MIGRATION

the general characteristics of the movement of population between 1909 and 1924 were:— since the opening of the 20th century most states had begun to exert a positive control in questions of migration; its enormous increase made state regulation of overseas migration unavoidable. with the improvement of communications, many migrants have no intention of settling permanently and becoming naturalised over- seas. the annual figures of repatriation from the united states have frequently amounted to more than half of those of immigration, this is no jonger due solcly to the difference between conditions of living in the countries of emigration and immigration; rather, and in increasing degree, to the more or less conscious efforts of the countries of emigration to preserve their nationals’ love of their homes, or those of the countries of immigration to assimilate the new clements. the countrics of emigration encourage, as far as pos- sible, temporary migration, to which, however, even before the war the countries of immigration raised economic and social objections. during and after the war, in addition, national and _ political points of view began to influence migration policy decisively. in the countries of immigration, especially the united states, legislation governing selection became more stringent, and later a numerical limit was imposed on immigrants. the european states were no longer able to divert their surplus population overseas so copiously as before; even in the case of racially kindred nations, or the british self-governing dominions. these dominions too, under the pressure of economic depression, seek to retard immigration, 997 migration has diminished, since the supply of emigrants does not tally with the demand in respect of nature and quality (race, sex and age). the one-sided interference with immigration by the opposing groups of states results in social conflicts within those states and friction between their respective governments. a peculiar characteristic of recent years is the increasing impor- tance of continental migration within europe. the social problems arising in the countries concerned are regulated in many cases by inter-state treatics (migration treaties, properly so-called, going beyond the international labour agreements) and if possible inter- national agreement. this is the only way to avert dangers which threaten peace, and to further the social policy of the world in positive fashion, the immediate problem is that of successfully settling europe's surplus urban industrial population in the colonial agricultural areas of overseas countries: the lasting and general world problem is, how- ever, how pcoples of different habits and different standards of living and of radically different race (white and coloured), may be dis- tributed evenly over the earth without endangering the peace and progress of mankind. it is no longer enough to treat immigration purely as a demo- graphic phenomenon occasioned by the decision of those immediately concerned, in order to understand the causes and effects of this phenomenon it is necessary to include in our survey the national and international measures which have been taken in the interests of the community. i. progress of statistics as early as the first international labour conference in washington in 19r9 the international labour organization (i.l.0.) created under the treaty of versailles passed various “ recommendations ” dealing with equal treatment of alien labourers and with collective recruitment of foreign workers, and appointed an international emigration commission, which produced a systematic programme of action at its session in geneva in 1921. the 4th international labour conference of 1922 adopted a “ recommendation ” relating to the collection and improvement by the i.l.o. of statistical and other infor- mation on migration. in addition to current monthly publica- tions of the most important data, the i.l.o. issued in 1925 a first annual report on the statistics of 60 countries and territories, migration movements 1920-1923 (geneva, 1925). this report embodies the results of exact and uniform statistical inquiries and provides an international co-ordination of statistics. the numbers and details of the migrants (sex, age, profession, nationality, country of last and future permanent residence) have been classified for the first time, in eight homogeneous groups: (t) oversea emigration of nationals, (2) continental emigration of nationals, (3) oversea immigration of nationals (repatriation i.), (4) continental immigration of nationals (re- patriation ii.), (5) oversea emigration of aliens (generally returning to their country of origin), (6) continental emigration of aliens (generally returning to their country of origin), (7) oversea immigration of aliens, and (8) continental immigration of aliens. in giving these figures the report explains the very frequent variations in the method of compiling them, and definition of the “ migrant ” and also draws attention to the gaps and deficiencies of international comparisons. migration movements during the periods 1909-1913-1914 had a transitional character, but those during the periods 1915-9 and 1920-4 can be illustrated comparatively. the tables on p. 908 show the overseas eml- gration and immigration (repatriation i.) of nationals in the chief european countries and the overseas immigration and emigration (repatriation ii.) of aliens in certain countries of the world. il. character of migration movements overseas migration has perceptibly declined since the war. as regards the european countries of emigration the annual average (before the war 1,349,25t and 669,574 after the war), so far as proper statistics are available has decreased by 50-38%. in the countries composing the former austro-itungarian monarchy emigration has sunk to 70-4°% of its pre-war figures: emigration from italy 58-8°5, emigration from finland, 56-8 %, and portugal, 51-6 % is less than 23 of what it was; the percentages for great britain are 43-6, for spain 39-6, for sweden 38-3, for norway 34-7, for belgium 31-6, and fur denmark 29-5°.. emigration has increased 908 migration table i. overseas eimigration of european nationals (with repatriation figures for great britain and ireland, italy and spain) austria- +. os ; waits wg ce neth- ; | | ee bel- den- fin- (ser- (sreat britain italy er- |norway cort: | it | se aden switz- gium | mark; land | many and ireland : ugal erland: : gary | j lands 7 | years ~ — —__—. a emi- | emi- | [emi- | fmi- | eimi- emi- | r mi- | — ienu- | emi- iemit- | fermiu- iemt- re- {| emi- | a a eee ate cp ar | ea, ||p pete || ao. ; 7 ea gra- pra- | gra gra gra equi eine elke ee ant eee gra- eral- gra- gra- |pateta-| gra- | tion tion tion tion tion tion i tion | tion tion tion tion tion tion tion | 1909 | 259,145) 3.650 | 6,782 | 19,144) 24,921) 288,761 149,068" 399, 282} 134,210] 2,939 | 16,152 ] 38.146 | 111,058] 18,804 | 4.988 | 4,915 1910 | 258,816] 5,550 8,890 | 19,007| 25,531 397,844) 164,139 402,779] 161,148) 3,220 | 18,912 | 39.457 | 160,936) 24.647 | 4,735 | 5,178 iqit | 165,522] 4,586 | 8,303 | 9,372) 22,690) 454,527 192,713} 262,779] 218,998] 2,638 | 12,477 | 59.399 | 139,683) 16,770 | 4,558 | 5,512 i9i2 | 251,743] 4,402 8, 636 | 10,724) 18,545, 326,9597) 59,6814] 403,306] 182 990] 2,155 | 9,105 $8,502 | 194.443] 14.689 | 5,181 | 5,871 aoe 313,621| 7,590 | & 816 20,057| 25,343] 389.304, 85.709. 559, 566: 196,070) 25330'| 30,876.77,227 ; 151,000] 17,224 | 4,917 6,191 aver- | age | | 1909- | | | | | | 13 | 249,769] 5,162 | 8,291 | 15,661; 23,506) 371,498] 130,263] 405,542] 177,265] 2,656 | 13,304 | 60,564 ptotee 4/ 18,445 | 4,876 | 5,533 i9i4 | 73,067' 6,203 | 6,474] 11,803] 214,393) 104.462] 233,214] 219,178] 2,174 | 8,522 | 29,806 | 66,596] 10,006 | 4,864 sa igi5 aa 3,302 | 4,041 528] 76,911! 92,358) 66,517] 167,925] 1,074 | 4,572 | 22,848 | 50,359] 4,672 | 3,223 | 1,976 1916 4,265 | 5,325 326 52,926] 57.931] 74.140) 39.039] 9tt | 5,212 | 14,957 | 62,247) 7,488 | 3,1 59 1,464 igi7 gla. 2773 q} 10,004) 12,254) 13,013) 16,885) 867 | 2,518 bs 43,051) “2,571 | 2,478 656 1918 = a8 793 1 1,900 10,621 8.772| 4,010[ 9,025] 1,160 | 1,226 ~ 20,108 1,498 | 1,630 201 hee e3 1,967 | 3.341 | 1,085| 3,22. 146,935) 93,023) 105,833) 89,833, 2,430 ) 2,432 | 21,614 ) 69,472) 4,008 | 3,973 3,063 | aver- age | 1914-9 a 328 | 3,253 | 3,600} 2,635} 85,381) gi,471; 82,7858) pais 15437 | 4,060 | 14,871 | 51,982] 5,040 | 3,154 | 1,889 | 1920 | 60,308) 9,384 | 6,300 | 5,505) 9,194] 285,102) 86,055) 211,227 78,498, 5,975 | 5,581 | 46,410 | 150,566} 7,093 | 5,601 | 9,276 | [g21 76,031] 2,200 | 5,309 | 3,557] 24.135: 190,477| 71,307, 194, 1320; 92,212) e200 4,627 | 17,915 | 62,479 5,881 1 g05) | fie 1922 | 72,119] 927 | 4.004 | 5,715, 36,527] 174,096] 68,026 121,410, 54,282] 2,158 | 6,456 | 29,037 | 64,119] 8,985 | 3,237 | 5,787 1923 75,717| 2,256 | 7,60l | 13,835) 115,416 269,680"| 58,143] 177.853] 39,680 5.648 18,287 | 30,792 | 93,246] 26,559 = 33 ee hed 41,131) 2,922 | 6,319 | 5,429] 58,637 174,451| 68,614] 130,779] 60,676] 3,306 | 8,492 | 22,279 | 86,920] 8,401 | 2,539 | 4,140 civics ane | : | 1920-4] 65,061} 3,538 | 5,925 gas 48,498 ear 70, ou lsozs mea 4.087 | 8,689 | 29,287 | 91,466] it, ea 3,683 | 6.868 ee = et oe oe ig ' ' hungary only. 2 the figures for the years 1909-18 refer to british passages: the figures after 1912 ‘including the figures for the irish free state (13,396 in 1923). 4 the figures for the year 1912 refer only to the last nine months (april to december). are for true british emigrants. 4 rr table ii, verseas immigration into certain states (with figures of repatriation of immigrants [emigration] in certain cases) united states |! canada! brazil argentine | australia | new zealand : _ south ate frica ! cuba ! me aiea! years immi- | emigra- | [mmi- immi- jmmi- | emigra-| immi- | emigra- immi- le mi- rhe | i one in aii. tmmi- gration tion gration | gration | gration tion gration tion gration |gration | ¢ gration &ration gration | eration on 1909 | 683,594, 195,035 | 93,285 | 84,090 | 231,084 | 94,644 | 83,609 | 54.676 | 38,650 | 33,931 ! | 31,286 | 1910 | 966,324) 167,879 | 178,489 | 86,751 | 289,640 | 97,854 | 95,692 | 58,145 33,709 32,361 | 37,764 ig1i | 801,863] 245,830 219,260 133,575 225,772 | 120,709 | 141,909 | 72,609 | 41,3359 | 37,189 _- 38,053 | 16,939 1912 |} 758,944) 299,151 | 255,661 | 177,837 | 323,403 | 120,260 | 166,958 | 53,217 | 44,660 | 35,733 38,246 | 19, 830 | 1913 |1,1¥2,164] 260,218 | 303.087 | 190,333 | 302,047 | 156,829 | 141,906 | 87,131 | 44,588 | 30,369 4,2: 43.507 | 07,805 | aaver- | age . | 1909 - | 13 | 864,579 233,623 | 209,956 | 134,527 | 274,389 | 118,059 | 126,015 | 71,156 | 41,011 | 33,917 | 2,850 37,781 , 18 194 | 1914 [1,117,727 269,796 | 85.010 | 79,232 | 115,321 | 178,684 | 110,701 37,646 | 32,506 | 9,047 25,911 | 6,187 1915 | 232,445] 180,198 11,600 | 30,333 | 45,290 | ii1,459 | 70,436 25,55l 1) 22.470}. 5,158 32,795 set 1916 | 178,850) i 13,52! 13,9035 | 31,245 | 32,900 | 73.348 | 59,140 21,799 | 21,1603 | 3,846 55,121 | 6,472 | 1917 172,135! 46,471 7,760 | 30,277 18,064 | 50,995 | 53,036 15,649 | 13,869} 2,079 57,007 | 9.425 jeor8 | 59,642] 41,900 | 16,987 | 19,793 | 13,708 | 24,075 | 33,018 11,906 | 11,660 | 3,044 37321] 5.231 f919 | dsi052) 9798 7 07,680 | (301027)! ae 209 | 2279.) 59/080 20,931 | 19,877 | 9.038 80,488 | 8,437 aver- age | 7 1914-9] 302,338] 124,447 | 33,837 | 37,818] 44,444 | 80,140 | 64,385 66,647 | 20,258 nee | 48,122 | 6,675 1920 | 287,615) 274.041 98.636 | 69,042 7oa2 57,187 | 85,237 | 77,012 | 44,062 | 32,924 | 22,095! 9,846 |174,221 | 12,309 1921 | 702,153] 236,557 | 67,840 | 58,476 | 98,086] 44,638 st 316 | 63,105 | 41,882 | 28,559 | 20,933 | 13.476 | 58,945 | 19,763 1922 eee 187,017 | 46,690 | 63,007 | 129,263 | 45,993 | 92,054] 55.490 | 35,233 | 28,389 | 13,235 | 12,675 | 25,993 | 15,950 1923 ge 76,015 | 117,013 | 84,549 | 195,063 | 46,810 a8 859 | 55.319 | 36,488 | 29,668 | 11,641 | 12,666 | 75,461 | 19,827 1924 116.8 72,262 108,122 | 96,052 | 159,939 | - 46,105 | 103,667 | 59,918 | 39,8565 | 30,593 | 16,409 | 13,445 | 85,288 vs :aver- age | 1920-4| 398,395] 169,364 | 87,660 | 74,625 | 133,677 | 48,147 | 90,827 | 62,169 | 39,496 | 30,027 | 16,863 | 12,422 | 83,962 | 16,986 migration since the war by 107-5°% in germany, 33°9° in the netherlands, 24-1% in switzerland. thus the proportion supplied by each coun- try to the total of emigrants has altered. before the war the propor- tion of the total overseas emigration from different european coun- tries was: italy 30-05°., the united kingdom 28-86°.5, austria- hungary 18-51", spain 11-22 %o, portugal 4-48 °., germany i-74 "0, sweden 1°36°%, finland 1-16" a, norway 0:98°, denmark 0-61 °., switzerland 0-41 %, belgium 0:38", holland o-19°,. [t now runs: united kingdom 32-94%, italy 24-95%, spain 13-66%, territory of the former austro-i[ungarian monarchy 9-71 °%, germany 7-290, portugal 4°37 %, sweden 1-7 °%o, norway 1-30 %, switzerland £-03 °., finland 1-02°%,, denmark 0-88 °%, the netherlands 0-60 "5, belgium 0-53 “0. the statistics of immigration show the annual average immigra- tion as falling from 1,720,703 in i1g09-13 to 942,711 in 1920 4, five vears after it, a decrease of 45-21%, falling to 46-1) of pre-war figures in the u.s.a., 41-75°. in canada, 40-76%, in argentina, 55:47 °o in brazil, 87-50°, in australia, while the figures for mexico (6-6°) and new zealand (3-69°,) remained practically unchanged, immigration into cuba rose by 122-29 “5 and into south africa by 18-33. formerly the united states took the largest proportion ot immigrants with 50-25%, of the total, argentina had 15-5", canada 12-20%, brazil 7-82 °., australia 7-33 °o, new zealand 2-38 °o, cuba 2-20%, mexico 1-06, south africa 0-834. now the list runs: u.s.a. 42-26%), argentina 14-20%, australia 9:63 “», canada 9-30 ®,, cuba 8-91°%, brazil 7-32%5, new zealand 4:19% , mexico 1-80 %o, south africa 1-79 °%. differences of direction (nationality of immigrants and country of last and of future residence) are even greater than those of the total volume. this is shown by the following table for the u.s.a., which is still the most important country of immigration. immigration of aliens into the united states by principal countries of origin, 1913-4, 1920-1 und 1922-3. | nuunbers of per cent of | | countries of | immigrants admitted total origin es ——_—_—__—__ | 1913-4 | 1920-1 | 1922-3 [i913-4/1920-1]1922-3 ' northern and i western inu- ' rope 164,133] 138,551] 156.4201 13-4] 17:2 | 29-9 | southern and ; eastern fu- 1 rope . . | 965,974) 525.548) 153,074) 75-2 | 65°31 29-4 — british north / america 86,139} 72,3107| 117,011 7-1 9-0] 22-4 | nexico 14,614, 30,753] 63,768 1-2 3-8] 12-2 _ other countries 37,620] 38,054) 32,037] 3-1 47 6-1 totals 1,218, 480] $05,228 522,919) 100°0 | 100-0 | 100-0 | the table above shows two tendencies. first, there is a reduction, already considerable before the new system came into force, of total immigration into the united states as compared with 1913-4, becom- ing more marked in the year 1922-3 under the intluence of the new quota law. secondly: in 1922-3 less than one-third of the immigrants came from southern and eastern europe, as against three-fourths in 1913-4. the number of immigrants from northern and western europe, which was formerly about one-eighth of the total, became nearly one-third. in the year 1923-4 the number of immigrant aliens increased to 706,896. the proportion of northern and western european “ neoples ”’ increased from 20-8 %, of the whole in 1913-4 to 55:7 "o in the year 1923-4 and the proportion of southern and eastern european “ peoples ” decreased from 75-6°%, of the whole in 1913-4 to only 27°25 in 1923-4. not only the volume and direction of overseas migration move- ments, but also the character of the migrants has changed greatly. family migration is on the decrease, outside the british empire. the preponderance of males is greater than before the war. accord- ing to statistics from 13 countries of emigration, males composed 55-6" of the total in 1922, 63:7°) in 1923. the same increase in the preponderance of males may be seen from the statistics of the chicf countries of immigration (54:2 °> and 62-4°.).. this increase isduc to the fact that in 1922 the states of western and northern europe still made little use of their quotas of immigration to the united states, while recently the southeastern states, where family emi- gration was most common, have not been able to send the wives and children to join the heads of their households so frequently as before. (percentage of male immigrants to the united states was 48-4°%) in 1922, 58-8 °% in 1923.) even emigration from the united kingdom was affected as regards the general proportion of the two sexes (51°9 °° of males in 1922, 59:6", in 1923). the sexes of immigrants were most evenly distributed in south africa and new zealand, most unevenly in cuba, the argentine and the other south american states, owing to seasonal migration and the greater risk in settling. the decrease of the percentage of child migrants from 1922 to 1923 similarly points to a decrease in family migration. in the united states the percentage of immigrant children dropped from 20-6 to 909 14-6: in argentina it was only 10-4°%, in cuba only 6-3 %o. in the british dominions the proportion rises to 22-5» (new zealand 23°2%0)- jewish immigration into palestine has a more family character (26-74 children in 1922, 26-9“, in 1923). of able-bodied adults, the young are more numerous than the elderly. ; the countries of emigration and immigration complain even more of the alteration in distribution of occupations, before the war up to two-thirds of the overseas emigrants from [europe were engaged in agriculture, in 1922 and 1923 only 14-6 °%4 and 14:0°% respectively of the total emigrants from 14 european countries were of this class, even if domestic servants and dav labourers are counted in, this class hardly amounts to a third of the total. the statistics of coun- tries of immigration place the percentage but little higher. | in consequence of the difficulties and restrictions on tmmigration and unfavourable economic conditions in europe, repatriation home of previous overseas emigrants has decreased greatly (according to table li. with 31-96°%) and ever more rapidly. in the five years after the war repatriation to great britain was 18-3 °%, less than be- fore the war; to sweden 24-5 °, less, to italy actually 63-3 "o less. the loss of population through migration per 100,000 inhabitants, arrived at by calculating the difference between figures of immigrants and emigrants, gives the following table for eurepean countries (1920-3): portugal —1,936, great britain and north treland —1,429, italy —1,135, followed at a distance by spain, sweden, czechoslovakia, poland and rumania. the figures for the five overseas countries which have recorded both emigration and immigration show that the gain in population through migration per 100,000 inhabitants is highest in new zealand (3,906), followed by argentina (1,826), the united states (758), south africa (116). ui. restriction of immigration the universal depression consequent on the world war could not of itself have brought about, except in a certain degree, the decrease of emigration and its change of direction. the history of migration movements, especially in the united states, shows that for a century past periods of economic depression have coincided with the lowest figures of migration. the supply of emigrants in the european countries remained greater than the overseas labour markets, especially those of the united states, could have absorbed. linited states —the depression which set in after a brief past- war boom, in the united states as elsewhere, in 1920-1, and the great increase in immigration in 1919-20 increased the appre- hension with which organised labour, in particular, had come to regard unregulated immigration even before the war. more- over, during the war american objections on national grounds to immigrants from south and eastern europe, who are only assimilated with difficulty, acquired decisive importance, and public opinion was converted by motives of patriotism to a policy of restriction. the clause in the consolidated immigration law of feb. g 1917 under which persons over 16 years of age who are unable to read are not admitted, proved ineffectual in reducing the undesired element and emergency legislation for the re- striction of immigration combined with national discrimination was finally approved on may 19 1921, and came into force on june 2. the number of alien immigrants, in the case of each nationality, was limited to a maximum of 3°, of the number of foreign-born persons of that nationality who were resident in the united states at the time of the census of r910. certain cate- gorics of persons were, however, exempted from these queta. yhis emergency law was to operate until june 30 1924 when the immigration act,' 1924, came into force. the earlier law had already reduced the proportion from southeastern europe of the total immigranis by one-third. the effect of this re- duction was, however, partially annulled because such persons were allowed to immigrate from the countries bordering on the united states and unaffected by this law (mexico, canada) even of alien origin, if they had been settled there for two years in the one case, five in the other. thus the total immigration from canada and mexico rose from 66,361 for the financial year of 1922 to 290,026 for 1924. ‘the total of immigrants had there- fore not decreased. economic depression also forced the countries of northwestern europe to make full use of their high quotas. clandestine immigration of southeastern europeans by land and sea is estimated by the best authorities at 150,000 ‘see immigration laws and rules of feb. 1 1924, issued by the u.s. bureau of immigration (washington, 1924). o10 annually. public opinion, at one with albert johnson, chairman of the committee 6n immigration of the house of representa- tives, in the opinion that “ the melting pot was to have a rest,” welcomed the new law. the law distinguishes three categories of persons:— 1. the old emigration is wound up under the first group; un- married children under 16 and wives of previous emigrants, now naturalised, and certain other individual desirable types are allowed to immigrate oufstde the guofa. [mmigrants from the american continent do not come under the law at all. persons who were not born there can no longer, under any circumstances, be accepted out- side the quota of the country of origin. _ 2. as regards immigrants on the quota, the law adopts the follow- ing drastic principles for the first three years of its validity. the annual quota of any nationality shall be two per centum of the num- ber of foreign-born individuals of such nationality resident in con- tinental united states as determined by the united states census of 1890. after july 1 1927 the total number of immigrants is to he fixed at 150,000, the quota of each nationality being determined by the relationship between the number of inhabitants having that national origin to the total population of the united states in 1920. re this basis the annual quotas from the principal countries are as ollows:— = 192i-2 1924-5 north and west europe belgium : : ; : : 1,563 512 denmark . : 5,694 2,789 irance . ; 51729 3,954 germany . : . : 638,059 51,227 great britain and north ireland 7a 342 34,007 trish free state . an 23,567 netherlands ; 3,607 1,648 norway ; ; 12,202 6,453 sweden . : 20,042 9,501 switzerland : 3,752 2,081 south and east europe czechoslovakia . : : : 14,282 3.073 italy : : : : 42,057 3,845 poland ee: oe tk ow 25,827 5,982 rumania. : : 7,419 603 russia . . : : 34,275 2,248 yugoslavia . ; 6,426 671 3, finally, persons ineligible as citizens of the united states fall into a separate group. this provision excludes the japanese, the only fastern asiatics who had not already been excluded from the pos- sibility of inmigrating by the earlier special ‘‘ law of exclusion "’ (china), or by the clause on the " barred zone” of asia adopted into the law of 1917. the most important result of the new immigration legislation, as compared with the period before the war, is that immigration from the most important european countries of emigration (italy, the territories of the previous austro-hungarian mon- archy and russian empire) had been reduced by nine-tenths. the quotas from sweden, norway, denmark and switzerland have also been reduced by half; those for germany and the irish free state remain practically unaltered. all other coun- tries of emigration, including great britain, whose annual quota is now only 34,007, must now in increasing measure seck their outlet in other overseas countries. other conitries—but south american and other countries have adopted similar restrictions on immigration for similar reasons. before the war these countries—brazil, uruguay, argentina—and others still encouraged white immigration, but they can no longer afford to do so. not only have they paid more attention to selecting the right class of immigrant, but at times immigration has been suspended altogether. the bac conditions have iced to some outbreaks of the proletariat in several ports, these being aggravated by the failures who drifted back from up-country. so in seuth america too only settlers with capital and able-bodied country labourers are welcomed. no state still grants free land. the minimum capital required, even by brazil and argentina, is too high for the unemployed of europe, and they cannot make their way as unskilled labour in hot countries against the compctition of the native coloured population (the north of south america, north and central africa, asia minor, etc.). especially intellectuals migration who have tried their luck in these districts have very often come to grief, iv. movements of population in the british empire | great britain has long endeavoured to divert her surplus population from the united states, and has tried where possible to find if an outlet in her own empire. the motives and results of these efforts, prosecuted with increased zeal since the war, may be regarded as typical of the migration crisis, since the empire contains countries of emigration and immigration which are naturally complementary, and the official interpretation of the term “ migration ” denotes internal movements from one of these territories to another. empire settlement :\cf—the importance of the settlement question for the maintenance and consolidation of the british i:mpire was strongly emphasised by the dominions royal commission, 1911-7, but although since 1890 the theory of state subvention hes often been mooted, it was not until 1921 that a scheme for state-aided imperial settlement was adopted by the imperial conference of that year. the empire settlement act, passed by the british parliament in 1922, implemented the scheme. an overseas settlement office was set up under the supervision of a colonial olfice committee, and in 1925 a new under-secretaryship of dominion affairs was constituted, with complete charge of migration and settlement policies. emigra- tion departments were opened by the dominion governments in london. england’s share of the cost of carrying through any one measure was not to exceed 50°, and the obligation to grant subsidies was not to extend beyond 15 years. the total which might be expended in one year under this was £3,000,000, ex- clusive of receipts from interest or repayments in later years. che scope of the law could be extended to other parts of the jempire, but in 1926 this had not yet been done. as shown by table il., emigration to the dominions was still less than before the war, when the broad, thinly-populated expanses of the overseas portions of the empire had already begun increasingly to attract the stream of emigration from great britain in default of other labour markets. between 1891-1900 only 28° of english emicrants went to the colonies, the majority to the united states; between 1901-12 63° went to the colonies, 1919-23 64%. when the american quota was reduced in 1921 84,261 out of a total of 91,262 overseas emigrants from great britain and northern ireland went to parts of the empire. the comparatively small financial part taken by certain dominions in carrying through this scheme is due to economic and social difficulties. these districts need mostly agricultural settlers and labourers and female domestic servants willing to live in the country. great britain is, however, rather short of these classes, while the dominions object to the immigration of the superfuous skilled industrial labourers, in view of the unemployment in their own industries and the necessity of pro- tecting the standard of living of their own population. ob- jections are also raised to agricultural settlement, on the ground that this increases the agrarian losses provoked by the con- siderable fall of prices of agricultural produce. then it is feared that most of the formcr urban elements will soon leave the land again and increase the over-preponderance of the towns which is already very great. the first step should be to settle the urban unemployed of the overseas districts on the land, since they are already used to local conditions. and so all these states, although some have had satisfactory expericnce with immigration, have imposed strict conditions of selection of human material from the mother-country, or insist on suitable preliminary training for settlers. families and juvenile emigrants are much preferred. new zealand and canada have been comparatively accommo- dating. canada, however, has not an exclusively anglo-saxon population to increase and makes efforts to attract agricultural labour from other european states as well. south africa is in general opposed to all european immigration, as she is suffering particularly from unemployment and has native labour to spare. migration the british problem.—the school of mr. j. m. keynes holds that the present unemployment in great britain is intensified by the fact that 1,000,000 persons remained in great britain during the war who would otherwise have emigrated, and considers that the maintenance of the standard of living in the mother- country could only be ensured-- imperfectly—by increasing emigration, or more safely, by reducing the birth-rate; but other experts (sir william beveridge and professor a. l. bowley) are more optimistic—they ca)culate that aftcr 1931 the decline in births during the war will result in a shortage of productive labour in england, on the assumption that emigration again reaches its pre-war dimensions, the death-rate remains unaltered and the participation of women in the work of the community remains constant. the overseas scttlement committee think that it will be possible to secure an adequate outlet by emigration within the empire for the surplus industrial workmen of the mother-country, although used to a high standard of living and the state unemployment allowance, as soon as world con- ditions have got back to normal and the agrarian crisis has been surmounted. the financial assistance of emigration by the moth- er-country should, in any case, further the industrial develop- ment of the dominions and help the overseas portions of the empire to become self-supporting. v. legislation about emigration before the war freedom of emigration was almost general. judging by the legislation of the most important countries of emigration, such as italy, the general character of emigration policy was as follows: emigration was only restricted in the case of persons who had to be kept in the country on account of military service, criminal records or immaturity. further, persons were prevented in their own interests from emigrating if they did not fulfil the conditions of the countries of immigra- tion, if they possessed insufficient means or ran the risk of getting into an unfavourable position by paid passages or other con- cessions. in order to protect the emigrants only such shipping companies were allowed to carry them as were under super- vision, so as to avoid the activities of secret agents. a special emigration fund was maintained out of various sources which created an emigration authority with local and foreign branches and established or supported special welfare institutions in the ports and elsewhere (emigrants’ homes, labour registries). but according as the character and social spirit of the government was more or less democratic, so, in practice, there was more or jess hostility towards emigration. these principles of emigration policy were upheld in post-war legislation, and supplemented by fiscal measures and by various restrictions in the recruiting of emigrants. the impoverished countries of the continent af furope en- countered even greater difficulties than did the british empire from the attitude of the countries of immigration. in spite of the great and constantly recurring unemployment, it was impossible to let millions emigrate, as had been generally expected after the war. the governments of the emigration states were them- selves at first swayed by contradictory motives. where the military motive no longer weighed in the balance, they were anxious not to increase the price of labour through emigration, so as not to hamper their export trade, or they wished to settle their surplus population at home by agrarian reform. people were mistrustful, and expected, too, a great economic wave of prosperity. soon, however, certain countries were forced by their great surplus of population to give direct state encourage- ment and assistance to emigration, but everywhere they found doors shut against them. the example of conscious national emigration policy is italy. so long as she is forced to place her labour at the service of foreign economic systems, she tries generally to get a suitable return for it (policy of valorisation), to increase the value of her labour by suitable training, in particular not to permit collective recruiting of emigrants except under conditions dictated by the state, to protect the interests of the emigrants against the transport companies and other agents during and after emigration, to preserve the sense of nationality orel by suitable organisations in the country of immigration (policy of schools, clubs and voting} and finally to place the whole organisation of emigration under a state general commissariat for emigration and its organs. a whole series of countries of emigration have copied italian legislation more or less closely since the war in their new emigra- tion legislation. as passports anc visas are still compulsory, it is possible to regulate emigration policy towards the different states. all european countries are endeavouring more or less to get their own unemployed industrial labour out of the country where possible, and to shut themselves off from foreign labour at the same time. stutistics show that countries of emigration have been able to divert their surplus population overseas most casily where the movement is favoured by racial kinship and political interests. most of the germanic and nordic states of europe were still able to turn to the united states up to 1924 even in greater measure than before the war. the latin and slav countries, being almost excluded from north america, compensated themselves mostly in the south american states. so, to take 1924 as an example, 52°5° 9 of the italian, 44-7°% of the spanish, 37-4 °%) of the czech emigranis went to the argentine. the attempts of the italians and greeks to get a footing in the british dominions and south africa had, however, very little success. vi. migration over land frontiers overseas emigration would never have succeeded in satisfying the urgent demand for emigration. fortunately the european states were able to find an outlet in a few european countries, especially france, belgium and luxembourg. inmunigration titto france-—france was impoverished in man power, and her labour market, in consequence of the work of reconstruction and the increase in her export industry resulting from the fall of the franc, was able to absorb foreign labour to an extent which varied, but on the whole increased. statistics of continental migration are still very imperfect, but show great changes since the war. before the war germany received about a million continental immigrants, france comparatively very few. this immigration to germany was almost entirely agricul- tural and mostly seasonal and non-permanent. in 1924, however, germany admitted no forcign industrial labourers and only 29,196 agricultural workers, while french national statistics, taken on the frontiers and certainly some 50° too low, show the figure of continental immigrants at 262,877 in 1923 and at 223,405 in 1924. the great majority came from italy, which now sends two-thirds of its emigrants to france; but there is hardly a country in europe which has not sent labourers, mostly industrial, in large numbers to france in recent years. continental migration has the advantage for the countries of emigration that it easily alters its character and often helps to increase technical knowledge. reguiation.— but the countries of immigration are confronted not only with difficult economic and social problems, but also with prob- lems of national health and security arising out of these mass immi- grations. it has proved especially necessary to regulate the national labour market as elastically as possible, so that at any given moment only so much foreign labour as is barely necessary remains in the country. it has proved possible to adapt collective migration to the needs of the present jabour markets by means of state treaties, and to regulate the legal and social position of those concerned in a proper way. but the good results thus attained have been largely nullifhed by the insullicient regulation and supervision of individual migrants. tvhe pressure of unemployment has also caused the central european countrics to put severe limitations on the entry and settlement of foreign labour. certain countries even expel labourers who have long been resident in the country. the resultant insecurity and the rise of prices increases the difficulties of reconstruction caused by tariff policy, ete. continental emigration, for example, into undeveloped russia, is only permitted to agricultural settlers with capital ready to form model settlements in the north. on the other hand, emigration out of european russia into siberia has assumed extraordinary dimen- sions since the war. the chances of normal continental exchange of labour would have been much greater but for the emigration to western europe of russian refugees. japan and china are now them- selves largely reduced to continental migration within asia, since their only overseas outlet is now south america. continental migration q12 in the interior of africa has also assumed very great importance, and in south africa especially, the various states have regulated it from a one-sided point of view. there must be general state regulation for crossing of frontiers and settlement of foreigners. great britain, thanks to her insular position has been most successful in this since the introduction of compulsory passports. the german “ labour centre,”’ which works by com- pelling foreign hired labour to obtain permission and register, has been muck less successful. france is only now beginning to attack the problem by a more exact control of identification cards, unifica- tion of the administration (commission de !a main et l’oeuvre trangere 1924) and a long-promised legal regulation of conditions of immigration. vii. general international regulations the recognition of the necessity of reconciling conflicting interests in migration has led those european states which are subject to continental exchange of labour to make a beginning and conclude comprehensive migration treaties (france with czechoslovakia, poland and italy). but the experience so gained is not enough to allow one simply to apply these methods of regulation internationally to world migration. the develop- ment appears here to overlook the regulation of social-political questions of detail. ‘the international labour office, which has been entrusted with this task, has declared in principle for equal ireatment for foreign labourers in all respects, and in detail has begun by regulating for equal treatment of foreign workers as regards workmen’s compensation for accidents during work (r924). the social-political regulation touches on many other questions, notably protection of migrants (especially women and juveniles) and the regulation of the labour market. the pro- gramme worked out by the international emigration com- mission 1921 was widened and revised in many respects by the technical interstate conference summoned in 1924 by the italian govt. and attended by delegates from 57 govern- ments. the protocol of this conference shows the great number and variety of these problems. the agenda dealt mainly with technical matters; the transport of emigrants, hygiene and sanitary services, assistance at the ports of embarkation and dis- embarkation, assistance for women and children, information on employment in the countries of emigration, and the principles to which migration treaties should conform, etc. the actual conditions of emigration and immigration in the different states touch the sovereignty of the states so nearly that most governments at present refuse to admit international regulation. this was shown very clearly by the united states !louse of representatives when passing the immigration law of 1924. even the different international federations of trades unions have not succeeded in arranging mutual co-operation. it may, however, yet prove possible to secure the collaboration ot the states whose interests conilict, and thus climinate dangers to the peace of the world. private leagues for the pro- tection of the emigrants are already doing good work towards bringing about a rapprochement of public opinion in different countries on questions of migration. these leagues joined in a common international conference held at rome in may 1924. the increase of open and secret emigration from canada and mexico into the united states shows that unless continental migration be regulated, the intentions of legislation regarding overseas migrants will merely be paper regulations. either america must make up her mind to establish an effective irontier police, to register and keep continual track of joreigners, or she will not be able to stop the impulse of the peoples to im- migration. in the former case her attraction for the already assimilated elements of canada and mexico will grow and the number of territorial disputes over this question will increase; in the latter there will be an intensification of the shortage of labour and high wages. the oriental question.—the problem of oriental immigration into the united states is of special urgency. under the ‘‘ gentle- man’s agreement ” of 1907 freedom was given to the japanese yovt. to issue passports to japanese labourers who had been resident in the united states before the conclusion of the agreement and were seeking re-entry, and also lo parents, wives mihalache and minor children of japanese already resident in the country, but the japanese govt. pledged itself not to issue passports to all other japanese nationals seeking entry into the united states as labourers. this pledge appears on the whole to have been loyally observed by the japanese govt., but in practice it afforded certain loopholes for evasion; the number of japanese residents continued to rise steaclily and the agitation in california against their entry increased. the gentleman’s agreement was superseded by the im- migration act of 1924, which declared that no “ alien ineligible to citizenship ” should be admitted to permanent residence in the united states with the exception of certain specified cate- gories, comprising approximately the classes contemplated under the gentleman’s agreement. it was decided by the supreme court that all alicns who are not white and of european origin or black and of african origin—-~7.c., essentially all asiatics—are incligible to citizenship, excepting those specifically exempted by the act itself. the political effect of this measure was profound. it substituted a unilateral action based on domestic legislation for an international agreement, and japanese national honour was wounded by an action which directly discriminated against the oriental races. the japanese govt. protested strongly and proposed that japanese immigration should be regulated like that of other foreign countrics by the quota system. this proposal was rejected by the united states senate, and the discrimination was upheld. after a brief period of acute agitation in japan excitement subsided, but the problem remains. _ in british columbia, japanese immigration is still regulated by a gentleman’s agreement, but there has grown up an agitation in favour of legislation on the model of that passed in the united states. the british empire is thus acutely concerned in this question. the british empire had its own very delicate inter-imperial problem arising out of the attitude of the popula- tions of certain dominions towards indian immigration. australia views any settlement of asiatic peoples with dis- favour, while in south and east africa the discrimination in the treatment of indian nationals under domestic legislation has seriously prejudiced political relations between these countries and india. bibliography.— international f-nrigration commission (inter- national labour office, geneva, 1921); emigration and immigration legislation (international labour office, geneva, 1922); menthiy record of migration, jan. 1922 to dec. 1923 (international labour office, (seneva, 1924); hlearings before the commniitiee on inimtgration and nationalisution (u.s. house of rep., 1924, etc.); migration movements, 1920-3, studies and reports, series o (migration) no.1 (international labour office, geneva, 1925); f. documentit prepara- tort e considerazione generali sui problems dell’ enigrasione e dell’ inimtigrasione. ii. lavori della conferensa. ii. atto finale (confer- enza internazionale dell’ emigrazione ec dell’ immigrazione, rome, 1925). sau also: [. ferenczi, rapport sur le chemage ef les migrations internationales des travailleurs, presented to the comite inter- nationale de vassociation internationale pour la lutte contre le chomage (ghent, 1912); also die arbeiflosigkeit und die interna- tionalen arbeiterwanderungen (jena, 1913); also pe internationale wanderunefrage und die statistik (1913), d. schafer, kolanzalge- schichte (1921); a. girault, principes de colonisation et de legislation coloniale, 4th ed. (paris, 1921, etc.); a. h. snow, the question of aborigines, etc. (new york-london, 1921); j. w. jenks and w. j. lanck, the immigration problem (new york, 1922); t. chen, chinese migrations, with special reference to labor conditions (washington, 1923); g. pertile, la rivolusione nelle leggi dell’ enn- ‘grasione (1923); c. cesari, colonte e possedtmenti colonialt. cenni storici e geografici, 2nd ed. (rome, 1923); p. c. campbell, chinese coolie emigration to countries within the british enipire (1924); ‘emigrant,’ “ indian emigration,” india af to-day, vol. 5 (1924); h. key, european bankruptcy and emigration (1924); e. pittard, “les races et j’histoire,” 1’ evolution d’humanite, sec. 1, vol. 5 (1924); l. saavedra, trattes internationaux de type social (1924); j. w. gregory, the menace of colour (1925); sir l. chiozza money, the peril of the white (1925); a. m. maclean, modern immigration (philadelphia-london, 1925); m. paon l’immiigration en france (1926). (i. f1.) mihalache, ion (1882- ), rumanian politician, was born march 3 1882, of a poor peasant family. he became a village school teacher and distinguished himself as an organiser of the village school teachers’ federation, of which he was milan—milk and dairy products eventually appointed president. in ror4 he entered politics, and after the world war founded the peasant (tsaranist) party first in bessarabia, and then extended its organisation to the rest of the country. in the first elections held after the war in 19109, the peasant party won 70 seats in the chamber of deputies and mihalache was appointed minister of agriculture in the vaida- voevod cabinet, which office he held until march 1920, when vaida-voevod resigned with the entire cabinet. mihalache dis- tinguished himself during the world war in which he served with the rank of captain. in addition to the highest rumanian military decoration (michacl-the-brave) he was awarded the legion of honour, the order of st. stanislas and other foreign decorations. milan (sce 18.437), the second largest town in italy and the most progressive commercially and industrially, had a popula- tion of 712,844 in 1921. the old quarters are giving way to blocks of new buildings, and the circumference of the city in 1926 was about eight miles. barracks have been erected and exercise grounds made outside. the manufacture of motor-cars and artificial silk are growing industries. a free university was opened in 1924. in 1918 the royal palace to the south of the cathedral was presented to the municipality by the crown. ‘the home of rest for musicians, established by verdi, has becn transformed into a verdi museum, and a statue of the composer was unveiled in front of itin 1913. the museo del teatro, opened in the building of the famous della scala theatre in 1913, con- tains a collection relating to its history. a larger station, fronting the piazza doria, to replace the central railway station, was under construction in 1926. miles, nelson appleton (1839-1025), american soldicr (see 18.442), died at washington, d.c., may 15 1025. milford haven, louis alexander, ist marquess of (1854-1921), british sailor, was born at gratz may 24 1854, the eldest son of prince alexander of hesse, by his morganatic marriage with the russian countess, julie therese von haucke. as prince louis of battenberg he was naturalised as a british subject in 1868 and entered the royal navy in the same year. in 1884 he married princess victoria, daughter of the grand duke louis ly. of ilesse. from 1891 to 1894 he was naval adviser to the inspector-general of fortifications and in 1900 was appointed assistant director of naval intelligence at the admiralty, being made director in 1902. in ro04 he was promoted rear-admiral and alter serving as second in command in the mediterranean was made vice-admiral in 1908. after commanding the atlantic and home fleets, he was in rgt2 appointed yirst sea lord of the admiralty, but in oct. 1914 he was compelled to resign from this position owing to public resentment at his german origin, which persisted in spite of his fine record of service. in 1917 he relinquished his german title, assumed the surname of mount- batten and was elevated to the peerage as marquess of milford haven. in the following year he retired from the active list of the navy. he became an admiral of the ileet in 1921 and died on sept. 11 of the same year. military railways: see light railways, military. milk and dairy products.—the dairy industry is in many countries the chief agricultural industry and in all countrics is of the utmost importance to agriculturists. the fact that this is recognised by agriculturists themselves is evident from the rapid expansion in some countries of the dairy herds. the follow- ing statistics give some indication of such expansion and of the state of the industry in various countries:— tier propuction or milk great britain.—in 1924 the total milk production was approxi- mately 1,300 million gal. (less milk used for calf rearing). of this, 600 million gal. were consumed as liquid milk; 500 million gal. were consumed in the manufacture of butter and cheese; 35 million as condensed milk and 61 million as cream, etc. the dairy herd num- bered 3,111,000. australia —in 1921, 267 million ib. of butter and 323 million ib. of cheese were produced. the dairy herd numbered 2,343,221, with an average production per cow of 343 gallons. canada.—in 1921, 236} million ib. of butter and 149} million tb. of cheese were produced. the dairy herd numbered 3,736,832. o15 new zealand.—in 1924, 713 million ib. of butter and 161 million ib. of cheese were exported. vhe dairy herd numbered 1,291,000. united siates.--in 1923 the total milk production was 109,736 million th., of which 54,614 million lb. were consumed as liquid milk. 39,106 million ib. were consumed in the manufacture of butter, anil 12,714 million lb. in the manufacture of cheese, condensed muik, ice cream, etc. the dairy herd on jan. 1 1924 numbered 24,675,000, but this number had decreased in 1925 to 20,965,423. argentine.—-in 1918, 41,863,000 lh, of butter and 14,177,000 ib. of cheese were exported. the dairy herd numbered 2,378,000. denmark.- denmark is the main european exporting country of dairy products. {n 1921, 199,500,000 ib. of butter were exported; the dairy herd numbered 1,184,268. tuk& consumption of milk the consumption of milk and dairy products varies as much as production. in a survey of 68 american cities which have popu- lations of over 100,000, the consumption of iluid milk was found to be -66 pt. per head daily. in ro24, in the new york metro- politan district, where there is a population of about 8-7 million the consumption per head was -75 pt. daily, an increase of 85° during the preceding 30 vears, due largely to improved quality. the following statistics collected by the united states depart- ment of agriculture give the annual average consumption per head of liquid milk, butter and cheese in various countrics:— annual consumption per head of liquid milk (in american gallons). denmark in 1914 68-5 gal. america in 1925 , : ; ‘ & “62. pal canada in 1916 . : : » we “gal: united kingdom in 1918 . ’ : . 22- gal. annual consumption per head of butter. canada in i19tl 27-7 |b. australia in 1913 25-6 th. new zealand in 1914 21-7 ih. denmark in 1914 ; 1 ib. united kingdom in 1914 . 17 th. united states in 1919 : . ; ; : 16 ib. argentine! in 1915 . ; j 1-8 ib. annual consumption per head of cheese. denmark 12°3 ib. united ningdom ; ; ; ; ; . 1-2 ib. united states. ; : ; ; 4-2 yb. australia : 3°63 ib canada 3 ib. new zealand 2. ib, argentine 2-9 ib. ' factory butter only. production and consumption in great britain.—it will be seen from the figures given above of the consumption of milk in the various countries that great britain's consumption 1s low com- pared with that of other nations. in 1918 the returns of the con- sumption of liquid milk were obtained through the local food control committees and it was found that these varied from as low as o-1o pt. in inverness to 0-31 pt. in london, an average for the whole area being 0-25 pint per head per day. actual consumption would be above these figures as milk produced and consumed on farms does not appear, whereas the figures include the total population. the london figures would be approxima te- ly correct but the production of milk in great britain in recent years has not kept pace with the increase in the human popula- tion nor with the demand by the latter for milk products. this is shown by the following table extracted from the report of the astor committee :— : increas- 1871 iqi4 ed per- centage population . ; 26,100,000 | 41,700,000 60 numbers of cows and heifers 2,091,000 | 2,937,000 40 weight of cheese imported; cwt.| 1,216,400 | 2,373,091 95 butter imported; cwt. 1,334.783'| 3,882,116] 304 margarine imported; cw. oie 1,501,520 ath condensed milk imports; cwt. 352,332° 771,239 128 dried milk imports; cwt. 30,601 i total weight of dairy produce imported -cwt . 2,903,515 | 8,558,567 235 ' no separate statistics for butter and margarine before 1888. 2 no separate statistics for condensed or dried milk before 1588. o14 | the relative consumption of milk in great britain is much low- er than is desirable in the national interest. this is probably due to the fact that it is known that the quality, as regards cleanhi- ness, has been gravely defective and there is no doubt that the larger consumption in other countries is primarily due to a cleaner supply. during the past few years, however, there has been a distinct improvement in the methods both of production and distribution in great britain, and as a result it is safe to say that the consumption of milk is gradually increasing and there can be little doubt but that the educational work which has been carried on since 1915 is beginning to have its desired effect. imports of dairy produce into great britain.—the value of dairy produce imported into the united kingdom has also steadily risen for the last 50 years until in ror4 it reached a total of £38,000,000. of this over £27,000,000 was paid to denmark and russia for butter and holland for cream, cheese and con- densed milk, whilst the balance, amounting to over £10,000,000, was paid to australia and new zealand for butter and to canada and new zealand for cheese. it will therefore be seen that great britain is anything but sclf-supporting in its dairy industry whilst many other countries have an exportable surplus. the reasons for the relative importance of dairying probably differ from country to country but in addition to any particular reasons which any country may have there has undoubtedly been a wide- spread recognition in most lands of the great value of the dairy cow as a producer of human food. as land, labour and feeding stufis have increased in price, the dairy cow has more and more displaced the strictly meat-producing farm animals as an eco- nomical agent for the conversion into human food of those field crops which are not suitable for direct human consumption. purity of supplies importance of afilk as a food.—most dietetic authorities are satisfied that milk is the most important individual foodstuif and that an abundant supply of milk of good quality is an im- portant factor in the health of a nation, and especially of city dwellers. milk contains all the nutritive constitutents required by the body—proteins, fats and carbohydrates—in a readily assimilable form, and possesses special properties which promote growth and maintain the body in a healthy condition. it is therefore a valuable food for all classes of the community and especially for children. these special qualities in milk were first made known by prof. f. g. hopkins of cambridge and have since been the subject of research by numerous investigators, notably professors t. b. osborne and l. b. mendell of yale university and prof. e. v. mccollum of johns hopkins uni- versity. the exact nature and composition of these growth- promoting substances or vitamins is at present unknown, but their existence is inferred from the effects produced in respect of growth and health by feeding animals on special and carefully controlled dicts. investigations into this subject indicate the existence of at least three vitamins, all of which are present in milk. these have been termed: (1) the ricket-preventing vitamin (or fat soluble a) which is necessary to promote growth and to prevent rickets in young animals.! the fat of cream and butter are amongst the richest known sources of this vitamin. (2) the anti-neuritic vitamin (or water soluble b) which is also necessary to promote growth, and in addition is essential to prevent the occurrence of the disease known as beri-beri. this vitamin is found in the germ and in the bran or outer jayers of certain grains and in milk. (3) the scurvy-preventing vitamin. this vitamin is found in fresh, untreated cow’s milk and in fresh fruits and vegetables. there is no evidence that heating of milk destroys the vitamins described in (1) and (2), above. the scurvy-preventing vitamin (3), above, is however sensitive to exposure to heat, and therefore dried, pasteurised, boiled or condensed milk may be regarded as inferior in varying degrees to raw milk in scurvy-preventing properties. skimmed or separated milk is deficient 1n the ricket- preventing vitamin referred to in (1), above, and the development 1e, mellanby, jour. phys. proceedings, 52, 11 and 12, 1918; lancet, march 15 1919. milk and dairy products of rickets may follow from its extended use in the feeding of young children unless the deficiency be made good. attention may here be called to the inferiority in this respect of margarine to butter as a source of fat in the diet of growing children. margarine is, as a rule, manufactured largely from vegetable oils. these are deficient in the ricket-preventing vitamin and the nutritive value of margarine made from such oil is therefore inferior to the nutritive value of butter. although vegetable fats and oils are deficient in this vitamin which is also essential to growth, yet the green parts of plants are the chief ultimate source of this vitamin. for this reason the diet of cows, especially of those whose milk is to be used for infant feeding, should contain an abundance of the green parts of plants and there is evidence? showing that the milk given by cows in the summer, when the diet consists of fresh, green pasture, is richer in vitamins than in winter when the chief foods are hay, straw, roots and concen- trates. need for healthy cattle —healthy cattle are the first requisite for a safe milk supply. physical inspection by a competent veterinary surgeon will go far towards the elimination of those cows suffering from obvious disease but cannot be relied upon for anything like complete protection. the tuberculin test is more searching with reference to this particular disease. there are only two practical ways in which tuberculosis may be eradicated from a herd, namely, (1) the slaughter of all reactors; (2) the isolation of reactors and the separation after birth of calves born of reacting cows. both methods raise many practical difficulties and it is therefore worth noting that the english ministry of agriculture has reintroduced the tuberculosis order giving compensation for cows slaughtered when suffering from this disease. although it is admitted that a “ considerable amount of tuberculosis of childhood is to be ascribed to infection with bacilli of the bovine type transmitted to children in meals consisting largely of the milk of the cow,’ at the same time it is not desirable to create unnecessary alarm by exaggerating the extent of human tuberculosis due to bovine infection. there can be little doubt that much infantile debility, leading te sus- ceptibility to many diseases, including tuberculosis, is due to inadequate milk consumption. all reacting cows do not necessa- rily give tuberculous milk, and risk from tuberculous milk may be negatived by efficient pasteurisation (see lancet, jan. 30 1926). milk grading rules.—there is no question that the adoption in america of the principle of grading milk has resulted in a great improvement in the general supply. as supplied under the regu- lations of new york city four grades of milk are permitted. grade a raw includes the so-called certified milk which is produced under permit and certification by the county medical association. it also includes any other milk meeting the require- ments, the principal requirement being the tuberculin test. the other grades do not require tuberculin tests and have progres- sively less stringent requirements as to bacteria] content (taken as a measure of general cleanliness), cooling and age. grade b is not recommended for children but is considered safe for adults. grade c is sold to bakers and others for use in cooking. the effect of the grading rules, under which the producer receives more money for the higher grades, has been to raise the general standard of the city supply without arbitrarily cutting off the — lower grades from their proper market. in england the grading of milk has also been adopted, and table on p. or5 gives the standards required under the terms of the milk special designations order, 1923, for the various designations which it is illegal to use in connection with the sale of milk except under licence granted by or under the authority of the minister of health. the clean milk competitions which have taken place in great britain have had a very great influence in improving the produc- tion of milk and the standard of production is probably as high in great britain as elsewhere. the first clean milk competition was held in essex in 1920, and in 1925 no fewer than 33 counties 2 barnes and hume, and the lancet of aug. 23 1919. 3 report of the royal commission appointed to inquire into the relation of children to animal tuberculosis, 1911, p. 39. millay british definitions of grades of milk designation herds maximum number of bacilli per cubic centimeter certified : | puberculin tested and physically examined 30,000 grade a tuber-{ at regular intervals culin tested © |-———_——_—____ cuberculin tested and physically examined at regular intervals 200,000 grade a physically examined at regular intervals tasteurised | grade a | pasteurised undertook such competitions. more would have done so had it not been for the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease. tue distribution of milk while improvements in production have taken place during the last few years mcthods of distribution have also shown pro- gression, and this has been due mainly to two factors—pasteuri- sation and bottling. pasteurisation.—no reasonable amount of inspection or laboratory control over a raw milk supply can provide a suflicient safeguard against the transmission of disease through milk. this fact is emphasised by milk-borne epidemics which have their sources in carriers or unrecognised cases of disease—hence the use of pasteurisation. pastcurised milk has now been defined by the ministry of health as milk which has been heated to a temperature of not less than 145°f and held at that temperature for at least 30 min. and afterwards immediately cooled. the american cities, however, have adopted a minimum temperature of 142° f for 30 minutes. if milk be overheated the line of de- marcation between the cream and the milk becomes indefinite and the milk is then less attractive to the consumer. pasteurisa- tion must never be regarded as a substitute for clean milk production and cleanliness in handling milk, which are the most important of all conditions affecting the milk supply, yet it does give an added safeguard to the consumer in protecting him from hose diseases which may be milk-borne from human sources. bottling.—the second most important advance made in dis- tribution is the delivery of milk in sealed bottles. the improve- ment in delivery resulting from this method will be still more marked when the present draft order, made by the minister of health under the powers of the 1925 milk and dairies act, forbidding the bottling of milk elsewhere than in a properly equipped dairy, becomes law. there is still room for the educa- tion of milk producers, milk distributors and consumers, and the continuance of clean milk competitions is of the greatest im- portance as a means of educating the farmer to the necessity of (a) healthy and clean cows, (6) healthy and clean milkers, (¢) properly sterilised equipment and (d) covered milking pails. the need for the provision of free instruction to the general public of the value of milk as a food, the influence of a good or bad supply of milk on the life and health of children and the community as a whole, and the best methods of handling and storing milk in a consumer’s home, is still urgent. had the general public been educated in the past in this respect there would now probably be a greater demand for milk, produced and handled under better conditions, and, with the demand, a willingness to pay for milk of guaranteed cleanliness. such educational work should be on the principle of enlightening, and not frightening the general public. bacterial content coliform bacillus absent in 1/ro cubic absent in other conditions 1 bottled on the farm, name of farm, day of production and word “ certified '’ on each centimeter bottle cap e 74 2 delivered to consumers in (a) the bottles or the sealed containers as received from the farm; (0) suitable containers of not less than two gallons capacity; (¢c) bottles with the name of the dealer by whom the milk was bottled, the acklress of the licensed bottling establishment, the day of production and the words ‘‘ grade a tuberculin tested ” or “ grade a” on each bottle cap 1/100 cubic centimeter pasteurised afiik grade a milk that after pasteurisation, as required by the minister of health, contains not more than 30,000 bacilli per | cubic centimeter and no coliform bacillus in 1/10 cubic centimeter. all other conditions as required for grade -a milk | any milk that after pasteurisation, as required by the minister of health, contains not more than 100,000 bacilli | per cubic centimeter. no requirement for boithng condensed and evaporated alilk —sweetened condensed milk, the condensed milk of commerce, is officially defined in the united states as the production resulting from the evaporation of a part of the water from whole milk. it must not contain less than 28° of milk solids, including not less than 8% of milk fat. it usually contains about 40° of added cane sugar. evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed milk must contain not less than 25°5° of total solids including 7:8°% of fat and no added sugar. in great britain, under statutory rules and orders made by the minister of health, full-cream unsweetened condensed milk must contain 31 % of milk solids including not less than 99% of milk fat. full-cream sweetened condensed milk must contain the same percentage of milk solids and of milk fat. skimmed unsweetened must contain 20% of milk solids and skimmed sweetened 26%, while all skimmed milk must be labelled “ unfit for babies.” the amount of imports of condensed and evaporated milk into great britain has increased from 26} million pounds in 1888 to 251 million pounds in 1925 and, unfortunately, a very large proportion of this increase is due to the importation of condensed skimmed milk. dried milk or milk powder —dried milk or milk powder is a dehydrated product of milk containing about 5°% of moisture. it is used as a substitute for milk in the kitchen and extensively by bakers and confectioners. either whole milk or skimmed may be desiccated, but the skimmed milk powder will keep almost indefinitely, whereas the whole milk powder has a tendency to become rancid. it is reported that in most processes of manu- facture this difficulty has been overcome. the milk is evaporated upon revolving metal drums, internally heated, or by being sprayed into a chamber through which hot air is blown. the drum processes are carried out however at normal atmospheric pressure or in partial vacuum. in great britain dried milk is subject to the following requirements: milk described as dried full-cream milk must contain not less than 26% of milk fat. mulk described as dried $-cream milk must contain not less than 20%, milk described as dried 4-cream milk must contain not less than 14% and milk described as dried §-cream milk must contain not less than 8%. biirliography.—international crop report and agricultural statistics (rome, monthly). see also the official statistics of great britain, the united states, australia, canada, denmark, etc. (e. b. pu.; a. d. a) millay, edna st. vincent (1892- ), american author, was born at rockland, me., feb. 22 1892, and was educated at vassar, graduating in 1917. her work, distinguished by delicacy of sentiment, placed her in the front rank of american contem- porary poets. she was awarded the pulitzer prize in 1923 for her poem the harpwearer. o16 she published renascence and other poems (1917); figs from thisties (1920); secand april (1921); aria da capo (1921); twe slatterns and a king (1921); the larp-weaver and other poems (1923); lamp and the bell (1923); and disiressing dialogues (1924). miller, joaquin (1811~-1913), american poet (see 18.464), died at oakland, cal., feb. 17 1913. in compliance with his last wishes his body was cremated and the ashes taken up into the sierras and cast to the winds. miller, oskar von (1855- ), german engincer, was bornin munich may 7 1855. after studying electrical technology he became director of the deutsche edison gesellschaft (german edison companv) from which developed the allgemeine elek- trizitits gesellschaft (the a.e.g., or general electric co.). he advocated the full utilisation of electricity by means of propaganda in connection with long distance cables, and wrote articles on the supplying of towns with electricity (1896-1903). he was director of the electrical exhibition, 'rankfort-on-the- main, held in 189 when the first high tension alternating current power-transmission apparatus was installed. the trans- mission was accomplished over a distance of r80km. (from laufifen on the neckar to frankfort) and with only 25°%¢ loss. these exneriments were of the highest importance in the development of modern electric-technology. he promoted the development of bavarian water power as well as a systematic electric supply for that country, and was the founder and organiser of the german museum for natural and technical science in munich. millerand, alexandre (:8s50- ), french politician (see 18.463). m. millerand, now onlya private member, threw himself into his work as a barrister, and appeared in many im- portant civil cases. in the chamber he was a fierce opponent of the combes ministry, which succeeded that of waldeck- rousseau; for he objected to its narrow and fanatical anti- clericalism. in july 1909 he became minister of public works in m. briand’s first cabinet, his principal achievement at this time being the re-organisation of*the state railways. together with m. briand he took strong measures to suppress the railway strike of oct. 1910. in jan. 1912 he was appointed minister of war under m. poincare. his promotion surprised no one, for he had always taken a keen interest in questions of military organisation; and when the menace of germany increased, he devoted himself to strengthening the national defences. he re-organised the higher command, and by the act of may 29 1912 he gave a defi- nite status to military acronautics for the first time. in jan. 1913 a personal incident brought about his retirement. on aug. 25 1914 he was invited by m. viviani to take the place of m. messimy as minister of war; and during the terrible situa- tion which then prevailed he had constantly to take the initia- tive, for example, in attempting to remedy as far as possible the shortage of munitions. he was accused, however, of being too slow in providing the necessary heavy artillery, and he resigned with the other members of the viviani cabinet at the end of oct. 1915. in rgr8 he was elected a member of the academie des sciences, morales et politiques. a few months after the conclusion of hostilities, on march 21 1919, m. millerand was appointed commissioner general for alsace-lorraine. the problem of reuniting with the mother- country two provinces which had been torn from her in 1871 was a most serious one. for 50 years they had been under an administration widely different from that of france. a period of transition, therefore, was essential, alike from the point of view of political expediency, administration, economics and finance. the first french officials sent to strasbourg had not been equal to their task; and for this reason it was essential to appoint a statesman of eminent authority with power to act, who would keep in constant touch with the government. this post was filled by m. millerand with complete success. in an important speech delivered in paris on nov. 15 1919, on the eve of the elections, he outlined the policy of the coalition which, under the name of the d/oc sational, was returned to power. on the resignation of m. clemenceau, jan. 18 1920, m. millerand was chosen to form a cabinet, and became both prime minister and minister for foreign affairs. his main activities were in miller, joaquin—millerand regard to the application of the treaty of versailles; and in order to force germany to fulfil her obligations, he ordered the provi- sional occupation of frankfort. he was present at the inter- allied conferences at san remo and spa, in apriland july 1920, and in aug. of the same year he met mr. lloyd george at ilythe. the situation in regard to poland, who had been at- tacked by the bolsheviks, now became grave, and m. millerand therefore sent to warsaw a contingent of french officers under general weygand. with this assistance the poles gained a com- plete victory over the bolsheviks. m. millerand about this time oflicially recognised the anti-bolshevik government of gen. wrangel, who was soon after completely defeated. in france itself, in may 1920, he frustrated various attempts, especially by the railwaymen, to organise revolutionary strikes. in sept. 1920 m. deschanel, president of the republic, was forced by ill-health 10 resign. m. millerand was elected as his successor, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 605 were given in his favour. during his candidature, he made it known that if he were elected, he intended to exert a more powerful in- fluence on the policy of the government than his predecessors had dene. he refused to admit that his office of president forced | him to comply with a tradition of which he disapproved, by re- maining absolutely neutral in politics. he made it clear that he intended 10 watch closely the foreign policy of the government, and made no secret of his wish to strengthen the power of the president by a revision of the constitution which would modify the conditions of his election; and he put his ideas into practice, by frequently intervening in diplomatic negotiations. during the inter-allied conference at cannes in jan. 1922 he despatched a telegram expressing dissatisfaction at the conduct of affairs, which caused m. briand to return to paris, and, in fact, brought about his resignation. working on the same lines, he summoned to the llysee the prefects, or chief administrative officers of cach department from all over france. in a powerful speech at evreux in the spring of 1923 he declared that he would not agree to the re-introduction of the scrufin d’arrondissement, and showed marked favour to the adherents of the b/oc national, who had been in the majority in the chamber since the elections of nov. 1919, and against whom the radicals and socialists were then carrying on a campaign of public meetings. m. millerand’s conception of the rele of president of the re- public brought him into collision with the radical and socialist majority, which, under the name of the cartel des gauches, was successful in the elections of may 11 1924. he was violently attacked by the radical socialist press, which accused him of having exceeded his powers by intervening in the party struggle, and called for his resignation. m. herriot, the leader of the cartel des gauches, when asked by m. millerand to succeed m. poincare as premier, announced that he would do so only on m. millerand’s resignation. the latter replied that he had been elected for seven years, and that the alteration of the party in power could in no way affect his constitutional position nor abrogate his rights. but he made it clear that he had not the slightest intention of obstructing the new government, and that its leader could count on his impartiality. mm. herriot, how- ever, remained immovable; and m. millerand therefore invited the senator m. francois-marsal, who had been his minister of finance in 1920, to form a cabinet. m. frangois-marsal de- clared in the chamber that the attacks on m. millerand were contrary to the constitution, and that it was in order to uphold the latter that he had agreed to take office. his government, however, was immediately defeated; and m. millerand tendered his resignation, protesting meanwhile against the illegality of the action taken against him. the attitude of the party in power dissatisfied the senate, which, as a result, voted with the opposi- tion and elected m. doumergue as m. millerand’s successor, instead of m. painleve, the candidate of the cartel des gauches. some months later through a by-election, m. millerand was elected senator for the department of the seine. he then became president of a group formed to denounce the policy of the cartel des gauches throughout the country. ilis success as an orator was apparent both in the courts and in parliament. (p. b.) millet—milner millet, francis davis (1846-10912), american painter (see 18.466), was drowned in the “ titanic ” disaster april 15 iqi2. millikan, robert andrews (1868- ), american physicist, was born at morrison, ill., march 22 1868, and re- ceived his education at oberlin college (4.85 f800 m1803) where he was instructor in physics 1891-3. he then proceeded to columbia university (ph.d., 1895), and the universities of berlin and gottingen (1895-6). in 1896 he was appointed assist- ant in physics at the university of chicago, with which institu- tion he continued to be associated for the next 25 years in the department of physics, being professor from 1910 to 1921. in 192r he became clirector of the norman bridge laboratory of physics and chairman of the executive council of the california institute of technology at pasadena, california. he was vice- chairman of the national research council, washington, d.c., in rot7, and chief of the science and research division of the signal corps, u.s.a., with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. in 1922 he was the first exchange lecturer to belgium on the c.r.b. foundation. the best known of his researches were the “ oil drop ” experi- ments, undertaken with the view of making measurements of fundamental electrical quantity. they proved conclusively that all electrons are alike. he also undertook researches into photoelectric effect. later research of his has tended definitely to bridge the gap between light and x-ray phenomena. ile was awarded the nobel prize in physics in 1923 for his work in isolating and measuring the electron, and in making the first exact photoelectric determination of the hght-quant. in the same year he received the edison medal for especially meritorious work in the field of electricity, and the hughes medal of the royal society in recognition of his determination of the elec- tronic charge and other physical constants. (sec puysics.) millikan was the author of the following, among other mechanics, molecular physics and ieat (1901); flectricity, sound and light (1908); the electron (1917); practical physics (1920): science and life (1923); in addition to numerous contributions to technical periodicals. mills, roger quarles (1832-10911), american legislator (sce 18.475), died at corsicana, tex., sept. 2 rgt1r. milne, sir george frederick (1866- ), british gen- eral, was born nov. 5 1866 and joined the royal artillery in 1885. he served in the nile expedition of 1898, and the south african war (1899-1902). in 1913 he became commander of the artillery of the 4th div., with which he went out to france in ror4. ife was given, in july r915, command of the 27th div., which, three months later, he took out to the salonika theatre. at the end of the year he was placed in charge of an army corps ihere. in may 1016 milne was advanced to the command of the british forces in macedonia, and he occupied this responsible position uncler the orders of three successive french commanders- in-chief until the end of the struggle. during the ensuing two years, the situation scarcely lent itself to effectual offensive opera- tions, and the british military authorities at home were opposed to the using-up of resources in this theatre. milne, however, filled a difficult position with unfailing tact and sound judgment, and, when a general advance at last took place in the autumn of 1918, after bulgarian powers of resistance had waned, the forces under his personal command contributed appreciabl v-16 the bringing about of the final victory. he remained in charge of the british forces in the near east and about the black sea until 1920, and on return to england was appointed to the east- eyn command. in feb. 1926 he succeeded lord cavan as chief of the imperial general staff. possessed of exceptional strength of character and decision, an eye so keen in its perception of weaknesses as to be proverbial in the army, these qualities were blended with a sympathetic understanding of men and a marked sense of humour. even more significant, for an era of military transilion, was his known receptiveness to new ideas. milner, alfred milner, viscount (1854-1925), british statesman (see 18.476), occupied himself mainly, after his return from south africa, with business interestsin the city of london. works:— ! on both sicles. o17 but, though he took up a somewhat detached attitude with re- gard to ordinary domestic politics, he was active on behalf of causes which appealed to him from the imperial side; and he made several speeches in different parts of the country in the next few years on behalf of tariff reform and colonial prefer- ence. he paid a visit to canada, where he himself and his gospel of imperialism were well received. he was roused, however, by mr. lloyd george’s budget of tg09, and he advised the house of lords to reject the finance bill, and, as he said at glasgow, to ‘damn the consequences.” he made several speeches in the next 12 months in defence of the lords’ position; and when the parliament bill came up to the house of lords in rorz, he was a leading spirit among the “ diehards ”’ who advised resistance to the end. he did not take a very prominent part in the opposition to the irish home rule bill; but he aptly described the state of affairs in ireland in the early summer of tors as “‘ smouldering war,” and he urged the remodelling of the amending bill so as to reassure the ulstermen. the world war confirmed all his fears as to the disadvantages under which great britain and the empire would labour during hostilities through the practice of unlimited free trade by the mother-country for over half a century. he gladly accepted in the summer of rors the chairmanship of a committee of technical experts and practical agriculturists, appointed by lord selborne as president of the board of agriculture, to consider the means of maintaining and increasing food production in england and wales. the committee reported that farmers should be encour- aged to grow more wheat by a guarantced minimum of 45 s. a quarter for the four years following the harvest of ro16. mr. asquith’s coalition govt. did not think the situation serious enough for this drastic remedy. lord milner became critical of this “‘ wait and see” attitude; and especially reprobated on several occasions the policy of concealing disagrecable facts. “truth all round,” he said at canterbury on oct. 30 1915, “ is the most fortifying thing in the world;” englishmen could not brace their nerves and stecl their hearts to win through by emu- lating the ostrich. similarly he did his utmost, in april 1916, to induce doubting ministers to accept the policy, which the coun- try demanded, of universal compulsory service, as absolutely necessary under the circumstances. mr. lloyd george, when he formed his ministry in the follow- ing dee., at once turned to this resolute statesman, the only british administrator who before 1914 had directed a war from the civil side, and constituted him one of his principal col- leagues in his war cabinet of four (or five including mr. bonar law). considering the attitude of the two men at the time of the south african war, the offer and acceptance argued magnanimity from this time to the cessation of hostilities their relations were close, and, after mr. lloyd george, lord milner took the jargest share in the civilian conduct of the war. in vigour, resolution ancl readiness to take responsibility they re- sembled cach other; but lord milner’s experience, scholarship, steadiness and somewhat bureaucratic habit of mind supplied an invaluable complement to his chief’s daring, impatience of prece- dent, quickness of apprehension and intellectual agility. in feb. 1917 he attended, on behalf of the british govt., a confer- ence of the allies in st. petersburg (leningrad), the object of which was to improve the co-ordination in the prosecution of the war between the government of the tsar (then in its last weeks of existence) and the western powers. fle devoted himself to his duties in the war cabinet, never mak- ing speeches in the country, and seldom in the ifouse of lords, where his appearances were mostly in explanation of the policy of the government tn regard to food production and control. in june t9t7 he announced that ministers had added between 0,000 and 80,000 men to the people available for agricultural work. [in feb. 1918 he vigorously defended lord rhondda’s administration at the food ministry against ignorant criticism, and said that in regard to food britain was in a better position than any other country except the united states. except for what was necessary for the conduct of the war, everything must give way to food supply. the corn production bill of 1917, and 918 the acceptance by the government of the principle of impcrial preference, and of the conservation of the raw materials of the empire, owed much to his influence and support. he worked heartily for inter-allied co-operation in the conduct of the war, and with mr. lloyd george attended meetings of the supreme war council at versailles. he was in france as the representa- tive of the british cabinet at the time of the victorious german advance in the last 10 days of march 1918; and it was largely owing to his influence that gen. foch was appointed at doullens on march 26 generalissimo of the allied forces in france. it being vital to have a man of unusual capacity and vigour at the war office in this critical spring of 1918, lord milner was given the seals of secretary of state for war on april 19; and it was he. who presided over the army council during the succeeding months of the year which ended with victory. in the reconstruction of the ministry after the general election, lord milner left the war office and became colonial secretary, a position for which his lifelong interest in the empire peculiarly qualified him. in that capacity he attended the paris peace con- ference as one of the british plenipotentiaries, and was a signa- tory to the treaty of versailles; and he subsequently helped to deal with a number of difficult questions arising under the treaty out of the disposal of the german colonies conquered in war. but his colleagues utilised his services also in other directions. his financial authority was invoked to defend ministerial finance in the house of lords; and when a serious revolutionary outbreak took place in egypt in 1919, he was sent there, as the author of exgland in egypt (1892), at the head of a special mis- sion to inquire into the causes, and to report on the form of con- stitution best calculated to promote egyptian peace and prosper- ity. the mission arrived at cairo in dec. and remained till march; then in the summer of 1920 lord milner and his col- leagues had long conferences with zaghlul pasha, the leader of the nationalists, in london; and ultimately in nov. they issued a memorandum recommending the recognition of egyp- tian independence. great britain was to guarantee the integrity of egypt against aggression; she would have a privileged position in egypt and would maintain a garrison in the canal zone. the capitulations were to be abolished, and the veto on legislation affecting foreigners would be vested in the high commissioner. the new constitution, of which these were to be the principal features, had not yet been adopted when lord milner, who had only accepted: office because of the national need, resigned in feb. ro2r, and his great services were fittingly recognised by the order of the garter. before the end of the month he married lady edward cecil, the widow of lord edward cecil, formerly miss violet maxse. lord milner returned to his business interests in the city, and during the remaining four years of his life, though he took an active part in the work of the rhodes trust, and also published his views (questions of the hour, 1923), he only once showed any disposition to resume public work. when mr. baldwin, in the autumn of 1923, boldly appealed to the country for a mandate to introduce protection, lord milner accepted the chairmanship of a committee to advise the government as to the proposed tariff. as the electorate rejected protection, the committee proved abortive. in the winter of 1924-5 lord and lady milner paid a private visit to south africa, where he renewed old friend- ships and received a warm welcome from those‘who appreciated the great services which he had rendered to that country. short- ly after his return he was attacked by sleeping sickness and died on may 13 1925 at his residence sturry court, near canterbury. his death coincided with his unopposed election to the chancel- lorship of his old university, oxford; and funeral services -in canterbury cathedral and westminster abbey gave expression to the public sorrow and respect. there was found among his papers, and published shortly after his death, an impressive docu- ment containing his credo (1925). (ga bb) milovanovic, milovan (1863-1912), serbian statesman and diplomatist, was born at belgrade on march 2 1863, and was educated there and in paris, where he was the first serb to take his degree as doctor of law and was awarded a gold medal for his milovanovic—milyukov thesis. on returning home he was appointed professor of inter- national law at belgrade university and soon acquired the posi- tion of one of serbia’s leading jurists. he was mainly responsible for drafting the new serbian constitution of 1888; and, becoming secretary of the central committee of the radical party, he en- tered politics and held successively the portfolios of justice, commerce and finance during the closing decade of last century. in 1901 he went to rome as minister, and retained his post after the revolution of 1903. in 1907 he represented serbia at the second hague conference, and was appointed a member of the international court of arbitration. in july 1908 he was made loreign minister in the vetimirovie cabinet, and thus had to guide serbian policy through the diflicult period of the bosnian annexation crisis. in 1gr1 he succeeded pasie as premier, and, being less of a par- ty man than his old radical colleagues, was able to bridge many gaps, and to acquire within a short space of time a unique posi- tion among the politicians of serbia. even in foreign politics he showed signal moderation, and though a confirmed russophu, iniliated negotiations for a commercial treaty with austria-hun- gary and actively favoured good relations with turkey. he was one of the chicf founders of the balkan league, the decisive step towards the creation of which was taken at a meeting between milovanovie and the bulgarian premier, gueschov, on oct. 11 1git. secret negotiations continued throughout the winter and led to the conclusion of the serbo-bulgarian treaty of march 13 1912 (sce serbia). discussions were still pending between the various balkan capitals for a more precise and comprehensive project of alliance when, on july 1 ro12 at belgrade, dr. milo- vanovie died suddenly of heart failure. his removal at so critical a juncture was a grave blow to the cause of peace and moderation, and also deprived serbia of her ablest statesman since the death of prince michael. milwaukee, wis., u.s.a. (see 18.492), had a population in 1920 of 457,147 (100 males to 100 females); in 1925 the census bureau estimate was 509,192. if suburbs within 1o m. are in- cluded the total for the metropolitan district 1s over 600,000. between 1910 and 1920 the number of negroes, though still comparatively small (2,229), increased 127°; the number of foreign-born decreased slightly, to 110,068, of whom 30,771 were born in germany and 23,060 in poland. natives of germany constituted only 8-7°% of the total population in 1920, as com- pared with 18-9 in 1900. the assessed valuation of all taxable property in the city had risen to $810,509,504 in 1925, more than four times the figure 20 years earlier. adding to this the value of property exempt from taxation (about $144,000,000) and of public utilities assessed by the wisconsin ‘tax commission (about $102,000,000), a total value for all real estate and assessable personal property of over 1,000 million dollars was indicated. ranking 13th in population among the cities of the united states in 1920, milwaukee ranked t2th in the value of its manufactured products in rorg and 11th in 1923 ($576,161,000 and $514,501,065 respectively, compared with $208,324,000 in 1909), leading all others in the production of cranes and hoists, large shovels, excavators and dredges, steam and water turbines, large hydraulic electric units, rock and ore crushers and many other kinds of machinery, silk stockings, wheelbarrows and work-shoes. progress in city planning included the preparation of a comprehensive plan (1917), the enactment of zoning ordinances (1920 and 1924), and the acquisition by the city of the greater part of the lake front and of land for a civic centre. effect of prohibition—the large brewing industry was dis- sipated by national prohibitory legislation. some of the com- panies used part of their plant for manufacturing‘ near beer,” ginger ale and other “ soft ”’ drinks, or leased part of it for other industrial purposes, but a large part of the investment in the breweries was still lving idle in 1926. milyukov, paul nikolayevich (1859- ), russian politician and historian, was born near st. petersburg (lenin- grad) jan. 27 18sq. he studied history and humanities at the university of moscow, and received the degree of master in mimicry—mineilaying and minesweeping history for a learned work on the state economics of russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. his liberal opinions brought him into conflict with the educational authorities, and he was dismissed in 1895 after one of the ever-recurrent university “riots.” after the meetings of the zemstvos in 1905 he became the political editor of an important liberal paper, the retch, and took an active part in the formation of the constitutional democratic party (cadets). milyukov became the leader of that party, although he was not elected a member of the first or the second duma. when the tsar dissolved the first duma he was one of the principal prompters of the “ viborg mani- festo,” in which the members of the assembly declared them- selves ready to follow the people in resisting arbitrary rule. milyukov did not sign, however, as he was not a member of the duma, and escaped the persecution which accompanied the stolypin reaction. he was elected to the third and the fourth duma, and played the part of a leader of the opposition, system- atically criticising the policy of the government. when the world war broke out he stood for a policy of national union and active co-opcration with the entente, but the corruption of the war office drove him into an attitude of increasing hostility. milyukov took office in prince lvov’s provisional government as minister of foreign affairs. later he strongly disapproved of kerensky’s policy, and when the bolsheviks seized power he escaped to kiev then occupied by the germans and gave up the cause of the allies as lost. after the armistice milyukov went to london and subsequently to paris, where in 1921 he directed a journal (last news) in which he advocated an alliance with patriotic socialists. mimicry: see colours of animals. minelaying and minesweeping.—explosive contrivan- ces were moored and used against ships, as early as 1800. it was not, however, until the american civil war that the sea mine became an accepted weapon of naval warfare; nor did it prove a potent danger to the capital ship until it played an all-important part in the siege of port arthur some 4o years later. i. minelaying amongst the decisions of international conferences at the hague it was agreed, and ratified by the great powers (other than russia), that mining in war should be limited to operations within territorial waters. the unfortunate result of this was to lull the british admiralty into a false sense of security, and the mining service thus became a side issue. ‘the german carbonit mine, used by the germans throughout the world war had been originally offered to the british admiralty. it was refused on the plea of expense; and, in its place a mine of about one- quarter the cost was manufactured and supplied to the naval service. the hague agreement was torn to pieces within a few hours of the outbreak of the world war, and as the war pro- gressed the necessity for constant minelaying became evident. elements of mining warfare—three factots are necessary for successful mining warfare—the strategic function, the opera- tion of laying the mines and the technical efficiency of the mine itself. the first of these factors is woven into the main strategy of a navai war. the stronger fleet, in its anxiety to seek out and destroy its enemy, desires a clear sea; and, to obtain this, must insure that such a means of attrition as the mine is recluced to the utmost. on the other hand, the weaker fleet will use the mine profusely in an endeavour, by attrition, to reach an equality of force: and it will also use this weapon against merchant ships, particularly when they belong to a belligerent dependent on its carriage of foodstuff from overseas. this was the initial stage of naval strategy in the world war; and to some extent it explains the pre-war application of the germans to mining. the second factor is the operation of laying the mines. to be successtul, this must be governed by the element of surprise, and be expeditiously performed; it requires for its purpose a ship of exceptional speed, or one which, by disguise or subterfuge, can carry out the work unmolested. the value of merchant ships for minelaying was recognised, and the germans had such ships ready at the outbreak of war and speedily augmented the number of them. 919 the third factor is purely one of technique. no type of mine that does not meet the following requirements is efficient. it must be safe until it is laid. when laid, it must take up and maintain its required depth, throughout all kinds of weather, for an appreciable length of time. it must be immune from me- chanical failure when required to function. in the interest of all belligerents, it must automatically render itself safe should it break from its moorings. mines that fail in any of these respects may become a greater danger to friend than to foe. the german carbonit mine answered these tests except in the last require- ment. the early british mine was unfortunately only fully efficient in the last requirement. considerable importance attaches to the design of a minefield. a simple straight line of mines is easily and quickly laid, but presents little difficulty to the minesweepers once it is located. lines of mines laid in zig- zags, particularly when spaces of water are left clear, present the greatest difficulty to removal. on the other hand, such patterns will necessarily cover a larger sheet of water, and will require very accurate plotting, if subsequently the vicinity of the mined areca is to be approached by the sea forces of the minelayer. an existing apparatus termed ‘‘ taut wire gear’ proved a great aid to accuracy in positioning a minefield. german practice—german submarine minelayers usually confined their mines within an area of two or three sq. miles, laying them in groups of four, or even jess. the position chosen was most frequently near some focal point, buoy or lightship, or at the entrance to a naval base or commercial port. for instance, during the war, over 450 mines were laid by german submarines within a mile of the shipwash light vessel, a posi- tion necessarily passed by all traffic up and down the east coast war channel, by the convoys to and from holland and by com. tyrwhitt’s destroyer flotillas whenever they left or returned to their base at harwich. the germans also allotted to cach of these submarines a particular stretch of the british coast. the flotillas working from flanders covered the coast from flam- borough head south about to the clyde, also the northern french coast; the high sea, or large boats, working from the elbe, were responsible for the rest of the english and scotch coasts, and the whole of ireland. each commander being restricted to work in his individual area, the danger of striking previously laid mines was minimised. the commanders, moreover, by this arrange- ment, gut quickly into touch with the local movements of the traffic, the method and capacity of their opposing minesweepers and the coastal navigation within their beats. in most cases after some 10 to 14 days a commander would not hesitate to pass over a position where he had previously laid mines. he would be confident that his mines had been discovered and cleared if shipping had been seen in the area. moored mines could be laid in any depth up to 100 fathoms, or even more in tideless waters, and they could be regulated to lie at any depth below the surface. deep mines were used against submerged submarines, and shallow ones against surface ship- ping. in a strong tide, with a long mooring-rope, the mine will bend over to the tide; so that the mines, under strong tidal con- ditions, alwavs lav too deep to be harmful to surface ships. ina position such as the pentland firth, mines were in fact only a danger at slack water, a period of minutes only. again, the difference in height between high and low water was an important matter. if, for instance, the tidal range was exceptionally large, as in the bristol channel or bay of fundy, all types of ships could pass over a mincfield at high water in perfect safety, pro- vided no mines had been seen at low water on the surface. british minelaying resources.—at the outbreak of hostilities in rorg the british navy possessed seven old cruisers (latona class) fitted as minelayers. these had a speed of only 14 knots. shortly afterwards four merchant ships were added; and in the second part of the war a considerable number of submarine mineclayers and fast destroyers were used. on oct. 2 1914 the first line of 1,264 mines was laid by the old cruisers in an area 1o m. north of ostend. this had the effect of forcing neutral shipping to pass through the downs. unfortunately, the pritish mines then in use proved so defective that for a 1ime minelaying 920 had to cease; and although in 1915, after some technical im- provement, some 15 more minefields were laid, it was not until 1916 that attention was concentrated on providing a mine of the calibre of that used by the germans. british activities from 1916 onwards.—one of the principal british minclaying operations of 1916 was a coast barrage, con- sisting of a double line of deep mines, running for 40 m. from the belgian coast, at a distance of 12 m. from the shore. it was supplemented by mine nets laid by the dover drifters. the work took five weeks to complete; but only one submarine seems to have been accounted for by it. the end of the year saw the institution of a mining school at portsmouth for research and development. on the assumption that the belgian coast barrage had been effective, a similar barrage was completed in feb. 1917 across shetland is ri ry fea ce ey i = lape. ot ate orkney is ee 0 ; 1 e ~ © ie is pes ar ne eas 0 wh pee.) aeae | ; ae) ao ry ‘british: tee vet t oot eh $ re ci? "a2 mites eee eal ? a # f . f “ invergordon 4 \, . or ane ee ge i y scale of miles 50 ve ~ grangemouth , os ) oe sen, fig, 1-- plan of the great northern mine barrage, consisting of 63.117 mines. laid in 1918 by british and u.s. submarines, the straits of dover; but the mines dragged and had to be swept up. it was, however, rclaid by the end of july 1017. in jan. 1917 it became essential to encircle the heligoland bight and thus to surround all exits from german ports; but the shortage of mines at the time caused the operation to be postponed, nor was the british mine considered suitable for it. however, to- wards the end of 1917 the “ abdiel ’ and five minelaying sub- marines had laid nearly 16,o00 mines in the german bight; and these accounted for a certain number of german destroyers and minesweepers. the mine used in the later stages of this opera- tion was the new british h2, which, except for its method of taking depth, was similar in principle to the german carbonit mince. the german method of depth-taking was for the mine, at- tached to the sinker, to drop to the bottom, where, after a short interval for the purpose of safety, the mine released itself from the sinker and rose to the depth for which it was set. in the british method the mine did not go to the bottom; it did not, in fact, go below the depth for which it was set. the sinker regu- lated the depth while the mine was still on the surface; then, in sinking, pulled the mine down to its required position. an ad- vantage of the british system was that heavy water pressure on the mine-case was obviated; but, on the other hand, it did not obtain the exceptional accuracy in depth-taking which was noticeable in the german method. in due course the new h2 mine was delivered in sufficient quantity for the long-delayed defensive minefields to be begun by the british, and an extensive new barrage in the english channel was then completed. be- tween folkestone and cape gris nez 9,500 mines were laid in 20 parallel lines, the shoals of the varne and the ridge dividing the area into three sections. this barrage eficctively closed the minelaying and minesweeping channel] exit to the german submarines, nine of which were lost in attempts to pass it. alinelaying by the united states —the entry of the united states into the war admitted of a large augmentation in mines and in minelayers; and an attempt was made to close the north- ern exit from the north sea by a mine barrage between the ork- neys and the norwegian coast (see fig. 1). this operation was undertaken by both british and u.s. minelayers. the latter formed a base at inverness, and supplied ten large minelayers with a total carrving capacity of over 5,300 mines. the united states used a mine of a novel type. it carried the usual charge of 300 ib. of tri-nitro-toluene, but from each mine there extended antennae for a distance of 35 ft. which, if touched by a metal ship, exploded the mine. the result was that the danger zone was largely increased. the vast area covered by mines can best be appreciated by a reference to the plan, which gives an idea of the work carried out by the u.s. minclavers. difficulties were encountered as the operation proceeded. a proportion of the american mines exploded prematurely; while a number of british mines took up a shallower depth than intended, and had to be swept up and relaid. the complete operation, however, was finished by june 1918. it must not be supposed that the whole water available for a submarine was effectively covered by this minefield; but the dangerous area was greatly increased and an effect on the morale of the germans quickly produced. in july german sub- marines began to creep past in norwegian waters; but the nor- weglans closed this coastal lane to both belligerents by mine- fields of their own. of the mines laid in the northern barrage 56,578 were american and 13,546 british. all this time the encircling of the bight had been going steadily on, and some 21,- ooo mines were in place by the date of the armistice. during the period of the war, approximately 160,000 mines were dropped in the north sea and channel by the british and american minelayers, the very great majority of which were laid during the last 18 months of the war. il. minesweeping before the outbreak of war in 1914 the british navy had, to some extent, realised the possibility of a mining offensive on the part of their enemies; and, largely due to the foresight of the late admiral lord charles beresford, trawlers had been tested and had proved efficient minesweepers as early as 1907. a trawler reserve purely for minesweeping was instituted shortly after- wards. thus, by aug. 8 1914, 06 hired trawlers had put to sea to sweep up enemy mines, and within a fortnight another 100 trawl- ers had been requisitioned and were fitting out. the trawler minesweeper, however, did not entirely cover the requirements, as it was too slow to sweep the water ahead of a moving fleet; and this had been realised, and to some slight extent, catered for, by training a flotilla of eight old torpedo-gunboats. these ships were capable of towing the sweep at 12 knots, which was double the speed at which the majority of the trawlers could operate. this gunboat flotilla moved north from dover on july 31 1914, and, with sweeps out, actually covered the track over which the grand tleet passed. they were necessarily much overworked in the first six months of the war, as, whenever practicable, they swept the waters through which the flect moved, and were also constantly required to search areas where mines were expected to be laid. fortunately no mines were laid near the bases of the fleet until much later, when this small flotilla had been considerably augmented. methods of sweeping —at the outbreak of war, the british system of minesweeping was for two vessels 10 tow a stout wire between them, the wire being kept at the required depth by means of water-kites. the towed wire, termed the sweep, thus came into violent contact with the mooring-rope of a mine, which it generally broke, causing the mine to come to the sur- face, when it could be sunk by rifle-fire. in some cases, however, the sweep would strike a horn of the mine, and explode it. this occasionally led to the parting of the sweep and consequent delay while a new wire was passed. the most serious drawback was minelaying and minesweeping if the sweep failed to break the mine wire, when the mine would be towed along, more often than not unknown to the sweepers. this latter trouble caused many of the early minefields to be scattered far beyond the limits in which they were laid, and con- stituted a serious danger. the eventual safeguard was to heave the sweep slowly in, and to sight the whole wire and water-kites on the surface before slipping it, when a mine holding to the wire would be seen and reswept afterwards. ‘the innovation of a serrated form of sweep wire eventually reduced the dilhiculty to a considerable extent. this simple method of mineswecping stood the test of the whole war, and its simplicity had the great advantage of reducing the training period which would have been necessary had a more complicated apparatus been used. the french towed from a single vessel two sweeps, once on either side, each kept out by an otter similar to the usual otter used in trawling, but regulated for depth by attachment to a large torpedo-shaped float, the depth at the other end being regulated by a water-kite. along each wire was distributed a series of small mechanical and explosive wire-cutters. the ‘“ shooting” of these sweeps caused trouble unless the crews were adept, and the speed at which the apparatus could be towed was limited to six to seven knots. the spread of the british system was 400 to soo yd. per pair according to the type of minesweeper, that of the french system not more than 200 yards. in the latter part of the war the americans adopted the french method, which had by then been somewhat simplified. the german system was akin to the british, excepting that, in order to cover the route of their fleet more quickly, they in- stituted a very light form of sweep which could be towed at 20 knots. directly this apparatus met with an obstacle it was auto- matically slipped, thus giving notice of the obstruction, where- upon the slower type of swecpers were hastened to the spot to clear it. in practice this system constantly led the fast sweepers to report mines when they had only encountered wrecks or some other harmless obstruction, and jittle confidence was therefore placed in the reports of mines by this fast flotilla. under ordinary cruising conditions, searches by sweepers were made whereby only a small percentage of the water was covered—suflicient, however, to allow a strong probability of the presence of mines being discovered in good time. the intro- duction of the “ paravane,” which protected the ship herself, very much reduced the mine danger; but men-of-war were not fitted with this device until 1917, nor by the end of the war was it general in merchant ships. the paravane is an apparatus which, for assured efficiency, requires skilled handling. there are situations where its use is impracticable, and it has not re- placed the necessity for the minesweeper. early difficulties —the war was only a day old when the first mining operation was undertaken by the germans. an armed merchant ship, the ‘‘ kenigin louise,”’ laid a large mine- field off southwold, at a distance well outside british territorial waters. the “‘ kenigin louise’ was sunk, but h.m.s. “ am- phion ” struck a mine after the action. this minefield caused considerable loss to merchant ships, many of which were neu- trals. it also led to carly losses of minesweeping trawlers, in which the mortality was heavy. throughout the war, an aver- age of half of the crew of a trawler was lost when one was mined. for the first two months of the war, for every two mines swept one trawler was lost. improved method and greater experience later minimised the losses, until an average of one loss for every 80 mines was achieved in 1918; but the effect on shipping in the early days was such that any form of flotsam was reported as a mine. the outcry for minesweepers became universal, and more trawlers were requisitioned. in great britain there was no lack of voluntecrs from the fishermen, nor of officers from the naval and naval volunteer reserves; but all of these were untrained in mincsweeping, efficiency in which was proving so essential. by sept. 1 1914 little had been done with the southwold-alde- burgh minefield, other minefields were suspected, insurance rates were rising, and the situation had become grave. a rear-admiral was appointed as admiral of minesweeping on the last coast. q21 the immediate situation was dealt with by the institution of a channel close to the coast, buoyed adequately and swept con- tinuously. merchant shipping was instructed to pass close to the line of buovs; but the organisation requisite to insure this information reaching all the ships, and the difficulties of enforcing obedience, were not overcome for a considerable time. the losses were reduced to a slight extent, however; and when this channel was extended from dover to the firth of forth, and the organisa- tion was perfected, losses by mine were the exception. against the british fleet no mines were laid during the first year of war; but the situation in mined localities had emphasised the necessity for a larger fleet sweeping flotilla, and a number of special vessels, termed sloops, were laid down. details of minefields—the actual minefields laid by the ger- mans between aug. 5 1914 and aug.’5 1945 were as follows:— 1914 aug.5 aldeburgh-southwold 180 mines 1914 aug. 26 off humber : 200 mines tyne. ig4 mines 1914 oct. 26 tory i. (treland) 200 mines 1914 nov. 3 smith's knoll 30 mines i9tg dec. 16 scarborough . ; . 100 mines ig15 april4 swarte and indefatigable banks . 360 mines 1915 may 16 ke. dogger banks 480 mines these mines were all laid. bv surface vessels, and accounted for a heavy toll in merchant vessels and minesweepers. at the entrance to the dardanelles minesweeping had to be carried out under heavy shellfire. at first only slow trawlers were available, and night clearing was never a practicable opera- tion. growth of the british minesweeping force-—in british home waters the augmentation of the mimesweeping force was less difficult than abroad. light-draft excursion (paddlers) were requisitioned in addition to the newly built craft already men- tioned, and by april 1915, over 150 vessels purely for minesweep- ing were distributed as follows: grand fleet—6 gunboats, one new sloop and ro trawlers. scotland—47 trawlers. humber— 6 paddlers, 30 trawlers. lowestoit—47 trawlers. harwich— 33 trawlers. dover—12 trawlers. south coast—24 trawlers. west coast —¥4 trawlers. clyde—6 paddlers. in the dardanelles 8 cross-channel steamers had augmented the trawler force, and destroyers had been fitted for minesweeping. the submarine minclayer—up to june rors all minefields had been laid by surface vessels; but in this month came the first effort of the submarine. a small type, termed u.c. boats, work- ing from zeebrugge, with bruges as a mine-depdt, commenced laying batches of 12 mines held in vertical shoots, at first between dover and harwich, and later over a wider area. during 191s 54 cargoes (648 mines) were laid in this manner. the effect was a serious increase in british losses by mine, which comprised 5 supply ships, one hospital ship, 2 trinity house vessels, 34 brit- ish steamers, 24 neutrals, 19 fishing boats, and 15 minesweepers, a total of 100 vessels. a useful form of night-sweep came into use against this menace, consisting of a hght wire, a depth float kite and explosive grapnel. it was to some extent similar to the german high-speed sweep, and prone to the errors of the latter. no fully efficient minesweep for use in the dark hours was evolved in the war, although this light wire served for searching purposes on several occasions when shipping was forced to arrive at a port at daybreak. in june 1915 the germans had also extended their minclaying to archangel, where a unit of six british trawlers was dispatched to assist the russians. they destroyed 150 mines in this locality under severe conditions of service. mining :lgainst the grand flect-—the first mining offensive against the grand fleet occurred in aug. 1915, when 380 mines were laid in the entrance to the moray firth, distributed over lines which totalled nearly 7o miles. a large portion of the fleet was at invergordon at the time. the results were negligible, the losses being confined to minesweepers and one destroyer. a channel was found to be clear on the northern side of the firth, which was at once used as an exit for the fleet. on the southern side, however, a channel was cleared, but an area of mines was purposely left to form a defensive barrier and so limit the water necessary for patrol and minesweeping. on jan, 1: 1916 the 922 area west of scapa flow was mined by the ‘f moewe ” on her passage into the atlantic. in this field 252 mines were laid, endangering an area of 40 sq. m., which resulted in the loss of h.m.s. *‘ king edward vii.”’ before the presence of mines was realised. once located, this area was treated in the same way as the moray firth. progress in 1¢16.—by the beginning of 1916, 14 sloops had joined the grand fleet, and 35 hired paddlers were in action. the success of this latter type led to 24 being laid down by the admiralty, and also a new type of twin-screw sweeper, known as the “‘ hunt” class. the value of these ships lay in their sea- keeping qualities and shallow draught. the paravane also passed its test in 1916, and by the end of the year had been sup- plied to 180 of ii.m. ships. shaped like a torpedo, it contained mechanism for accurate depth keeping at any appreciable speed, and was capable of carrying a heavy wire cutter on the nose, or, when used against a submarine, an explosive charge. as a minc- protection it was towed from a sliding ‘‘ shoe ” which worked up and down the stem of the vessel. the paravane automatically ran out from a ship under way, stretching the wire rigidly at an angle of about 50 degrees to the fore and aft line of the ship. towed from the point of greatest draught, the wire protected the whole of the ship from a mine; for, on coming in contact with a mine mooring, this wire deflected the mooring until it entered the cut- ter on the paravane, which instantly functioned. the mine then came to the surface clear of the ship. a modified form of this apparatus was fitted in merchant vessels; and, by the end of the war, 2,740 merchant ships had been fitted. paravanes in it.mi. ships cut 55 mine moorings, but the number cut by merchant ships was less. the number of german submarine minelayers increased in 1916, and there were larger boats operating over a still wider area. these carried 18 mines. as further construction improved, the number of mines carried rose to 24, and in 1917, to 36. the larger boats worked from the elbe, and the smaller from flan- ders. on may 29 1916, u75 laid her 18 mines close to marwick head, off the northwest coast of orkney. the operation was part of the pre-jutland submarine actions of the enemy. it is understood that a mining operation on the western exit from scapa was intended, with a view to crippling the fleet should it use that exit. the contour of the coast near marwick and that off the western entrance to scapa, a few miles to the southward, are very similar, and a mistake in the landmarks was possibly made by the submarine commander. in view of the time elapsing between the laying of the mines and the sailing of h.als. ‘“‘ fflampshire ” from scapa flow for russia, it would seem ob- vious that the position chosen is not susceptible of a tactical explanation. sixteen mines from this batch were swept up di- rectly afterwards in this position, and one was recovered set for a depth of seven metres. (it transpired, after the war, that all these mines were set for this depth. ) the tide was appreciable, causing sufficient ‘‘ mine dip ” to insure the mines at this depth being innocuous even to a heavy-draught ship, except at low slack water, and with considerable motion on that ship. the period of slack water was extremely limited. the “ hampshire,” proceeding in a sudden gale, and hugging the shore to obtain jess sea, struck one of the mines at low-slack water. by this curious conjunction of all these factors, the career of jord kitchener was brought to a tragic close. except for a determined offensive by the flanders submarines against the channel ports, the mine was not extensively used in the latter part of 1916. it would appear that the germans were then husbanding their resources for unrestricted submarine and mine warfare. | changes in the british scrvice—the reorganisation of the brit- ish naval staff in may and june 1917 led to considerable changes in the minesweeping service. the rear-admiral, who had through- out 1916 been very fully employed in concentrating on the para- vane and other improvements of minesweeping material, now took over the dept. of torpedoes and mines, which included the technique of minesweeping devices. the control of operations was therefore entirely separated and delegated to a captain on the naval staff, who, in oct. 1917, became director of the mine- minelaying and mineswelping sweeping div. under the assistant chief of the naval staff. the whole of the minesweeping, then so greatly extending in area, was thus co-ordinated under a central control at the admiralty. the intensity of minelaying and expansion of areas in the first half of 917 was diflicult to meet with the minesweepers avail- able; and the climax was reached in april, with a loss of one minesweeper per diem for the greater part of that month. prob- ably no other service had a more severe strain placed on its personnel during this month and those immediately following. every available and suitable paddle steamer and motor fishing boat had to be requisitioned; and those incapable of towing a heavy sweep were fitted with a light one, and used for search. aircraft and motor launches were also used for low-water searches for mines, in order to reduce losses of sweepers; and improvements in traffic organisation and still closer co-operation between adjacent areas were gradually effected. further pro- tective minefields were laid in certain suitable positions, but the opening of new areas was constantly necessary; and, by the end of 1917, the coastal waters of great britain and ireland, over 1,000 m. in extent, were being swept every day for mines. the war channel was also extended to the firth of forth, and mer- chant ships only released from a night shelter when they could proceed in freshly swept water. one hundred new vessels of the “ hunt ” class were laid down, and 300 new drifters put out to contract, so as gradually to replace and release trawlers for patrol and anti-submarine work. synchronous mining of adjacent british ports was resorted to by the germans, which raised many sudden problems in traffic control. the convoy system had now been introduced, and the sweeping of convoys into certain ports often became essential. particular dithculties arose in regard to liverpool owing to the shallowness of the channel and narrow entrance; mines swept up, and sunk without exploding, causing serious danger to heavy draught ships by their proximity to the ship when resting on the bottom. the south coast of ireland was seriously and continuously mined, and even the bays on the west coast of ireland did not escape. the year closed with a total of 3,989 german moored mines swept up in home waters, at a cost of 170 allied and neu- tral merchant ships sunk and 28 damaged. this total of mines for the year exceeded the combined totals for the previous years of the war. nevertheless, the outlook was more hopeful. al- though the intensity of minclaying had become so much greater, the losses had only been increased by nine ships over those of the previous year: and progressive success in the destruction of sub- marines and their personnel made it evident that the same inten- sity and efficiency of the minelavers could not be continued much longer. new construction and greatly improved material for minesweeping had already made their mark. the only fear was that the minesweep would be defeated by some innovation of the enemy. this fear, however, never materialised; although a delayed action (intentional or otherwise) for releasing the mine from its sinker some hours after it was laid was observed on several occasions. while minelaying had, in home and mediterranean waters, now been confined to submarines, the ‘ wolf,” a surface raider with 458 mines, succeeded in breaking through the patrols into the atlantic. her voyage lasted 15 months. rounding the cape of good hope, she cruised in the indian ocean, then proceeded south of australia to new zealand and fiji; and returning by new guinea, the dutch east indies and the cape, she reached the cattegat again in safety. ifer mines were distributed all over the globe; and, although the losses caused by them were comparatively light, it was very difficult to obtain suitable sweepers in the various areas to locate and destroy them. it was, in fact, not until the armistice that all the localities were defined. find of the mining offensive-—the beginning of 1918 saw the defeat of the great mining offensive completed; and by the end of hostilities no more than a dozen efficient german minelaying submarines existed. their losses had by then completely out- stripped new construction, and a well-trained or experienced personnel was entirely lacking. of the many factors which, taken mineralogy together, finally killed the minelayer, the most important were: (1) the great efliciency of relaid dover barrage; (2) the dcep mimefields in localities regularly used by minelayers; (3) improve- ments in anti-submarine methods of hunting; (4) co-operation between the intelligence and minesweeping divisions; and (5) the distribution of information. in 1918 the average time elapsing from the receipt of the news of a new minefield to its distribution to every base, and to all vessels within the area of wireless communication, was 75 minutes. as a result of these improvements, the total losses by mine during 1918 in home waters were reduced to an average of just two over allied or neutral merchant ships per month. early in 1918, an appreciation of failure led the germans to concentrate their efforts in minelaying in two directions only. the first was a grandiose scheme, which, commencing in janu- ary, was only concluded in late september. it consisted of batches of 36 mines, laid at regular intervals of 10 m. apart on a semicircle 45 from. m the bell rock, the result being a complete ring round the entrance to the firth of forth. this operation fulfilled a two-fold purpose. it menaced the exit and entry of norwegian convoys, which were then working from methil in the firth of forth; it also menaced every possible course taken by the grand fleet when leaving or entering‘its base at rosyth. the scheme, however, was barren of results to the germans, al- though methodically carried out in every detail. it was appre- ciated and countered after the third batch of these mines was discovered, the result being that each of the successive groups of mines was located and cleared immediately; and this was done without the germans realising that any of these groups had been removed. the other concentration took the form of a field of 400 mines, also laid gradually by submarines. it was directed against the dutch convoys, and was laid close to the dutch coast to cover the approaches to the maas and ijmuiden. this position was such that any attempts at clearance exposed the minesweepers to a flank attack from enemy vessels. there were some losses by mine, particularly to destroyers escorting the convoys; but the cenvoys sailed as before, and the losses, on the whole, were very trivial. minesweeping after the armistice—when the hour of the armistice struck, a minesweeping force was waiting at the gate of the dardanelles; and, within 24 hours, 600 british and enemy mines had been removed to clear the way for the fleet to con- stantinople. for one year after the war, mineclearing was continuous in every area where british or german mines had been laid. under the difficult conditions which immediately followed the war, a special minesweeping force had to be en- rolled. it consisted of some 600 officers and 15,000 men. over 23,000 allied mines and some 7o german mines were cleared from the sea by british minesweepers. no loss of a merchant ship by mine occurred during that period; and exactly one year to the day from the institution of this force the seas round brit- ain, her colonies and in the mediterranean were reported clear. a fine performance in this respect was the clearing by the ameri- cans of the mines laid between orkney and the norwegian coast. the germans also commenced to clear the heavily mined areas in the heligoland bight, and later in the baltic; but this work of clearance was not completed until 1923. other nations concerned cleared their own coastal waters. bislrocrrarny.—rudyard kipling, the fringes of the fleet (1915); w. macneile dixon, the fleets behind the ficet (1917); l. c. corn- ford, the merchant seaman in war (1918); w. wood, fishermen in war time (1918); d. w. bone, aferchanimen-at-arims ol) pr) ul. i r