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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "title": "MILITARY. (N, WS.) RAILWAY STATIONS",
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    "verified_text": "the completion of the pennsylvania (new york) and grand central (new york) sta- tions, in 1910 and 1913 respectively, marked the most important epoch in the history of passenger station design. it witnessed, for cities of major importance, the passing of the old style single purpose passenger station buildings, the introduction of dual purpose buildings in locations where land values were high, and the intensive development of the so-called “‘ atr rights,” thus permitting of expenditures not warranted from a purely railway operating viewpoint. both these stations were designed for electric operation, insur- ing the elimination of the smoke and gas incident to steam- operated layouts and permitting the tracks to be depressed and covered over, with the consequent practicability of the utilisa- tion of space over the yard for private and public buildings. while the advantages of electrification have been demonstrated in the operation of these stations, recent developments in passenger station design and operation scem to have proved that many features first introduced in the electrified stations mentioned can, with proper design, be duplicated in steam operated layouts. this is particularly true of the chicago union station, a project which had its inception about 1910, but was completed only in june 1925. chicago union station.—as this station is the latest and one of the most interesting of all large stations, it is described here in some detail. it serves as a terminal for four railways—the chicago, burlington and quincy; the chicago, milwaukee and st. paul; the pennsylvania system (these three as owners) and the chicago and alton (as tenant). like the grand central station, the chicago union station is designed to serve two purposes: as a station and asan office building. it is the only station in america of major importance where passengers and baggage are handled on separate platforms, an arrangement making it possible to dispense with baggage elevators between the different trucking levels, these being connected by ramps. it embodies the most complete facilities for handling mail of any railway station in the world. its design is marked by ap entirely new type of train shed and an ingenious arrangement of interior driveways and platforms which make the use of the city street space unnecessary in the handling of mail and passengers’ bag- gage. it is also one of the few large passenger stations in the world where the waiting-room, the concourse and the platforms are on the same level. railway stations the over-all dimensions of the station proper, or head house, are 320 ft. by 372 fect. the main waiting-room occupies the central court. because of the necessity of carrving the streets over the tracks, the floor of the main waiting-room is depressed below street- level, thus securing the advantages of a common level for the station and the tracks. necessary inequalities of level are taken care of by almost imperceptible slopes in the floor of the concourse between track grids. while the design of the station provides for greater ultimate development of railway land than any similar project ever undertaken, only eight stories of office building over the station have been completed as yet. ultimately the office structure will be carried up to a total height of 25 stories. the design is such that there is a complete segregation of station and office functions in the building, this being accomplished by the depression of the station facilitics below street level, the use of six steps up from strect level to the office building loggias and the provision of entrances to the office building as remote as possible from the entrances to the station. the office building loggias open into entrance lobbies at the ends of the waiting-room; the lobbies are at an elevation of about ry ft. above the level of the waiting-room floor, giving the effect of bal- conies. the station is the only double stub layout in the united states, the tracks heing arranged in two groups separated by the concourse. the tracks vary in capacity, accommodating 7 to 18 car trains, the track group to the south having a capacity of iqi cars, and the group to the north a capacity of 141 cars. through tracks, east of the station tracks proper, provide connection between the two groups. this arrangement also provides access to the mail terminal tracks for trains or cars entering or leaving the station by either of the two—north and south—approaches. a feature of the station track layout ts the provision of a platform on each side of each track. alternate platforms are used by passen- gers and for baggage handling. this permits giving platforms the clevations best suited to their particular uses. hlowever, the chief advantage of the separate platforms for baggage and passengers is direct access from the baggage platforms to the baggage-room (located in the basement level) by means of ramps sufficient in width to permit the operation of baggage trains in both directions—up and down—simultaneously. the mail terminal building is 75 ft. wide and 796 ft. long; it en- closes 11 ac. of floor area and hasa cubical content of 8,500,000 cu. ft.; it was designed to handle 3,000 tons of mail in 24 hours. it is dis- tinguished by its mechanical equipment, including 65 conveyer belts totalling seven m. of belting, overhead trolley conveyer systems, spiral chutes and other devices which provide for the elimination of manual labour in the handling of mail. the train shed provided in this layout is of an entircly new type, designed to give adequate protection from the weather, to give more than the usual headroom found in low-type sheds, and to keep the trucking platforms free from supporting columns. this involves a transverse span of nearly 50 feet. to avoid decp transverse girders to carry the roof load a heart-shaped truss was developed. with the use of such trusses over cach colurnn it was possible to secure the desired headroom, particularly eflicient lighting and ventilation, and a shorter effective span of the transverse girders. to keep the passen- ger platforms as free as possible from obstructions, the supporting columns for the roof were spaced at nearly 42 ft. centres. a smoke slot over the centre of each track placed at a height to clear the stacks of locamotives allows the smoke and gas from engines to be dissipated into open air, table 1 no. of tracks trains per day er passengers station per day grand central, n.y. ; 25 pennsylvania, n.y, 21 south, boston . : ; 28 union, chicago a 24 leipzig 4 ; 26 st. lazare, paris 3i liverpool st., london 20 waterloo, london. 21 northwestern, chicago. 16 41st 558! 660 100,000 101,400 120,000 65,000 85,000 250,000 242,000 140,000 1 normal. . 2 normal winter service (1925-6), the number is greatly increased in the summer, british railway stations —in great britain very little was done during the period under review (1910~26) in the way of building new railway stations; consequently no english station is included in table ii. the most considerable undertaking was the replanning and enlarging of waterloo station, london, the headquarters of the southern railway, which was opened formally by h.m. queen mary on march 21 1922. the plat- forms are about 7oo ft. in length, of which 540 ft. is under cover. the area covered is 560,000 superficial feet. 1,000 tons: rakovsky—ramsay table ii. date dimensions | station com- of main cost! pleted building | washington, d.c, 1907 663x211 ft. |$120,000,000 pennsylvania, n.y. i9gio 430x784 ‘* | 115,000,000 north-western, chicago . iqii 320x218 * 24,000,000 grand central, n.y. 1913 673x301 *‘ | 150,000,000 ottawa, canada 1912 281x141 “ ish michigan central, detroit i9gl4 345x266 “ 7,000,000 | kansas city 1914 510x150 “ 55,000,000 havana, cuba . i9i4 240x80 * 400,000 buenos aires iqt6 700x604 “ es tokyo igty |1,083x132 “ 1,400,000 leipzig iqis gy ‘ (frontage) 32,130,000 st. paul, minn. 1922 315x220 ft. 20,000,000 union, chicago 1925 320x372.\" 75,000,000 1 includes entire cost of terminal development. of glass and about 60 m. of metal glazing bars, weighing 95 tons, were used. the reconstruction scheme involved the clear- ance of a large area and the rehousing elsewhere of the popula- tion. the main “a” signal box is one of the largest in the world, and about 24,000 lever movements are performed every 24 hours. the traffic is both steam and electric. leipzig station —the leipzig (germany) station, completed in rg15, has a frontage of 984 ft. and occupies an area of 172,000 sq. feet. the train shed has a high roof of steel and glass, built in the form of six arches; it is 785 ft. long, with an area of 710,- soo square ft., and covers 26 tracks. the station serves as a junc- tion for the passenger traffic of magdeburg, thuringia and dres- den, and the larger part of the traffic between prussia and saxony passes through it. the leipzig station is the largest, though not the busiest, station in europe. it is smaller than the grand cen- tral and pennsylvania stations in new york, and handles con- siderably less traffic tham the gare st. lazare (paris), the bus- iest station in the world. retiro station, buenos aires.—the retiro station of the cen- tral argentine railway at buenos aires, said to be the finest sta- tion in south america, was opened in the latter part of rors. the terminal, including buildings, train sheds and approaches, occupies 744,000 sq. {t., and in point of size and design compares with any of the newer stations elsewhere. tokyo central station.—the central railway station in tokyo, completed in 1915, was erected at the very small cost of $1,400,- 000; in the west it would have cost 10 or 20 times as much. the explanation lies in the extremely low price paid for japanese labour, 20 cents a day (of 10 to 12 hours) for common labourers, and $25 a month for carpenters and masons. estimated in days’ labour, the cost was 730,000 labourer-days. the main building is of brick and granite, 1,083 it. long, 66 to 132 ft. wide and 54 ft. high, with a dome (152 ft.) at either end. the terminal took the place of three stations which formerly served the three main-line government railways chgy,.l.) rakovsky, christian georgievich (1873- ), rus- sian politician and diplomat, of bulgarian descent and rumanian nationality, was born aug. 13 1873 at kotel, bulgaria. ilis father’s home in the dobruja passed after the russo-turkish war to rumania and the family became rumanian. rakovsky’s bulgarian ancestors, especially his grandfather, had organised risings against the turkish rule, and the revolutionary traditions of the family were revived in christian rakovsky. his revolu- tionary career began in his college days, when in 1890 on account of his socialist activitics all schools in bulgaria were closed to him. ife therefore went to geneva, where he joined the inter- national social democratic student movement and came in contact with plekhanov and other russian social democrats; and also to germany, where he met liebknecht. he was ex- pelled from prussia in 1894; went to 'rance, where he graduated as a doctor of medicine at montpellier, and wrote his famous thesis on the etiology of criminality and degeneration (1897), upholding the marxian conception of crime as a result of eco- nomic conditions, in opposition to the lombroso theory of the 295 atavistic criminal type. he also studied law, and took an active part in political journalism. returning to bulgaria, he recom- menced revolutionary activities, and in russia in the east (1898) denounced tsarist politics. in 1900 he served his term as an officer in the rumanian army. during the peasant riots of 1907 he was expelled from rumania, his title to rumanian citizenship not being considered adequate, and his civil rights were only restored in 1912. the five years of rakovsky’s exile were interrupted by illicit homecomings and consequent labour troubles; the question of his citizenship became a canse celebre, political parties being sharply divided on the issue, and the whole of the radical press in europe supported his claim. after rumania entered the world war rakovsky was arrested and imprisoned in various places, and finally at jassy, whence he was released by the russians on may 1 1917. kerensky’s government was hostile to him, and it was not until after the soviets came into power in nov. that he joined the government. rakovsky had lived in st. petersburg in the past, and but for the persecution of the tsarist government would have settled there. he was well known as a writer on political and economic subjects under the pen name of “‘ insarov,”’ and a number of his books were written and published in russia (afodern france, 1900; afetternich and his time; turkey and amfucedonia, etc.). rakovsky’s diplomatic career began with his appointment as head of the delegation entrusted with the peace negotiations with the ukrainian central rada. in 1919 he was appointed president of the soviet of people’s commissars of the ukraine, and in 1922 represented russia at the conference of genoa. in 1924 he was the soviet charge d’affaires in london, and as such negotiated a treaty between the soviets and the british labour government. the treaty, however, was subsequently rejected by the succeeding conservative administration. in 1926 he was appointed soviet ambassador to france, and became a member of the central committee of the council of the people’s com- missars. (z. v.) ramon y cajal santiago (185 2- ), spanish histologist, was born may 1 1852 at petilla de aragon (pamplona). he graduated at the university of saragossa, and went in 1881 as professor to the university of valencia, and in 1886 to barcelona, publishing in 1889 his first important work (elementos de histologia normal y de tecnica microgrefica). in that year he discovered “‘ the laws which govern the morphology and the connections of the nerve cells in the grey substance.” in the years 1890 and 1891 he discovered the primary changes of the neurin, and the genetic unity of the nerve fibres and the protoplasmic appendices. during this period of his career he discovered the axis cylinder of the fibres of the cerebellum and their continuity with the parallel fibrillae of the molecular covering, formulated the principle of the dynamic polarisation of the neurins, aided by van gehuchten, and worked upon the analysis of the sympathetic ganglia. in 1892 he took the chair of normal histology and pathological anatomy in the university of madrid. in 1894, on the invitation of the royal society of london, he developed systematically his views on morphology and connections of the nervous cells of the spinal medulla, ganglions, cerebellum, retina and olfactory bulb. in 1899 he was called upon by the clark university (worcester) to give an exposition of his investigations regarding the cerebral tegumen, and in rooo the international congress of medicine, which met in paris, gave him the moscow international award. he was awarded half the nobel prize for medicine in 1906. his work in three volumes, histologie del sistema nervioso de hombre y de los vertebrados, appeared between the years 1897 and 1904. in may 1922 he was exempted, on account of long service, from his duties in connection with the chair which he held, and, on the initiative of the government, he founded the cajal institute in madrid. rampolla, count mariano del tindaro (1843-10913), italian cardinal (see 22.877), died in rome dec. 17 1913. ramsay, sir william (1852-10916), british chemist (see 22.880), died at high wycombe, bucks., july 23 1916. in 1904 he was awarded the nobel prize and in 1911 was president of the 296 british association. in 1913 he resigned his professorship of chemistry at university college, london. ramsgate, england (sce 22.881), with a population in tg21 of 36,560 and an area of 2,306 ac., retains its picturesque fea- tures, though it 1s a growing place. the district beyond the west cliff is being developed as a western suburb, and the parade nearly reaches pegwell. eastward it has been carried as far as east cliff lodge, and the cliff above laid out as gardens. a west- ern undercliff promenade was opened in ro25, and there is a concert hall below the west cliff promenade. extensive meas- ures of cliff protection have been necessary both east and west of the town. fifty acres of land were bought for a recreation ground in 1924, and the site and money for another were given in 1925. a gun from a german submarine has been placed in nelson cres- cent, and a war memorial erected in albion gardens. chatham iiouse, a canadian hospital during the war, has been bought by the county education committee, and is used in part as a county school. during the war a large aerodrome was established at manston, two miles from ramsgate. both railway stations are to be closed, and a new station built at st. laurence; 14 m. of line, to connect with the line to broadstairs, will be constructed and the present branch to margate and part of the line to the harbour station closed. during the war 93 bombs were dropped on ramsgate. considerable damage was done, but casualties were light. randegger, alberto (1832-1011), italian musical com- poser and conductor, was born in trieste april 13 1832. he studied piano under lafont and composition under l. ricci. after conducting opera at fiume, venice and other italian towns, he settled in london in 1854. he became professor of singing at the royal academy of music in 1868 and at the royal college of music in 1896. he was conductor of the carl rosa co. from 1879 to 1885 and conducted the norwich festivals 1881-1905. randegger, who died in london on dec. 18 1911, did much towards the popular revival of opera in england. his works include bianca capello (1854, opera) the rival beauties (1864 comic opera); a setting of the rsoth psalm; fridolin (1873, dramatic cantata); and also a valuable primer on singing.",
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