 3 ‘ / : f himalaya er rs ( baluchitherium . ~ \\ aqui pe ne * ae peek) jm ae ae laos eee ae a ao | we is see ie ' pe . ~ a he ye mts of n china manha 100 1ugo. ao lt) cay 5 kholocrolchi netoe ads [gashato 3 velocivaptor _ saurornithoides x58 protoceratops owe eemee? bia —- oo struthiominas ae a ye eee ak ateente | djadorhta as ree ee, ae ( cretaceous iren oabasu es 2 ly a] : « ne > + sas ‘ wo e so ner ak ~~ ~ . ~ tm~ % s protiguonodon uncer the oirection of henry fairfielo osborn reptilian and mammalian life succession tn the gobt desert as discovered by the central asiatic expeditions to the end of the year 1925. lett to right, first column: four periods of mountain uplift. (1) post-jurassic mountains of mongolia, forming by erosion the chief floor of the present gobi desert; (2) probable tertiary uplift of the mountains of northern china bordering the gobi on the south; (3) uplhit, probably culminating in miocene time, of the himalaya mountains bordering the central asiatic plateaus on the southwest; (4) upper pliocene uplift of the altai mountains in the middle of the central asiatic plateau. second column: ten ter- tiary formations extending from lower pleistocene to paleocene time, also five cretaceous formations extending from middle cretaceous to upper jurassic time. third column: animals. reproduced to untiorm scale, chieily characteristic of each formation and life-zone, some of which are represented by complete skeletons, others by skulls, still others by highly characteristic teeth (e.g., the giant sauropod asiatosaurus and the theropod predeinoden). mongolia, palaeontologic discoveries in table i. stone age, tertiary and cretaceous formations of mongolia | in descending order regions altai piedmont altai piedmont orok nor basin . tsagan nor basin eastern alta: mts. iren dabasu basin eastern altai mts. eastern altai mts. iren dabasu basin orok nor basin . ulhiassutai trail ulhiassutai trail uhiassutai trail uliassutai trail shara murun basin tren dabasu basin {ren dabasu basin. kholobolchi nor basin eastern altai mts. eastern altai mts... n. e. of shabarakh usu iren dabasu basin oshih basin . tsagan nor basin and the “‘ gobi sere: hy i al ia 2 +, fic. 1.—map cf mongolia showing the routes of the central asiatic expeditions of formations and thickness probable or estimated estimated in feet shabarakh usu 50’ geologic age human culture, mammal and 941 4+ | upper palaeolithic reptile life-zones ?azilian-campignian orok nor 5’-40 middle palaeolithic ? aurignacian-mlousterian lower palaeolithic ?acheulean or ?eolithic khunuk 27'-120' lower pleistocene ?equus. ?afastodon tsagan nuru 9°, lower pleistocene peguus, ?struthiolithus gochu 1000' { ilung kureh 1000’ + | upper pliocene to lower pleistocene hlipparion. camelus zone pang kiang 500\" ?miocene; age doubtful rodents. ?ochotona loh 100’—1000' middle miocene mastodon (serridentinus) zone ilsanda gol 3000 middle to bdpper oligocene baluchithertum grangeri zone houldjin 30'-50\" middle to upper oligocene baluchitherium grangeri zone [legen o’~200' ?middle to upper oligocene ?mammals undetermined baron sog 5/-30' ?middle oligocene ?large titanothercs ulan gochu 2'-60' ?lower oligocene ?large titanotheres ardyn obo 500’ ?lower oligocene brontops gobrensis zone shara murun 200’+| summit of eocene pratitanotherium mongoliense zone amynodon mongoliensis tukhum 50’+| upper eocene ? fitanotheres irdin manha ?100’ upper eocene eudinoceras, andrewsarchus zone arshanto 40'- 100° ?middle eocene lophiodonts, schlosseria zone kholobolchi 1000’+| ?lower eocene coryphodon zone gashato 300° basal eocene (paleocene) prodinoceras zone, palaeostylops djadokhta 500’ middle cretaceous protoceratops « andrewsi zone dohoin usu 200° + dinosauria, crocodilia, chelonta ?zone iren dabasu 1&0’ lower cretaceous ?wealkden i suanodont. ornithoniimidae ashile 2000’ upper jurassic psittacosaurus zone al siatosaurus prodeinodon ondai sair 500' upper jurassic protiguanodon zone | ” of obruchev (1892-1909), have been sub- divided by the american museum party into from 15 to 23 dis- tinct geologic formations more or less rich in animal hfe, con- nected with either western europe or north america, the ter- tiary with a total estimated thickness of from 6,500 to g,oo0 ft. and the cretaceous with an estimated thickness of 3,380 it., as tel rae ss, ue ¢ voted yt ‘a 4, se \\ ~ mii n i hn v\" i} vif ey hs ae shown in table i. the season of 1925, in which the most welcome discovery was abundant evidence of the stone age in mongolia, below the iron, bronze and the neolithic, namely, culture levels of upper palaeolithic (?azilian-campignian), of (?mousterian) and of lower palaeolithic (?acheulean) time. s, upe “ed this table includes results up to the end of middle palaeolithic no wh le =~ patepete es a @ zmarg 1 oe tren ( dabasu— j s “jrden in manha 1922-3, slanting lines indicate mountain areas; the unshaded area is tlie gobi desert. 942 human fossils were found; the industrial levels are not as yet precisely determinable, but the chief anthropological fact is established that stone age tribes spread over the southern gobi desert region during pleistocene time. this accords with the prior discovery (1923) by licent and teilhard of the mousterian revit yy utibetias “di fic, 2.—gobia (grabau), a theoretic upper jurassic continent in the heart of central asia. to the extreme south, the gondwana continent (suess). to the north, the theoretic continent of angara (suess). industry in the ordos region of china. equipment, personnel and ifinerary.—it was in 1920 that r. c. andrews first crossed the broad level mongolian plains and mm ire) wien j onda sair “o ioe os, ; : ag la. ihe *. pahite sitet | ay os fo f mehl t reference cretaceous & tertiary sediments late palaeozoic poek tee a great mongolian bathylith meee aen early froterozoic and arch#ozoic s wl ee mongolia, palalontologic discoveries in conceived the plan of a camel caravan for heavy transportation of gasolene and supplies, with light and heavy automobiles for detour and reconnaissance work. the camel caravans, composed of from 150 to 250 animals under mongol drivers, averaged from 12tors m.aday; the automobile trains proved capable of 10 times this speed, carrying an american party of from eight to 12 mem- bers, 12 chinese helpers and an equal number of mongols. the expedition had the advantage of speed over the work of pre- vious explorers, who had entered or crossed the desert with cam- els only, namely, raphael pumpelly (1864), ferdinand von richthofen (1871~2) and v. a. obruchev (1892-1909). the american palaeontologists and geologists, granger, berkey and morris, also had the advantage of prolonged experience in the fields and geologic formations of the western united states, which between the soth and goth parallels of latitude present conditions remarkably similar to those in the desert of gobi (see map on p. 943). in the easterly region of the gobi desert, previously declared unfossiliferous, in which obruchev found only a single frag- mentary “ rhinoceros ’”’ tooth, the expedition, leaving kalgan april 15 1922, discovered on may 3, 260 m. northwest of kalgan, rich strata near iren dabasu of probably lower cretaceous age, full of large iguanodonts, megalosaurs and also ostrich-mimicking dinosaurs. overlying this deposit (iren dabasu formation) were discovered much more recent tertiary formations of upper eo- cene (arshanto and irdin manha formations) and upper oligo- cene (houldjin) age, which correlate very closely with the classic upper eocene formations of cuvier in france and similar fossil beds in utah, wyoming and nebraska of the rocky mountain region. these mongolian formations immediately established the gobi region as a great central life zone, half-way between europe and the rocky mountain region, according to the theory of 1900. ee kn afta i lin i sp a agile’ 77 ie a ae ula us fg inant bi 4 le > padinre 4 ea rig onte. fic. 3.--sketch map of central mongolia, showing the general geology along the routes of the central asiatic expeditions of 1922, 1923, 1925; the main and side routes indicated by long dashes. the arrows west of baga bogdo indicate northern routes along the uliassutat trail. finely stippled areas indicate location of chief cretaceous and tertiary formations listed in table i. of loh. hung kureh and gochu lie s.e. mongolia, palaeontologic discoveries in encouraged by this brilliant initial success of 1922, the amer- ican museum party made a 3,000-m. reconnaissance to the north as far as urga, the capital of mongolia, and southwest to the altai mountains where five additional fossil horizons (ondai sair, ashile, hsanda gol, loh and ifung kureh formations) of upper jurassic, upper oligocene, miocene and tplocene age were discovered; then southeast along the altai mountains, where in the djadokhta formation of middle cretaceous time the now famous dinosaur eggs were found, together with marvellously preserved series of dinosaur skeletons, chicfly of herbivorous types such as protoceratops and of small carnivorous types. thus the 1922-3 expeditions virtually circled the entire desert of gobi east of the altai mountains ( fig. r). on the return, toward kal- gan in north china, three additional tertiary fossil horizons (gashato, ardyn obo and shara murun) were discovered and a few representative fossils from each were brought back. the types of dinosaurs, and of mammals which chiefly char- acterise these formations or horizons, are diagrammatically qe extingt reptiles fic. 4.— areal map of mongolia, projected upon map of united statesof america. similar 50° and 40° parallels of latitude. a, o,= chief fossil localities of central mongolia discovered to the end of the year 1925. a, @,=chicf fossil localities of terrestrial dino- saurs and mammals of the united states. ‘this map demonstrates that the mongolian and north american faunas occupied similar isothermal regions in central asia and central north america from upper jurassic to tertiary time. shownin plate ii., which displays the ancient “life zones” of mon- golia as we descend from lower pleistocene into upper jurassic time. the animals represented in this life zone chart are known either by complete skeletons (e¢.g., protoceratops, protiguanodon, psittacosaurus) or by complete skulls (¢.g., buluchithertum, pro- titunothcrium) or, finally, by highly characteristic teeth (e.g., asiatosaurus, prodeinodon). in all of the cretaceous horizons the correlation with europe and with north america is provi- sional; in all the tertiary horizons, excepting the ? miocene pang kuang, the correlation is either absolute or fairly close.! in the season of 1923 the expedition explored intensively the fossil beds visited in 1922, and returned with the camel caravan heavily loaded from the 15 or more horizons extending from the upper jurassic (ondai sair, ashile) to the very summit of the upper pliocene (hung kureh). these discoveries have established mongolia as a treasure house of the life history of the earth from the close of jurassic time onward to the close of pleistocene time, revealing especially the hitherto unknown high continental life of cretaceous and tertiary times. consequently, the outstanding geologic discovery of the expedition is, first, that gob/a (fig. 2) since jurassic time has been a central asiatic continent extremely favourable to the evolution of reptiles, mammals, insects and plants hitherto known only along the cretaceous shore lines of europe and the cretaceous sea borders of the centre of america, and second, that this now terribly desert region, traversed by the gazelle 1to clearly understand the above description the reader should carefully examine plate i., correlation chart, and table ii., faunal succession. 3 943 and the wild ass, was certainly luxuriant with life throughout cretaceous and tertiary time, sparsely forested, with limited rain supply like the high plateau region of africa to-day. these upland conditions of mesozoic and caenozoic time, also favourable to the origin of the human race itself, led to the fur- ther generalisation by h. f. osborn, on returning from iren fic. 5.—irdin manha upper eocene formation of the iren dabasu basin, eastern mongolia. rich in titanotheres and other large mam- mals of american upper eocene affinities. (compare fig. 3.) dabasu in 1923, that the ancestors of man occupied this region during caenozoic time and are likely to demonstrate the cen- tral asiatic theory of human origin. this generalisation was partly verified during the year 1925. table ii. fuman culture, mammalian and reptilian lafe zones in descending order 1. mongol graves of early historic time. 2. tron and bronze ages represented by monuments and graves in the gobi desert. e ; 3. neoltithic represented in the upper levels of shabarakh usu deposits; pottery, etc., ostrich eggs (struthiolithus). 4. uppermeost palaeolithic of shabarakh u'su. indurated sands containing flints, resembling those of the ?azilian and campignian industries of europe; eggshell ornaments made of struthiolithus and of fossilised dinosaur eggs. the “ dune-dwellers’’ of prolonged occupation. true upper palaeolithic not found. 5. lower palaeolithic. near orok nor, 20 m. from kholobolchi nor. flint industry of possible aurignacian age; flints certainly of mousterian age, of iv. glacial and pre-glacial time resembling those of the ordos. 6. ?acheulean or ?eolithic flints of uncertain age. ”. tsagan nuru, gochu. regarded as base of the pleistocene. the gochu, 1,000 ft. in thickness, overlies the hung kureh at the foot of the altai range baga bogdo. the sands of tsagan nurud contain eguus and struthiolithus. 8. lung kureh. lower pleistocene and upper pliocene. contain- ing in lower levels, a true upper pliocene horizon, /7:pparion, ?elephas, cervus, castor, camelus, gasella, rhinoceros, ?coelodonta. compare plaisancian-astian of france and italy. 9. loh. these gravels and clays, directly overlying the hsanda gol, are apparently of middle miocene age. containing a masto- dont, serridentinus mongoliensis, and a diminutive baluchithere, baluchitherium mongoliense. compare lower and middle miocene burdigalian-helvetian of france. 10. ifsanda gol. great formation 3,000 ft. in thickness, of middle to upper oligocene, or stampian to aquitanian. containing abundant remains of baluchithertum grangert, a skull having been found in 1922 and a leg and feet in 1925; small rhinoccros; very large small-mammal fauna, several thousand jaws belonging to 30 genera of rodents, creodont carnivores, true carnivores, insectivores related to tupaia (the tree shrews) and macroscetides (the jumping shrews). the prevailing affinities of this fauna are with the quercy phos- phorite of france; there are also distant affinities to modern african rodents and insectivores; relationship to north american and the middle oligocene white river fauna is less close, except in the wide- ranging carnivores like zzyaenodon. the larger rhinoceros baluchi- therium resembles that of baluchistan (forster cooper) and the indricotherium (borissiak) of turkestan, a formation of similar age in the iren dabasu basin is the zlouldjin, where obruchev discovered his ‘ rhinoceros ’’ tooth, probably a baluchithere. apparently intermediate between the well-determined hsanda gol and the ardyn obo formations, there were found in 1925 three other horizons in which the faunas are still to be determined, namely, elegen, middle to upper oligocene, buron sog, middle oligocene and ulan gochu, lower oligocene. 1. ardyn obo. 500 ft. thick. on the uliassutai trail. contains rich lower oligocene (sannoisian) fauna, chiefly of ungulates, in- cluding giant titanotheres (brontops gobiensis, afenodus mongoliensts) broad-skulled and long-skulled titanotheres similar to those of south dakota and colorado; also an amphibious rhinoceros, cadur- cotherinm mongoliense, intermediate in character between cadurco- therium of the lower oligocene of france and the american afetamy- hoden. the creodont carnivores include /tyaenodon and aberrant oxyaenids ancestral to hsanda gol forms, compare infra-tongrian, ronzon, quercy. 12. shara murun. richly fossiliferous formation on the uliassutat trail, representing the very summit of eocene time. contains 944 imposing titanothere fauna (prototitanothertum andrewsi, p, mongo- liense, volichorhinus), quadrupeds extraordinarily similar to those of utah in the rocky mountain region. here occur the amphibious amynodonts, also a long-limbed rhinoceros ancestral to baluchi- therium, and numerous smaller odd-toed ungulates suggestive of tapirus and the cursorial colodon (deperetella), all ot strong amer- ican resemblance. most important is the pro-ruminant -1rchaeo- merysx, in all respects ancestral to the higher ruminants (cerdae, etc.). the carnivores of this horizon (/tyaenodon, pterodon) are again of franco-american affinities. compare ludian stage of france, gypse de montmartre. tukhum is another formation discovered in 1925, which has not yet been fully studied. it directly underlies the shara murun. 13. irdin manha. 1n this great flood-plain horizon, only ioo ft. in thickness but of vast horizontal extent, we again observe very close relationships to the upper eocene of the rocky mountain region. outstanding types are the titanotheres (dolichorhinus, protitanotherium, mfesatirhinus); the giant eudinoceras, four-horned and tusked, comparable to dinoceras marsh of the rocky mountains; finally, the giant andrewsarchus, a primitive creodont carnivore named after andrews, the leader of the central asiatic expeditions. 14. arshanto,