{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:marine engineering:b592cb627b32", "title": "MARINE ENGINEERING", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "4f428ce24c2e9da10158b20ac56b140ca1be1d97997b5843647a180f4dd61bd2", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "at the present time there are three distinct types of marine engines, and these may be grouped as follows: (1) steam-engines with coal-fired boilers; (2) steam-engines with oil-fired boilers; (3) internal-combustion en- gines, such as the diesel or semi-diesel type. of course, groups (1) and (2) may be reciprocating steam-engines, turbines (geared or otherwise) or combined turbine and reciprocating. the three types are described below. reciprocating marine steam-engines.—to-day, all marine reciprocating steam-engines are stage expansion engines, that is, the steam expands in stages from the highest pressure cylinder, through the intermediate stages, and finally exhausts into the condenser. modern stage-expansion engines may be grouped as marine engineering follows: compound.—in this type there are two cylinders, the high pressure and the low pressure. steam performs its function in the high pressure cylinder; from there it passes into the low pressure cylinder, completes its work on this’ cylinder and finally exhausts to the condenser. triple expanstoi.—in this engine, as its name implies, steam exerts its power in three stages before exhausting to the condenser. quadruple expansion.—in this type the steam is used four times before exhausting to the condenser, two intermediate cylinders being fitted. no marked improvements have taken place in this type of prime mover, except as regards engine refinements, the general design remaining the same. the advent of the marine steam turbine and the marine internal-combustion engine certainly has led many shipbuilders to install one or the other of these types; but it is interesting to note that in some recent large steamers, notably the peninsular and oriental ‘‘ naldera ” and “ narkunda,” the carefully balanced triple-expansion engine has been installed. experiments are being carricd out to utilise steam at a much higher pressure than formerly, and excellent results are expected. combined reciprocating engines and steam turbines —an excellent example of this arrangement is the white star “‘ olym- pic.” the arrangement has proved an economical one, and is as follows: each wing propeller shaft is driven by a reciprocating engine, the low pressure cylinder of which exhausts into a par- sons low-pressure turbine driving the centre shaft; 21 double- ended cylindrical boilers supply the necessary steam. marine steam turbines.—(see turbines, steam.) theadvan- tages of this prime mover which has led to its adoption during the past few years are as follows:— (a) fewer working parts, as no slide valves, piston and connecting rods are required. (b) the steam is supplied direct from the boilers with no inter- vening loss. (c) considerably less danger of breakdown. (d) engines placed well down in vessel (a big asset in warships). (e) less expenditure of lubricating oil. (f) no cylinder lubrication is necessary, and clean feed water is returned to the boilers. (g) absence of vibration, a big factor in warships and passenger steamers. (k) smaller attendance required than in the case of reciprocating engines. (4) superior governing, good parallel running and even turning movement. (k) priming, which would fracture the cylinder covers of a steam reciprocating engine, has no material effect on a turbine. (i) overloading (forcing the engines) can be indulged in within reasonable limits. (m) more economical except at the lowest speeds. the large-sized turbines are more economical in steam per horsepower developed than the best triple or quadruple expan- sion engine, as the turbine is able to take full advantage of the whole of the expansive energy of the steam. the two types in general use are the parson combined impulse and reaction tur- bine, and the brown curtis impulse turbine. there are, natu- rally, many modifications of these types. geared turbines—these turbines are coming into favour more and more. the chief trouble with the marine turbine arose with the propeller. it is necessary that a turbine for maximum efficiency should run at a high rate of revolution, whilst for maximum propeller efficiency, much lower rates of revolution are necessary. the solution for this was by the introduction of some form of gearing between the turbine and the propeller. several forms of reduction gearing are being experimented with, such as the electrical, hydraulic and mechanical. mechanical gearing appears at present to show advantages over the other forms—an efficiency of over 98°%% being obtained in the case of single reduction, and over 97% with double reduction. there is practically no limit to the ratio of reduction. double reduction gearing finds favour for the follawing reasons: (a) the type per- mits larger ratio between revolutions of turbines and propellers without excessive size of gear wheels—higher revolution of tur- bines permits, for the same power, smaller turbines, and increase in the number of turbines for the same power further reduces 797 the size of each unit; (b) high revolutions or greater blade speed are possible, resulting in a nearer approach to the point where the blade speed in relation to steam speed gives maximum econo- my; (c) a small turbine permits of a pivot thrust block being used, as the dummy can be omitted, and all unbalanced load taken by the block; (d) small turbines have small rotors and can thus be made of a much more robust construction; (e) variations in temperature for any single turbine are kept moderate, and these turbines are therefore suitable for use with superheated steam; (f} the parts being smaller, the turbines can be more easily overhauled, repaired or renewed. america favours the electric drive for her navy and mercantile marine. marine internal combustion engtnes—one of the principal reasons which has led to the adoption of the internal combustion engine for marine propulsion is the thermal efficiency of this prime mover. compared with a steam engine (reciprocating), and coal-fired boilers, we find: diesel 40°%% to 45% thermal effi- ciency, according to size; steam engine 20% to 25%. as regards running, the fuel bill is about half that for an oil-fired boiler ship fitted with geared turbines; very great saving of space occu- pied by the machinery; reduction of personnel. against these advantages we have the greater initial cost; complication of paris; a greater number of spare parts have to be carried; it is probable that the repair and upkeep bill will exceed that for steam units. before a big reduction can be made in initial and upkeep costs, all parts must be standardised; and the engines should be built in combinations of various numbers of cylinders for various powers and revolutions. for a given power the diesel compares unfavourably as regards weight with the steam turbines and oil-fired boiler combination, and the head-room is greatly limited (this, especially from a naval point of view, is a marked disadvantage). the possibilities of this prime mover are endless; but up to the present the diesel has not been installed in the largest ocean-going liners or cross- channel mail packets. there is no doubt, however, when a speed of, say, 25 knots can be reached, combined with a reliable and simple design of engine, we shall see the mammoth type of in- ternal combustion ship breaking the atlantic records. the largest ship up to the present with diesel engines installed has a length of 600 ft. and a breadth of 72 ft.; and another diesel- engined vessel of 20,000 tons is under construction. the present types work on the two-stroke or on the four-stroke principle; but many competent authorities affirm that the marine oil engine of the future will be a double acting two-stroke with port scaveng- ing—this design giving an engine of low initial cost and simple construction. the solid (or mechanical) injection of the fuel is likely to be generally adopted in preference to the air injection system, owing to the reduction in first cost that is obtained by its use. experiments are now being carried out with geared diesel engines, and these will be watched with interest. marine boilers —it is only within the last few years, com- paratively, that the water-tube boiler has been seriously con- sidered as a rival to the cylindrical, or water-tank, boiler. the experience gained after many years with the cylindrical marine boiler proved it to be undoubtedly a good, safe, easily under- stood generator and also comparatively easy to clean. this type may be said to be the principal boiler of the mercantile marine. for naval purposes, of course, there can be no question as to which type is suitable; but even with such highly trained engine-room ratings as the british navy possesses the advent of the water-tube boiler was not looked upon at all with favour. al- though water-tube boilers are being fitted in increasing numbers in the mercantile marine, their many advantages do not appear to be recognised to the extent they should be, this being due in part to the high initial cost and also to the fact that the fuel consumption ts inferior to that of the cylindrical type. however, the outstanding features of the water-tube boiler (7.e., they are much lighter and give greater horsepower for the same space) should further recommend them. the modern trend is toward much higher working pressures, higher temperatures and the more efficient burning of the fuel and generation of the steam in the boiler. there is no reason why pressures of 700 lb. or 800 lb. 798 per sq. in. should not be reached. superheating of the steam, air preheating, increase in boiler feed water temperature and careful analysis of the funnel gases are all receiving due attention, as are also the best means to adopt to ensure the cleanliness of the internal surfaces and tubes, and thus prevent or retard cor- rosion. zinc slab protection is, to a certain extent, being super- seded by electrolytic protection. in this system electrolytic con- ductivity is produced in the boiler water by a current of elec- tricity from a source outside the boiler to metallic anodes insu- lated from the boiler shell, the current being regulated at will. oil burning in marine boilers—within the last few years oil fuel burning has made rapid strides, and but for the question of cost would be much more generally adopted. as an example of saving in boiler-room staff, after the cunarder “ aquitania ” was converted to burn oil, her firemen were reduced to 42 as against 320 when coal-burning. the advantages of oil fuel are: superior evaporative power per weight of fuel carried, giving increased radius of action—1 lb. of oil with a heat value of 19,000 b.t.u. will evaporate 15 lb. of water to and at 212° f-,, and 1 lb. of coal with a heat value of 14,500 b.t.u. will evap- orate ro lb. of water to and at 212°f.; ease of shipping into bunkers and putting into fires; less stokehold staff and bunker space required; absence of coal dust and ashes; no necessity to open furnace doors with consequent loss; proper regulation of combustion; capability of forcing the boiler. against those ad- vantages we have: uncertainty of obtaining supplies; complica- tions of piping and machinery; possible leakage; special appli- ances are required for burning; liquid and solid impurities found in the oil; widespread contamination of water-ways. liquid fuel is atomised by one of three methods—steam, com- pressed air, pressure. the last method is generally adopted in modern marine practice due to the reliability and freedom from breakdown of pressure systems. the system as now adopted is very simple; oil is drawn from the bunkers and strained, which removes all solid impurities. the oil is delivered from the fuel pumps under pressure, an air vessel assisting in maintaining a steady supply. next, the oil passes through cold filters and thence to the heaters. the heating process may form particles of carbon in the oil, which are removed by passing it through filters fitted on the delivery side of the heater. from these filters, called hot filters, the oil passes under pressure to the distribution boxes on the boiler front, and from there through the burners (where it is atomised) to the furnaces. marine auxiliaries.—the great increase in the number of auxiliary engines now fitted in modern steamships necessitates as much attention as do the main propelling machinery. as regards design, the majority of auxiliaries follow accepted prac- tice; but the following units call for special consideration. condensers.—the modern method is to insure high vacuum combined with reliability, and that the weight of the apparatus shall be as low as possible consistent with the work the con- denser is called upon to.perform. separate air pumps are in- stalled, one pumping out the feed water, and the other main- taining a high vacuum by pumping air from a cooler part of the condenser. tube failure—through corrosion—is a frequent source of trouble, and the many experiments now being carried out with tube metal mixtures have not eliminated this. electrolytic protection has been adopted with good results. metallic packing for the tubes, in place of the ordinary tape packing, has recently been introduced, and the results are ex- cellent. in connection with modern condensers a system has been devised known as the “closed feed system.”’ by this method the condensate is removed from the condenser and discharged to the boiler without exposure to the atmosphere; thus preventing air mixing with the feed water and causing boiler corrosion. another method now coming into favour is the removal of the air in the feed water by mechanical de-aeration; and this method seems to possess advantages over the removal of the air by chemical means. the michell thrust block.—this block possesses marked ad- vantages over the older form of multiblock. the device consists of one collar on the shaft, the thrust being taken by a series of marines pads capable of a slight rocking movement. the pads maintain a continuous flow of oil between the metal surfaces, which are thus kept apart by as many oil wedges as there are pads to pro- duce them. this block is essential to the satisfactory working of gears now fitted in many modern ships. bibliography.—f. j. drover, marine engineering practice (1924); rk. sennett and sir h. j. oram, the marine steam engine (1924). (fr. j. d.) marines (see 17.719). great britain.—marine forces in some instances constituted the whole or the main part of forces told off for coastal descents, e.g., the british expedition to ostend in 19r4and the zeebrugge enterprise of 1918. in others they under- took emergency land operations for which no other military force was available, e.g., in the case of the royal marine bde. at antwerp, 1914; or again, as in the case of the u.s. marine bde. in france, 1917-8; and the british 63rd (r.n.) div., which in- cluded marine units, in the composition of a land army in con- tinuous operations. in several instances the marines proper formed a soldier nucleus for formations of which the principal part was made up of sailors, as the british r.n. div. and even more so the german marine corps. france used improvised battalions and brigades of sailors (fusiliers marins) in the same way, and a brigade of these under rear-adml. ronarc’h won undying glory by its defence of dixmude during the first battles of ypres and the yser. the german marine corps was composed originally as a division partly of marines and partly of sailors, who were numeri- cally far in excess of naval requirements. it took part in the siege of antwerp and the advance through flanders. when stabilisation came the division was raised to the strength of a corps, and the corps commander (adml. schroder) was made responsible for the yser front, for coast defence between nieu- port and the dutch frontier, and for purely naval operations based on the belgian coast, having both submarines, surface craft and aircraft under his command for the purpose. finally, the german corps formed a third mobile division which was sent to any point on the western front where reinforcements were needed. the royal marines, 1914-8.—just before the outbreak of the world war the total strength (all ranks) of the british corps of royal marines was 18,000. during the war, however, the strength of the corps increased steadily, until at the end its numbers had been more than trebled, due to the formation of new units within corps. in 1914 the r.n. div. was formed; vari- ous divisional units of royal marines were raised for service with it, such as engineers (transferred to the royal engineers in 1917), medical units and transport. the r.m. submarine miners (1917), the r.m. labour corps, the home service labour corps (1917) and the r. m. engineers (1918) were raised. special units were also provided separately and compositely by the r.m. artillery and the r.m.l.i. at various times. in all naval actions, and in naval patrol duties, the royal marine personnel took a part. in the early days of the war per- sonnel of the corps served with the armoured cars operating from dunkirk. four battalions of the brigade took part in the defence of antwerp. details from two r.m.l.i. battalions were involved in the landing at kum kale and sedd-el-bahr (march 4 1915), and marine artillery siege guns were used at dunkirk. the corps sent a battery to egypt in ror6 for coast defence duties. detach- ments served also in cameroon, in the persian gulf and with adml. troubridge in serbia, and formed the nucleus of the heavy batteries which were raised for service with gen. botha in south- west africa and with gen. smuts in east africa. the corps furnished gun crews for armed merchantmen and garrisons for naval bases as at scapa, cromarty and st. helena, and for the coast defences at the north foreland, in the west indies and elsewhere. (x) united states —the united states marine corps is a separate military organisation under the administration of the navy dept., and as such it forms a part of the naval establishment of the country. it was founded on nov. 10 1775 when a resolution of the first continental congress authorised the raising oi two marinescu—marketing battalions of marines to assist the continental navy in the de- fence of the colonies. in organisation, training and duties this force was modelled after the british marines of that date. from then to the present the marines have continued to serve as an inte- gral part of the u.s. navy, although under the authority of con- gressional cnactment portions of the corps have been temporarily detached for service on shore with the u.s. army. the laws provide that marines may be assigned to the follow- ing duties: to garrison the different navy yards and naval stations within and beyond the continental limits of the united states; to furnish detachments to serve aboard the battleships and cruis- ers of the fleet where they form one of the gun divisions of the ship, perform military guard duties and act as a landing force from the fleet or squadrons as required; to act as expeditionary landing forces for service with the fleet to capture and defend such positions as may be required as temporary naval bases for the fleet; to furnish the first line of the mobile defences of naval stations and bases beyond the continental limits; and, when special conditions make it advisable, lo be temporarily trans- ferred for service with the army. the marines have taken a conspicuous part in every war in which the united states has been engaged and have also seen much foreign service in the peace-time occupation of foreign countries for the protection of american citizens and property during revolutions and unsettled conditions, in furtherance of the diplomatic policies of the united states. before the spanish-american war in 1808 the marine corps consisted of 75 officers and 2,000 enlisted men, but was increased thereafter, and at the entrance of the united states into the world war in 1917 it consisted of 511 officers and 13,124 en- listed men, and during that war a total of 31,824 marines were sent overseas for service with the a.e.f. the fourth brigade of marines formed a part of the second division of the a.e.f., where they served in many campaigns and battles with conspicu- ous gallantry and gained many citations and decorations. the peace-time operations of organisations of the marine corps have included expeditions to china, cuba, nicaragua, mexico and panama, for the protection of american interests, and the recent occupations of santo domingo and haiti to insure the peace and stability of these countries under treaty obligations between them and the united states. the mission of the marine corps under the stated naval policy of the united states is: “ to sup- port the fleet, or any part thereof, in the accomplishment of its mission.” the emblem of the corps is a hemisphere with the map of the americas thereon, superimposed upon a foul anchor and surmounted by an eagle with spread wings. the motto of the corps is “ semper fidelis.” (d. w.*) marinescu, george (1864- ), rumanian neurologist, was born at bucharest feb. 23 1864. he was educated at the faculty of medicine of bucharest and then went to paris where he worked under dr. charcot at the sulpetriere, carrying out valuable researches on the histopathology of the nervous system. a year later he went to frankfort and worked with professor weigert. he then continued his research work on nervous dis- eases in berlin and brussels. in the latter town he published his work on the treatment of epilepsy for which he obtained a prize from the academie royale de belgique. in 1900 he was appointed professor of neurology at the university of bucharest. in the autumn of 1916 professor marinescu went to london where the medical research committee made him a whole-time grant. at the l. c. c. maudsley hospital, denmark hill, in collaboration with lt.-col. f. w. mott, f.r.s., he applied himself to an important series of researches upon the microscopic structure of nerve cells and their changes in different phases of activity or damage. he also took an important part in the investigation of the nervous system in some cases of encephalitis lethargica. marinetti, filippo tomaso (1878- ), italian writer, was born at alexandria dec. 22 1878, and studied in paris, graduating at the sorbonne; in 1899 he also graduated in law at the university of genoa. he was the founder of the futurist movement, publishing the original futurist manifesto in the paris figaro on feb. 20 1909. for a time he edited the international 799 review poesia, but his most characteristic work was majarka le futuriste, published in french in 1910. he also wrote for the stage le roi bombance (1905), a satirical tragedy, and other plays, and published a volume on the futurist theatre, teatro sintetico futuristo (1916). in 1914 he wrote an extraordinary vol- ume entitled zang-tumb-iuuum on the balkan war, and particu- larly on the siege of adrianople. other futurist essays are noz futuristi (197), manifesti del futurismo (4 vol., 1920), demo- crazia futurista. on the outbreak of the world war he was strongly in favour of italian intervention, as he showed by his volume guerra sola igtene del mondo (1915). otte amict 1n mia bomba deals with war experiences; while in fulurismo e fascismo (1922) he expresses his support of the fascist movement. mari- netti’s futurism, though violent, exaggerated and sometimes ridiculous, is a quite genuine reaction against the excesses of the academic and hidebound tradition in literature and art. markby, sir william (18209-1914), anglo-indian jurist (sce 17.730), died at headington hill, near oxford, oct. 15 1914. marketing.—marketing is essentially buying and selling. the central fact is the sale, but to secure sales the goods must often be assembled from the places where they were produced, graded when qualities differ, sorted when there are different varieties, moved to market and in many cases thence to the place of consumption. i. in the united states methods of marketing —the simplest form of marketing and the most primitive is the sale by the producer directly to the consumer, in the aggregate, sales made in this way even at present run into immense volume, although but a small part of the total of business. modern business, the development of large cities, an increasing di- vision of labour in industry, all tend to reduce this form of market- ing. there is still a considerable amount of marketing of produce, particularly butter and eggs, direct from farmers to consumers, by parcel post and by direct sale. again, certain specialities, comph- cated machines and machines requiring much attention and service after the first sale, usually are sold direct by manufacturers to consumers through the medium of speciality salesmen. the sales- man is the representative of the producer in the marketing transac- tion. again, if a retailing house docs so large a business that it can advantageously engage in manufacturing some of the lines of goods it sells, it may combine production with distribution. most products of common use, such as foods, clothing, footwear, house furnishings, lumber, fuel and so on, are marketed through middlemen. the manufacturer of men’s clothing or of shoes usually sells his product to retailers scattered over the country, who in turn sell to consumers. manufactured food products, dry goods, drugs, hardware and house furnishings are generally sold first to whole- salers, who in turn sell to retailers. farmers’ produce, fruits, vegetables, butter and eggs, are com- monly marketed through local buyers, then to wholesalers or whole- sale distributors, then to retailers and lastly to consumers. variations in afethod.—variations are introduced into marketing in many ways. the actual sale may be consummated through per- sonal salesmanship either in the scller’s place of business or in the buyer’s. if the seller carries a line of goods he must have a store or shop, but even this may not keep him to one location, the old-time pedlar carried his store on his back. more recently grocery stores, meat shops, book and periodical shops and even dry goods and house furnishings have been put on whecls, on automobile trucks and sales routes laid out to be covered periodically, making sales direct to housewives and consumers. again, the sales may be effected through retail institutions by mail. in the united states a gigantic business has been built up by a few large mail order houses which are really stores or shops selling retail to consumers. some wholesale concerns selling only to retail dealers have developed enormous businesses founded on the mail order method of selling. in addition to these there is an unknown but certainly large amount of business transacted by ordinary retail and wholesale stores by mail, supplementing personal selling. wholesale marketing in the case of highly perishable goods, such as fruits, where no time may be lost in effecting sales in order that they may reach the consumer before spoiling, the auction system is used. wholesale buyers and salesmen come together at a designated place at a set time and clear their transactions. the auction is a much more widely used mechanism of trade in england and in continental europe, where large quantities of nearly all kinds of goods are thus sold, than it is in america, where the system is declining. in addition to its use in the marketing of perishable 800 goods it occurs, to a limited extent, particularly in lines of known standards or qualities, which are bought and sold in wholesale quantities at certain dates each year, as carpets, rugs, wool, furs and fruits. it is also a common method of marketing second- hand goods, works of art, antiques and even real estate. variation in marketing occurs through variation in ownership of the goods to be marketed. to illustrate: producers or local buyers usually sell outright to wholesalers all goods marketed through the wholesaler-retailer channel of distribution; but in highly perishable goods, such as fruits, dressed poultry, live poultry, etc., and also in cases where the value of the goods runs very high in proportion to the value of the service rendered by the wholesale middleman—as, for example, finished textiles, real estate, commercial paper and stocks and bonds—the wholesaler (or dealer who takes his place) frequently, if not usually, merely sells or buys as the agent of the owner and secures a commission or brokerage instead of a profit for his services. this arrangement in the case of perishable goods relieves the wholesale dealer of the risk from joss, and, in the case of costly goods, of the burden of financing the goods. such wholesalers are known variously as commission dealers and brokers. function of speculation—while goods are being gathered to- gether in wholesale quantities and made ready for distribution to the retail trade other factors in marketing frequently enter in, fac- tors of a speculative nature. standardised goods that are not readily perishable, such as grain, cotton, wool, silk, provisions, coffee, sugar and so on, are likely to be bought purely for specula- tive purposes. thus a lot of grain or cotton may be bought and sold several times before being moved to consumption. it is but another step for these speculators to make their ventures in hope of gain.on what they think future prices will be. hence “ selling futures’? is a common occurrence on the great exchanges that deal in the commodities named. under this system grain may be bought and sold long before it has been harvested or grown, or even before it is planted. (see grain trade.) a flour-miller may quite legitimately ensure his future supply of grain at a certain price by buying “ futures.” but a great deal of opposition has been aroused at various times by speculation in the necessities of life. it has been charged that dealing in futures enables powerful speculators to combine un- justly to secure success for their ventures, in some cases tending to hold prices down and in others tending to hold prices up. asa result both producers and consumers are suspicious of such traders. the consensus of opinion among those who have studied the course of speculation on exchanges seems, however, to be that if manipulation of prices and monopoly can be kept out of the market, and if the laws of supply and demand are allowed to operate freely, the effect of speculation, particularly of dealing in futures, has a healthful balancing effect on the market. under such conditions purchase and sale of commodities for future delivery tend to discount and equilibrate all conditions of supply and demand, so that changes of price are made much more grad- ually than they would be if buying and selling of such commodities were confined solely to the stock offered each day. dealing in futures is an essential function of marketing, but it needs careful regulation to prevent unfair practices. | methods of marketing —if producers are many and small, and are located far apart, it is almost certain that their products will have to be assembled by a local buyer of some kind; whereas if the producers are able to turn out large quantities they may be able to deal with wholesalers direct. if consumers use small quantities or small lots of any product at one time it is almost certain that they must purchase from retailers. but a large consumer would be able to buy more advantageously direct from the producer. some articles cannot be sold more than once or twice in a lifetime to a customer. if it also happens that such articles re- quire much demonstration and explanation, then the producer is almost forced to sell direct to the consumer or have his sales made by special representatives or agents. subscriptions to high-priced periodicals, adding machines, life insurance and real estate are illustrations of goods that need such specialised attention. marketing time is a very important element in the marketing of perish- able goods. there must be no delay, and little time can be given to the sale of any particular unit. an illustration of a perishable article is the daily paper, the weekly or monthly magazine. timeliness is the essence of their value. this makes necessary a highly specialised marketing organisation to carry papers or magazines over the country and, in the case of magazines, to place them on sale everywhere at the same time. such specialised handling calls for expense not incurred in goods not perishable. a low-priced article with a small margin of gross profit to the seller cannot be sold in the same way as an article that offers a wide margin. in the former case the margin above costs of production could not permit the article to be sold direct or to be advertised and sold by itself by the mail-order method. it must take its way to the consumer through the channels of trade followed by thousands of similar articles. competition—the competition in the sales field of any article might readily determine the channel of distribution that is taken. certain manufacturers of soaps, perfumes and toilet goods have found it so difficult to place their products advanta- geously in drug stores and similar retail outlets because of the number of competing lines that they have found it advisable to sell, especially in country districts or small towns, direct to consumers by means of agents and canvassers working on a commission basis. a motor-car tire maker found it so difficult to break into the market through automobile dealers and garages that he sold his product to a mail-order house. a new product must as a rule be sold through specialised mar- keting systems which may be abandoned after the public has begun to know the article. the costs ofr marketing table i. contains figures compiled from actual records by the harvard bureau of business research, harvard university. table i. the retailing of shoes: a comparison of costs net sales 100 per cent lowest | highest | usual o/ 0/ of rae) /o 70 independent shoe stores: low priced shoes 13°3 32°33 20°5 high priced shoes 23°43 32°85 28-8 chain shoe stores 9°85 57°60 24-6 department store: shoe departments it is clear that the statistics do not prove that in the case of shoes either chain stores or department stores can be conducted at less expense than independent stores. it is true that the lowest figure for chain stores is considerably lower than any other, but the chain stores also show the highest costs. the average costs of selling in chain stores scem to run a little higher than in independent low- priced shoe stores and in department stores. table ii., showing cost of markcting,! is compiled and adapted from reports of the harvard bureau of business research, north- western university bureau of business research, several national trades associations and personal studies. costs of selling through mail-order houses are not officially known. they are supposed to range from 18 to 30% of sales. but the knowl- edge of a general figure of this kind for a large mail-order house with many departments would be of little value even if correct. costs of selling vary from department to department in mail-order houses just as in department stores. to be of value in a comparison of selling expenses, the figures should show the cost of selling shoes, for example, by mail. all things considered, the general costs of running a large mail-order house are probably somewhat lower than those for a large department store handling similar classes of goods, the mail-order establishment need not be in a shopping district, so that the rent or investment represented by its size is comparatively small; the employees who fill orders do so more rapidly and for less pay than those who sell in a store; advertising is usually confined to the less expensive publications, and in the case of the largest houses the customers are much more numerous, running into mil- lions. costs in the shoe department of a mail-order house should run lower than in a department store or speciality shop because in the mail-order house there is no time and labour lost in fitting shoes. eae a, cr ee ne eae 1 costs of retailing in other lines of merchandise, so far as the figures are available, show about the same relationships. the example presented may be taken as typical. marketing table ii. marketing costs percentage on sales wholesale retail low- | high- | ,- low- | high- est = usual est est usual | %| % | %| %| % | % automotive equipment . 16 26 23°5 15 2 2: clothing. i2 18 16 20 30 24 drugs . ; 12 20 t5 a 33 28 dry goods . ii l7 i4 15 30 23 electrical sup- plies . 10 20 14 20 31 26 groceries. : 5 15 9 9 22 14 hardware . 13 21 18 ii 32 2 jewelry = 7 15 20 18 24 40 2 shoes 12 26 15 13 a4 2 furniture. ; 20 35 25 general merchan- , dise . a” 34 io 30 16 department scores: ou a 18 32 28 chain stores (shoes) .. 10 57 24 chain stores (5 and toc) . sad os 26 chain stores (groceries). ad 7 16 chain stores (drugs) . . 28 this saving is counterbalanced somewhat by the number of shocs which are probably returned. the lower costs of selling in the mail- order house, however, are offset in part at least by the costs of trans- portation and other expenses incidental to ordering by mail. economies in the chain of distribution.—a part of the com- petitive battle for trade among these various types of institutions consists in the utilisation of large buying power. large chain store systems, mail-order houses and large department stores frequently purchase their goods direct from producers and secure the prices usually given wholesale purchasers. in some cases a part of these differences may be used in cutting the prices to consumers, but it would be a mistake to assume that the con- sumer gets all the benefit from purchases made at lower prices, or that this entire difference ts gained for the dealers. concerns that go direct to the producers, and thereby eliminate the whole- salers, as a rule incur practically all the usual expenses of whole- saling, such as interest on the investment in the larger stock of | goods, storage risks, buying expense in dealing with numerous producers instead of a few wholesalers, extra record-keeping and, with chain stores, reshipments to their various stores throughout the country. the only real saving which buying direct from producers in- sures is the eliminated profit of the wholesaler, with a possible reduction of the expense for salesmen whom wholesalers must employ. competition in buying has forced the joint creation by small concerns of buying organisations which, united, represent as large a buying power as the chain or department stores. co-operation in buying certain classes of goods has strong ad- vantages both for dealers and consumers. buying in group at one time may secure advantages, not only in price but also in transportation and handling, sufficient to cover the added ex- penses incurred in buying in quantity. since 1920 there has been a rapid development in group buying by independent retailers of all kinds. the competition of chain-store systems wielding enormous buying-power advantages has forced independent dealers, both large and small, to associate for the purchase of many items, and in some cases for the joint ownership of full- sized wholesale houses. comparing the various methods of retailing as exemplified in the ordinary independent stores, the department stores and the mail-order house, from such facts as are available, it does not seem possible to assert positively that any one method presents decided general economic advantages over the rest. each pre- sents advantages in point of service, but the difference in service appears to be fully compensated in expense—that is, the public pays for what it gets and in proportion to what it gets. sol so far as the public is concerned, it seems safe to say that there are large classes who prefer and who will always continue to prefer to trade in those retail establishments offering them the highest developments of service, the department stores and the independent speciality shops. other large classes prefer and will probably always prefer to buy in stores offering less service and proportionally lower prices. undoubtedly there are many who find their greatest satisfaction in purchasing in the stores of the self-service kind, where they may look about and pick up on their own initiative whatever they may wish to buy. institutions are built to serve people in the way that they want to be served. ‘there is room, therefore, in the retail trade for many types of stores. speciality shops, department stores, chain stores and mail-order houses will all continue to exist as long as there are numbers of people who want the services each institution offers. it seems impossible to believe that any one type will monopolise the retail business or crowd out all the others. avoidable waste-—the following statements outline briefly a few of the details of distribution which it seems certain must receive attention in order to secure more economical distribution. no doubt many more could be added. poor roads greatly in- crease the costs of bringing the farmers’ crops and produce to market, costs that must be added to the price that consumers eventually pay. inadequate railway transportation is another element that makes a considerable addition to the costs. car shortages at crop-moving time, cars unsuited to the products to be hauled, excessive delays in forwarding, at terminals, on the way and at transfer points, are common sources of expense. delay in transportation as a factor of expense in distribution has not been given the attention that it deserves. poor location of terminals makes a great deal of expensive cartage necessary. congestion of traffic in city thoroughfares is a growing cause of increased costs in distributing goods. inadequate, inefhcient, poor- ly located storage facilities cause huge losses. inadequate, unau- thoritative and inaccurate collection and dissemination of market information such as is needed by producers, distributors and consumers is responsible for great wastes. through lack of such information business in many lines now passes constantly from glut to famine and back again. poor packing of merchandise, inefficient loading, rough handling and uneconomical methods of handling are causes of waste and therefore of higher costs of distribution. to refer more specifically to the activities of marketing through wholesalers and retailers, there is a startling loss of the wholesale salesman’s time in finding customers, in making appointments, in fruitless interviews. the time of both salesmen and buyers is lost. probably less than a sixth of a salesman’s time, averaging salesmen of all classes, is actually employed in selling or even in displaying and describing merchandise. anything that can be done to improve this deplorable economic condition will increase efficiency and decrease costs. no one can even begin to estimate the losses resulting from poorly trained salespeople who fail to sell and who waste the time of their purchasers through lack of knowledge of their goods, their customers’ wants and their busi- ness, or through lack of ability to use their knowledge properly. owing to lack of incentive most employees give but a fraction of their ability to their work. a dvertising.—advertising 1s or should be an invaluable aid to marketing. in thelist of expenses of distribution it occupies a prom- inent place. there is certainly room for improvement in its admin- istration. much study has been given in some organisations to such problems as the proper selection of mediums and the right use of the space taken. no doubt much greater progress can and will be made in the future in these directions, but the greatest loss in advertising seems to be in the lack of faith of the public in the advertising. if people gave more credence to advertising, much less of it would be needed to secure the same result. the remedy, of course, lies in the direction of raising the standards and shutting out the dishonest advertiser. (see advertising.) duplication.— duplication in delivery organisations. by retail stores is a source of economic waste. there are many who think that there are too many retail stores. would goods be sold for 802 less if there were fewer? probably not, because a large part of the competitive losses now occurring are borne by the dealers them- selves in unpaid services. it may be argued that if their number were reduced the rentals for the locations that would be elimi- nated could be saved. this cannot be definitely checked by such experience as has been recorded in any public way. concen- tration of retailing seems invariably to result in increasing rents. in fact, rents tend to increase faster than sales, so that the fewer the stores the higher the share of the landlord. more studies are needed to determine the exact effects of restriction of the number of stores on costs of distribution. there is further the fact that the store plant is unused for a large part of the time. store hours are by custom and legislation steadily growing shorter. this means that the capital invested in stock and plant has fewer hours in which to produce. dishonesty.—finally, there is undoubtedly an enormous loss due to unfairness and dishonesty, a loss that 1s now carried in large part if not whelly as an expense of distribution, being added to the price paid by the consumer. failure to return containers lent by distributors seems a small item, but in such a business as milk distribution in large cities the loss to milk distributors due to non-return of empty bottles is enormous. uncollectable debts and the cost of collecting delayed payments are important items in the expenses of distribution. disregard of contracts in such matters, as refusal of goods after placing orders, failure to deliver goods after orders are placed, abuse of the privilege to return goods, claims for adjustment and many other similar items make up large losses. unfair competition, efforts made not to increase legitimate business but to impede or even to destroy compet- itors, commercial bribery, “‘ graft ’’ and the exercise of monopoly, all burden distribution expense far too much. a source of con- siderable loss is theft by employees, burglars and shoplifters. some retail establishments count upon a fixed percentage on their sales representing losses due to this cause, a percentage that is added to the gross expenses which form part of the selling prices. many of the losses of the distributive business, including theft, breakage, fire and so on, are covered by insurance, the . cost of which is carried as an expense against the distributing process. anything that can be done to reduce these losses will by that much reduce expenses of distribution and prices of goods. education in marketing the leaks and wastes enumerated aboveare certainly responsi- ble for at least a quarter of the present costs of marketing. they may be responsible for a third or even more. here, then, is a great field for reducing costs by improving present methods. the first general step towards suchimprovement is education. a begin- ning has been made. before 1860 the apprenticeship system was general in england and to some extent in america, in retail, wholesale and importing houses. the apprenticeship system gradually decreased about the middle of the roth century, and for years after no systematic training was provided for young people other than the haphazard effect of their experience. the first training of modern salesmen in america seems to have been by the subscription book houses that flourished during the *seventies and ’eighties. their canvassers or book agents were thoroughly drilled or schooled in the art of selling or in securing orders. during the ’nineties sales managers in speciality manu- facturing concerns, notably the national cash register co., of dayton, o., began training their men in special schools held at the factory. training salespeople for retail stores seems to have begun in the ’nineties in such subjects as arithmetic, spelling and writing and, in 1905, in sales methods, under the auspices of the women's educational and industrial union in boston. educational] serv- ice to salespeople and other workers is now commonly found in the better classes of both wholesale and retail stores. a beginning has been made also in education in distribution and marketing in american colleges and public schools. several colleges offer courses in marketing, selling, sales management and advertising. many high schools give similar but more elementary courses. the main drawback to a rapid development of public education marketing in marketing seems to be a shortage of teachers who can conduct such courses rather than lack of public interest. such an organi- sation as the united states chamber of commerce in its relation to distribution is largely a clearing-house for information and educational ideas for its members. one of the notable things in the progress made in educational work for marketing is the growing conception of the relation of the sciences of psy- chology and sociology when practically applied to the prob- lems of marketing. bibplrography.—a. b. adams, ‘‘ marketing perishable farm products,” columbia_university studies, vol. 72, no 3 (1916); “re- ducing the cost of food distribution,” annals of the amer, acad. of pol. and soc. science (nov. 1913); g. arias, princtptt dt economia commerciale (1917); hf. el. brace, the value of organised speculation (1913); p. t. cherington, the elements of marketing (1920); f. e. clark, principles of marketing (1925); clerget, manuel d’ economie commerciale (1909); m. f. copeland, principles of merchandising (1924); p. s. converse, on marketing (rev. ed., 1925); w. w. cum- berland, co-operative afarketing (1917); c. s. duncan, afarketing: its problems and methods (1920) and wholesale marketing of food (1920); e. p. harris, co-operation the hope of the consumer (1918); j. hirsch, der moderne handel (rev. ed., 1925); a. marshall, in- dustry and trade (1920); e. g. nourse, the chicago produce market (1918); p. h. nystrom, the economics of retatling (1920); and r. a. ramsey, constructive merchandising (1925). w. sammons, keeping up with rising costs (1915) and how to run a wholesale business at a profit (1918); a. sonnichsen, consumers’ co-operation (1919); l. d. h. weld, the marketing of farm preducts (1915); white and hayward, marketing practice (1924); reports of committees at the nattonal distribution conference of the chamber of commerce of the 'nited states (1925). ch etlon) ii, in great britain excepting the larger wholesale markets in england, situated in liverpool, mincing lane, e.c., and elsewhere, which handle cotton, wheat and certain other imported products, it may be asserted that much variety, extremely haphazard methods and a considerable degree of inefficiency in organisation are the characteristics of the marketing process throughout the greater part of england, scotland and wales. for this unsatisfactory condition many reasons may be given, not the least important of which is the continued existence of market rights in the hands of private individuals or joint stock companies or their assignees enjoyed under royal charter, act of parliament, or surviving manoria) rights. scarcely less important causes are the reluctance of the smaller british producers to form societies for co-operation in the sale of their output and the comparative ease with which, hitherto, a growing home market has absorbed an output which, especially in the case of certain perishable products, has increased less rapidly than the demand. again, improvements in methods have not been necessary in the absence, until recently, of effective competition from abroad in respect of most of the less important commodities ordinarily handled in the provincial markets; while the inability of many existing markets to cope with an increase in the volume of business—an inability especially marked in some of the larger towns and arising mainly from the difficulty of reconciling numerous and conflicting vested tnterests—has rendered difficult any large-scale recasting of the marketing process throughout the country. location and organisation of the principal english wholesale food markets: fruit and vegetables ——the smaller centres of popula- tion have traditional and established market places originally set apart for the sale of produce direct from the growers to the consumers. in the larger industrial towns these markets have grown in importance (but not in physical dimensions) with the growth of the towns themselves. some have become retail markets whose continued existence it is not always easy to justify on economic grounds; but others have become wholesale markets, especially in areas where local production is insufficient or erratic and foreign imports are needed to ensure supplies, or again where transport facilities and favourable geographical situation have permitted the extension of their spheres of influence and caused them to become distributing centres for large areas. many of these are well organised and are sensitive to price movements in other markets, since, however, they draw a large proportion of marketing their supplies direct from the producer, and these supplies are liable to fluctuation, they require an additional and a more re- liable source from which to supplement the local output and from which special lines and imported supplies may be obtained to balance demand. this source they find in the central markets at important ports, and especially in the covent garden market in london, which has become a national distributing centre for fruit and vegetables. privately owned by the covent garden estates company, ltd., this market handles not only produce raised within carting dis- tance of london, which is required for london consumption, but also main crop produce in general demand, part of which is regularly recodsigned to other distributing centres, and certain produce in limited demand or supply, such as glass-house produce which commands a high price and most of which is reconsigned to other markets. much of this reconsignment business is eco- nomically indefensible; but it cannot be replaced entirely by direct consignment to provincial markets until the latter become more developed and price movements in them much less liable to be influenced by small alterations in supply and demand. meat and fish—wholesale meat markets are generally owned and managed by local authorities, and exist only in those centres of population (not more than 20 in number) where the magnitude of possible trade justifies their establishment and where retailers are assured of adequate supply with wide range of quality and prices. in smaller towns the place of the municipally owned market is taken by wholesale butchers who purchase live stock, slaughter it and sell the meat to retail dealers; and in the city of sheffield, where no meat market proper exists, the wholesalers sell at the slaughter-houses which they rent from the local] author- ity. by far the largest and most important of wholesale meat markets proper is the london central market at smithfield which in a single year handles between 400,000 and 500,000 tons, including 40% of the total imports of meat into the whole country. unlike covent garden, it undertakes practically no reconsignment of produce to other wholesale markets; but its prices for both home and imported meat (although not officially issued under the imprimatur of the city of london corporation, which is its owner and manager) are largely used as a basis for wholesale dealings in other parts of great britain. in the foreign meat trade a network of depets has been estab- lished by certain large distributing firms in all the principal cities andtownsinthecountry. tothemsupplies of chilled or frozen meat are despatched from the ports of entry. they, therefore, serve as small markets from which retailers can secure supplies with ease and promptness. the prices charged are fixed with reference to smithfield and are, therefore, fairly uniform throughout great britain; but local circumstances occasionally demand departure from strict uniformity. fish is handled at hull, grimsby, fleetwood, aberdeen and other ports, usually by dutch auction, and is distributed by the wholesale purchasers to their stalls and to representatives in certain provincial fish markets (birmingham, glasgow, liverpool, manchester and others) and also to the very important billings- gate market in london. cereals — wheat is usually sold by sample in the local corn- market nearest the producer’s home. certain of these small markets, however, attract a considerable quantity of grain from areas outside their immediate neighbourhood, and some of the largest dominate large tracts of country, frequently serving as depots for the receipt of both home-produced and imported wheat and for its export to other consuming centres. the purchasers at these local markets include millers among their number; but sale outright to merchants and sale by merchants or agents on commission are not uncommon, the latter being, perhaps, the usual plan in scotland. producers’ co-operative societies may also be employed, which may sell direct to millers, or more frequently to merchants whom the larger milling-firms find it more convenient to employ in their purchasing of home-grown wheat in bulk. barley when sold for malting and distilling is usually sold in the larger market-towns by merchants acting on a commission 803 basis on behalf of the farmer. oats are largely consumed on the farms of the growers, but direct sale by the producer to oatmeal] millers is common. merchants, however, frequently buy out- right for sale to large consumers such as collieries and railway companies. after wheat is milled it is usually sold direct to bakers, con- fectioners or other users, generally through travellers employed by the milling companies. occasionally factors or wholesale dealers intervene, who purchase from millers for re-sale on their own account to small bakers in the more sparsely populated districts. distribution by this method is uncommon, however, in the case of home-milled flour; although imported flour is nearly always handled by wholesale dealers of this kind. at the next stage, that of baking, a few firms in several of the more important centres of population confine themselves to a purely wholesale trade. a fair number attempt to combine partial retail distribution with wholesale manufacture and usually possess retail shops where the bread is sold over the counter direct to the consumer or from which door to door delivery by van may be undertaken. the majority of baking firms, however, confine themselves strictly to retail trade, selling, in addition to bread, various forms of confectionery, such as cakes, sweets and bis- cults, which may be either proprietary articles or manufactured by the bakers themselves; but certain difficulties, occasioned especially in the north of england by housewives buying bread at irregular intervals only, encourage distributors to cease manufacture themselves and to rely on wholesale baking firms entirely for the supplies which they need. poultry and eggs.—owing to the fact that british producers of poultry and eggs have no export trade to foreign markets, there is no obligation on them to conform to standardised methods in the dis- posal of their products. there is consequently great variety in the marketing of these commodities and the plan adopted by an individ- ual producer depends partly on the scale upon which he is operating and partly on his situation relative to his market or his customers. sale may take place (2) by private treaty in the producing area; (6) by auction in the producing area; (c) directly to distant dis- tributors; (d) through commission salesmen in distant wholesale markets; (¢) through co-operative societies. to the first of these classes may be assigned sales at local weekly markets of eggs and dressed poultry to local customers, sales by parcel post or rail direct to the consumer, sales from door to door often in conjunction with milk and vegetables, sale to local distributors in the nearest market town and sales at the farm. this latter plan is common throughout england and wales, intermediaries known as higglers (also as cad- gers and hagylers) going round in districts where the farms are scat- tered and distant from the larger consuming centres. the higgler calls at the farm with a vehicle once or twice a week, buys all the eggs and poultry available and pays cash without much regard to classification or to quality. ile then resells privately or in open market to wholesale and retail distributors; but he may occasionally send consignments to wholesale markets for sale on commission. the system of selling by local auction has been greatly extended in recent years. the stirling live-stock mart 1s a good example, and the kings lynn market also is one that has lately made marked progress in this comparatively new development. for sale on commission the smithfield and leadenhall markets in london are utilised as well as the various wholesale markets in the provinces. costs of distribution the costs of distribution vary considerably with the nature of the commodity handled, the method adopted and the degree of efficiency in the market organisation available to the producer, in the case of cereals the fees paid by the farmers in the local corn-exchange are very small. sixpence per day, one guinea per year, one penny on each occasion the market is entered, threepence per person entrance fee for sale by sample, are a few examples taken at random of the rentals and fees in actual operation at the present time. cartage to the market or railway station is also the farmers’ expense. this ts reckoned at is. to 2s. 6d. per quarter of grain up to a distance of 8 to 10 miles. merchants selling wheat on commission for growers are paid gd. to is. per quarter or 2d. or 3d. per hundredweight. these figures are slightly higher in the cases of barley and oats. a rent ranging from 2 guineas to over 8 guineas per annum is charged to merchants who operate in the local exchanges and who require stands, desks or space on the market floor. | fruit and vegetables.—-for fruit and vegetables the costs incurred in the complete marketing process are proportionally greater than in the case of cereals. considerable expense arises in the preparation of produce for the market. dressing potatoes for example costs 4s. to 5s. per ton. cartage to railway station is estimated in lincoln- shire on the average to amount to 3s. to 4s. perton. railway charges are moderate and, on the whole, reasonable. in the distributive 804 market itself porterage charges and market tolls are an additional burden and then there are the payments to the commission salesman for his services. , it is the practice of the commission salesman to supply the recep- tacles or containers needed by the producer and generally to act on the latter's behalf once the produce is despatched from the farm. when a sale has been effected the salesman remits to the grower the anfount realised less the charges for use of containers, for transport, porterage, market dues and also a commission on the selling price for service rendered. the latter is nominally about 73°, but actually in cases investigated by the linlithgow committee an average of to or 12% was found. in its further passage towards the consumer the produce may find its way direct to the retailer from the commission salesman, or it may be sold to a commission buyer acting for a distant wholesaler, who in turn resells to the local retailers from whom the consumer buys. these agents who buy on commission may act merely on behalf of principals who cannot attend the market in person, or may them- selves buy on their own credit and assume full responsibility for the produce and for bad debts, charging up goods at cost price, adding porterage-out and a flat-rate charge to cover labelling, consigning and the clearing of emptics. in the former case they receive a flat- rate per package, handled (2d. in covent garden). in the latter they charge 23 to 7} on the cost price. it is calculated that the wholesalers on whose behalf they act make a net profit of about 2° on their sales to retailers, and that the latter obtain a net profit of over 6% on the cost of the goods or a little under 4° on turnover. the diversity, however, of retail serv- ices demanded by the consuming public and the wide range of costs entailed cannot but make for uncconomic distribution of these products; it would not be correct to state that the middiemen actually engaged in the marketing process make profits that are unduly large. | amfeat.—in the meat trade the following estimates taken from the linlithgow report exhibit well the costs incurred and prices paid and received in the passage of beef from the english farmer to con- sumers in larger industrial centres. s. d farmer receives for one animal from dealer at local market. , cs 3b ooo. 6 farrier’s expenses (tolls, etc.) . . oo 9 3 farmer's net receipts . a , . 30 10 9 dealer receives from wholesale butcher . e210 “0 dealer’s expenses (rail, tolls, feeding, etc.) . es tes 2g dealer’s net profit ae re ye be. 6 wholesale butcher receives from retailer __. » bo : : 18 301,932 livestock! . . ; ; 9 375,128 auction marts (livestock) ; 18 1,081,953 slaughterhouses : | ii 415,270 bacon factories . . , , _ 6 694,8263 woo ce kk wks 13 200,0004 | total . ; | 181 : 4,565,998 ‘this entry covers socicties selling livestock on behalf of members otherwise than through an auction mart owned or rented by the socicty. 2turnover in respect of produce handled, and not necessarily total turnover of society. 31924 figures. 4j