MASSACHUSETTS

the population in 1920 was 3,852,356, an increase of 485,940 or 14.4% since ig10, as against massachusetts 20% in the preceding decade. nearly one-third of the state’s inhabitants lived in metropolitan boston. less than 1-3 % were negroes; 28% were foreign born, of whom 24-4% came from canada. the average density of population in 1920 was 479:2 per sq. m., as against 418-8 in rg10. the urban population (in 169 places of more than 2,500) was 94:8% of the whole, as against 92-8% in r910. according to a census taken by the state in 1925, the population was 4,144,205. the census bureau estimated the population as of july 1 1926 to be 4,197,288. the population of the 12 chief cities was:— increase cities 1925 1920 1910 of be ee es ee ee boston . | 781,529 748,060 670,585 4°5 worcester . . 192,242 179,754 145,98 6-9 springfield : 142,224 129,614 88,926 9:7 new bedford 120,494 121,217 96,652 — <5 fall river . 129,662 120,485 119,295 7-6 lowell 110,542 112,759 106,294 —1:8 cambridge 120,053 109,694 104,839 9-4 lynn. . 103,147 99,148 89,336 4-0 somerville . 99,206 93,091 77,236 6:5 lawrence . 95,136 94,270 85,892 ‘9 brockton . 2 65,731 66,254 7 7 holyoke 60,892 60,203 7 i agriculturve—the total number of farms in 1925 was 33,454 as compared with 32,o01 in 1920 and 36,917 in 1910. farm property in 1925 was valued at $293,405,059, including live stock valued at $21,758,276. the average acreage of farms is decreasing, being 70-8 in 1925 as against 77-9 in 1920, but the average value per acre is increasing, being $107.53 in 1925 as compared with $99.25 in 1920. the principal crops were as follows, in bushels:— crops 1924 | i919 1909 corn (maize) 425,780 1,921,607 2,402,738 oats. : 82,668 1,515,933 2,029,381 buckwheat 11,847 23,238 32,926 wheat 4,028 33,253 2,404 potatoes 1,734,210 1,885,655 2,946,178 tobacco (pounds) 14,058,156 | 14,282,589 9,549,306 es 9,947 46,261 59,183 3,006,120 3157.21) 2,550,259 two-thirds of the cranberry yield of the united states in recent years was raised in the bogs along the southeast coast of the state. the live stock on farms in 1924 included 43,537 horses, 192,131 cattle (of which 145,631 were dairy cows) and 63,810 swine. mineral products—during the past 15 years there was a large increase in the production of building-stone, crushed rock for road and street-making, and sand. the value of marble, slate and stone work in 1923 was $11,285,444. the value of clay products of the state increased from $1,647,362 in 1908 to $4,238,354 in 1923, of which latter amount $3,045,638 was the value of common brick. the total value of mineral products in 1924 was $15,725,000 as compared with $12,411,708 in 1920 and $6,077,370 in igi0. manufactures —massachusetts, with a limited local market for its manufactured products, scanty resources in the form of raw materials, and a declining trans-atlantic commerce, has added little to its railway and terminal facilities. only four states are smaller in area: yet in 1921, only five states exceeded it in the value of its industrial output. its advantage has lain in having a surplus of capital, in its unsurpassed supply of skilled labour and in the superior organisation of its factories. in its earlier development it utilised its local water-power, of which it had a liberal supply. then it became largely dependent on coal for fuel, imported at increasingly high cost. in 1910 the total value of products of manufacturing establishments was $1,490,527,386; in 1921, $2,849,413,516; in 1923, $3,571,348,398. while the increase in value is largely to be accounted for by the increased prices, the state as a whole made commendable in- dustrial progress. in textiles (cotton, worsteds and woollens), in boots and shoes, boot and shoe cut stock and findings, rubber footwear and in fine writing paper, massachusetts in 1923 was the foremost state. | 819 the following table deals with the chief manufacturing in- dustries as ascertained by the census of 1923: nas-be average industry establish- number wages value of : abate of wage- 7 products earners cotton goods 191 113,707 | $115,080,841 | $415,922,838 boots and , shoes. 595 69,397 82,916,416] 290,674,403 worsted goods. 83 45,806 51,833,609 | 258,035,615 electrical machinery and sup- plies 130 26,350 34,482,705 | 117,575,926 foundry and machine- shop prod- ucts 533 24,660 36,267,289 | 114,929,133 dyeing and finishing textiles 75 14,074 16,099,333| 101,824,142 wootlen goods 19,036 24,356,203! 94,100,430 the value of boots and shoes and cut stock in 1923 was 36% of the country’s output, new york ranking second with 18-9°%%. in 1923 the textile industries employed 33 °% of the manufactur- ing wage-earners, the products being 28% of the total industrial output. over two-fifths of this was in cotton goods and formed 22°4 of the output of the whole country, north carolina being the next largest producer of cotton goods. the output of woollen and worsted goods in 1923 was about 30% of that of the whole country, pennsylvania producing the next largest amount. the increase in value from rg00 to 1923 was 536°>. the increase in the value of boots and shoes and cut stock for the same period was 154%. boston and worcester were the principal centres for foundry and machine-shop products. other industrial products were: rubber goods, $84,098,920; tanned, curried and finished leather $71,098,478, in the manu- facture of which massachusetts was second among the states; paper and wood pulp, $93,641,621; printing and publishing, $117,436,792, of which $61,326,221 was the value of newspapers and periodicals; cordage, twine and jute goods, $28,477,768, in which the state was second only to new york; furniture, $34,691,239; jewellery, $30,436,712; and confectionery, $48,618,- 574, in both of which massachusetts was third among the states. the state is also noted for its fishing industry, the fleets visiting the newfoundland banks being important, with glou- cester and boston as chief centres of the trade. the value of products in 1920 was $7,596,905. cod were valued at $2,311,011; haddock, $2,655,303; mackerel, $748,682; and halibut, $518,508. education.—in 1925 the total number of pupils enrolled in the public schools was 713,926, the amount expended on educa- tion being $71,941,986. in 1910 the figures were 538,441 and $17,110,327 respectively.. several fundamental changes were made in the organisation of the educational enterprises of the state in 1919. among the most important were: the consoli- dation into a new department of education of several related activities, the abolition of the board of education, and the creation of the advisory board of education, consisting of six members and the commissioner of education, who 1s ex officio chairman. in vocational education rapid progress occurred in the period 1909-23 the number of schools in which vocations are taught increasing from six to 80, and the enrolment in vocational classes from 1,400 to 11,870. another significant development was in university extension, in the year ending nov. 30 1923, 5,075 students were receiving instruction by correspondence. in the five years ending aug. 1923, 27,658 were registered in adult immigrant classes and 27,313 in other extension classes. in 1911 the teachers’ regis- tration bureau was established, a free agency which has proved very successful; three years later a retirement system was put into operation, with membership compulsory, and provision for retirement at 60 years of age under certain conditions or by 820 compulsion at 7o. the: legislature of 1921 made several notable changes, among which are the following: compulsory transportation from towns where there is no high school, with provisions for state reimbursement a provision compelling every town with a valuation of $1,000,000 or more to employ a school nurse, and the requirement of physical training in both ele- mentar, and high schools. the state department may now grant the degree of bachelor of science in education to any person completing a four-year course in a state normal school—one school giving it in the commercial course only, one in household arts, one in art and twain regular courses. regular public-school teachers cannot be paid less than $750 a year. reimbursements to small towns and cities are provided, with special arrangements for those of low valuation, enabling them to have good teachers. civics and history are required to be taught in elementary and high schools, and since 1923, the constitution of the united states. pupils 14-16 years of age must have completed the requirements of the sixth grade before being certified for employment. finance.—the receipts of the state in 1909 were approximately $14,700,000, and those in 1923 approximately $41,000,000, or nearly three times as much. these figures represent receipts for revenue purposes only, and do not include receipts from the issue of bonds or notes. the payments in 1909 were about $17,100,000, and in 1923 about $42,507,914. these represent governmental cost and include no payments of money borrowed. in 1923 the funded debt of the state was $53,673,740, and the total debt $126,269,01t. transportatiot.—there were 4,950 m. of steam railway in 1924 and 2,551 m. of electric street railway. great attention has recently been given to the highways, and during 1924 nearly 149 m. of highway were constructed. the total length of state highways at the end of 1924 was 1,521 m.; and the amount spent on new roads in that year, about $2,000,000; repairs and maintenance, $4,798,000. banking.—the resources in 1923 of the national banks within the state were $1,227,367,000. there were 634 banking institu- tions and agents under state law, with resources of $2,488,606,93 5, divided as follows: 196 savings banks, $1,215,244,815; ros trust companies, $1,076,114,436; i90 co-operative banks, $154,870,638; three savings and loan associations, $2,399,791; massachusetts hospital life insurance co., $30,918,328; one foreign banking corporation, $1,838,749; 60 credit unions, $2,791,165; 77 steamship agents, receiving deposits of $3,187,506; one state bank, $1,132,507. history —during the years 1910-25 the most important laws enacted by the legislature were the following: in 1912 a minimum-wage board was established with the right to deter- mine wages of women and children. the inheritance law was amended so that only the real estate of a deceased non-resident is taxed, personal property taxes going to the state of residence. a law of 1913 provided for the establishment and maintenance of continuation schools and instruction for working children. a number of pure-food laws were enacted; also, a law providing for mothers’ pensions, the election law was so amended that on application signed by 1,200 voters in any senatorial district, or by 200 voters in any representative district, asking for the submission to the voters of any question of instruction to senators or representatives, the secretary of the common- wealth shall determine if such a question is one of public policy, and, if so determined, he shall place such question on the official ballot to be used at the next state election. in 1914 a measure was passed submitting to the pcople a constitutional amendment giving suffrage to women, suffrage being finally granted june 25 191g. in 1916 the civil and criminal jurisdiction of district or municipal courts was extended so that their process runs through- out the state and makes them courts of superior and general jurisdiction. an income tax was enacted, and a law was passed to prevent misstatements in advertising. an act forbidding the sale of narcotic drugs, except by prescriptions carefully regulated, was passed in 1917. massachusetts on april 2 1918 ratified the eighteenth (prohibition) federal amendment, being the eleventh massene’t—-massingham state to do this. that same vear a budget system was adopted. the legislature in 1919 made absentee voting possible for those in military or naval service and for others who made proper arrangements. it also passed a law making all acts approved by the executive, unless subject to referendum, take effect 30 days after formal cnactment. emergency laws take effect upon passage. the permissible maximum amount of deposits in savings banks per person was raised to $4,000. manufacturing corporations were enabled to provide for representation of their employees upon the board of directors if more than half the employees so decide by secret ballot. industrial accident com- pensation was increased. the income tax was revised. an act reorganising the executive and administrative functions of the state government, approved july 23 1919, established new departments, consolidated the 100 odd departments under 20 heads, and a metropolitan district commission was authorised, with general supervision over the metropolitan area. the legislature of 1920 passed a law providing for a state constabu- lary. motion-pictures within the state were censored. women were allowed to hold office. suits were permitted by and against voluntary associations. important “ blue sky ”’ legis- lation was enacted. in rg21 a law was passed making a scientific study of criminals mandatory on the courts {n certain cases. examination is required by the dept. of mental diseases, and the results are admitted as evidence of the mental conditions of the accused. the opening on july 29 1014, of a canal across cape cod shortened by 7o m. the distance by water from new york to boston. the governors for the past 15 years were: eugene m. foss (dem.), ror1-4; davis i. walsh (dem.), 1914-6; samuel w. mccall (rep.)}, 1916-9; calvin d. coolidge (rep)., 1919-20; channing h. cox (rep.), 1920-4; a. t. fuller (rep.), 1924-. (f. a. ci massenet, jules emile frederic (1842-1912), french composer (see 17.866), died in paris aug. 13 1912, having com- posed an opera, panurge, just before his death. massey, william ferguson (1856~1925), new zealand statesman, was born at limavady, co. derry, ireland, on march 26 1856. his parents emigrated to new zealand when he was six, andeight years later he joined them at tamaki. after an elementary education, he went on the land, and 20 years later, as president of the auckland agricultural and pastoral society, began to play a prominent part in public life. he entered parliament in 1894 as member for waitemata, and in 1903 became leader of the conservative opposition to mr. seddon and sir joseph ward. at first his following was small, but he gained ground to such an extent in the elections of rgz1 that in the fol- lowing year he was able to defeat the mackenzie ministry and form a cabinet. thereafter he played a dominating part in the dominion’s affairs. his strong personality, sterling honesty of purpose and administrative ability commanded universal re- spect, and during the world war, at the head of a strong coali- tion ministry, which included his lifelong opponent, sir joseph ward, mr. massey led new zealand with conspicuous ability and foresight. and, just as he had not hesitated to introduce conscription withcut reference to the people, so he had the courage, when peace came, to enforce unpopular economies. ile was a member of the imperial war cabinet in 1917-8 and in 1919 was the representative of new zealand at the peace con- ference in paris. shortly after the imperial conference of 1923 his health gave way and though he recovered sufficiently to carry on his work fora time, he died on may 10 1925. | massingham, henry william (1860-1924), british journalist, was born at old catton, norfolk. educated at norwich grammar school under dr. augustus jessopp, he be- gan to work for the eastern daily press at the age of seventeen. in 1883 he came to london and for some time was on the staff of the national press agency. five years later he became assist- ant editor of the star, which he edited from july 1890 to jan. 1891. in 1892 he joined the staff of the daily chronicle as literary editor, and was editor in chief from 1895 to 1899, when he resigned owing to his inability to support the war against masson—mass production the boers. he had made his mark as an influential champion of the radical wing of the liberal party and as the pioneer ol literary criticism in the daily press. after a brief connection with the manchester guardian and the speaker, and a mission to south africa in 1905 for the daily news, he, in 1907, began a long association with the nation, which he edited till the end of 1923. he was a severe critic of the world war and the peace treaty of 1919 and advocated co-operation between the liberal and labour parties. an early member of the fabian society, massingham ultimately joined the labour party, though on ethical, rather than economic, grounds, and his last journalistic work was done for the new statesman. he died at tintagel, cornwall, on aug. 28 1924. one of the best all-round journalists of his day, he was a trenchant writer on politics and a discerning critic of literature and the drama. he published in 1892 the london daily press, and contributed an introduction to the memorial edition of the works of mark rutherford 1923. h.w. m. a selection from the writings of h.w. massingham, edited by h. j. massingham (rg25), contains highly appreciative estimates by g. bernard shaw and various eminent associates. masson, louis claude frederic (1847-1923), french historian (see 17.870), died in paris feb. 19 1923. mass production.—the term mass production is used to describe the modern method by which great quantities of a single standardised commodity are manufactured. as com- monly employed it is made to refer to the quantity produced, but its primary reference is to method. in several particulars the term is unsatisfactory. mass production is not merely quan- tity production, for this may be had with none of the requisites of mass production. nor is it merely machine production, which also may exist without any resemblance to mass production. mass production is the focussing upon a manufacturing project of the principles of power, accuracy, economy, system, continuity and speed. the interpretation of these principles, through studies of operation and machine development and their co-ordina- tion, is the conspicuous task of management. and the normal result is a productive organisation that delivers in quantities a useful commodity of standard material, workmanship and design at minimum cost. the necessary, precedent condition of mass production is a capacity, latent or developed, of mass consumption, the ability to absorb large production. the two go together, and in the latter may be traced the reasons for the former. i. the origins of mass production in origin mass production is american and recent; its earliest notable appearance falls within the first decade of the 2oth century. the mere massing of men and materials is a procedure as old as the pyramids. basic industries, like weaving, domestic baking, house construction and wooden ship building, are carried on, with only superficial changes, much as they were in ancient egypt. cottage manufactures and handicrafts moulded the prac- tices of industry until the invention of the steam-ergine. with the coming of power machines the seat of industry was removed from the homes of the people and a new work centre, the fac- tory, was established. much harsh criticism has been uttered against “the factory system,” but it is perhaps fair to say that its first effect was to emancipate the home from being a mere adjunct to the loom or bench, and its later effect was to provide the home with means to develop the dignified status which it has now attained. the factory system giving way.—the early factory system was uneconomical in all its aspects. its beginning brought great- er risk and loss of capital than had been known before, lower wages and more precarious outlook for the workers, and a de- crease in quality with no compensating increase in the general supply of goods. more hours, more workers, more machines did not improve conditions; every increase did but enlarge the scale of fallacies built into business. mere massing of men and tools was not enough; the profit motive, which dominated enterprise, was not enough. there remained the scientific motive which grew eventually into what is called mass production. the new method came after the failure of the mercantile and s21 financial emphasis in manufacture. the advent and progress of financial control of industry were marked by two developments, the corporation and the labour revolt. artificial combination of industrial plants into vast corporations for financial purposes was the first movement toward mass in industry. it proceeded on the theory that complete financial control would automatic- ally bring complete profit advantage. the theory ignored many vital principles of business and its fallacy became apparent, but not before serious social hostility had been incurred. however, it was out of the social strife thus engendered that the idea began to emerge that possibly the difficulty lay in the neglect of scientific manufacturing principles. industry was con- ceded to be necessary and useful; the service it rendered was regarded as of sufficient value to afford fair compensation for all engaged in it; it was therefore urged that the attention of management should be more directly focussed on the actual labour processes that were employed. this led to what was known early in the 2oth century as the “efficiency movement” with its accompaniments of time-study and similar methods, although its roots were laid in the experiences of sound industrial observers as early as 1878. it cannot be said, however, that the efliciency experts did more than direct attention to the problem, by showing, in selected instances, how the then current metheds were wasteful of men’s earning power, and how their correction and improvement could lead to greater production, hence higher wages, and therefore a general betterment of labour relations. they emphasised a more intelligent management of methods than was then in use; they did not see that a wholly new method was possible which would simply abolish the problems of which the old method, under the most intelligent management, was inevitably prolific. for example they dealt with methods which enabled juabourers whose task was to load 124 tons of pig-iron a day, to load 47§ long tons a day for an increase in the day’s pay from $1.15 to $1.85. they did not see that another and better method might be devised which would make it unnecessary for a working-man to carry 106,400 lb. of pig-iron to earn $1.85. mass production was not in their view, but only the alleviation of the worst errors of competitive factory practice. the motor industry leads the way.—to the motor industry is given the credit of bringing mass production to experimental success, and by general consent the ford motor co. is regarded as having pioneered in the largest development of the method under a single management and for a single purpose. it may, therefore, simplify the history of mass production and the de- scription of its principles if the experience of this company is taken as a basis. it has been already suggested that mass pro- duction is possible only through the ability of the public to absorb large quantities of the commodity thus produced. these com- modities are necessarily limited to necessities and conveniences. the greatest development of mass production methods has occurred in the production of conveniences. the automobile represents a basic and continuous convenience-transportation. mass production begins, then, in the conception of a public need of which the public may not as yet be conscious and proceeds on the principle that use-convenience must be matclied by price-conven- ience. under this principle the element of service remains upper- most; profit and expansion are trusted to emerge as conscquences. as to which precedes the other, consumption or production, expe- riences will differ. but granted that the vision of the public need is correct, and the commodity adapted to meet it, the impulse to in- creased production may come in anticipation of demand, or in response to demand, but the resulting consuniption is always utilised to obtain such increase of quality, or such decrease of cest, or both, as shall secure still greater use-convenience and price-convenience. as these increase, consumption increases, making possible still great- er production advantages, and so on to a fulfilment that is not yet in view. the commodities ‘ah conduce to civilised living are thus far enjoyed by only a small fraction of the world’s inhabitants. the experience of the ford motor co. has been that mass pro- duction precedes mass consumption and makes it possible, by reducing costs and thus permitting both greater use-convenience and price-convenience. if the production is increased, costs can be reduced. if production is increased 500%, costs may be cut 822 50%, and this decrease in cost, with its accompanying decrease in selling price, will probably multiply by 10 the number of people who can conveniently buy the product. this is a con- servative illustration of production serving as the cause of demand instead of the effect. il. the principles of mass production as to shop detail, the keyword to mass production is simplicity. three plain principles underlie it: (a) the planned orderly pro- gression of the commodity through the shop; ()) the delivery of work instead of leaving it to the workman’s initiative to find it; (c) an analysis of operations into their constituent parts. these are distinct but not separate steps; all are involved in the first one. to plan the progress of material from the initial manufacturing operation until ils emergence as a finished product involves shop planning on a large scale and the manufacture and delivery of material, tools and parts at various points along the line. to do this successfully with a progressing piece of work means a careful breaking up of the work into its ‘“‘operations”’ in sequence. all three fundamentals are involved in the original act of planning a moving line of production. this system is practised, not only on the final assembly line, but throughout the various arts and trades involved in the com- pleted product. the automobile assembly line offers an impres- sive spectacle of hundreds of parts being quickly put together into a going vehicle, but flowing into that are other assembly lines on which each of the hundreds of parts have been fashioned. it may be far down the final assembly line that the springs, for example, appear, and they may sccm to be a negligible part of the whole operation. formerly one artisan would cut, harden, bend and build a spring. to-day the making of one leaf of a spring is an operation of apparent complexity, yet is really the ultimate reduction to simplicity of operation. a typical operation described.—for its illustrative value let us trace the course of a spring leaf after it has progressed from iron ore through ingot, bloom and billet stages, and is rolled into strips. (1) beginning as a strip of steel prepared by the stcelmill, it is placed in a punch press for cutting and piercing. the workman puts the strip into press until it hits a stop, then trips the press. the cut-off and pierced piece falls on a belt conveyor which runs along the loading end of a series of heat-treating ovens. (2) a second workman takes the pieces from belt conveyor and places them on conveyor which passes through the furnace (in which temperature is automatically controlled); thence they are deposited at a certain temperature by this conveyor at the unloading end of the furnace. (3) the heated piece is lifted with tongs by a third operator and placed in a bending machine which gives the leaf its proper curve and plunges it in oil, the temperature of which is maintained at a definite degree by apparatus beyond the operator’s control. (4) as the bending ma- chine emerges from the oil bath, the same operator takes out the leaf and sets it aside to air-cool. (5) the leaf is then drawn by a fourth operator through molten nitrate kept at a regulated tem- perature. (6) a fifth workman inspects it. as a,set of springs on the ford automobile requires on an average 17 leaves, and 25,000 springs are an average day’s output, this operation must be visualised as employing a great battery of lines similar to the one briefiy described. as all the leaves in a spring are of different length and curve, from the bottom or master leaf to the top leaf, this operation must be visualised as one of many carried on simultaneously by different batteries of machines, each battery working on its own special size. all of these lines, with their various machines and operations, are converging on the point where the leaves are assembled into springs. the leaf whose progress we are describing is the simplest one. we now continue the operation. (7) a sixth workman removes the leaf from the conveyor which carries it from the molten nitrate, and inserts a bolt through this and the other leaves required in the spring. (8) a seventh workman puts the nut on the bolt and tight- ens it. (g) an eighth workman puts on the right and left hand clips and grinds off the burrs. (10) a ninth workman inspects it. (11) he hangs the spring on a conveyor. (12) the spring passes the tenth workman, who sprays it with paint, and the conveyor carries the spring above the ovens where it was originally heated, and the radiated heat “force dries’ the paint. (13) the conveyor continues to the loading dock, where the eleventh workman removes it. one workman under the old system could attend the leaf through all these phases, or even make a complete spring, but his production would be limited. where large quantities of the same article are to be made, the simplest operation may involve the whole time of one man. a one-minute operation will require one man a full day of eight hours to accomplish it on 480 pieces. now this simple part, a mass production spring leaf, must be identical in strength, finish and curve with millions of others designed to fulfil the same purpose, and this becomes a complicated and delicate procedure requiring automatic machinery, the most accurate of measuring devices, pyromcter con- trols, ““go”’ and ‘‘nogo”’ gauges—in fact, the best facilities that can be provided by modern management. the leaf described, which is a minor matter when compared with the whole great process, be- comes a major matter when considered by itself; it must have its own supply of material delivered in sufficient quantities at indicated places —for example, stcel at 1; heat at 2; power and oil at 3; molten nitrate at 5; bolts at 7; nuts at 8; clips at 9; paint at 12. in this process the seerets of many arts and trades are employed. the story of this minor part illustrates what is meant by orderly progression of the article through the shop. it goes to mect other parts of the motor-car which have come from other parts of the plant by similar processes. the story illustrates also what is meant by delivering the work to the workman: every workman’s task is prepared for him by some other workman, and delivered to his hand. the third principle also is illustrated-—the analysis of a single job into its constituent operations. the simplicity of the part here described should not be permitted to exclude from view the multi- tude of other operations, ranging from the heaviest forgings to the lightest manipulations in bench assembly of delicate electrical in- struinents, some gauge inspections involve measurements to the ten-millionth part of an inch. the economies arising from this method are obvious. the ma- chinery is constantly in use. it would be economically impossible to maintain all this equipment for the service of men occupied in the entire operation of making springs. presses, furnaces, bending ma- chines, oil baths would be idle while the workman progressed from operation to operation. under mass production it is the work that progresses from operation to operation. use-convenience in the commodity would be lessened, while price-convenience would be destroyed. jteconomy in machine hours is, however, only one efe- ment; there is also economy in time and material and lahour. mass production justifies itself only by an economy whose benefits may be transmitted to the purchaser. wi. the effects of mass production but it is not the history and principle of mass production which provoke the widest discussions; the effects of it have been placed under scrutiny. what have been the effects of mass production on society? (1) beginning with management, where unquestionably mass production methods take their rise, there is a notable increase in industrial control, as distinguished from financial control. the engineer’s point of view has gained the ascendancy and this trend will undoubtedly continue until finance becomes the handmaid instead of the mistress of productive industry. industrial con- trol has been marked by a continuous refinement of standardi- sation, which means the instant adoption of the better method to the exclusion of the old, in the interests of production. finan- cial control was not, in its heyday, marked by a tendency to make costly changes in the interests of the product. the econ- omy of scrapping the old equipment immediately upon the invention of the better equipment was not so well understood. it was engineering control, entrenched in mass production methods, that brought in this new readiness to advance. in this way man- agement has been kept close tothe shop and has reduced the office to a clearing house for the shop. managers and men have been brought into closer contact and understanding. manufacturing has been reduced to greater singleness of purpose. (2) the effect of mass production on the product has been to give it the highest standard of quality ever attained in output of great quantities. conditions of mass prdduction require material of the best quality to pass successfully through the operations. the utmost accuracy must control all these operations. every part must be produced to fit at once into the design for which it 1s made. in mass production there are no fitters. the presence of fitters indicates that the parts have been produced unfit for im- mediate placement in the design. in works of art and luxury this accuracy is achieved at the cost of careful handiwork. to introduce hand methods of obtaining accuracy into mass pro- duction would render mass production impossible with any refer- ence to price-convenience. the standard quality of the product is guaranteed by the fact that machines are so constructed that a piece of work cannot go through them unless it exactly accords with specifications. if the work goes through the tools, it must be right. it will thus be seen that the burden of creation is on mass pro duction plate i, — ei, wyre ti ae : 2. a 3 : sar ; eae ss r ’ . aeerttt . ae a of — : _ &. rity re above ~a view of the machine shop at the fordson plant of the ford motor company, detroit. below—a view of the ring gear department at the highland park plant of the ford motor company, detroit. 3 4 - & : 4 ts * : f) : * + = : a plate ii. mass production ts s > _—— 4 ~ |), | oe pt es.. be —— | ere, 1 as, ; bs if “fh 4 - 7 ~*~ ~~. a: se ao above—one type of conveyor lines in the highland park plant of the ford motor company, detroit. below—final assembly line in the highland park plant of the ford motor company, detroit. bodies and chassis having been completed separately, the body is dropped on the chassis as it advances. the chassis in the foreground is just about to receive the body which is seen, slung by chains from the overhead yoke, at the right. masters—masurian lakes, battles of the management in designing and selecting the material which is to be produced by the multiple processes utilised in mass production. (3) the effect of mass production on mechanical science has been to create a wide variety of single-purpose machines which not only group similar operations and perform them in quan- ity, but also reproduce skill of hand to a marvellous degrec. it is not so much the discovery of new principles as the new com- bination and application of old ones that mark this development. under mass production the industry of machine making has increased out of all comparison with its previous history, and the constant designing of new machines is a part of the produc- tive work of every great manufacturing institution. (4) the effect of mass production on employees has been vati- ously appraised. whether the modern corporation is the de- struction or salvation of arts and crafts, whether it narrows or broadens opportunity, whether it assists or retards the personal development of the worker, must be determined by observable facts. a cardinal principle of mass production is that hard work, in the old physical sense of laborious burden-bearing, is waste ul. the physical load is lifted off men and placed on machines. the recurrent mental load is shifted from men in production to men in designing. as to the contention that machines thus become the masters of men, it may be said the machines have increased men’s mastery of their environment, and that a generation which is ceaselessly scrapping its machines exhibits few indications of mechanical subjection. the need for skilled artisans and creative genius is greater under mass production than without it.: in entering the shops of the ford motor co., for example, one passes through great ce- partments of skilled mechanics who are not engaged in produc- tion, but in the construction and maintenance of the machinery of production. details of from 5,000 to 10,000 highly skilled artisans at strategic points throughout the shops were not com- monly witnessed in the days preceding mass production. it has been debated whether there is less or more skill as a conse- quence of mass production. the present writer’s opinion is that there is more. the common work of the world has always been done by unskilled labour, but the common work of the world in modern times is not as common as it was formerly. in almost every field of labour more knowledge and responsibility are re- quired than a generation or two ago. some criticisms answered—mass production has also been studied with reference to what has been called the monotony of repetitive work. this monotony does not exist as much in the shops as in the minds of theorists and bookish reformers. there is no form of work without its hardness; but needless hardship has no place in the modern industrial scheme. mass production lightens work, but increases its repetitive quality. in this it is the opposite of the mediaeval ideal of craftsmanship where the artisan performed every operation, from the preparation of the material to its final form. it is doubtful, however, if the mass of mediaeval toil was as devoid of monotony as has sometimes been pictured, but it is abso- lutely certain that it was less jsatisfactory in its results to the worker. in well-managed modern factories the tendency to mo- notony is combatted by frequent changes of task. the criticism of mass production as a means of reducing employ- ment has long since been out of court. the experience of the ford motor co. is that wherever the number of men has been reduced on manufacturing operations, more jobs have been created. a con- tinuous programme of labour reduction has been paralleled by a con- tinuous increase in employment. as to the effect of mass production on wages and the relations between managers and men, there is little need to speak. it is perhaps the most widely understood fact about mass production that it has resulted in higher wages than any other method of industry. the reason is at hand. the methods of mass production enable the worker to earn more and thus to have more. morcover, the methods of mass production have thrown so much responsibility on the craftsmanship of management, that the old method of financial adjustment by reduction of wages has becn abandoned by scientific manufacturers. a business that must finance by drafts out of the wage envelopes of its employces is not scientifically based. it is the problem of management so to organise production that it will pay the public, the workmen and the concern itself. management that fails in any of these is poor management. disturbed labour conditions, poor wages, uncertain profits indicate lapses in management. the craftsmanship of management absorbs the energies of many thousands of men who, without mass produc- tion methods, would have no creative opportunity. here the mod- ern method broadens instead of narrows individual opportunity. 823 (s) as to the effects of mass production on society, the increas- ing supply of human needs and the development of new standards of living are the elements to be estimated. the enlargement of leisure, the increase of human contacts, the extension of indi- vidual range, are all the result of mass production in various fields. ch. ¥.) masters, edgar lee (1868- ), american writer, was born at garnett, kan., aug. 23 1868. at the age of 21 he entered knox college, galesburg, ill., but left after one year to read law. tle was admitted to the bar in 1891 and practised there- after in chicago, being for some years associated with clarence s. darrow. the book that first brought him public notice was spoon river anthology (1913), an extraordinary collection of epitaphs on members, in all walks of life, of a midwestern town. within three years 50,000 copies were sold. his other works include: the new star chamber, and other essays (1904); blood of the prophets (1905); the great valiey (1916); toward the gulf (1918); starved rock (1919); domesday book (1920); the open sea (1921); besides several plays, afaximelian (1902); althea (1907); the trifler (1908); the locket (1910); and the bread of idieness (4911). masurian lakes, battles of the.—the terrain of east prussia is described in some detail under the heading tannen- berg. it was the lake barrier which had proved the undoing of the russians in their advance into east prussia, and twice again was it to bring about their defeat when the germans in their turn assumed the offensive. jilinsky had failed to combine the action of his two armies, urging one forward to intercept what he thought to be a beaten enemy and dispatching the other on a subsidiary objective. the disaster to the ii]. army had come to him as a crushing surprise, and in his fear that rennenkampf would share the fate of samsonov, he ordered the i. army to halt and act on the defensive until fresh troops could be brought up from the centre of russia. all chance of catching the germans at a disadvantage during their temporary disorganisation after the fighting at tannenberg was thus lost. i. the summer battle ludendorff was not jong in deciding what was to be done after the destruction of samsonov. even before the fighting at tannen- berg was over, on aug. 29 1914, he had commenced moving troops northwards to meet rennenkampf. he was strongly urged to move southwards to the support of the sorely tried austrians, but this would have meant leaving a strong and undefeated enemy directly in his rear, whilst attempting to traverse the self- same desert area which had tried samsonov so greatly. from the german point of view it was more important to free east prussia from the invader at once, and the austrians must therefore wait their turn. position ip he the action.—all the german divisions had re- ceived their first reinforcements and were flushed with victory and full confidence in their leaders. two fresh corps had arrived from the west. rennenkampf did not appear to be on the move and was evidently commencing the blockade of kgnigsberg. l6tzen, the little fortress holding the main gap in the centre of the line of lakes, was still in german hands, everything therefore seemed favourable for a german offensive. ludendorff’s plan for his advance was in outline as follows: (1) von der goltz with 21% divisions was to check any advance on the part of the russian il. army from poland; (2) von francois with three divisions and a cavalry brigade was to move round the southern end of the lakes at johannisburg with the primary object of turning rennenkampf’s left, and at the same time dealing with any russian forces assembling to the south of the lakes; (3) von mackensen with two divisions and two cavalry divisions was to cross the letzen gap and join with von francois in the attack against rennenkampf’s left; (4) the main body of eight divisions was to move direct on the insterburg gap; (5) the k6nigsberg garrison was to make a demon- stration against the blockading troops. rennenkampf had commenced withdrawing on aug. 30, and on sept. 2 he issued orders for a position to be taken up for defensive action from the sea near libau to angerburg at the northern end of the lakes. this position offered many advantages from a defensive point of view, running as it did behind the rivers deime, alle and omet, but it was too extensive for the force of 12 divisions which rennenkampf had at his disposal, the distance from flank to flank being 60 miles. moreover, the left flank was exposed to attacks coming from the lotzen gap and the southern end of the lakes. but 824 masurian lakes, it was chiefly in the manner in which he proceeded to occupy this position that he erred. he had no idea where the germans were or what they had been doing in the interval since tannenberg. he only had persistent rumours that the germans were sending billeting parties to kenigsberg. instead of maintaining strong forces in front of his chosen position, in order to discover the enemy’s intentions, rennenkampf committed his troops at once to a linear defence of the line. he placed four of his divisions along the deime on a front of 18 m., while keeping seven divisions to hold the remainder of his line of 42 miles. a single division was placed opposite the letzen gap to the east of the lakes. it will thus be seen that from the very start of their manoeuvre the germans had succeeded in out-generalling rennenkampf. on the left of their line they were containing four russian divisions with garrison troops, equivalent to about a division. in the centre they were opposing eight divisions to seven russian divisions. on the right they were advancing with no less than five divisions and two cavalry divisions against a single russian division. german attack.—von der goltz attacked and took mtawa on sept. 4, and thereafter kept in check any of the units of the russian ii. army which attempted to advance. by the night of sept. 5 von francois was approaching the southern end of the lakes. by the 6th he had taken johannisburg and nikolaiken, driving back the few russian troops opposing him. by the 7th he was through the jakes and had captured bialla and arys. the russian troops opposing him had been hurried up without proper artillery support and were dispersed in disorder. eleven russian battalions were thus dissipated without result. on the 8th von francois turned northwards against the russian flank. sept. 9 was to be a fateful day for the germans. von mackensen had commenced his crossing at letzen during the 8th, but he could not enlarge the bridge-head. his troops attacked at 5 a.m., 12 noon and 8 p.m. on this day without success and that evening he reported no progress to von francois. von francois’ attack against soltmahnen on the morning of the oth came as a complete surprise to the left flank of the russians opposing von mackensen. by noon the russians were in hopeless rout, leaving 5,000 prisoners and 60 guns in the hands of von francois. the german enveloping movement had met with complete success. rennenkampf’s left flank division had been destroyed and about 8,ooo men of the russian ax. army concentrating about augustewo and osowiec had been placed out of action. the left flank of rennenkampf’s army now lay open to the attack of five german divisions. a second tannenberg seemed more than probable. ludendorfft had employed the 5th, 6th and 7th in bringing his eight divisions in line facing the insterburg gap and, on the 8th, contact was gained with rennenkampf’s outposts. on the oth, coinciding with von frangois’ attack, the germans moved for- ward along the whole front. little progress was made anywhere, and on the right the russians made a determined counter-attack which completely held up the german advance. this check seems to have paralysed ludendorff temporarily, for he ordered his right under von frangois and von mackensen to hold fast and even to close in to the centre for fear of disaster. but rennen- kampf had taken fright at the menace to his left and had decided to withdraw. that night he ordered a general retreat. he had been just too quick for the germans. when ludendorff allowed his rizht to move forward again, nothing further than cutting off the streams of disorganised transport and breaking up the russian rear-guards was possible. rennenkampf had pushed his retreat with desperation. two of his corps had covered 58 m. in 60 hours. by the 13th he was safe from annihilation, and by the 14th his exhausted troops had crossed the east prussian irontier between the forest of rominten and the river niemen. results of the battle.—although the russian i, army had not been surrounded, it had suffered almost as much as the ii. army. casualties since sept. 6. had amounted to 125,000 men and 150 guns. two corps had been destroyed and the whole army was out of action as a mobile force through lack of transport. the chief credit for this success must lie with von francois, in his march round the southern end of the lakes his men had covered 77 m. in the four critical days sept. 6-9, and there had been severe fighting on two of those days. had ludendorff been quicker to realise that rennenkampf’s counter-attack on the 9th was made in order to disengage himself, and had his orders to von frangois for the roth and 11th not been so cautious, there can be no doubt that rennen- kampf’s army would have been all but destroyed. battles of the if. the winter battle during their 28 days’ invasion of east prussia the russians had lost some 310,000 men from the flower of their army and 650 guns. their offensive had been completely defeated and they had been thrown on the defensive. it was not till late in the winter of rgr4-5 that they began to show signs of activity once more. from the german point of view it was important to prevent another russian invasion of east prussia and it was therefore decided to upset by a strong offensive any russian plans that were in existence. | german dispositions.—in jan. 1915 the german vii]. army, under von below, was holding a line from the frontier south of lake spirding, along the line of lakes to angerburg, and thence across the insterburg gap between insterburg and gumbinnen to the river memel. some 100,000 germans, for the most part of the landwehr and landsturm,-were facing 200,000 men of the russian x. army under siewers. to the south there were indications of a russian xii. army being assembled between modlin (nowo georgiewisk) and thorn (torun). four fresh corps had been allotted for the offensive, making a total of some 250,000 men. in outline the german plan was as follows: (1) vhe x. army (cight divisions and one cavalry division, under von eichhorn, was to envelop the russian right, moving southwards from the insterburg gap. (2) the right wing of the viii. army (three divisions), under von litzmann, was to en- velop the russian left by moving round the southern end of the lakes. (3) the remainder of the vil]. army (four divisions) was to hold the enemy in the centre. orders for the advance were issued on jan. 28. the attack in the south was to commence on feb. 7, with a view to drawing the atten- tion of the russians to this quarter. the main attack was then to come from the north on the 8th. conditions were very different from those of the advance in sept. of the year before. the weather was bitterly cold and the whole country was deep in snow. large numbers of sleighs had been collected and the scale of clothing and food greatly increased. the german administration left nothing undone which could be thought out beforehand. german line advanced—von litzmann’s advance found the marshy country in front of johannisburg almost impassable, and the attack’ of the 7th came to little. many of the units had to force their way through blinding snow storms, and it was not till the 8th that the russian positions on the pisseck were reached and taken, and by the oth the end of the lakes was passed. this diversion served its purpose well, for the attack of the german x. army in the north came as a complete surprise to the russians in their winter quarters, leisurely thinking of an advance in the spring. they were given no time in which to readjust their line, and reserves had to be thrown in piece-meal to save the situation. on the roth, a determined stand was made by four russian divisions on either side of eydtkuhnen, but by evening their resistance had been broken. everywhere the effect of the german heavy artillery was decisive. despite the difficulty of bringing forward the heavy wheeled vehicles, which broke through the frozen crust of the ground, the germans never failed to support their infantry at the decisive point. by the 12th, von below’s army had reached a line stretching from the forest of rominten to ludwinow. . meanwhile, the german centre had moved forward to keep in touch with the southern wing. russian resistance in the south seemed to centre round the town of lyck, and litzmann was reinforced by a fourth division for its capture. from the roth to the 13th the fighting round lyck was desperate. often the opposing sides could not distinguish each other in the blizzards which swept over them, and owing to the difficulty of ammunition supply the infantry were unsupported by artillery fire of any sort, and fierce hand to hand fighting ensued. casualities on both sides were therefore heavy and the russians also lost over 8,000 prisoners and 14 guns. by the night of the 1 3th the russians had been forced from their positions and the town was in german hands, position after the batfle—by the 14th, the german line ran from rajered in the south, through suwalki, to sztabinki in the north, in a semi-circle round augustewo, at a distance of from 9 to ro m., from the town. the wooded and close nature of the country made concerted attacks very difficult, but everywhere the superior individual training of the german soldier triumphed over the more ignorant russian. the russians fought with materials—materials, strength of desperation to maintain their positions and it was not till the 17th that siewers finally gave the order to abandon augustewo. he succeeded in escaping envelopment by abandoning most of his transport and ammunition columns and retiring in disorder on grodno. by the zoth the germans were no longer in touch with the retreating russians. in the winter battle the russians lost 110,000 prisoners and 300 guns, and the x. army, like the russian i. and it. armies, was placed hors de combat for several months as a mobile force. their defeat was certainly greatly due to the superior leadership of the germans, for they had been caught unawares in winter quarters, without proper protection and with an inferior in- telligence service. had the germans been able to bring up the whole of their guns and ammunition on feb. 14 they might have succeeded in surrounding augustewo, but this the weather pre- vented them from achieving. bibliography.—h. von redern, winterschlacht in masuren (1918); p. von hindenburg, out of my life (1920); e. ludendorff, my war memories (1922). (see also world war: ee ake ) materials: see raw materials. materials, strength of (see 25.1007; also crystal- lography; metallography; metallurgy; metals, fatigue of; testing machinery).—the present article only attempts to describe some of the more important advances which have been made since 1910, and to indicate the trend of modern work. mathematical analysis of complex stress systems: stresses in ties.—in the eleventh edition it was stated that when a bar is subjected to a simple pull applied axially—that is to say, so that the resultant stress passes through the centre of gravity of every cross-section—the stress may be taken, under ordinary conditions, as (sensibly) uniformly distributed over any section not near a place where the form of the cross-section changes. the design of a tie of specified material to withstand a specified load is thus, as regards the greater part of its length, an easy matter; but it is essential that suitable forms of end attachment be devised, equally able to withstand the imposed load. the most usual method of connection is by pins or rivets, inserted through the tie in such a way as to operate in virtue of their resistance to “ shear ”’; and in consequence the problem of stress-distribution in the neighbourhood of holes has reccived much attention. c. e. inglis! has obtained a mathematical solution appropriate to a single elliptical hole, and the special case of a circular hole has also been treated by k. suyehiro.? the more difficult problem of stress-distribution in an “ eye end ” has been attacked by e. g. coker? with the aid of trans- parent models of xylonite and the use of polarised light. fairly complete information is thus available regarding the distribu- tion of stress in tension members, so long as the elastic limit of the material is nowhere exceeded; but a problem of greater practical importance is to proportion the eye ends so that their breaking load (after ductility has operated to equalise the stresses) shall be equal to that of the main portion of the tie. this problem has been attacked experimentally by w. a. scoble,* who has amverpreee his results in terms of practical rules for design. strength of straight members in c ompression (siruts).— mention was made in 25.1022 of euler’s investigation of the collapsing load of an ideal strut, perfectly straight and uniform, and centrally loaded; also of a semi-empirical formula which has been proposed, to allow for the fact that a short strut may fail by simple crushing. since tg1o considerable progress has been made in the theory of this and of allied problems. it was recognised by t. von k4rm4n® and (later, but independently) by r. v. southwell® that crushing of the material is not the only alternative to collapse by buckling under stresses within 1 trans. inst. naval arch., vol. lv, p. 219 (1913). 2 fugineering, sept. 1 igil. ch: also a. ore strength of mate- rials (appendix). 3 trans, inst. naval arch., vol. lv, p. 207. 4 trans. inst. naval arch., vol. lix gg 17). 5 untersuchungen ueber knichjestigheit (disetation: berlin, 1909). 6 engineering, aug. 23 1913. 825 the elastic limit, because plastic distortion may bring about conditions of instability under stresses which are far below the compressive strength of the material, and which euler’s analysis also would indicate to be perfectly safe. an interesting exten- sion of mathematical theory was made by the authors cited, in a formula which modified euler’s result to allow for the new conditions; and the experimental work of a. robertson’ has shown that this formula agrees closely with actual results. the whole subject of strut failure, and advances in theory and experiment, have been reviewed by r. v. southwell.§ collapse of tubes by external pressure —a similar possibility of collapse exists when a circular tube (such as the flue of a steam boiler) has to withstand iluid pressure imposed upon its external surface. distortion of the circular cross-section into an oval form, whilst it involves an increase in the strain energy due to bending, also involves a decrease in the potential energy of the applied pressures; the circular form will thus be unstable when the pressures are sufficiently high. this phenomenon was investigated experimentally by w. fairbairn as early as 1858,° and has attracted much attention since; an extensive bibliography was compiled by g. cook for the british association in 1913.!° recent experiments by a. p. carman,!! r. t. stewart,’ and g. cook afford satisfactory con- firmation of g. h. bryan’s theoretical formula for long tubes! and of a more general formula proposed by r. v. southwell, who investigated the influence of end constraints upon the resistance to collapse. other problems of elastic stability—the general theory of these problems of “ elastic stability ’’ has been developed by g. h. bryan,?® r. v. southwell!? and w. r. dean.'8 among other examples of the class may be noticed the collapse of thin tubular struts, in which instability makes its appearance by wrinkling of the tube wall, and of flat plating under forces which involve compression in its own plane. the strength of tubular struts acquires great practical importance in aircraft construc- tion, and has received much attention both in theory and experiment; bibliographies relating to these two aspects may be found in papers by r. v. southwell!® and a. robertson.2° the stability of flat plating has importance for the design of deep plate girders, and has been studied from this aspect, theoretically by g. h. bryan*! and 8. p. timoshenko,” and experimentally by w. e. lilly?’ and others; two special ‘cases—the stability of a long flat strip under uniform shearing actions in its plane (theoretically treated by r. v. southwell and s. w. skan*4) and of a circular disk under forces which tend to twist it in its plane (theoretically treated by w. r. dean*) have recently been made the basis of a suitable “ acceptance test ’’ for the thin sheet steel used in the construction of metal aircraft.26 “whirling” and vibration of shafttng.—elastic instability is also likely to occur in a long rotating shaft, because any curva- 7 inst. c.e., selected engineering papers, no. 28 (1925). € aeronautical research committee, r. and al, no. 918 (1924). cf. also e. h. salmon, columus (dissertation: oxtord univ. press, 1921 75 phil trans, roy. soc., vol. 148, p. 389. 10 report of the complex stress committee, brit. assn. report, 1913. univ, of illinois bulletin, no. 17 (1906) and no. 99 (1917). 12 trans. am. soc. afech. eng., vol. xxvii, p. 730 (1906). 13 phil, mag., july 1914 and oct. 1925. 44 proc. camb. phil. soc., vol. vi, p. 287 (1888). ls phil. trans. roy. soc. (a), vol. 213, pp. 187-244 (1913), and phil. mag., may 1913. cf. also r. von mises, zeits. d. ver. deutscher ing. (1914). i proc. camb. phil. soc., vol. vi, p. 199 (1888). w phil, trans, roy. soc. (a), vol. 213, pp. 187-244 (1913). 18 proc. roy. soc. (a), vol. 107, pp. 734-760 (1925). 19 phil, trans. roy. soc. (a), vol. 213, pp. 187-244 (1913). 20 loc. cit. 21 lond. amfath. soc. proc., pp. 141-150 (1894). 2 der eisenbau, vol. 12, pp. 147-163 (1921). cf. also s. p. timo- ghenks and j. m. 'lessells, applied elasticity, chap. 10 (1925). 23 jour. jun. inst. eng., vol. xviii, pp. 72-81 (1907); engineering, feb, 1 1907. 24 proc. roy. soc. (a), vol. 105, pp. 582-607 (1924). 2 proc. roy. soc. (a), vol. 106, pp. 268-284 (1924). 26 nat. phys. lab., annual report (1924). vol. 22, pp. 54-67 (1891) and vol. 25, 826 ture of the axis will be intensified by centrifugal force, which may be sufficient to overcome the restoring effect of the flexural stresses. when this happens, the shaft is said to ‘“* whirl.’”’ the calculation of ‘‘ whirling speeds ” is evidently a matter of great practical importance (since it would be unsafe to allow a shaft to run at these speeds for any length of time), and various methods have been propounded.’ torsion or end thrust, acting upon the shaft, will combine with rotation to promote instabil- ity; a theoretical discussion of the problem, taking all three actions into account, has been given by r. v. southwell and b. s. gough.”8 it can be shown that the whirling speeds of a shaft are identi- cal with the frequencies of its free transverse vibrations in the absence of rotation; as the speed increases, these “ natural frequencies ’’ decrease, becoming zero at the whirling speeds. the difficult question of stability in the immediate neighbour- hood of the whirling speeds has been examined by f. b. pidduck.29 other problems of vibration.—the influence of rotation upon the natural frequencies of free vibration has been examined in two other cases of practical importance: (1) the vibrations of a rotating rod (such as an airscrew blade) have been studied theoretically by r. v. southwell and b.s. gough,*®® and experi- mentally by a. fage*'; (2) the vibrations of a spinning disk (representative of the rotor of a steam turbine) have been inves- tigated by h. lamb and r. vy. southwell.” a problem of greater complexity is presented by the vibra- tions of a railway bridge under the periodic forces imposed upon it by the ‘“‘ hammer-blow ” (the effect of the eccentric weights employed to balance the reciprocating masses) of a locomotive as it passes. the period of these forces may synchronise with the natural period of the bridge, and considerable deflection is then produced; but account has to be taken of the fact that only a few blows are delivered during the transit, so that the problem is not one of “‘ resonance ” in the ordinary sense. a formal solution of the idealised problem (in which the bridge is taken to be a uniform girder, and a single travelling load is assumed) has been given by s. p. timoshenko,® and an elaborate investigation of cases representative of practical conditions by c. e. inglis.* approximate methods of stress calculation—aa gencral ten- dency of the period now under review has been towards the development of approximate methods of solution for problems which cannot be treated by exact theory. the original impetus came from lord rayleigh, in relation to the calculation of natural frequencies of vibration;** but his methods have since been extended to a wide range of problems.*6 “ experimental ”’ methods of solution have also been devel- oped, based on analogies obtaining between the equations of elasticity and those of other branches of physics. thus the deflection of a membrane of uniform tension is governed by equations identical with those which define the distortion of cross-sections in a twisted prism; and this fact®” has been utilised by g. i. taylor and a. a. griffith, who have shown how to solve, by measurements made on a flat soap-bubble, saint venant’s problem of torsion®® for shapes of cross-section which are mathematically intractable. 27 cf. s. p. timoshenko and j. m. lessells, op. cit., chap. xi; r. v. southwell, phil. afag., vol. xl, p. 419 (1921); s. dunkerley, phil, trans, roy, soc. (a), vol. 185, p. 279 (1894). 78 report of the complex stress committee, brit. assn. report, 1921. 70 proc. lond. math, soc., vol. xviii, p. 393 (1920). i# aeronautical research committee, r. and af., no. 766, at proc, roy. soc. (a), vol. 107, pp. 457-469 (1925). = ia vol. 99, pp. 272-280 (1921), and vol. 101, pp 133-153 1922). 33 phil, mag., vol. xlii., p. 1018 (1922). 84 proc, inst. c.e., vol. ccxvii., p. 225 (1924). " theory of sound, vol. 1 (1877). ” cf. j. prescott, applied elasticity (1924); and s. p. timoshenko and j. al. lessells, op. cit. 37 the analogy was pointed out by l. prandtl, phys. zeitschr., bd. 4 (1903). cf. a. e. h. love, mathematical theory of elasticity, § 224. % engineering, vol. 104, pp. 655-699 (1917). a cf, a. e. h. love, op. ezt., chap. 14. materials, strength of photo-elastic methods.—important advances in the solution of two-dimensional systems of stress have been made by the use of ** photo-elastic ’? methods. various transparent materials under the action of stress possess double refracting properties—that is, they split up plane polarised light into two rays. ‘the inter- ference obtained by the recombination of such rays produces colour bands which may be viewed on a screen or photographed; the colour varies according to the difference of the principal stresses, and the stress-difference at any place in the material may be estimated by matching it with the colour produced in a tension piece strained by a known and uniform stress. the sum of the principal stresses may be deduced from measure- ments of the lateral contraction of the specimen. by these methods, e. g. coker, l. n. g. filon, w. a. scoble and a. r. low have determined the distribution of stress in many cases intractable mathematically, which possess great practical impor- tance.” the “ stress-optical ’’ properties of xvlonite have been studied from this aspect by coker and k. c. chakko," and the underlying principles of the method have been critically ex- amined by filon.” extension of theory to problems of plastic distortion —some general interest attaches to the formula, mentioned above, which extended euler’s analysis for elastic struts to cases in which elastic break-down precedes collapse, since this appears to be the earliest application of mathematical theory to material in the plastic state. the study of plastic distortion (7.e., dis- tortion which does not disappear when the load is removed), and its representation by mathematical equations, have attracted much attention among continental workers; reference may be made to the proceedings of a special conference on this subject, held at prague in 1924. limitations of mathematical theory, as applied to the elastic failure and fatigue of mfetals—such methods of representation have this feature in common with the older theory of elasticity, that they presuppose the quality of continuity in the ideal material with which they deal. employment of differential equations and the methods of the calculus are not strictly legiti- mate unless the properties of the material can be assumed to be unaffected by subdivision carried to any extent. now the ordinary materials of construction are known, from microscopical examination, to be crystalline aggregates of great complexity; if subdivision were carried far enough, we should be left with fragments consisting of single crystals, and therefore having properties certainly aeolotropic, and probably non-elastic. thus the classical theory of elasticity, as applied to actual materials, must be regarded merely as a method of statistical treatment, valid only to the extent that actual materials may be taken to be ‘‘ statistically isotropic,’ and it would seem that the more recent extensions to the plastic state must have the same restricted interpretation. the foregoing considerations serve to explain why theory has given good results when applied to prob- lems of elastic stability or of vibrations (where the result depends upon the general distortion of the whole body), but has not been so successful in its application to questions of elastic failure or fatigue. suggested criteria of yielding under compound stress (such as those of rankine, saint venant, guest and haigh)* which involve the principal stresses as calculated by the ordinary mathematical theory cannot be expected to provide an ultimate explanation of occurrences which must depend largely upon the actual microstructure of the material at the point considered. modern tendencies in the study of elastic failure and of fatigue.—the outlook of earlier investigators, which tacitly pre- supposed a degree of continuity, in actual materials, comparable © cf. bibliographies by a. morley, strength of materials, chap. 16; and by e. g. coker, reports of the complex stress committee, brit. assn, reports, 1921 and 1924. | phil, trans, roy. soc, (a), vol. 221, pp. 139-162 (1920). report, 1921. ®” report of the complex stress committee, brit, assn. reports. 8 cf. a paper by r. v. southwell and h. j. gough, phil. afag., jan. 1926. ; “4 cf. 25-1007 to 23 and b. p. haigh, reports of the complex stress committee, brit, assn. reports, 1919 and 1921. | maternity and infant welfare with that of the ideal material of elastic theory, has been modified by increasing knowledge of the inner structure of metals, as revealed by microscopical study at the hands of sorby, ewing, rosenhain, humphrey, beilby, osmond and arnold. in all the ordinary tests of material for engineering purposes, in the classical ‘‘ stress-strain diagrams ”’ of eaton hodgkinson and others, even in the notions of the “‘ yield point ” and of “ duc- tility,’ we see a general tendency to analyse resultant effects, observed in a specimen of considerable size, as though these were due to continuous strains (the word is used in the mathe- matical sense) in a structureless material. even in the work of bauschinger, muir and others, who investigated the phenomenon of ‘‘ recovery ”? under prolonged rest or gentle heating, there is nothing which demands a mental picture of the inner mechanism by which the results are produced; and the extent to which the older ideas suffice for explaining the behaviour of materials from an engineering standpoint is shown by c. f. jenkin’s successful derivation of all the ordinary phenomena of low- speed tests from a conceptual “‘ model” characterised merely by a resistance to distortion due in part to elastic resistance and in part to “ solid friction.” but to explain the first occur- rence of elastic failure, and the circumstances which attend the phenomena of fatigue and ultimate fracture, it 1s becoming increasingly evident that attention must be concentrated upon the actual structure of the crystalline aggregate. thus, a. a. griffith*® has been led, by discrepancies found to exist between theory and experiment in regard to stress-concen- tration in the neighbourhood of scratches and flaws, to propound a theory of rupture, for brittle materials, which takes account of the surface energy generated in the formation of cavities or cracks; and he has verified the consequences of his theory by producing fibres of fused silica exhibiting strength of a quite abnormal order. attention is now concentrated upon ductile materials such as soft iron, copper and aluminium, which are aggregates of small crystals arranged, in general, with random orientation. the methods of x-ray analysis developed by w. ii. and w. l. bragg have provided a powerful means of investigat- ing the structure of the individual crystal,# and the discovery, by h. c. carpenter, c. f. elam* and others, of methods whereby single crystals of aluminium and other metals can be produced in sizes such that they may be subjected to ordinary engineering tests, has led, at the hands of g. i. taylor and c. f. elam‘? and others to more exact understanding of the way in which such crystals distort under static or alternating loads. the stress which a single crystal of aluminium can withstand without suffering permanent distortion is markedly low as com- pared with the strength of the crystalline aggregate, and it thus appears that we must look to the crystal boundaries (where the atoms presumably have a more random distribution, owing to the conflicting requirements of the adjoining crystal lattices) for an explanation of the relatively high resistance which the aggregate can oppose. this view is supported by the increased strength which accompanies a reduction in the size of individual crystals, under the influence of hardening processes such as heat treatment or “‘ cold work.” it is, of course, in agreement with the concept of the ‘‘ amorphous phase ” propounded by ewing, rosenhain and beilby (see 25.1018); but it remains for further investigation, using the more powerful methods which are now available, to give precision to ideas which have proved so useful in the past, for correlating the manifold phenomena of plastic distortion and fatigue. ultimately, of course, static straining and fatigue must be explained on some common basis (see metals, fatigue of). engineering tests.—rosenhain’s theory of “ lattice distor- tion,” propounded in his may lecture to the institute of metals for 1923 as an explanation of the hardening effects of alloys, etc., exemplifies the new outlook which has been made possible 4 proc, roy. soc. (a), vol. 103, pp. 121-138 (1923). 46 phil. trans. roy. soc. (a), vol. 221, pp. 163-198 (1920). 47 see articles crystallography and x-rays, “ see metallurgy. . 4 proc. roy. soc. (a), vol. 102, pp. 643-667 (1923). ~ 827 by the discoveries since 1910; it is to microscopical, chemical and x-ray investigations that engineers are looking for a solu- tion of the ultimate problems of fatigue. but understanding of the properties of materials is only one side of the problem of engineering design, and it is unlikely that the practical rule, that the working stress must be kept within the elastic limit, will lose its validity. the other side of the problem is stress- calculation, and stresses, in the crystalline aggregate, can only be determined in statistical fashion. so the older tests, on specimens large in comparison with the crystal structure, have not ceased to be useful, or reached the limit of their development. a full account of experimental results will be found in r. g. batson and j. ti. iyde’s mechanical testing (1922). considerable attention has been directed to the improvement of experimental technique and of the interpretation of results: thus w. e. dalby®® has introduced an improved type of specimen and a calibrated weigh-bar for the measurement of loads; a. robertson and g. cook,®! by means of special apparatus designed to eliminate the effects of inertia in the testing machine, have shown that the observed inflection of ‘‘ autographic’”’ records at the “ yield point ” of ductile materials (sce 25.1014) really masks a redue- tion of stress, which in some metals may be as great as one-third of the stress at which yield commences; t. e. stanton and r. g. batson have done much to systematise the results of “impact tests”; b. p. haigh® has developed an electrical machine whereby a sinusoidal wave of simple tension and com- pression may be impressed upon a specimen, and has conducted interesting investigations into the generation of heat during the progress of fatigue tests; w. 5. farren and g. i. taylortm have made accurate determinations of the heat generated during plastic extension in a static test; c. f. jenkin® has developed apparatus with which fatigue tests can be conducted at speeds up to 5,000 cycles per second. it is impossible in this article to include any summary of experimental results. the reader is referred to a recently pub- lished treatise by h. j. gough,®® in which a very clear and exhaustive account may be found, covering all aspects of fatigue as developed up to the latter part of the year 1924. (r.v.s.) maternity and infant welfare.—the period 1910-26 was marked by an increasing consciousness in all civilised countries of the importance of decreasing the heavy losses to the community due to the high death-rate among women at child- birth and among infants under one year of age. there is a con- siderable body of new legislation intended to supplement and assist welfare agencies and to provide definite state assistance. i. the united kingdom the maternity and child welfare act 1918 gives wide and comprehensive powers to local authorities for taking action de- signed to preserve maternal and infant life. the passing of this act consolidated the work commenced in 1906 by the st. mary- lebone health society. like nearly every other movement to fight disease, modest experiments by groups of social workers pointed the way to larger state and municipal action. in r9r0 there were go infant welfare centres in great britain, and by ro914 the number had risen to 400. owing to the great impetus given to this service during the war, and to the passing of the maternity and child welfare act in 1918, there were in 1925 no fewer than 1,363 infant welfare centres under the local authorities and 759 voluntary centres, as well as 133 maternity institutions recognised by the ministry of health. legistation.—the various enactments bearing on the subject are the factory and workshops act of 1901, which endeavours directly to protect the woman who has recently given birth to a child; the midwives act of 1902, which laid the foundation of a safe and efficient system of practice by midwives; the notification 50 phil, trans. roy. soc. (a), vol. 221, pp. 117-138 (1920). at proc. roy. soc. (a), vol. 88, pp. 462-471 (1913). 6 proc, inst. c. e., vol. 211, pp. 67-100 (1921). 63 engineering, nov. 22 1912. 54 proc. roy. soc, (a), vol. 107, pp. 422-451 (1925). 6 fbid., vol. 109, pp. t19-143 (1925). 566 the fatigue of metals (1924). 828 of births act of 1907 and the extension of the act in 1915, which miss margaret llewelyn davies described as “ nothing less than a welcome by society to each of its newly-born citizens, and a signal of help and a message of hope to every mother in the land.”? under this act the father or doctor or midwife must notify the public health authority within 36 hours of the birth of a child. advice and help, free of charge, are then given by a woman health visitor. the national health insurance act pro- vides a maternity benefit of 40s. for an insured woman or the wife of an insured man. the ministry of health, formerly the local government board, encouraged local authorities to extend and develop their maternity and child welfare services. in a circular letter to local authorities issued in 1914 the board stated that an estimate had been laid before parliament for a grant to be distributed to local authorities and voluntary agencies in respect of institutions or other provision for maternity and child welfare, that more ex- tended and systematic measures than had hitherto been generally adopted were necessary. sir arthur newsholme, in a report on maternal mortality in connection with childbearing, published in iq15, stated that ‘‘ the present report is intended to draw atten- tion to this unnecessary mortality from childbearing, to stimu- late further local inquiry on the subject and to encourage measures which will make the occurrence of illness and disability due to childbearing a much rarer event than at present.” his sut- cessor, sir george newman, ro years later (1924), in his preface to dr. janet campbell’s afaternal mortality, referring to the fact that approximately 3,000 mothers had died each year at child- birth for the previous 10 years, stated: ‘“‘ that is a serious and largely an avoidable joss of life at the time of its highest capacity and in its most fruitful effort.” administration.—the local authorities carrying out maternity and child welfare schemes are the county councils, county bor- ough councils and the councils of certain of the larger county dis- tricts—as a general rule those having a population of more than 20,000. these are in the main the authorities which adopted the notification of births act referred to above, under which some work for mothers and babies was already being done before the passing of the act of 1918. the regulations under which a grant is payable by the exchequer of 50% of the approved net expendi- ture of local authorities, set out the services which may and should be comprised in a maternity and child welfare scheme, and from them the scope and content of the services may reaclily be understood. 1. the salaries and expenses of inspectors of midwives and of ae visitors and nurses engaged in maternity and child wellare work; | 2. the provision of a midwife for necessitous women and for areas insufficiently supplied with this service; 3. the provision, for necessitous women, of a doctor for illness connected with pregnancy and for aid during the period of confine- ment; 4. the expenses of a centre, 7.¢e., an institution for providing medical supervision and advice for expectant and nursing mothers and for children under five years of age, and medical treatment at the centre for cases needing it; 5. arrangements for instruction in the general hygiene of ma- ternity and childhood; 6. hospital treatment for complicated cases of confinement and for children under five years of age found to need in-patient treat- ment; 7, the cost of food certified as being necessary to expectant and nursing mothers and for children where the case ts necessitous; 8. expenses of creches and day nurseries and of other arrange- ments for attending to the health of children under five years of age whose mothers go out to work; 9. accommodation in convalescent homes for nursing mothers and for children; 10. the provision of homes and other arrangements for attending to the health of children under five years of age of widowed, deserted and unmarried mothers; 11. experimental work in relation to maternity and child welfare work; 12. contribution by a local authority to voluntary institutions. exchequer grants on the same scale are also paid to voluntary agencies which carry out certain services to the satisfaction of the minister of health. maternity and infant welfare the annual expenditure on maternity and child welfare services provided by local authorities is approximately £1,500,000, in addition to which exchequer grants are made to voluntary agen- cies. if to these figures is added the £1,500,c00 paid in maternity benefit under the national health insurance scheme, a total of over £3,000,000 is spent each year on these services, without taking account of the total expenditure of the voluntary agencies, of other benefits paid from health insurance funds and of the volun- tary hospital services. infant mortality —the services given at the centres by both lay and professional workers helped to secure the reduction of the infant mortality rate from 154 per 1,000 births in 1900 to 7§ per 1,000 births in 1924. this gratifying result means that (cal- culated on the average infant mortality of 1901-10) there was in 1924 a further saving of 39,000 infant lives. “it also implies a better physical condition in children from one to five years of age, and a more enlightened understanding of personal and pub- lic hygiene ”’ (sir george newman). while this saving of infant lives is all to the good, it is disturbing to find on an analysis of the statistics that the reduction in the infant mortality rate has oc- curred almost entirely subsequent to the first few weeks of life and that the death-rate of infants up to the age of four weeks has ° remained almost stationary, being 33 per 1,000 births in 1924 as against 40 per 1,000 births for the period 1906-10. afaternal mortality —so, too, in the case of maternal mortality, notwithstanding that sir arthur newsholme reported in 1915 that “‘ 800 mothers die each year in england and wales as the re- sult of childbearing whose lives would be saved if the experience of the rest of england and wales were as favourable as london,” and that there would be a further saving of 1,100 lives of mothers secured annually in england and wales if puerperal fever were to be eliminated “ as it has been substantially from the experience of many lying-in hospitals.” dr. janet campbeil, 10 vears later, writes that ‘f avoidable maternal deaths are a matter of everyday occurrence,” and that “ puerperal infection leads to more deaths and more injury than any other complication of childbearing.” it has been shown that the mortality rate of very young babies is nearly as high as it was early in the century. on examining the statistical returns of maternal mortality it is seen that while the death-rate of mothers at childbirth was 3-74 per 1,000 births for the period 1906-10, it was 3-70 per 1,000 births in 1924. here then is the problem. improvements in general sanitation and public health services, a better education in public and per- sonal hygiene, the maternity and child welfare scrvices, the ser- vices provided under the national tfealth insurance scheme, have had no visible effect upon the vital statistics relating to childbearing. comparing the period 1906-10 with the year 1924— that is to say, the period prior to the establishment and devclop- ment of maternity and child welfare services by the local authori- tics with the latest complete-figures available—it is seen that tuking the 1906-10 period as roo, the relative mortality rates for 1924 are:— maternal mortality. 98-9 % infants under four wecks ; 82°5 infants from four wecks to one year 54°5 it seems perfectly clear that the saving of the lives of the mothers and very young babies is one and the same problem. “ the unex- pected loss of the mother is a tragedy to the family. it is not in- frequently associated with the death of the infant for whom the maternal life has been sacrificed, and is often followed by the im- paired health and nutrition of the remaining children” (dr. janet campbell). disability among married womcn.—lit has been pointed out that the mortality returns “ reveal only a part of the total dam- age and disability, and that an incalculable amount of unreported and often untreated injury and ill-health results from pregnancy and labour.”’ statistics relating to the comparative heavy inci- dence of sickness amongst married women were presented to the royal commission on national health insurance which reported in march 1926. in appendix a to the report the government actuary states :— . maternity and infant welfare 18. another matter calling for attention, and in this case calling urgently, is the excess of the claims of married women over those of the unmarried. at the important groups of ages, 20-25, 25-30 and 30-35, the married woman’s rates of sickness are found to represent the fol- lowing percentages of those of the unmarried class: ages 1921 1922 1923 a/ of a? fo “a :0 20-25 : ; ; . : y, “bas 284 299 25-30 ‘ : : : : » “e94 198 212 30-35 : : ‘ , ‘ . 158 171 198 the majority report of the royal commission recommended the provision of improved maternity services “fas and when funds are available to meet the cost.’’ the minority report, however, declared that “the high maternal death-rate and the great amount of sickness amongst mothers clearly prove the need of reorganisation and extension of maternity work,’ and recom- mended that medical benefit under the health insurance scheme should include medical attention at confinement and should be extended to include the wives and dependants of insured men. the provision of more adequate services for women at child- birth is a matter of urgent necessity. “ ifa woman can rely upon securing the services of a careful up-to-date practitioner, or upon the attendance of a well-trained midwife who is able to obtain prompt and competent medical assistance in case of need, nearly all other conditions become of minor importance ” (dr. janet campbell). effect of environment—the development of antenatal serv- icesappears to afford the most likely solution to the problem. regional distribution of the mortality does not point to industrial factors as being the chief causes of deaths. at the same time, it is not without significance that nine of the ro county boroughs having the highest rates of maternal mortality in the four years 1919-22 were in lancashire and yorkshire, and seven of those nine towns, viz.: halifax, rochdale, huddersfield, bury, oldham, dewsbury and blackburn, in the report of 1914-5 are among the county boroughs which exact ‘the heaviest toll of life from mothers in childbearing.” industrial areas can, however, be found with extremely low rates of mortality; the predominatingly working class district of west ham actually had in rg19—22 the lowest rate of maternal mortality of all the county boroughs. the same county borough had the lowest rate among the met- ropolitan boroughs in ror4. in the counties of lancashire and yorkshire it is the practice for a considerable proportion of mar- ricd women to be employed in the textile mills, and it is difheult to resist the conclusion that the nature of their employment, to- gether with the strain of managing the houschold and bearing large families, is in no small degree responsible for the unenviable position which the towns occupy and have occupied for so many years. the puerpcral death-rate in wales has always been higher than that in england, and, until recently, than in scotland. that is probably due, not so much to any special cause peculiar to wales, as to the fact that, broadly speaking, the whole country is either extremely rural or highly industrial. the services avail- able in most rural areas leaving much to be desired, and the ex- ceedingly hard life associated with the mining industry, must be factors contributing to the high maternal mortality rates disclosed. an enlightened public opinion would encoutage and, where necessary, compel the local authorities to provide the services considered by the experts to be essential. ‘the medical profession has the knowledge; administrators, local and national, are capa- ble of creating the administrative machinery; there is no lack of voluntary helpers; the provision of the necessary finance and the co-operation of the mothers are the two factors which depend upon education. bibliography.—the international year book of child care and protection, compiled by e. fuller (1925); oeuvre nationale de l'en- fance—rapport annuel (brussels, 1923); [uter. record of child wel- fare work, no. 1-2 (brussels, 1921-3) continued as bulletin inter- national de la protection de venfance (no. 22) (brussels, 1924); co-operation et prevoyance sociale en tchecoslovaquie, ed. a, klimt (prague); the declaration of geneva (in 36 languages) (london); 829 j. m. campbell, m.d., reports on public health and medical sub- jecis, ne. 5: maternal mortality, ministry of health (h.m. station- ery office, 1924), report of the proceedings of the third english- speaking conference on infant welfare (1924); annual report of the infant weifare societies of chicago (annual, chicago). (m.bo.) ii. the united states the most important development in this field was the passage | by congress in 1921 of the maternity and infancy act, popularly known as the sheppard-tewner act. this act authorised an annual appropriation of $1,240,000 for a five-year pcriod, of which a sum not to exceed $50,000 may be expended by the u.s. children’s bureau for administrative purposes and for the in- vestigation of maternal and infant mortality, the balance to be divided among the states accepting the act as follows: $5,000 unmatched to each state, and an additional $53,000 to cach state if matched; the balance to be allotted among the several states on the basis of population and granted if matched. the national administration of the act is lodged with the children’s bureau of the u.s. dept. of labor; local adminis- tration in the states is in the child-hygiene or child-welfare division of the state agency of health or, where such a division does not exist, the agency designated by the state. in 1925, 43 states~all except connecticut, illinois, kansas, maine and massachusectts—had accepted the benefits of the act, and approximately $1,000,000 was being expended by the national govt. in subsidies to the states. in 1924 the benefits of the act were made available to the territory of hawaii, which has also accepted and matched the funds available. results of the act.—the report for 1925 of the activitics undertaken by the states under the terms of this act shows con- tinucd progress as old activities have spread over a greater territory and new activities have been initiated. these have for their object: (1) better infant care through the teaching of mothers; (2) better care for mothers through education as to the need and value of skilled supervision during pregnancy, child- birth and the lving-in period; and (3) more widespread medical and nursing facilities so that adequate maternity and infancy supervision will be available to all who need it. children’s health centres or conferences and pre-natal or maternity centres or conferences are everywhere recognised as the best agencies for teaching the hygiene of maternity and infancy. an objective in most of the states 1s the state-wide establishment of perma- nent, locally supported centres. demonstration conferences have been held and intensive pieces of work undertaken by the states when there was evidence of special need. in the main these activities have been for the benefit of rural communities and small towns. state reports of the work during the fiscal year 1925 show 10,802 child-health confcrences held by 43 states administering the federal funds, with 278,016 infants and children of pre- school age examined, and 622 children’s health centres estab- lished through the efforts of the states. since 1920 child-hygicene or child-welfare divisions or bureaux have been organised in the departments of health in 14 states, so that in ail except one state (colorado) these departments now have an organised agency promoting child health. ten statcs have been admitted to the united states birth- registration arca since ig20. at present (1926) 33 states and the district of columbia (all except alabama, arizona, arkansas, colorado, georgia, idaho, louisiana, missouri, nevada, new mexico, oklahoma, south dakota, tennessee, texas and west virginia) are in the birth-registration area, comprising 75-:9% of the total population of the united states. in 1915 the infant mortality rate for the birth-registration area was 100; in 1920, 86; and in 1924 (provisional figures), 72. a gencral reduction during the five years 1920-5 in the rates in both rural and urban arcas is indicated. on the face of the figures, maternal mortality from all causes appears to have been increasing in the united states. analysis of the statistics shows that the certification of the causes of deaths has improved during |the last 20 years. if allowance is made for the probable effect of this improvement in certification, 830 the mortality from puerperal septicaemia has fallen throughout the period instead of increasing up to rgir and falling since that time, as the figures, if taken at their face value, would indicate, and the mortality from other puerperal causes has been approx- imately stationary. after allowances are made for the margin of crrour in the statistics of the united states and of other . countries, it seems probable that the rate in the united states is actually considerably higher than in most foreign countries. the maternal death-rate, per 1,000 live births in the birth-registra- tion area of the united states, was 6-6 in 1924, with only five states having a rate below 6. great emphasis is being placed on pre-natal supervision by the state bureaux of maternal and infant hygiene, but the programme of work was only just getting under way in 1926. reports of activities undertaken under the maternity and infancy act show 3,781 pre-natal conferences with more than 36,000 women in attendance, and 65 permanent pre-natal centres established. more than 400 midwife classes were held in 20 states, with an enrolment of more than 10,600 midwives, of whom more than 8,000 completed a somewhat formal course of instruction. most of these were negro midwives who had had little or no previous training. women in isolated rural districts are being reached by “ pre-natal letters’ and itinerant conferences. more gencrally accessible hospital care during confinement is also receiving consideration. in 1925, 22 states—arkansas, arizona, colorado, florida, idaho, iowa, kansas, kentucky, louisiana, massachusetts, minnesota, montana, nebraska, nevada, new hampshire, new jersey, north carolina, pennsylvania, rhode island, south carolina, utah, virginia—and the district of columbia have laws making medical inspection of schools mandatory, although in some of these states the examination is required only in case of infectious disease. in 8 states—alabama, connecticut, geor- gia, indiana, maine, new york, west virginia and wyoming— it is mandatory for certain districts. five states—iowa, kan- sas, south dakota, nevada and utah—have laws specifically requiring examination of the teeth of school children; and in 12 other states and the district of columbia it is included in the requirement of a complete examination. thirty-three states— all except arizona, arkansas, colorado, florida, kansas, lou- isiana, montana, nebraska, new hampshire, new mexico, oklahoma, south dakota, texas, vermont, wyoming and the district of columbia—have laws with reference to physical education in elementary schools which are cither mandatory or mandatory in effect. the teaching of health and health habits as distinguished from either medical inspection or physical education has greatly increased in recent years. in 1923 two private national organisations, the american child hygiene assn. and the child health organisation of amcrica, united to form the american child health association. this association has made an important survey of child health in 86 cities having a population of from 40,000 to 70,c00 and has supervised the demonstrations in child hygiene for the common- wealth fund and done general educational work in the field of child health. bibliography.—child itygiene, by s. josephine baker, m.d., d.p.h.; reports of the administration of the maternity and infancy act, 1923 to 1925, children’s bureau, u.s. dept. of labor; birth statistics (annual), bureau of the census, u.s. dept. of commerce; a ifealth survey of 86 cities, by the research division of the ameri- can child health assn., 1925. (g. ab.)