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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:methodism:fae30beee732",
    "title": "METHODISM",
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    "verified_text": "the official returns of world- wide methodism presented to the oecumenical conference at toronto in 1911 showed that there were 55,808 ministers; 98,121 lay preachers; 8,768,616 church members; 99,497 churches, worth over roo million sterling; 90,124 sunday schools, with 898,722 officers and teachers and 8,273,809 scholars. the de- tailed table below shows the position in 1925. the numerical strength of methodism is not to be gauged by the number of members. to the members must be added a very large body of communicants and worshippers. about 10% of the population of great britain are methodists. in canada methodists are 11% of the population; in australia, 1296; in 893 new zealand 6%; in south africa, including rhodesia, 7°; and in the united states, 20%. i. in great britain british methodism has faced with courage and with a large measure of success the new problems of the 20th century. it has consolidated its sections and, in addition to its ordinary routine of work, has given special attention to three great issues—the reunion of methodism, temperance reform and foreign mis- sionary enterprise. at least 450,000 officers and men of the wesleyan, the prim- itive, and the united methodists fought in the world war, of whom 40,000 fell. methodism cared for its people and materially assisted its members by its war emergency and sustenation funds, for augmenting ministerial allowances and helping circuits suffering from the higher cost of living. in spite of the scrious effect which the war has had upon the spending power of the people, the incomes of the methodist church funds have largely increased. in all the churches the salaries of the ministers have been considerably advanced. there are no unemployed method- ist preachers, and no dearth for candidates for the ministry. missions. —the british foreign missionary societies working under the direction of the three methodist conferences also have a record of expansion and success. the wesleyan missionary society has erected and equipped 12 colleges with 5,031 students, and also 36 high schools with 6,068 scholars, in addition to 16 theological and normal training institutions for native preachers. important medical, agricultural and industrial hospitals and schools have also been established in west africa, south india and china. these societies work in close co-operation with other branches of christendom by adopting the apportionment of regions of missionary enterprise. they develop a missionary | church gea officers ean chara eyoe a ay members sunday sunday -hurches denomination ministers preachers and schools t ang scholars e:te. probationers [eee wesleyan methodists:— great britain 2,537 18,631 515,139 7,318 119,596 840,205 8,580 ireland . 183 599 26,137 322 2,217 22,929 410 foreign missions , 748 10,343 255,753 2,802 10,200 161,152 4,750 french conference. ; 33 69 1,607 13 106 736 116 south african conference . , 277 5,198 163,541 1,107 3,253 44,982 4,673 primitive methodists ; 1,107 13,634 216,597 4,020 55,230 407,571 * 4,593 united methodist church —. 755 5,602 187,405 2,236 38,171 264,796 3,055 wesleyan reform union : : be 456 o,871 194 2,410 22,770 203 independent methodist churches 391 10,354 166 3,183 24,758 165 australasian mcthodist church 1,083 8,218 160,911 3,680 25,887 204,174 4,706 new zealand methodist church . 199 766 241 274 396 3,129 31,008 880 united states :— methodist episcopal . 21,406 15,914 4,711,994 36,893 414,175 4,847,735 29,487 methodist episcopal, south 8,076 5,403 2,478,623 17,570 162,439 2,053,173 17,615 methodist protestant . : 1,356 ie 186,275 1,965 18,970 191,270 2,379 african methodist episcopal (coloured) : ‘ ; : 7,000 6,330 650,000 7,200 29,996 320,000 7,500 african methodist episcopal zion (coloured) : ' 3,962 in 412,315 2,092 16,245 193,000 2,716 coloured methodist episcopal 3,039 2,5¢ 366,315 2,543 18,884 193,000 3,824 free methodist. : : : 1,483 1,673 34,5751 1,346 9,648 103,676 1,259 wesleyan methodist . : 666 - 21,000 . 521 3,442 30,133 75 primitive methodist . : ‘ 85 73 9,956 87 1,52. 16,807 86 congregational methodist 500 4 21,000 182 1,146 8,785 352 new congregational methodist 27 1,256 29 143 1,298 24 union american methodist episcopal (coloured) : 205 105 | 18,812 67 321 2,531 267 african tol ea prot- estant (colourec , 260 3,750 {41 3,088 58 reformed zion union apostolic = a : : (coloured) , 79 10,000 36 212 1,508 58 reformed methodist union episcopal (coloured) 52 2,126 18 204 1,792 29 british methodist episcopal (coloured) . ' . ; 20 6 700 18 125 om st coloured methodist protestant 33 1,967 24 1,016 26 african american methodist episcopal. _. : . : 35 ae 5,811 25 oe 034 27 canadian methodist church 2,475 1,946 414,047 3,807 13,333 351,633 4,797 japan methodist church . : 234 29,000 - oy 44,000 7 totals 58,330 97,576 984,425 10,359,452 103,331 894 spirit among the native christians and the creation of a native ministry. thus, there is a large number of native preachers and gencrous financial support is given to their missions by the native churches. in 1913 the wesleyan missionary society held its centenary and raised £280,000 as a special fund for development. the women’s auxiliary of the society has largely increased, and a plan is being developed for realising closer co-operation with the parent society. educational and social—the decline in the number of sunday school teachers and scholars has given serious concern to the conferences. efforts have therefore been made to increase the efficiency and the attractiveness of the sunday schools, the work of which is not limited to sunday, nor to school methods. the boy scouts, girl guides and life brigade movements, summer schools and bible study circles supplement the work of the sunday schools. the wesley guild and christian endeavour societies in british methodism, and the epworth league in america are doing much to consolidate the work among young people. the wesleyan church has largely transferred its day schools to the county education authorities under the acts of 1870 and 1902, and has now only 392 day school departments, with 32,847 scholars. but the same church has largely developed its higher and secondary educational work. the two wesleyan training colleges for teachers—for men at westminster and for women at southlands (battersea) have attained a very high standard of efficiency. an increasing number of the students take university degrees. the teachers thus trained hold many of the most important posts as headmasters and mistresses in the london and provincial day and secondary schools and also in the british dominions. in addition to a number of important educational institutions, the three british methodist churches have six theological col- leges for training candidates for the ministry, which are being more and more brought into line with the curriculum of the various universities. in 1926 oxford celebrated the bi-centenary of the election of john wesley to a fellowship of lincoln college, and, to honour the occasion, conferred the degree of doctor of divinity upon the rev. john h. ritson, the president of the mother conference, a scholar and graduate of balliol college, and the first oxford man elected to the chair of john wesley. another department of british methodism is its home mis- sionary work in the villages and city centres. wesleyan method- ism has its connectional and lay evangelists. open air evangel- istic services are regularly held, and in many places the theatres and public halls are utilised for extra services. new central halls take the place of down-town churches. the london mission of wesleyan methodism is doing a great work at westminster, kingsway, clerkenwell and other centres. primitive methodists have four halls in the poorest parts of london, the principal ones being in whitechapel and southwark. the british methodist churches have been impressed with the economic and social results which have followed prohibition (q.v.) in the united states. each of the sections has an active temperance and social welfare department. in 1920 the wesleyan conference declared that the sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage was “ definitely opposed to the best interests of the state and to the kingdom of god,”’ and recommended the methodists everywhere to work and pray for the total and permanent prohibition of the common manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks. the three churches have adopted a progressive temperance policy—first of local option, secondly, the complete extension of magisterial licensing authority to all political and social clubs, rich and poor alike; and, thirdly, the entire sunday closing of all drinking bars in england and wales. the methodist brotherhood works in unison with the domin- ion agents in london, who assist emigrants to the united states, canada, australia and south africa, arrange their passages, and secure them employment. the brotherhood embraces all methodist churches, and it has met with conspicuous success in assisting the methodist emigrant and maintaining his association with methodism in his new country. me thodism methodist union. —methodist union transcends in importance all other movements in methodism at the present time, and it is probably fraught with more momentous issues to the churches concerned than anything since the death of wesley. a great impetus was given to this movement by the decennial gatherings of the methodist oecumenical conference, which, instituted in 1881, meets alternately in london and america. it consists of 600 delegates from all parts of the world, half of whom are ministers and half laymen. each assembly has been followed by some decisive step forward along the path of union, and in all cases the ministry has loyally accepted the decisions of the majority. the results of union have far exceeded the antici- pations of the churches, and there has been a great increase in the membership and financial resources. in 1913, the wesleyan methodist conference appointed a committee to collect information on the subject of union and to report to the next conference. a final scheme of union was sub- mitted to the yearly conferences of the three churches in 1925 and was adopted by a very large majority. the scheme, which has presented no serious difficulties, will be again presented to the three conferences of 1926 together with the drafts of the proposed parliamentary enabling act of union and of the proposed chapel model deed of the new united methodist church of great britain. if these are approved an application will be made to parliament, and there is every prospect of the union of the three churches in one british methodist church being effected in 1928. brpliograpiy.—n. curnock, journal of john wesley, 8 vol. (1909-16); j. w. laycock, methodist [feroes in the great ifawarth reund 1734-84 (1909); j. robinson gregory, students’ history of methodism, 2 vol. (1g1t1); oecumenical methodist conference reports (yoronto, 1911, vondon, 1921); g. fayrs, letters of jokn wesley (1915); british methodism (1920); j. s. simon, john wesley and the religious societies (1921); j. a. sharp, cutalogue of wesleyana be- longing to the wesleyan methodist conference (1921); e. h. sugden, wesley's standard sermons (1921, etc.); j. elsworth, rev. ed. of sunmary of methodist law and discipline (1924); rev. ed. of order and form of bustness in district synods (1925); j. s. simon, john wesley and the advance of methodism (1925). see also proceedings and publications of wesley historical society; minutes of conference (annual). | crew; poe li) ii. in america the noteworthy changes in american methodism since 1909 include (1) the steady growth of all its major branches; (2) movements toward the organic union of various units within the methodist group and with other evangelical churches; and (3) educational advances resulting in liberalising tendencies in theology, a higher appreciation of non-christian religious groups with a consequent new approach to the problem of world evangelisation, the further democratisation of episcopal metho- dist churches and an increasing zeal for social justice, inter- racial understanding and the application of the teachings of jesus to all human relationships and affairs, in politics and so- ciology as well as to purely personal conduct and belief. church union.—the year 1925 saw the consummation of the union of the methodist, presbyterian and congregational churches of canada in the united church of canada. the meth- odist church, as the largest of the three denominational units, went into the united church with 1oo% of its constituency, which at the time of the merger included 2,475 ministers, 1,946 lay preachers, 414,047 members, 451,636 church-school pupils, with 43,333 officers and teachers. in the united states a plan for the organic reunion of the methodist episcopal church and the methodist episcopal church south failed (1925) by a narrow margin of the combined votes of lay and ministerial members of the southern church. the vote in the methodist episcopal church at the same time was overwhelmingly in favour of the union. the vote of the methodist episcopal church south, while rejecting the specific plan submitted, did not close the issue, which was to be considered again at the next session of the respective general conferences of the two bodies. in great britain the union of the wesleyan methodists, the primitive methodists and the united methodist church was also nearing its consummation. mi trology—miexico educational advances.—the educational advances to which must be attributed certain tendencies already summarised include the following (1) an increase, commensurate with the growth in church membership of, in the number, enrolment and financial support of secondary schools and colleges; (2) a rapid rise, especially in the united states, from the previous low aver- age educational preparation and professional training of minis- ters, together with a corresponding advance in the curriculum standards for collegiate and theological institutions; (3) in- creasing attention to religious education through the church- school with the extension of the programme of religious educa- tion to include week-day instruction; (4) the widespread distri- bution and use of religious-educational literature in text-book and periodical form, the total regular circulation of which exceeds the combined total membership of all methodist churches. episcopal afethodist churches—the coloured methodist episcopal church, an offshoot from the methodist episcopal church south, leads all branches of episcopal methodism with increases of over 60° in membership and over 100° in church- school enrolment in rs years. the methodist episcopal church in 1916 adopted the episcopal areca system with a flexible limit on the residence of a bishop in any one area. a world service commission since 1924 acts as an overhead co-ordinating agency for all benevplent boards. the educational activities of the church have been consolidated in one board of education with separate departments for colleges, negro education, church- schools and the epworth league. during 1920-5 the centenary of the organisation of the foreign missionary enterprise was celebrated by episcopal methodist churches, notably the methodist episcopal church and the methodist episcopal church south, by a five-year financial campaign, which has quadrupled the annual missionary offerings of the participating churches. see methodist year books; disciplines, proceedings of confer- ences, general oecumenical conferences; methodist periodical literature. (h.-t,. mm.) metrology: see measurements. meuse-argonne: sce victory, advance to. mexico (sce 18.317), a federal republic of north america, has an area of 767,198square miles. in 1ror2theestimated population was 15,501,684, of which about 20% were whites. political disturb- ances have resulted in a movement towards the cities for safety, and across the frontiers for employment and political asylum. this is reflected in the 1921 census, which gave a population of 14,234,852. the population of mexico city, the federal capital, was 633,367; guadalajara, 119,468; puebla, 96,121; san luis potosi, 85,000; monterey, 85,000; vera cruz, 48,633. i. political history on sept. 27 1910 porfirio diaz was re-elected president for a seventh term. the closing years of his rule were marked by economic depression, crop failures, excessive importation of foodstuffs and political restlessness, ill-concealed by the festivi- ties of the centennial of independence. since ro908 various political activities had indicated a demand for a change in the presidential office. conspicuous in this demand was francisco i. madero, who supported a nationalistic programme. is sucesion presidencial en roto attacked the administration mildly; but as his adherents increased in number, he became more out- spoken. he was arrested on charges of sedition and was im- prisoned at san luis potosi. escaping to san antonio, texas, he issued the plano de sun luis potosi demanding electoral re- forms, division of agrarian property and the resignation of diaz. armed revolt was planned for nov. 20 rore, but there were numerous premature outbreaks. against these a reign of terror was initiated, but resistance spread. by dec. there was armed revolt in a dozen states. diaz attempted to meet disaffection by promises and belated reforms. after minor reverses the northern rebels took ciudad juarez may 10 ro11, thereby showing the military impotence of diaz. this success, with others at pachuca and cuernavaca, induced diaz to assent to the demand for his 895 resignation. it was agreed that francisco de la barra should assume a provisional presidency and call a new election. diaz resigned may 25, and left the country next day. on june 7 madero entered mexico city in triumph. he really controlled the country, de la barra having scant power. the ensuing election resulted in an overwhelming majority for madero, who was inaugurated as president on nov. 6 for a term to end nov. 30 1916. ele soon found himself opposed by reactionary politicians, several of whom he had appointed to his cabinet. his govern- ment was characterised by neglect of the demands of the revolu- tion, by financial blunders, by quarrels with state governors, and by weakness towards the opposition. revolt by former sup- porters began at the time of his inauguration. emiliano zapatas in aforelos, bernardo reyes in the north, pascual orozco in chihuahua, and other rebels were in the field. in the fighting, many foreigners were killed. conditions were chaotic in 1912. on march 14 president taft prohibited shipment of arms to madcro’s opponents. americans, advised to leave the country, departed by thousands. the north generally was in anti- government hands. huerta. seizes executive power —on oct. 12 felix diaz re- volted in vera cruz; he was captured and was confined in mexico city. on feb. 9 1913 he and reyes (who also had been im- prisoned) were set free by disaffected soldiers. gen. victoriano huerta, head of the government troops, turned traitor and im- prisoned madero and pino suarez, forcing them to resign. huer- ta on feb. 19 seized the executive power through constitutional forms. three days later madero and pino suarez were executed. president wilson rebuffed huerta’s efforts to obtain recognition, believing that he did not represent the will of the people, and that he was responsible for the political executions; president wilson demanded a general election in which huerta should not be a candidate. the demand was rejected. on oct. 10 huerta seized the legislative and judicial power, arresting 110 members of congress for inquiring into the mysterious death of senator belisario domingues, who had harshly criticised him. meantime revolt, led by governor venustiano carranza of coahuila, appeared in both the north and the south. in the plano de guadalupe the rebels declared huerta a usurper. they won numerous successes, among them the capture of torreon in march 1914. following the outbreak of revolution, american war vessels had been observing events in mexican harbours. at tampico a boat’s crew from the ‘‘ dolphin ”’ were arrested on a military reserve. the american commander demanded a salute to his flag for the incident and was supported by president wilson. huerta refused unless the mexican flag were similarly saluted, and the americans seized vera cruz on april 21. hfuerta had been embarrassed by the mission of john lind, whom wilson sent as a personal representative to induce huerta to assent to his own elimination, ‘though unable to effect foreign loans or to make peace with the carranzistas, and in spite of ad- vice by the foreign diplomats to yield to wilson, huerta ended diplomatic relations with the united states on april 22. argen- tina, brazil and chile proffered their good offices; representatives of these nations met representatives of huerta and the united states (carranza holding aloof) in conferences at niagara falls, canada, but the representatives failed to agree on a provisional president. huerta was finally forced to resign july 15 1or4, and was succeeded by francisco carbajal, who held office less than a month. carranza, though he did not support the zapata programme, and quarrelled with villa, still headed the constitutionalists; after obtaining control of the capital, he set in motion plans for a presidential election. he was unable to control the generals summoned to a nominating convention, and they moved from mexico city to aguascalientes, where they nominated gen. gutierrez, an adherent of villa, as provisional president. villa drove carranza out of the capital, the latter occupying vera cruz as the americans evacuated that port nov. 23. villa and zapata alternated in control of mexico city and no fewer than four factions claimed the executive power in 1915. in that year villa, who had shown strength in the north, was defeated by 896 gen. a. obregon. a conference of argentina, brazil, chile and other american powers, seeking’ to stabilise the situation on oct. 19, recognised carranza as de facto president. villistas murder amertcans.—villa ignored the settlement, and on jan. 101916 a band of his adherents assassinated 18 ameri- cans taken from a train near santa ysabel. on march g he raided columbus, n.m., killing 17 americans. a punitive ex- pedition of 12,000 united states troops, led by gen. pershing, invaded mexico. it penetrated to the vicinity of parral, but failed to capture villa, who was reported dead. carranza had grudgingly acquiesced in the invasion, but now protested, stating that the movement of american troops in any direction other than northward would provoke attack. on june 20 american negro cavalrymen moving eastward were attacked at carrizal; several were killed and about a score were captured, but were re- leased upon a sharp demand by the united states. the expedi- tion was finally withdrawn feb. 5 1917. in sept. a commission attempted to make an agreement for policing the international line, but failed because carranza denied the right of the united states to pursue raiders into mexican territory. in 1917 a new constitution was proclaimed. it incorporated in art. 27 the principle of nationalisation of subsoil resources, chiefly as a means of controlling the petroleum industry. decrees attempting to force the oil companies to observe the constitution were protested by foreign powers as confiscatory and subversive of rights acquired under the prior constitution of 1857. during torg the controversy was bitter. the companies, threatening cessation of production, forced carranza in jan. 1920 to concede the privilege of operating without compliance with the decrees but without prejudice to the final adjudication of the difficulty. during 1919 rebel activities against carranza were widespread, and many acts of violence were committed against foreigners and mexicans by both government and rebel partisans. a conspicu- ous case was the abduction for ransom of w. o. jenkins, u.s. consular agent at puebla, oct. 19. he was alleged by the mexican govt. to have been implicated in his own abduction, but was released dec. 5 1920. during the world war mexico’s “ rigid neutrality ” was highly pro-german. the famous zimmermann note, by which germany tried to align japan and mexico against the united states, was intercepted and published in march 1917. obregon elected president-—the presidential campaign began in rorg, carranza’s power then reaching its zenith and after- wards rapidly declining. there was corruption in the army, banditry throughout the country and non-enforcement of the constituion. amid widespread unrest two generals, a. obregon and p. gonzales, conducted presidential campaigns, while carranza supported a civilian candidate [. bonillas, who had been mexican minister to washington. when carranza’s efforts to control state administration for the election of bonillas led him to attempt a military invasion of sonora, the home of obregon, armed revolt broke out. on april 9 that state declared its secession until it could be assured of its sovereignty. the de- fection spread quickly through the north and west. by the end of the month carranza was isolated in mexico city. adolfo de la huerta was set up by the rebels as provisional president. car- ranza attempted to move his government to vera cruz, but his trains were broken up, and when he left them to make his way over the mountains to a gulf port, he was murdered on may 21 at tlaxcalantongo. obregon entered the capital may 8. on may 2s de la huerta was made substitute president for the unexpired term by the reassembled congress. in sept. obregon was elected president with only nominal opposition. his inauguration dec. 1 1920 was attended by large delegations from the united states, but by no one representing the government though many latin-american and european diplomats were present. recog- nition by the united states was delayed by the non-solution of the petroleum controversy and the general spirit of labour unrest. the distinguishing features of obregon’s presidency were his efforts to obtain recognition and to carry out the revolutionary programme. the two policies were in direct antagonism at many points. the association for the protection of american rights in mexico demanded that american vested interests, menaced mexico by the new constitution and subsidiary legislation, be protected by a special treaty. the demand was grounded on the realisation that congressional legislation was subject to reversal and that the decisions of the supreme court were more in accordance with political exigency than with the principles of jurisprudence. the obregon govt. remained firm in its determination to do everything compatible with national integrity to restore har- monious relations, but refused to enter into the proposed treaty. in pursuance of this policy obregon on july 13 1921 invited the european nations having claims against mexico to send repre- sentatives to a permanent mexican claims commission. this invitation was accepted in nov. by france, great britain, italy, spain and the netherlands. in sept. of the same year negotia- tions were begun with a committee of international bankers looking toward a refunding of the national debt. in june ro21 the u.s. secretary of state (hughes) described the fundamental issue as resting on a construction of the con- fiscatory enactments, which would declare that recognised american property titles must not be invalidated. the decision of the mexican supreme court in 1922 that art. 27 was not to be construed retroactively, paved the way for a presidential decree to the same effect. secretary hughes announced an informal commission composed of charles b. warren and john b. payne, to confer with ramon ross and fernando gonzales roa con- cerning agreements preliminary to recognition. the conferences, begun may 14 1923, were facilitated by promulgation, on april 26 preceding, of a new petroleum law recognising the validity of concessions made prior to may 1 1917, although it required concessionaires to revalidate their claims within three years. elimination of land difficulties was attempted by legislation increasing the size of individual holdings exempt from partition, and relieving from expropriation large irrigation companies with colonisation contracts. but the provision that land expropriated should be paid for in bonds threatened a deadlock. the mexican position was weak on this point, as the old legislation had prescribed compensation prior to expropriation. despite all difficulties, however, the commission reached a final agreement on aug. 15. by its terms subsoil mineral rights acquired and developed before may 1 1917 were recognised as valid, and the provisions of art. 27 of the mexican constitution, it was agreed, should apply only to later acquisitions. american properties expropriated by the mexican govt. in carrying out its agrarian policy were to be paid for at their equitable value. the u.s. govt. reserved all rights to which it was entitled under international law in respect of titles acquired by its nationals before may 1917 to propertics which were supposed to be petroleum yielding but which had not been developed and proved. provision was also made for a special claims com- mission for the settlement of american claims created since 1910, and a general claims commission for settlement of american and mexican claims since 1868. the conventions calling for these commissions were ratified in feb. 1924. the special commission was composed of ernest b. perry, fernando gonzales roa and dr. rodrigo octavio of brazil, and the general commission of nathan l. miller, aquiles elurduy and dr. cornelis van vollenhoven of holland. thespecial commission held preliminary meetings in mexico city in jan. 1925, but postponed regular ses- sions until september. claims must be presented before it within two years from the date of its first meeting, with a possible grace of six months. the general commission held preliminary meetings in washington in 1924. claims were admissible before it within one year, with six months’ possible grace. following the agree- ment upon these conventions, the united states extended formal recognition to mexico, aug. 31 1923. france shortly followed suit, great britain showing reluctance because of the indefinite status of her oil interests. papal delegate expelled.—the general plan for refunding the mexican debt, agreed upon in paris in april 1922, was con- cluded in new york in may by secretary of the treasury adolfo de la huerta and the bankers’ committee. mexican rebels, headed by felix diaz, made unavailing efforts to prevent con- summation of the debt agreement. mexico assumed full obliga- mexico tion for all the foreign debt principal, about $500,000,000, for some $200,000,000 interest, and for certain internal debts held outside mexico. payments were to begin jan. 2 1923. the bandit villa, who had been bought off by the provisional govt. in 1920, was assassinated in 1923. another outstanding incident of the year was the expulsion of the papal delegate mer. filippi, who had incurred the displeasure of the government by assisting at the open-air dedication of a shrine at cubilete tuanajuato. open-air religious exercises were prohibited by a state law, though the dedication took place on private property. the episode evoked protest from the vatican and from catholic societies throughout mexico and the american continent. preliminary manoeuvring in anticipation of the presidential election set for july 6 1924 began in’ 1923. the president is con- stitutionally barred from succeeding himself, and there had been a ‘ gentlemen’s agreement ”’ by the sonora triumvirate, de la huerta, obregon and calles, that calles should succeed obregon. nevertheless there was decided opposition to this programme in the co-operatist party, which had been formed by the triumvir- ate and had a majority in the chamber of deputies. on sept. 24 de la huerta, possessing wide prestige because of the success of his financial negotiations, resigned from the cabinet to conduct a campaign on his own behalf. meanwhile calles, as the friend of obregon, was canvassing for the co-operatist nomination. this, however, went to de la huerta, on a programme promising the extension of co-opcratist ideas in industry, prior indemnifica- tion of landholders for expropriations, and guarantees of munici- pal autonomy. calles, disappointed at not receiving the co- operatist nomination, was put forward by the radical national agrarians, pledged to carry out their programme and protect the rights of labour. the campaign became exciting when obregon and the new minister of finance, alberto pani, accused de la huerta of extravagance in office and of misrepresentation concerning arrangements whereby a bank of issue was to have been created and a loan secured. recriminations were mutual. the de la huerta faction alleged that cuo-operatist adherents in congress were menaced with massacre by troops under gen. arnulfo gomez. meantime the state elections, coloured by the national campaign, caused numerous frays. on dec. 5 the de la huerta movement resorted to a plan of campaign called the plano de vera cruz. the military forces of five states rebelled under the leadership of gencrals estrada and guadalupe sanchez. at least six additional states speedily joined the movement, the conservative elements, the labourites and the agrarians gencrally supporting de la huerta. obregon took the field, conducting a campaign on three fronts. rebel successes soon showed that the government was in a precarious condition. its chief weakness was lack of war materials, of which mexico produces none. application was made to the u.s. govt. for the purchase of arms, munitions, airplanes and war vessels. arms, munitions and airplanes were supplied. president coolidge by proclamation forbade export of arms to the rebels, and their attempts at blockading and mining ports were in jan. 1925 forbidden under threats of naval action. american as- sistance thus turned the tide. during the closing days of dec. government forces had retaken puebla and driven back the opposition lines which had been concentrating on the capital. during jan. honours were even, but in feb. large hostile areas were retaken by the government. several rebel armies dispersed and their leaders sought refuge in exile. the direct intervention of the united states was given in this case because of the recent recognition and a desire to protect the visible agency of the international agreements. the stand of the american govt. was justified by secretary hughes on the ground that it protected constitutional procedure; he added that it must not be hel! to constitute a precedent, as every instance of intervention must be decided by its individual circumstances. it was in all essential aspects a continuation of the policy initiated by woodrow wilson in 1913. the aguila (british) oil interests were accused by obregon of assisting de la huerta; on the other hand, e. l. doheny, an american oil prospector, announced that he had advanced a loan of $5,000,000 to obregon. 897 election of calles.—in the presidential elections calles emerged successful. his conservative opponent, gen. angel flores, who fell ill during the campaign, received relatively few votes. rumours of his prospective rebellion were not realised. the announced programme of calles was to obtain for mexico the economic and social advantages enjoyed by the american people. from the time of the inauguration of obregon the labour situa- tion had been steadily growing worse, but a firmer attitude toward labour was seen when calles federalised the railway service, reducing the likelihood of strikes. recurrent street railway strikes in mexico city had marked the rule of obregon; the first of them to occur under the presidency of calles demonstrated the pre- carious position of capital under the existing strike legislation. during the spring of 1925 calles ruled illegal a strike by the tampico federation of labour unions, whose members were emploved by the huasteca petroleum co., because the difficulty was between unions, not between employers and labour. firm presidential action prevented a national sympathetic strike. the union of bank clerks in may 1925 made such demands on the banks that they threatened to close their doors. the laklour jeader, luis morones, refused to support the union. the labeur party under the leadership of morones definitely split with the agrarian party in may because the labourites declared that the agrarian programme was injuring not only agriculture lut business and industry as well, and hence the labouring feorle. church and state-——the hostility to the roman catholic church became evident with the promulgation of the con- stitution of t917. during 1925 a separatist movement by means of an organisation known as the mexican apostolic church was attempted. during march separatists and catholics came into conllict in guadalajara, aguascalientes and (queretaro. in mexico city the separatists seized the church of la soledad and ejected its priest. calles declared the act unconstitutional, but closed the church to worship and declared the catholic parishion- ersrebels. foreign priests were debarred, march 19, from preach- ing in mexican churches. numerous churches were closed be- cause of disorders. the constitution provided that ministers practising religion must be of mexican birth, and limited the parishioners of each to 1,000. the troubles between church and state were accentuated by events in 1926. on may 15, george caruana, the papal delegate, was ordered to leave the country, and on july 3, the govern- ment issued a decree to enforce and strengthen the orders against the clericals. heavy penalties were specified for any infringement of the regulations. many roman catholics declared their in- tention to resist and pope pius xi. declared aug. 1 1926 as a day of prayer for intervention in mexican affairs. conditions on the american border, never satisfactory, grew worse after the passage of the law limiting immigration into the united states. in may 1925 a treaty was negotiated covering smuggling of drugs and aliens, migration, deportation, hunting, fishing, and health problems. ‘the terms facilitated the disposal of american undesirables who had infested the mexican side of the boundary. the treaty controlled also the movement of labourers into the united states. it was estimated that 500,000 mexicans entered california in 1924. public interest was aroused in june by the declaration of secretary of state kellogg, made public through the press, that conditions in mexico were not entirely satisfactory, and that the united states would support the government of mexico only so long as it protected american lives and rights and complied with its international obligations. ‘the statement referred to seizures of american property at the unreasonable demand of labourites, and was felt in some quarters to have been inspired by friends of calles himself in order to strengthen his hand against the demands of his radical supporters. the unusual character of this announcement called to public attention the existence of a new treaty between japan and mexico which per- mits settlement of japanese from california on the west mexican coast, and concedes special status to japanese vessels in mexican waters. it also accentuated the fact that american diplomatic protests concerning land seizures had met with scant attention. 898 on aug. 28 1925 relations with great britain, severed because of difficulties culminating in the assassination near puebla of mrs. rosalie evans, were resumed and accredited representatives were exchanged. | defence.—military service in the active army or in the national guard is compulsory. the normal strength of tne army has been settled at 50,000. a school for the training of aviators has been established and progress has been made towards organising an airforce. the five gunboats, which comprised the mexican navy, have been reinforced by the addition of a small coastal defence boat bought in 1924. education.—government education in mexico is compulsory and secular. in 1923 there were 14,231 primary schools with 1,187,407 pupils. a number of private schools conducted by religious societies of the roman catholic church were obliged to close in 1926. in 1925 the national university in mexico city, which was refounded in trg1o, had a student body of more than 6,000. the expenditure on education in 1923 was $24,500,000. il. economic and financial history finance —on july 1 1922 the public debt of 1,056,073,713 pesos (1 gold peso = $0.4985) included 583,280,887 pesos of pre- revolutionary debt and 473,692,826 pesos of post-revolutionary debt. revenues and expenditures 1921-5 were, in pesos:— revenues expenditures 1925. ‘ ; 145,000,000! 143,199,686! 1924 - . 289,959,500\" (?) 1923. , , 278,110,300! 347,006,719! 19220. 4s 277,567,019 267,137,468 1921. . 279,832,932 258,312,774 1 estimated. 2 no estimates of 1924 expenditures were , : : ublished. the federal govt. derives its largest income, outside of petroleum production and mining, from import duties: second in importance is the stamp tax: and third, taxes collected in the federal district and territories. the income tax was introduced in 1924 in face of marked and wide- spread opposition. production and industry —mexico possesses 30,027,300 ac. of cultivated lands well suited for agriculture. the agrarian reforms, begun in 1915, whereby lands of large estates have been expropriated are responsible for a noticeable decrease in agricultural production. in april 1925 president calles re- affirmed his campaign pronouncements on the agrarian and labour problems, asserting that land distribution would be con- tinued legally, but that it must not move in advance of means of development. in aug. 1925 it was announced that one-third of the government’s land division programme had been fullilled. it was estimated that since 1915, 12,000,000 ac. had been given to small farmers. the grazing lands of the republic are estimated at 120,444,200 ac.; and forest lands at 43,933,200 acres. [stimates of chief crops of 1924 were: corn (maize), 106,293,000 bu.; wheat, 13,962,000 bu.; raw cane sugar, 186,964 short tons; cotton, 138,000 bales (of 478 lb. net). other important crops are beans, coffee, tobacco and henequen. the census of 1923 showed live- stock as follows: horses, 512,336 valued at $20,455,109; mules, 300,960, valued at $18,713,476; cattle, 2,363,427, valued at $95,622,494; sheep, 1,196,008, valued at $5,777,605; goats, 2,106,044, valued at $7,714,330. the decrease in livestock since the enumeration of 1902 was 60%. petrolcum.—aa new petroleum law, published july 20 1925, was pending before congress during september. it had received presi- dential sanction as adequately interpretative of art. 27 of the constitution. it gives the chief executive sole and complete authority to concede and regulate rights to explore for and ex- ploit oil-fields; it confirms leases and concessions as well as titles perfected, if dated prior to may 1 1917. the petroleum industry is defined as a public utility, and the principle is reasserted that the nation exercises direct and permanent ownership of the sub- soil. the total production of petroleum from 1901-23 inclusive was 1,055,257,562 barrels valued at $828,241,710. the peak of production, attained in 1921, was 193,397,587 barrels, about 28° mexico of the world production and worth $182,936,817. in 1922 there were produced 182,278,457 barrels, about 21° of the world production, worth $167,397,872; in 1923, 149,529,088 barrels worth £142,916,885, 14:7°% of the world production; in 1924, 139,557,000 barrels, 13:8°% of the world total. in 1923 mexican production was second to that of the united states. some 15,000 ac. were under exploitation. in may 1925 it was esti- mated that foreign investments in petroleum concerns totalled $3 50,000,000. consistent progress was made in the exploitation of the petroleum-bearing areas, which are known to be more widely distributed than the present development would indicate. during the first 10 months of 1924, 247 new producing wells were brought in with an initial daily production of over 800,000 bar- rels. at the end of oct. 1924 there were 1,016 producing wells, their initial daily production running more than 3,344,000 barrels. most of the producing wells were in the panuco fields. from jan. 1 to march 25 1925 new wells numbered 74; their maximum daily production was 364,367 barrels, exceeding the amount produced by new wells during the first three months of 1924, which was 218,596 barrels. in march 1925 the petroleum companies agreed to an added tax of one cent per gallon on gas- olene the proceeds from which, estimated at 8,o00 pesos daily, are being applied to road construction. production of light and heavy crude oils for the first six months of 1925, totalling 65,369,987 barrels showed a decrease of 8,911,- 376 barrels from the corresponding period in 1924. all the loss was in heavy crude oil, the light crude oil showing an increase of 2,145,172 barrels. continued salt-water intrusion in the toteco holding of the mexican seaboard diminished their production in 1925; salt water also reduced production in the cacalilao fields. afining— there was marked resumption of mineral production in 1918 and 1919. practically all the established mining com- panies operated continuously during 1924, some of them extend- ing mining and milling facilities so as to increase production and improve metallurgical recoveries. prospecting and development work increased, notably in chihuahua, sonora and zacatecas. the de la hluerta revolt did not scriously interfere with the operation of established mines. taxation continued upon the 1923 basis, being so high that the average mine paid as much in taxes as it produced in net profit. freight rates were approxi- mately 50% higher than those of ro years earlier. labour conditions were chaotic because of numerous state laws, and caused much misunderstanding between companies and em- ployees. these conditions discouraged new mining investments, but good prices for lead and silver offset them, and earnings for 1924 were good. productions of the chief minerals for 1922-4 was (in kgm.) :— 1924 1923 1922 gold 24,647 24,162 23,276 silver : 2,044,101 2,824,599 2,521,832 copper 49,113,194 | 53,371,482 | 26,977,786 lead 164,140,830 | 155,720,342 | 110,455,912 zinc 18,936,336 18,481,271 6,141,937 antimony, tin, tungsten and arsenic are produced in consider- able quantities. for the first time in several years quicksilver was exported in june 1925; there was promise of continuous increase. the movement was of 600 kilos shipped from tampico and produced by a cinnabar mine in zacatecas. numerous filings of claims in chihuahua for gold and silver locations, reopening of old workings in the santa barbara district of that state, and the development of electrical power in durango for mine operations, indicated 1n 1926 that mining prospects continued good, in spite of the political unrest. commerce and industry—notwithstanding political and economic difficulties, trade showed gratifying stability. mexico sold to the united states in the first 10 months of 1924 products to the value of $167,087,305, or 19°-2°> over the figures for 1923, and bought from the same source goods worth $135,076,703, an increase of the same percentage. increased production of lead, copper and silver, with greater shipment of vezetables to ameri- mexico city can winter markets, permitted purchase of larger quantities of automotive vehicles, agricultural implements, mining machinery and railway equipment. for the year ending june 30 1913 mexican imports were §95,857,000, and exports $149,752,000. for 1921 they were respectively $178,775,221 and $203,273,450. imports from the united states in ro21t were 74°6% of the total, and exports to the united states 88-3%. in 1923 mexican exports of all classes were: animal products, $2,019,486; vegetable products, $32,782,- 061; minerals except petroleum, $80,213,217; petroleum $237,- 213,698; miscellaneous, $2,109,872. petroleum constituted 67% of the total exports. minerals reached 22-5°% , constituting with petroleum 89:5% of the 1923 exports. agricultural exports to the united states were 14% of the trade with that country, petroleum 38% and other mineral products 45%. canadian exports to mexico were in 1920, $410,825; in 1921, $1,086,197; in 1922, $1,197,597, and in 1923, $3,291,098, and in the year ending march 31 1925, $2,856,409. imports from great britain, high in 1920 and 1921, dropped to pre-war level in 1922-3. the movement of trade has been steadily away from the gulf ports towards towns on the american border, which in 1923 handled over 42% of the volume. there were 108 mills operating, em- ploying 38,232 hands. the annual production of boots and shoes was over 700,000 pairs. in 1923, 235sugar-mills produced 121,000 metric tons. labour.—conditions in labour have been disturbed since the revolution began. strikes and financial losses have been as follows:— financial loss no. of no. of strikes strikers to employ- to em- ers ployees 1922 197 63,000 $4,134,680 | $2,983,610 1923 146 54,396 3,694,324 1,479,055 1924 138 29,244 4,627,385 1,805,191 labour troubles at vera cruz caused the chambers of commerce to transfer their business to tampico in nov. 1924. in march 1925 a federation of land and sea workers, comprising 17 vera cruz unions affiliated with the mexican federation of labour, gave up political activities and agreed not to strike without federation approval. communications.—in the de la huerta revolt the railways in rebel hands were badly depleted in stock. in march 1924 an official report of the ownership of railways showed that the national railways (51% of whose stock is held by the govern- ment) had 13,205 km.; government railways, 517 km.; private lines 7,529 kilometres. the total in operation was 21,251 km. or 13,197 miles. the mexican railway, a british concern, has 520m. between mexico city and vera cruz; it wasin government hands from 1916-20. the tepic-la quemada line of the southern pacific was completed april 1926. it connects mexico city with nogales. during 1925, 45,000 men were employed on the 100 m. of the road, 17 tunnels having been constructed before june. the new wireless station erected on the island of lobis, near the coast of tampico, affords facilities to the petroleum companies to communicate with ships at sea. there are wireless stations at mexico city, tampico, vera cruz and on the pacific coast at mazatlan. brbliography.— mexico, compiled by pan american union (1911); p. terry, mexico (1911); f. i. madero, la sucesion presi- dencial en toro (1911); m. de perigny, les hiats-unis du aexique (1912); h. baerlein, afexico, the land of unrest (1913); h. h. fyfe, the real mexico (1914); r. j. mchugh, modern mexico (1914); w. e. carson, mexico, the wonderland of the south (1914); e. l. bell, the political shame of mexico (1914); l. gutierrez de lara and e. pinchon, the mexican people: their struggle for freedom (1914); r. de zayas enriquez, the case of mexico and the policy of president wilson, translated by a. tudon (1914); h. h. bancroft, al lztstery of mexico (1915); e. o'shaughnessy, 4 diplomat’s wife in afextco (1916); l. spence, mexico of the mexicans (1917); m. bustamento, petreles en la republica mexicana (1917); l. s.'hasbrouck, afexico from cortez to carranza (1918); e. d. trowbridge, mexico to-day ‘and to-morrow (1919); j. l. mcleish, high lights of the mextcan revolution (1919); 5. g. inman, intervention in mexico (1919); alono- 899 grafias mexicanas de arte, 2 vol. (1919); m. torrente, [historia de la independencia de mexico (1919); handbook of alexico, naval intelligence division, british admiralty (1920); g. h. blakesley, el., afexico and the caribbean (1920); wallace thompson, the people of mexico (1920); c. l. jones, afexico and its reconstruction (1921); e. j. dillon, afexico on the verge (1921); h. j. prisolley, the afexican nation (1923); c. beals, afextco—an interpretation (1923); e. a. ross, the sacial revolution in afexico (1923); g. mcbride, the land systems of mexico (1923); r. g. cleland, the afexican year book (1924); rk. mca. ingersoll, 72 and under sa a mexico city, capital and metropolis of the republic of mexico (see 18.344), had a population of 615,367 at the census of 1920 (271,955 males and 343,411 females) of whom 23,668 were foreign-born; estimate for 1924, 880,000. between 1910 and 1925 several new residential suburbs (colonias) were created, which grew rapidly by the cutting up of adjacent estates (/aci- edas) into building lots; many squat buildings of colonial days in the business districts were replaced by sky-scrapers; new streets were cut; dirty squares were transformed into neat flower-decked plazas and the magnificent national theatre begun in 1900 was partially completed, 12,000,000 pesos hav- ing been expended on it up to 1922. the legislative palace, however, was still unfinished in 1925, and was about to be torn down instead of completed. in 1923 the area of the city was about 15 sq. m., divided into eight sections (cuarteles or demar- caciones), and sub-divided further into about a thousand squares (manzanas). there were over 200 m. of tramways, and the tram service, furnished by an english company and managed ly english and canadians, was efficient. at different times the official names of many streets were changed, either to commemo- rate recent events and heroes, or in the interest of convenience; e.g., all the streets in one section received names of trees and flowers, in another names of foreign cities, so that the character of the name of the street would give a general idea of its location. industry and commerce.—manufacturing, still relatively unim- portant, was represented in 1925 by some 215 establishments, with an annual output valued at 10,000,000 pesos, and employing about 10,000 workers, most of whom were indians and half- breeds (mestizos). the leading products were tiles, cigars and cigarettes, textiles, drugs and chemicals, oils and extracts, shoes and other articles of clothing, various articles of food, beer and other beverages, furniture, iron and steel, mosaics and jewelry. of greater importance were trade and finance. in mexico city are the headquarters of most of the business carried on in the country, and it is the principal distributing centre of the republic. ieposits in the banks on oct. 31 1923 (64,278,894 pesos) were 53% of the total for the country. about 30% of all the imports into the republic are received in the capital. the -annual sales of the commercial establishments of all kinds were estimated in 1925 at over 250,000,000 pesos. the textile industry was largely in french hands; hardware, cutlery, chemicals and drugs, in german hands; the oil and mining interests were chiefly english and american; banking, predominantly canadian; retail trade, predominantly spanish; but both banking and trade were shared by french, spanish and americans, and by 1925 there was a successful national bank of mexico. the national railways of mexico were returned to private management on jan. 14 1926, under the so-called pani-lamont agreement. social conditions —an increasing number of automobiles, higher wages, and a decreasing number of bare feet, indicated some advance in prosperity; and a brighter outlook for public health was given by president calles’s firm support of clinics, dis- pensaries and similar improvements. but the general standard of living of the population was still very low; beggars were ex- ceedingly numerous and very importunate; business was “ nerv- ous’; and foreign capital was not available in the amounts needed. the organisation of labour advanced rapidly after the foundation in 1918 of the confederacion regional obrera mexi- cana (usually referred to as “ crom ”’) by l. n. merones, an electrician, who became secretary of industry and commerce in the calles administration. in the demonstration of may 1 1925, in mexico city, 93 unions, with 100,000 members, took part. goo by 1925 collective bargaining was the rule, and it was claimed that ‘‘ crom ” had effected an increase in the average weekly wage from 50 centavos to 3 pesos. education, etc.—by the constitution of t917 elementary edu- cation was made free, compulsory to the age of 15, and secular, but pending the provision of enough secular schools many of the old schools under religious auspices continued to function. the national university, which had been suspended for half a cen- tury, from the time of maximilian, was re-opened in 1910. a summer school was established in 1922, designed especially to attract foreign students for the study of spanish. the world war increased the interest of mexicans in reading, and as a result several new periodicals, of a superior quality, were established in the city, which had the first printing press in the new world and the first regularly issued newspaper. mexico city was the scene of riots during the revolutionary disturbances of 1910 and tori. on june 7 1911, the day on which madero made his trium- phant entry into the city, there was a severe earthquake, which cost many lives. in sept. ro21 the centennial of mexican inde- pendence was celebrated with great pomp. meyer, eduard (1855- ), german historian, was born at hamburg jan. 25 1855. he was educated at bonn and leipzig, where in 1879 he qualified in ancient history. he after- wards became professor of ancient history at breslau (1885), halle (1889) and berlin (1902). meyer realised the great im- portance of folklore, historical monuments and numismatics as aids to the study of ancient history, and the value of his original methods in treating the subject was recognised by the universities of oxford, st. andrews and freiburg from which he received honorary degrees. meyer’s principal works are: geschichte des alten aegypien (1887); forschungen zur alten geschichte (1892-9); wirtschafiliche fentwick- lung des altertums (1895); die entstehung des judentums (1896); zur theorie und afethodik der geschichte (1902); geschichte des alter- tums (3rd. ed. 1909); caesars monarchie und das principat des pompeins (2nd ed. 1919); preussen und athen (1919); ursprung und anfange des christentums (3 vol. 1921-3). meyer, marie paul hyacinthe (1840-1917), french philologist (sce 18.3409), died at st. mande, near paris, sept. 8 lol te meyerhold, vsevolod emilievich (1873- ), rus- sian theatrical producer, was born in moscow and from 1898- 1905 was well known as one of the most distinguished actors of the moscow art theatre. he then began to produce plays, adopting a new convention in opposition to the “ true-to-life ” ideas of stanislavsky, in which the actor and the stage setting presented a complete harmony. after the revolution he carried these methods to an extreme, using no curtain and a bare stage with purely formal scencry. he managed the revolutionary theatre, moscow, and also acquired a theatre of his own, and in both produced political propaganda plays. ilis views are set forth in his book, the theatre (st. petersburg, 1913). meynell, alice (1849-1922), british poetess. by her marriage in 1877 alice thompson became alice meynell. she had the fortune to find herself in that mid-victorian era which still held freshly to its heritage from keats and shelley, from wordsworth and coleridge. it felt its heart torn by the griefs of the brontes, stirred by their glories; and almost clung to the hand of elizabeth browning. eagerly awaiting every recurring sign of tennyson’s fertility, it yet respected the long pause of patmore; and took for its own the volumes of dante and chris- tina rosetti, warm from the press. with these two women of song, elizabeth and christina, alice meynell’s name is now commonly tripled. but it was not they who moulded her thought ot her expression. her aloof independence was proof against all precedents; and of her prose it may be noted that, notwithstanding her love for lamb and landor, only the american, james russell lowell, is mentioned by her as in any way her master in style. she was her very own spiritual and intellectual self as both woman and writer. that was the secret of the singleness of her personal influence while she lived, and secures an enduring freshness and originality in the work she bequeathed. meyer, lduard—meynell mistress anne killigrew had been told by dryden “ thy father was transfused into thy blood.” that girls alike with boys, inherit from fathers as from mothers, was the theme of a verse where alice meynell, after the desolations of the european war, gave the comforting signal:— the crippled world! come, then, fathers of women with your honour in trust, approve, accept, know them daughters of men, now that your sons are dust. her own father, having icft cambridge and unsuccessfully contested two costly elections for parliament as a free trader, became very much a citizen of the world. after his marriage with christiana jane weller, a beautiful and accomplished girl to whom her adoring friend charles dickens fitly introduced him, he made his home much in italy, devoting himself to the liberal learning of the two daughters: elizabeth, the elder, afterwards lady butler, famous as a war painter; and alice, who early began to put her rhymed thoughts shyly upon paper. despite the affectionate appreciativeness that ruled her home (usually an english one) her composition remained mostly her own secret until an american friend, to whom they were con- fided, encouraged her to show, and then print, them. the volume of predudes was issued (for the girl what an association) by tennyson’s then publisher, mr. henry s. king, on the word of his ‘ reader ’’---later his successor—mr. c. kegan paul, who, not trusting his own judgment all the way, read some of them aloud to george eliot, receiving her deciding approbation. the critics were mostly silent; and even those who praised hesitated. but the volume made its own quiet way, ruskin in all ways first in his soaring praises: ‘ the last verse of that perfectly heavenly ‘letter of a girl to her own old age,’ the whole of ‘san lorenzo’s mother,’ and the end of the‘sonnet toa daisy,’ are the finest things i have yet seen or felt in modern verse.’ rossetti, too, spread the news of the young poct’s advent, reciting ‘‘ renouncement ” by heart to his friends, and saying that it was “one of the three finest sonnets ever written by women. ” browning, having read a brief quotation buried in a halting press appreciation, ‘‘ conceived the desire to read the rest for myself,” and found its beauty “ even beyond what the indifference of the reviewer should have prepared me for.” the volume brought her many a fricnd—and more. for the reviewer in the pall amfall gasette—a paper to which she was later to be a conspicuous contributer—quoted the sonnet “ my heart shall be thy garden,” and found for it a reader whom it reached revealingly. a consequent introduction to the sonnetecr by a common friend was followed by a marriage that fulfilled for him crashaw’s “ heaven-on-earth ” for 45 years. on mrs. wilfred meynell, as she then (1877) became, fell a long silence as a poet. the muse docs not ordinarily leave cards on the happily and busily married; the domesticities and the “sweet sense of providing’ are not the fashioners of those “sweetest songs” that breed from “ saddest thoughts.” kight children were born, one of whom died in infancy: a grief that put into poetry the dread reminder that the giver of life is also the giver of death: “‘ and she who slays is she who bears, who bears.’ a like sensitiveness to life’s cruelties put her, for all her reticence, on political platforms, and marched her in multitu- dinous processions, in favour of the granting of votes to women and the opening of long closed professional doors. compassion was the companion of all her walks abroad, for the over-burdened man and animal; for the beggar-woman to whom she cried with her gift, in portuguese fashion, ‘‘ have patience, little saint ’’; for the underfed in london slums which she at one time sedulously visited; and for the beast in the shambles, in shame for whose martyrdom she refused to eat meat until, after persuasion, she sought by more impersonal methods to further laggard reforms. iler married life matured her vigilance as a mistress of prose. in w. e. henley of te scots observer and the national observer, she encountered an editor who heartened her by his boisterous welcomes: “ that woman’s taking her place at the steering wheel’ was one of his recorded acclaims. later, in the pall mall gazette of harry cust’s editorship, she was accorded a miami—mica weekly column which left hera large range in the choice of subjects. george meredith, reading here her “ princely journalism,” sought with her an acquaintance that soon became a ‘“ dearest friendship.” in a magazine—those were still the days of the magazines—he spoke of her words as having the “ living tremor in them,” just as he had before said that carinthia’s had the ‘throb beneath them.” of her essays, he wrote: “ the surprise coming on us from their combined grace of manner and sanity of thought is like one’s dream of what the recognition of a new truth would be. thev leave a sense of stilled singing on the mind they fill. the writing is limpid in its depths. ” coventry patmore, too, her yet warmer admirer, published, when tennyson died, his unavailing plea for her succession to the laureateship. her close friendship for such seniors coincided with that for her contemporaries, and for her juniors, chicf among whom was francis thompson, who addressed to her his exquisite sequence of poems love in diun’s lap, of which, patmore said, beatrice or laura might have been proud. of the homage paid to her, another chosen friend, j. l. garvin, has well said: “ alice meynell was in herself a person of her age, sure, as i think, of perpetual remembrance, even if half a dozen of her shining contemporaries had not competed in vain to spoil her with praise. it was what no one could do: recognition only made her humble.”” and these contemporary praises notwithstanding, g. k. chesterton predicts: “ she was deserved- ly famous; but i will venture to prophesy that her fullest fame is yet to come. the whole modern world must immeasurably enlarge itself before it comes near the measure of her mind.” she died in london on nov. 27 1922. alice meynell’s preludes (1875), long out of print, re-appearect in a volume of poems (1893) including new ones; and these, together with yet later verses separately issued as al father of women (1917) and last poems (1923), are all assembled in the complete volume of poems (1923) now in circulation. of her prose, several small volumes of essays tn the eightcen-nincties the rhythm of life (1893), the colour of life (1896) and the spirtt of place (1899)—were followed by ceres’ runaway (1909), by hearts of controversy (1917), by the second person singular (1921) and finally by the standard volume of selected lssays (1914)—the selection being her own. other books were jo/mn ruskin (1900), the children of the old masters (1903), afary, the mother of jesus (1912) and london impressions (1898). two anthologies give her choice among poems—the flower of the mind (1897) and the school of poetry (1923), the first in- cluding notes and the second commentaries. she prefaced editions of the sonnets from the portuguese and christina rossetti’s poems (1910), as well as a decade of volumes ‘“‘the red letter library ”’; she introduced in 1903 a volume of reproductions of sargent’s portraits; and she made for english readers a selection from the poems of j. b. tabb (1906). brpl1ograrny.—reference may also be made to the critical chapters concerning her in alfred noyes’ some aspects of alodern poetry (1924), in john drinkwater’s the afuse in council (1925), and in katherine bregy'’s the poets’ chantry (1912); as well as to such notable articles appearing at the time of her death as j. l. garvin's in the observer, j. c. squire’s in the london mercury and g. k. chesterton’s in the dublin review; articles that quickened the desire for the authorised biography now (1926) in preparation. (w. mer.) miami, fla., u.s.a. (see 18.354), in the centre of the 200-m- strip of the “ east coast ’’ which is dotted with winter resorts: was a focus of the rush to florida which began about 1922. the population in 1910 was 4,571; in 1920, 29,571; in 1025; according to the state census, it was 69,754. in sept., after annexations of territory, it was estimated at 100,000 within the corporate limits, and at 150,000 within six miles of the court-house. between 1914 and 1924 bank deposits increased over 3,000%; post-oflice receipts and property valuation each over 600%; the value of buildings for which permits were issued, over 2,500%, and the total of such permits for 1924 was doubled in the first eight months of 1025. at the opening of the winter of 1925-6 all kinds of shelter were at a premium, and tent colonies sprang up until they pre- gol sented a serious sanitary problem. for the moment, specula- tion in land was the leading occupation (a third of the members of the chamber of commerce were dealers in real estate), but there were solid foundations for future prosperity. though later in 1926, the value of land fell to some extent. the federal govt. had begun work on harbour improvements. draining of the everglades by the state was opening to agricultural settlers thousands of acres of rich swamp land, forty-five varied indus- trial plants were already in existence, and a sugar-mill and refin- ery were in operation 16 m. out on the miami canal. miami beach, across biscayne bay, one of the most luxurious winter playgrounds of the country, was a mangrove swamp in 1910. coral gables, a separately incorporated residential suburb adjoining miami on the south, was developed in spanish and moorish architecture with six miles of venetian waterways. this was created in a few years by the magic of immense invest- ments of capital, modern enginecring and far-sighted planning including a tract for the university of miami, chartered april 5 1925 which had in view an endowment of $15,000,000. mica (sce 18.355).—the three main contributors to the world’s supply in order of importance are the united states, in- dia and canada. after the outbreak of the war the stoppage of the mica imports to germany had a depressing effect on the mica industry; but, on the other hand, the large amount of mica re- quired for munition purposes, gas-musks, etc., caused both the allies and the united states to import increasing quantities of sheet mica from argentina and brazil. in the united states the mica mined is mainly muscovite, occurring as irregular masses, sheets and lenses in pegmatite veins traversing metamorphic rocks. the principal producing states are north carolina and new hampshire, but virginia, south dakota, georgia, alabama, idaho and colorado also produce considerable amounts. the chief mining centres in india are the great bihar mica belt, about 60 m. by 12 m., traversing the menghyr, hazaribagh and gaya districts in the province of bihar and orissa; and the nellore district in the madras presidency. less important areas occur in ajmer merwara in rajputana. the canadian mica is almost entirely phlogopite. the deposits occur chielly in que- bec to the north of hull, and in the townships of north burgess and loughborough in ontario. the world’s production figures in long tons for 1913, 1918 and 1923 were as follows:— — india (exports) . canada other u.ikx. countries united states (chiefly sales) madagascar argentina (exports) . other foreign countries ' including brazil 112 tons. 2 including japan 424 long tons. biblrography.—a. l. hall, ‘‘ the geology of the murchison range and district,” we. geol. sure, union of s. africa, no. 6 (1912); ht. s. de schmid, mica, fis occurrence, exploitation and uses, mines branch, canada (1912); d. b. sterrett, ‘some deposits of mica in the u.s.,”’ u.s. geol. survey bull, 580, pp. 65-125 (1914); a. f. calvert, mineral resources of minas geraes (1915); t. ii. holland and l.. l. fermor, “ quinquennial review of the mineral production of india,’’ rec. geological survey india, vol. 46 (1915) and vol. 52 (1921); p. g. morgan and j. a. bartrum, '' the geology and mineral resources of the buller mokihinue subdivision, west- port division,” n.z. geol, surv. buil, 17 (1915); s. kawasaki, ‘mica in chosen (korea),” chosen min, survey bull,, vol. 1, pt. 2 (1916); w. hi. robertson, “* development of argentina mica in- dustry, commerce reports, no. 190, p. 599 (1918); p. g. morgan and ff. henderson, ' chrome-iron ore, mica and tungsten ore in new zealand,” n.z. jour. of sctence and technology, vol. 2 (1919); w. pt. schaller, ‘f our mineral supplies, mica, etc.,’’ u.s. geologicat survey bull, no, 666, pp. 153-8 (1919); a. l. hall, “ mica in the lsastern transvaal,” afen. geol. surv. unton of s. africa, no, 13 (1920); h. b. mafe, ‘‘ the geology of the lomagundi mica deposits,” geoi. surv. s. rhodesia, short rep. no. to (1920); ‘ occurrence of mica in $.e. madagascar,” afin. jour., vol. 131, p. 790 (oct. 16 1920); “ etude succinte sur les mines de madagascar,” bull. econ, (madagascar, 1920). seealso mineral resources of the u.s. (annual), (n. m. pe.) 902 michelsen, peter christian hersleb kjerschow (1857-1925), norwegian statesman, was born at bergen march 13 1857, the son of a prominent merchant and shipowner. after completing a university education in 1879, michelsen settled in bergen as a lawyer and at the same time entered the shipping business in which he achieved considerable success. known as an administrator, he entered the city council of bergen and later the storting where he took his seat in 1891 and quickly became one of the most prominent members. in 1894 he with- drew from politics, returned to bergen, resumed his activity as a shipowner and re-entered the city council of which he be- came the chairman. the general elections in 1903 by which he returned to the storting as a member for the country district outside bergen initiated the crowning period in michelsen’s public career. appointed prime minister in the spring of 1905 michelsen played a leading part in the events which resulted in the dissolution of the union with sweden and the establishment of the new kingdom of norway. in 1907 he definitely retired from politics and died near bergen june 29 1925. michelson, albert abraham (1852- ), american physicist, was born in strelno, germany, dec. 19 1852. ils parents moved to san francisco, cal., where he stuclied in the public schools. he graduated from the u.s. naval academy in 1873, and was instructor in physics and chemistry there during 1875-9. he was then for a short time in the nautical almanac office. from 1880 to 1882 he studied in berlin, heidelberg and paris. iie resigned from the navy in 1881. in 1883 he was appointed professor of physics at the case school of applied science, cleveland, o., and six years later accepted a similar position at clark university. in 1892 he was appointed professor and head of the department of physics at the university of chicago. he early directed his researches to the velocity of light, and while in cleveland invented his interferometer (see 14.693), which enabled him to measure distances by means of the length of light-waves. his researches enabled him to revise and improve upon the achievements of i'izcau in respect of the velocity of light. ile perfected the methods for experimenting, and determined the rate at which light travels, with an error not exceeding 7/9 of 1°%% of the quantity measured. through one of his experiments it was demonstrated that the speed of light is the absolute superior limit of the rate at which matter can move, because the mass of a body depends upon its velocity —mass diminishing as velocity increases—and a body would vanish completely if it exceeded the velocity of light. michelson measured a meire in terms of the wave-length of cadmium light for the paris bureau internationale des poids et mesures. the consequence is that the metre bar, hitherto care- fully safeguarded in paris, can easily be replaced, since its length is known in terms of an absolute unit. in 1892 he was a member of the bureau internationale des poids et mesures and in 1897 of the international committee of weights and measures. he was made president of the american physical society in 1901 and of the american society for the advancement of science in 1910. he received medals and prizes from many jearned societies, and in 1907 was awarded the nobel prize for physics. during the world war he rejoined the naval service and devoted his entire time to new devices for naval use. his range-finder was adopted as part of the u.s. navy equipment. in 1920 he was able to demonstrate by means of light-interference that the diameter of alpha orionis was 260,000,000 miles. this was the first computation ever made of the size of a star. he was the author of velocity of light (1902); light waves and their uses (1903), and numerous papers contributed to scientific journals. in 1021 he was awarded the gokl medal of the society of arts, london. (for the “ michelson-morley experiment ” in interference of light, with its bearing on the einstein theory, see relativity.) _ michigan (see 18.371).—the population of michigan in 1920 was 3,668,412, an increase of 30°5% over 1910. the estimated population as of july 1 1926 was 4,395,651. of the total population in 1920, 1,670,447 were of native parentage; 1,204,545 of foreign or mixed parentage; 726,635 were foreign-born and 60,082 were negroes. the following citics in 1920 had 50,000 michelsen—michigan inhabitants or over: detroit (993,678); flint (91,599); grand rapids (137,634); lansing (57,327); and saginaw (61,903). a special census of detroit on may 31 1925 gave its population as 1,242,044 on that date. education.—in 1920 there were in the state 1,048,390 persons of school age, of whom 710,341 (67-8%) were attending school. the illiteracy rate was 3°% in 1920 a8 against 3:3% in igto. in many of the public schools vocational courses were added in recent years. at the institutions of higher education, attendance greatly increased. some of the colleges with church connections shared in this growth; but the chief enlargement was at the university of michigan (see michican, university or) and the michigan agricultural college. to add to the facilitics for higher education, “ junior colleges ” with curricula covering two years of college work, were established in detroit, grand rapids, muskegon, pontiac and highland park, in connection with their secondary school systems. agriculture.—in 1925 there were 192,334 farms in michigan, a decrease of 14,626 as compared with rg10. during the 15 years all farm land decreased from 18,940,614 ac. to 18,036,700. during the same period the average acreage per farm increased from o1-s to 93:8. the average value of land and buildings per ac. in 1925 was $71.41. in ig2g a total of 9,671,670 ac. was under cultivation, on which crops valued at $268,674,000 were raised. ‘he farming area of michigan continues to be concentrated mainly in the southern part of the lower peninsula of the state. to the upper peninsula, farms comprise less than 10% of the land area. ‘the area nominally in woodland, including farm woodlots as well as forests and cut-over lands, comprises nearly two- thirds of the state; but of this area rot more than about 5,000,000 ac., nine-tenths of which lies in the upper peninsula, now bears timber worth cutting. most of the rest has come to be stump jands, on which the recurrence of fires prevents any spontaneous reforestation. the barrenness of the sandy soil and the shortness of the growing season have hindered the reduction of land to cultivation, and some 10,000,000 ac. (more than one-fourth of the total surface of the state) are thus a deforested desert. several thousand acres of it revert to the state each year in default of taxes. these reverted tracts, comprising 566,850 ac. in 1918, are administered by the public domain commission (created in 1915) with a view to the sale of such as can be used as agricultural homesteads and to the setting aside of the rest as forest reserves. ‘these forest reserves (648,000 ac. in 1923) are under state forest management for the prevention of fires and for systematic reforestation. afincrals——in mineral production no new resources of im- portance were developed during the period 1910-25. the mining of iron-ore continued vigorously, that produced in 1923 amounting to 14,069,938 tons. the production of copper was pushed to the fullest capacity during the world war; but the severe decline of the market after the armistice caused a sharp reduction of output. the amount of copper produced in 1923 was 138,304,680 pounds. manufactures—the manufactured products in 1923 were valued at $3,870,434,000, as compared with $685,109,000 in 1909, an increase of nearly 465°. this advance was mainly due to the extraordinary growth of the automobile industry and its concentration in the state. the value of automobiles manufac- tured increased from $7,996.534 in 1904 to $96,651,451 in 1900, and to $1,351,990,000 in 1923. in more recent years this in- dustry has continued its rapid expansion. it 1s estimated that more than two-thirds of the automobiles manufactured in the united states are made in michigan. the number of wage- earners engaged in the making of automobiles and their parts in i9r4 was 67,538, constituting 24-9% of the total number of wage-carners in the state; these were increased to 149,296 in 1923, their proportion to the whole being 29:6%. foundries and machine shops with an average number of 34,080 wage-earners in 1923 produced products to the value of $165,736,521. fur- niture ranked next, with 20,665 wage-earners and products valued at $93,039,416. other industries, including logging and sawmill operations, engines and water-wheels, paper and wood pulp, michigan, university of—microphone substantially increased. michigan led all other states in output of chemicals, drugs, engines, threshing-machines, furniture and refrigerators. finance.—in 1923 the assessed value of property in michigan was $5,929,615,241, on which the state levied $25,880,702 in taxes ($6.58 per capifz). in the same year the funded and floating debt of the state amounted to $70,613,011, with a net debt of $65,655,186, or $16.69 per capita. appropriations by the legislature, $5,929,306 in 1909, advanced steadily to $9,610,553 in 1915, and then much more rapidly, standing at $28,302,639 for 1926-7. the volume of the general property tax, which comprised nearly all the state’s revenue, lagged behind the appropriations at the close of the decade 1910-20, and the prospect of a treasury deficit in 1921 caused the passage of a law for a tax on corporation franchises as an emergency recourse. in 1921 accounting and purchasing were centralised under the state administrative board. the result of these measures was that a deficit of approximately $6,000,000 in 1921 was replaced by a surplus on july 1 1925 of $2,292,411. legislution and administration amendments added to the revised constitution of 1908 provided for popular initiative and referendum on constitutional amendments and in legislation (1913); for the recall of elected officials (1915); for prohibition (1916); for woman suffrage (adopted in 1917 after having been successively rejected in 1912 and 1913), and for the issue of state bonds to the amount of $50,000,000 for the improvement of highways (1917). the provisions for initiative, referendum and recall have as yet found little utilisation, but the issue of highway bonds facilitated a marked improvement in roads. an increase of the licence charges on automobiles has also in- creased the road funds, the application of which is largely cdleter- mined by an act of the legislature (1915) establishing a system of state trunk roads. a further increase of road funds resulted from placing in 1924 a tax of two cents per gallon on gasolene. this yielded a substantial sum. among other noteworthy enactments by the legislature are the judicature act of 1915, consolidating and revising the laws of civil practice and procedure; the “ blue-sky ” law of 1913 and the creation of the michigan securities commission in 1915 to regulate the sale of securities; the provision for juvenile courts (1911); the creation of a board of mediation and conciliation to deal with labour disputes (1915); a dept. of state police (1919); a budget commission (191g); and a state administrative board, consisting of all the elective state officials (1921). this board was entrusted with a general supervisory control over the functions and activities of the administrative departments, cach of which, as reorganised and consolidated, continued to operate separately with an appointive official at its head. the preparation of the budget and matters of state expenditure were placed directly under the control of the board. michigan ratified the eighteenth (prohibition) federal amendment jan. 2 19109. political history—since toto there generally have been large republican majorities in state and national elections, with- out appreciable representation of any other parties in the state legislature. in the presidential election of r912, however, michigan gave its electoral vote to the progressive ticket, and in 1912 and ror4 it elected a democrat as governor and in 1923 elected the same man to the u.s. senate. the governors of michigan, rg11-25, were: chase s. osborn (rep.), ro11-3; woodbridge n. ferris (dem.) 1913-7; albert e. sleeper (rep.), 1917-21; alexander j. groesbeck (rep.), 1921-5 and 1925- . in a conspicuous contest in 1918 truman ii. newberry (rep.), was elected to the u.s. senate by a narrow majority over henry ford (dem.). charges of excessive expenditures in this campaign were brought against senator newberry and numerous associates, and they were convicted in the u.s. district court (1920) and were sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. the u.s. supreme court set aside the conviction may 2 1921; on jan. 12 1922 the u.s. senate decided by a vote of 46 to 41 that newberry was entitled to his seat. in the ensuing senatorial election, however, he was decisively defeated at the polls, where- upon he resigned the seat. (u.b.p.) 903 michigan, university of (sce 18.378), has continued the promise of its earlier period as the first conspicuously successful state university. the faculty increased from 350 in 1907-8 to 797 in 1925-6, while the student enrolment grew from 5,013 to 12,312 (6,010 in the college of literature, science and the arts; 1,716 in the colleges of engineering and architecture; 536 in the medical school; 541 in the law school; 85 in the college of phar- macy; 358 in the college of dental surgery; 483 in the school of education; 23 in the school of business administration; 758 in the graduate school; 190 in the training school for nurses; and 3,147 in the summer session). on july 1 1925 there were 36,500 living graduates. among the buildings erected between 1910 and 1925 were hill auditorium (1913) bequeathed to the university by regent arthur fill, of saginaw, seating 5,coo persons; the natural science building (1916); the university library (1919), con- taining approximately 400,000 vols.; the michigan union (1919), a student club-house, costing $1,250,000, the gift of students and alumni; the engineering laboratories (1923); the wm. l. clem- ents library of american history (1923), containing one of the three largest collections of americana in the united states, the gift of regent wm. l. clements, of bay city; the yost field house (1923); james burrill angell hall (1924); the lawvers club and dormitories (1924), the gift of w. w. cook, of new york; the physics building (1924); the university high school (1924); the medical building (1925); the university hospital (1925), accommodating joo patients. four dormitories for women students were also erected during this period as well as a home for nurses, the gift of senator james couzens, of detroit. a new building for the college of architecture is in course of construction and a new museum will be built in 1927. a stadium, seating 70,000, will also be completed in 1927. the income of the university in 1925 was $12,465,160. of this amount $3,000,000 was derived from the state from the 5.¢ mill tax; $2,683,855 was appropriated by the state of michigan for buildings, and $1,240,889 was received from student fees. over 12,000 graduates and students of the university were enlisted in the u.s. forces during the world war. of these, 237 lost their lives. upon his resignation in 1909, president james burrill angell was succeeded by harry burns iutchins, dean of the law school. president hutchins resigned in 1920 and was succeeded by marion leroy burton, who had been president of smith college (1910-7) and of the university of minnesota (1917-20). upon his death in 1925, clarence cook little, formely president of the university of maine (1922-5) was inaugurated sixth presi- dent of the university. bibliography.—a afemorial of the seventy-fifth anniversary of the founding of the untversity of afichigan (ann arbor, 1915); also wilfred shaw, the university of afichigan (new york, 1920); and a. l. cross, “‘ the university of michigan and the training of her students for the war,’ afichigan history magazine (lansing, jan. 1920); also annual reports of the president (1922-5). (wi by5.\") microbe: sce filter-passing microbes, microphone.—the term microphone, originally used by hlughes to describe a loose contact device extremely sensitive to vibration, has been generalised to mean any piece of appara- tus for converting rapid vibrational energy into electrical energy with similar vibrational characteristics. a number of such de- vices are now known; some are of scientific interest only, others are used very extensively in industry. microphenes proper.—x loose contact between any two con- ductors is microphonic—that is to say, when subjected to vibra- tion there is no sharp definition between completely open cir- cuit and completely closed circuit. in between these two states there is a condition where varying pressure alters the resistance, and if one or both of the substances making contact are subject to vibratory pressure, the vibration is reproduced as a varying current. the characteristic between pressure and current 1s only linear over small limits. the action at the point of contact is not exactly known. when the current passing through the contact while in the microphonic 904 condition is examined it is found not to be absolutely constant, and this lack of constancy makes itself evident as a hiss in a tele- phone receiver. the discharge through a vacuum valve has a very similar sound when amplified. the change of resistance with pressure varies greatly with materials used. carbon in one form or another is universally rec- damping plate terminal screw for stretching \\diaphragm ogra ante ntn asst eten ee ee tenes stretching { get nd ‘tem, t h ; 4 - ee | ys! ( i i'ic. 1..—western electric carbon microphone. ognised as the best material, in that the transitory stage between open and closed circuit is more marked than with other mate- rials. this docs not mean, however, that it gives the greatest change of resistance for a given change of pressure. a contact between gold electrodes by delicate adjustment can be put in a sensitive condition, and in the adjustment gives greater changes than carbon for the same change of pressure. a considerable amplification can be obtained with microphonic contacts, the output vibratory electrical energy being many times that of the input mechanical energy. to edison, berliner, hughes and many others we owe the introduction of the contact microphone and its development as a practical device, and microphones to translate noises and music have been produced in many forms. the inventive drift has been towards multiple contacts, and practically all contact microphones are now formed of prepared anthracite granules, the sound pressure being applied in various ways, usually by means of a diaphragm. in later years a more accurate study of the response of microphones to sound pressure has been made, and two modern forms in which the response is practically inde- pendent of frequency have been made. in the first form, the western electric carbon microphone (fig. 1), a diaphragm of duraluminium is stretched to a natural period well above the frequency it is required to reproduce. a carbon electrodes marble block terminals fic. 2.—diagram of the reisz microphone. type of air damping is applied to the diaphragm, and it is allowed to rest on carbon granules. the resulting currents are practically independent of frequency. in a second form, known as the reisz microphone (fig. 2), a diaphragm is practically dispensed with, and a layer of carbon granules is laid on a heavy non-conducting microphone block such as marble, being held in position by some material such as silk or thin rubber. the current response 1s obtained at right angles to the direction of application of pressure. the carbon granule-air system of a thickness of about 2 mm. forms a system of a very high natural period in depth, also damped by the natural friction of the carbon. the resulting vents mica insulating ae «| soldering [rings securing screw terminal stretching screw hl ~ttad securing coltar screw | screw a ales k for attachment in transmitter housing fee ht ss sore se ean lpi ring for tretching \\front felt cover soncing. | black wire coure dinokrnd ring dural prin a b poe ‘shield front cover fapnragqm fase uober anner ‘ 7 diaphragm diaphragm \"hole meting crew fic. 3.—diagram of the e.s. microphone. response is similar to that of the stretched diaphragm type de- scribed in the last paragraph. lowering the period of the dia- phragm or thickening up the layer of carbon granules in these two types has similar results. these high quality microphones are not sensitive and have to be used with a valve amplifier. in commercial telephony this amplification is not usually per- missible, at least to such an extent, so that it is usual greatly to increase the sensitiveness by forgoing some of the accuracy of response. fortunately the human voice can be considerably distorted without lack of intelligibility, and by giving the diaphragm of the microphone a natura! period in the middle of the important frequency ranges (about 800 cycles) amplifiers can be dispensed with owing to the increased response; music, however, cannot be reproduced with anything like fidelity. these microphones are also used well outside thetr range of linear response. granule microphones all suffer to some extent from “ packing ’’—that is, a tendency for the carbon to set itself in a hard contact condition where change of resistance with pressure is least, and much time has been spent in an attempt to overcome this difhculty. the commercial solid back microphone is one of the best forms, but occasional shaking is still necessary. other response devices-——the best known of non-contact de- vices is the e.s. microphone, developed into an instrument of precision by the western electric co. ltd. (fig. 3). here the same principle is used as in the carbon microphone. a high leepamred i mr, 3... from coil to fermnals coit diaphragm we ugne. cotton woal ype pads for a, q supporting : coil fal —_ magnetising ” _ tar terminals a | mm! clase (1 jastefht fic. 4.—diagram of the sykes microphone. natural period diaphragm, air damped, forms one plate of a condenser, the other being a solid insulated metal piece spaced a few mils from the diaphragm. the chief use of this instrument is for measurement and for broadcasting. the amplification required is large. various magnetic microphones have been microscopy constructed; in fact, the first bell microphone was practically the present receiver. the response with frequency is, however, a complex curve, although it is more linear with amplitude than a contact device. moving coil devices have been produced by sykes, siemens-halske, etc., the later forms of instrument being constructed so that the moving coil is the diaphragm. in the sykes microphone (fig. 4) an annular ring of aluminium foil or wire is suspended in a magnetic field, and the response is sufficiently large to enable the method to be used for broad- casting. the law of response with frequency, although not nearly so correct as the electrostatic instrument, can largely be corrected for in the amplifier. thermal devices —wot metal wires have been used for micro- phone purposes. ‘the response is, however, small except for very low frequencies, which property has been used by tucker for vun-ranging usually in connection with a resonance chamber. gas discharge devices —dr. thomas, of the westinghouse klectric co., and others have investigated the use of point dis- charges, but these devices have not come into gencral use. a ilame carrying a current is sensitive to sound, but the effect is too small for practical purposes. the piezo clectric effect has ulso been used, but not with much success, except for very high frequency work. see ff. m. dowsett, [ftreless telephony and broadcasting (1923). he [ro microscopy (sce 18.392).—the modern microscope is essentially a working tool used in every form of scientific and industrial research. specialised applications have led to the evolution of instruments designed for robust usage as factory appliances, and at the other end of the scale we have the new type of biological research microscope initiated by mr. j. e. barnard, f.r.s., f.r.m.s., and manufactured by beck. in both types there is a marked tendency to forsake the older portable form of stand used in normal laboratory practice and make use of a massive optical bench or lathe bed type of stand. this gives enormously increased rigidity, and freedom from vibration, enables the accessery lighting and condenser systems to be permanently adapted to the optical axis of the instrument, and permits quick change from visual observation to photegraph recording without disturbance of adjustments. denne microscope—in the microscope designed by mr. m. t. denne, f.r.m.s., for photomicrography, the whole system of illuminant, condenser, filter, substage condenser, stage and objective are all mounted on a triangular optical bench. this in turn is carried on a carriageway or lathe bed on which if is free to move. no conventional coarse or fine adjustment is fitted to the microscope, and the place of the body is taken by a camera. the coarse and fine focusing are operated by crank handles driving screw rods in the bed. these control handles are situated at the focusing screen end of the camera. for visual observation the whole optical system is brought up to the camera, which is telescoped, the focusing screen is swung to one side and an cye- piece is inserted in its place. the complete apparatus is mounted on a wheeled pedestal carriage, and the operator manipulates the whole from a chair at the focusing screen end of the bench. optical problems—=in biology research has been directed to extending the limits of microscopic resolution by the use of monochromatic light of short wave-length. the limit of resolu- tion—that is to say, the power to see a body composed of two dots as two separate dots in ordinary white light—is reached with standard apparatus, when the distance separating the two dots is reduced to half a wave-length of ordinary light (say o-2 #). bodies far smaller than this can still be perceived as vague disks of light, but the eye cannot distinguish form or structure. there is in theory no limit to the smallness of a body which can be made visible, provided that enough jight faljs upon it, but the image we sce of it is simply a scries of dilfracticn disks, and can give us no further information than that something 1s there. a reduction in the length of the wave-length of light employed may be looked on as increasing the separation between the two points in a body. thus an object easily visible, but just too small to be resolved, by ordinary light with a proportion of the long rect rays in it, may be resolved and seen by monochromatic light 995 from the blue end of the spectrum. as we pass toward the violet end we find that the eye is not sensitive to the violet, and that both distinct vision and accurate focusing become increasingly difficult. this band of light is, however, suitable for photography, and, although visual observation may be imperfect, photographs taken with this light reveal unseen detail and structure (see photograpily). in 1904 dr. kohler of jena experimented with the use of ultra- violet light. this band of light is of very short wave-length— 275upt—and. possesses great resolution, but is invisible. he em- ployed an optical system of quartz lenses, as glass stops these rays, and projected the image on a tlucrescent screen where it could be examined with a glass eye lens and focused for photog- raphy. ultra-violet ray illumination—in great britain the use of ultra-violet ray illumination has been applied by mr. j. e. barnard, f.r.s., and the technique simplified and developed. in the barnard instrument quartz lenses, slide and coverglass are used, but in place of the older method of focusing on a fluorescent screen the object is first focused visually by means of a special form of dark ground illumination. dark ground illumination is entirely different from the normal illumination by transmitted light, in that the object is jluminated solely by rays of light so oblique that they cannot enter the objective of the microscope. ‘the only light which enters is that reflected or scattered by the object itself. objects viewed in this manner appear self-luminous against a dark background, and extremely tenuous and transparent material which would display no structure and be almost invisible when examined by trans- mitted light reveals material detail. mr. barnard’s method was to focus the object first by means of visual examination against the dark ground. ‘this focusing was necessarily crude, as the smallness of the ebjects only allowed them to be seen as disks of diffusion, not as distinct objects. it then becomes necessary to adjust the focus for photography with transmitted ultra-violet light. ‘fo effect this, the fine adjustment screw of the microscope is fitted with a disk head graduated in wave-jengths. visual focus having been determined in light of known wave-length, rotation of the graduated head to the degree indicated for light of any other wave-length automatically adjusts the focus. the eyepiece is replaced by a camera bedy and dark slide. the dark ground illuminator is so contrived that it can be instantaneously changed over to a direct light condenser without clisturbance of adjustment, and the lighting arrangement is arranged so that a beam ef ultra-violet light of 275uu from a cadmium arc can be directed into the optical axis. ‘the photograph taken of the ob- jects indistinctly discerned shows them in actval ferm and with considerable detail. special difficultics —many difficulties have had to be met in this new technique. bacteria are killed by exposure to ultra- violet rays, and search has had to be made for bands in the invisible spectrum whose effect is not immediately lethal. the most important published results to date are those connected with filter-passing organisms associated with cancer research (g.z.) by dr. gye, but the normal application of the apparatus may find fuller scope in the exploration of the structure of known bacteria of larger size. these are usually only visible under dark ground illumination when alive, and in order to render them visible for examination by transmitted light they are stained with aniline dyes. staining kills the bacteria and alters structure. with ultra-violet light methods it becomes possible to cxamine the structure of living bacteria, for the different elements composing the cell present different degrees of absorption or transparency to the rays, and are as well differentiated on the negative as stained preparations (see bacteriology). the standardised model of the barnard microscope will be approved and available as a commercial product for scientific workers. in the meantime experimental work is being done on the utilisation of even shorter wave-lengths in the schumann region of the far ultra-violet. these rays have little penetrative capacity through air, and apparatus is being constructed to work in vacuum which may lead to a still further advance in our 906 means of photographically investigating minute structure beyond our present human range of vision with the best of microscopes. use in applied scicnce —the extension of microscopic resolu- tion by the use of light of short wave-length and quartz optical systems has not yet found application in other than biological research. the tendency is, however, to apply high power ex- amination to crystal structure in metallurgy, and branches of research dealing with opaque material which cannot be examined by transmitted light. modern design has endeavoured to simplify the problems of the illumination of metallurgical and similar specimens. devices embodying a parabolic mirror surrounding and integral with the ordinary objective have proved to be too cumbersome and heavy to be satisfactory in practice. in the same way the claims for the nominal ‘‘ super microscope ”’ devices, which consist of a primary low power microscope coupled to a second microscope of lower power whose function is to magnify the image given by the first system, have not received general endorsement. the results have been in accordance with optical theory, and have not yiclded any increase of resolution. for the observation of incandescent bodies or micrometric measurements at a distance, an achromatic lens of short focus carried in a tube fitting the substage is useful. it acts as a short range telescope, producing an image in its focal plane which can be examined by a low power objective of the microscope, with satisfactory magnification, and gives a convenient depth of focus useful in the examination of large objects with uneven surfaces. use in metallurgy —for routine metallurgical work the in- verted microscope with duplicate tubes for simultaneous visual and photographic work has largely superseded the older types of instrument. with the inverted microscope the specimen of metal is viewed from beneath. light from an arc or “‘ pointolite ” lamp is led into a vertical illuminating system beneath the objective and projected on to the specimen. the principle is the same as in simpler metallurgical microscopes, but in the newer type a very wide variation of illumination method is possible. plain glass reflectors, silvered circles, half circles or strips or even parabolic mirrors can be used in the vertical illumination system of the inverted type of microscope. in addition to this convenient command of illumination, the focus- ing system has only to carry the weight of the objective and is relieved of the conventional tube. this enables a very fine and precise adjustment of focus to be simply obtained. the change from visual observation to the camera is attained by pushing an intercepting prism out of the optical axis of the apparatus. use in engincering work.—as the microscope is increasingly used as a purely workshop tool in mechanical engineering practice, there has been a demand for simple robust devices consisting of a low power objective and an eyepiece with a simple scale or graticule in its focal plane. these tools have a linear magnifica- tion of x16 or x20, and enable the tool maker and mechanic to achieve a very high standard of precision. in general, no focusing device is provided for the simpler types, the instrument simply being placed on the flat surface under examination. more com- plex devices are available for the study of fine screw threads, and the more elaborate types of workshop microscope are fitted with an electrical vertical iluminating device in permanent adjust- ment. in general these simplified tools may be looked on as pre- cision measuring devices rather than instruments for microscopic investigation. the use of the high power microscope for the examination of the microstructure of metal has led to a realisa- tion of the basic fact that the mechanical properties of metals and alloys, such factors as hardness, ductility and tenacity, are inter-related with the microstructure. the microscope alone does not afford an explanation of many of these properties, but when microscopical examination is used in conjunction with equally accurate chemical and thermal analyses, the behaviour of in- dividual constituents can be determined and information of the greatest possible value has already been gained. other indusiries.—in the textile industries the microscope is used from the first to the last stages. it is the weapon of the economic botanist studying the insect and fungus pests which attack the plants furnishing the raw material, and it is used by the microscopy dye chemist studying the ultimate detail of the decoration of the finished product. each industry evolves its own particular detail of technique, but, in general, the normal research does not involve special apparatus and the conventional microscope com- mon to all laboratories serves. colloid chemisiry—the research chemist who deals with colloids, a subject of increasing importance, has to meet problems concerning suspensions of ultra-microscopic particles. for this, the apparatus known as the ultra-microscope is used. in this the power of resolution is neglected and the design is to make visible rather than to define extremely small ultra-microscopic particles. the ultra-microscope is essentially a dark-ground illuminating device, employing an intense illumination system and using magnifications up to x 1500, and the particles are seen as diflusion disks. the simplest form is the siedentopf ‘‘ car- dioid ”’ condenser, which is a paraboloid dark ground illuminator applicable to the ordinary microscope substage. it is, however, used with special quartz slides, as the intensity of the illumination is so high that glass fluoresces and destroys the darkness of the background. in order to estimate the quanti- ty of particles present in a given volume, the quartz slides used with the cardioid condenser are similar to those used in the haemacytometer. a central table surrounded by a groove is ground down to a lower level than the surface of the slide, so that a known depth of liquid can be enclosed between cover and slide. a more precise form of ultra-microscope is the siedentopf- zgismondy slit ultra-microscope, in which a beam of light from an arc is passed through a condenser and focused on an adjustable slit, similar to that used in a spectrometer. the image of the slit is reduced to a quarter size by a second condenser, and focused by an independent microscope objective on a small quartz win- dowed tank containing the liquid under examination. as the length and breadth of the slit can be adjusted and the reduction is known, the volume of the illuminated portion of the liquid under observation can be accurately estimated. the area of the illuminated zone observed is controlled by an eyepiece stop, and it is possible to count the number of particles in a known volume of solution. if a larger known volume of the solution is evaporated and the residue weighed, the total mass of particles can be calculated and the mass and, if its density 1s known, the volume of a single particle is estimated. the limitations of the ultra-microscope are those of the re- fractive index of the objects observed. cellulose, starch and other low refracting bodies can only be observed in relatively large particles, but metallic colloidal solutions of high refractive index have given extremely favourable results. colloidal gold particles as small as 1-7x 107? cm. in diameter can be observed as separate entities. modern a pparaitus—-these more recent types of research apparatus, the ultra-violet ray microscope, the inverted metal- lurgical microscope, and the ultra-microscope, are specialists’ instruments and will not supersede the standard instruments for ordinary work. the design of the latter may be looked on as stabilised, and no great advance has been made. the modifica- tions introduced in practice are those of detail and convenience rather than material alteration of type. the increasing use of microphotography as a recording device has made the narrow- bodied microscope of continental design relatively obsolete. the best modern instruments have body tubes of two inches or more in diameter. improvements in binocular microscopes have now reached a point where binocular eyepiecing can be used with the highest powers and oil immersion objectives. the advantages of the binocular system are a stereoscopic effect and a great relief from ocular fatigue. in the past, the old-fashioned wenham prism type binocular was the only satisfactory system, and it was only applicable to very low powers and to the old “ long tube ” stand. attempts to adapt a binocular prism system to the higher powers were not successful, and various shortcomings such as unequal light distribution in the tubes have hitherto proved insuperable. the new eyepiece systems have now been adopted by the leading middlesbrough—migra tion rritish and american makers and have proved satisfactory in practice. monocular and binocular bodies are detachable and interchangeable on the same stands. eyepiece focusing for dis- parity of vision between the eyes and interocular width adjust- ment are provided for. as a result of research, and in a measure as the outcome of wartime needs, great britain is producing the highest grades ol optical glasses according to tests carried out by the national physical laboratory. this mastery of material (see optical grass) has reacted on the microscope manufacturers, and british microscope objectives are being adopted for the most critical research work. brrtrocrariy.—c. beck, the aficroscope (1923); r. h. greaves, introduction to microscopic metallosraphy (1924); 1. freundlich, elements of colloidal chemistry, eng. trans. (1925); w. e. gye and t. e. barnard, the lancet (july 18 1925); the jour. of the royal microscopical society can be consulted for particulars of new apparatus and progress in biological and industrial research. (h. b.c. p.) middlesbrough, england (see 18.412), with an area of 4,159 acres, had a population of 131,070 in 1921. the town was given a separate court of quarter sessions in 1910. the efforts of the corporation to deal with the housing shortage have been notable: in addition to 1,283 houses contracted for, of which 877 were finished in 1925, two large buildings were converted into flats, and a number of hutments were erected at marske-by-the-sea for the accommodation of middlesbrough families. the corporation purchased the omnibus and tramways undertakings in 1921. marton, an estate of 136 acres, was presented for use as a public park in 1924. the sum of £40,000 was given by mr. j. constan- tine for a technical college in 1916, but, owing to the war and the rise in costs, the work could not be proceeded with until a further £40,000 was given by his widow and family. the constan- tine technical college was under construction in 1925. docks for small vesscls and a landing stage were being built in 1926, and an area prepared for extensions of the docks. midleton, william st. john fremantle brodrick, ist earl of (1856—- \\, british politician (see 18.419), did not remain long out of parliament after his defeat in the general election of 1906, as in the following year his father died, and he entered the house of lords as‘gth viscount. ie took a consider- able share in the work of that house, and played an active part behind the scenes in conservative politics, without returning to office. he had meanwhile become especially prominent as leader of the southern unionists of ireland, in virtue of his position as a landowner in county cork. in the irish convention of r9r7—-8 he and a band of southern unionists separated themselves from the ulster standpoint and expressed a readiness to concede a unitary home rule government for ireland, subject to provisions for safeguarding the minority of loyalists. at the beginning of 1920 he was created an earl.",
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