MAP

steady progress was made in all branches of map construction until the outbreak of the world war, when a type of map not hitherto in general use in warlike operations came into demand. with regard to normal topographical maps a useful landmark was the publication in 1908 by the u.s. geo- logical survey of a book on the interpretation of topographic forms. three matters stand out as deserving of special attention— the revival and standardisation of the futernational afap of the world; the striking progress made in the few years immediately preceding the war with the mapping of the british empire; and the great part which maps plaved, in all armies and in the fighting on all fronts, during the war, but especially on the western front. (see surveying.) international map of the world. —the official title of this inter- national undertaking is carte du afonde an amilionteme, and references to it will generally be found under this title. it owes its origin to the initiative of prof. a. penck, who put forward the project of a map of the world on a uniform scale at the geo- graphical congress held at berne in 1891. the scale proposed was one-millionth of nature, equivalent to 1 km.to 1mm., or 15,178 m.tozrinch. thescheme and the scale were accepted by the congress, and an international, but unofficial, committee was appointed for the purpose of prosecuting the idea. this committee reported to successive geographical congresses held in london in 1895, 1n berlin in 1899 and in washington in 1904, but not very much progress was macle. | an important step was, however, taken at the geographical congress held at geneva in r9g08, at this congress the delegates of the united states made a proposal for the definite standardi- sation of the map and for the drawing-up of fixed rules to govern its production. the next step in its history is that the geo- graphical section of the british general staff took up the sub- ject, and a promise was given at the geneva congress that, if possible, an official conference should be assembled to deal with the matter. this promise was carricd into effect in the following year. in nov. 1909 an official conference assembled at the foreign office in london, on the invitation of the british government. the countries represented were, in addition to great britain, australia, austria, austria-hungary, ilungary, canada, france, manship—m ap germany, italy, spain, russia, the united states, 7.e., the british empire and the other european and american great powers. the conference came to unanimous conclusions, and an account of it was published in a report issued by the british government. the object of having an official, rather than a non-official or academic, conference was that experience had shown that without the support of the official map-making bodies, such as the great survey departments, little or nothing would be done in the way of actually producing the international sheets. at the geographical congress at rome in 1913 the scheme as formulated in london was accepted generally, but there was a fecling that a more comprehensive official conference was needed in order to put the matter before those countries not hitherto represented officially. accordingly, after some correspondence between the british and french governments, it was agreed that the latter should issue invitations to an official conference to be held in paris in dec. 1913. thirty-four states sent representa- tives, and a very thorough examination was made of the london resolutions. in the main they were accepted, and the modifica- tions made were not in matters of principle but of detail. the scheme had in fact got into a definite standard form, and the carte du monde au millionieme is now a world undertaking on lines accepted by practically all civilised countries. the paris conference took an important step in approving of the establishment of a “ bureau permanent,’’ comprising a central office to be located at the headquarters of the ordnance survey at southampton, with a branch office in london, at the royal geographical society, where visitors to london can obtain all information with regard to the international map and its progress. amfups for war purposes.—the conference came to an end on dec. 18 1913, but the report was not published when war broke out early in aug. 1914. the effect of the war on the scheme was twofold. first, it resulted in the immediate cessation of all work on the map so far as the belligerent countries were con- cerned; but in the second place it led to a demand for maps on, or abeut, the one-to-a-million scale, and so in england and france, particularly the former, much official cartography was carried out on the million scale, and a large series of maps was produced by the initiative of the general staff. this important series comprises 90 maps extending from the persian gulf to the arctic ocean, and from the western shores of ireland to bevond the caspian sea. its sheets were selected by the peace conference for use in determining the new euro- pean frontiers. it differs from the regular international series in small technical details. the international map, interrupted by the war, has since been taken up again and satisfactory progress has continued to be made. the trench warfare of 1914-8 in france and belgium created a demand for maps on a larger scale than had hitherto been in general use by great armies, and large scale maps became indis- pensable for the operations of trench warfare particularly in connection with the use of artillery. with regard to that portion of the line which passed through northeast france, the 1:80,006 map, the best then available, was enlarged to 1:20,000 which made an unreliable map. bit by bit, these enlargements were corrected and eventually all the maps of the western front were redrawn from special surveys, air photographs and revised cadastral manuscripts, the chief scale in use being 1:20,- ooo. the map showed the enemy’s trench system in detail, and all the maps were provided with a system of ‘‘ squares,’’ or co- ordinates, which enabled any point to be defined within a few metres. the use of “squares,” or co-ordinates, is typical of modern military maps. an example of a typical trench map of the western front on the scale of 1:20,000 is shown on the plate. 11. the large rectangles on the map lettered a, b, c, ete., are divided into squares, 1000 yd. side, which are numbered i, 2, 3, etc. fach of these squares is subdivided into four minor squares of 500 yd. side. these minor squares are considered as letters a, b, c, d (see square no. 6 in each rectangle), a point may be thus described as lying within square b.6, !.5, b, etc. 2. to locate a point within a small square, consider the sides divided into tenths and define the point by taking so many tenths e ‘o - *, © oe sa: ill re * ’ "a a ” ‘ 4a me 2 a i dae ie gi - oe 7 ? . * . ne * eo , « ° fee > pr "“ se ie kx — grenadt t, . a: . _— ; deu se deuba ts - f * \ mn - 7. bove pts bs - ss \ cy re ae gh " ro 3,’ chir nd de consoltatvon * if s/f ‘ . — . : afr 7 i) et a ee : 7 h ‘ \ ,s : 4 . * poe 7 ‘a 4 “ a x | y a u a . ¥° % » “8, i 76 “4? we =” * nia” # \ — ‘ 02 ; | tt } ; * idl aa a j i. ~ ‘* wus “ v +r . yd ~* re at 1, “ \ j * ss mm, 7 - 7 eo posef\ stafica s ” —. =23ttiqqes “<i / ; ) oe7o <4 fp 0 eee 7 } shy “ we ee ee ee ee ee we oo 3. <-> ame f o— board j, fn typical trench map as used by the british army in ta 3 the western front may 24,1918} scale 1: 20,000 yards o 250 500 1000 metres oo 250 500 1000 marc—marchand progress of cartography.—modern topographical maps in- creasingly use colour. the old: black, engraved maps were beau- tiful as specimens of engraving, but were never very easy to read, and in no case did they convey so much, or such accurate, information as do the modern topographical maps printed in five or six colours. but it is doubtful how long the modern col- oured map will last; the paper is not nearly so durable as that which is used for the printing of copper-engraved maps, and the colours are in some cases none too permanent. these remarks apply with special force to the “ layered ” maps; changes in the tones of the layers will greatly alter their character. topographical maps.—in great britain the new popular edition of the ordnance map on the scale of one inch to one mile is in colours with contours at so ft. intervals. it is completed for england and wales and is one of the best topographical maps in existence. the new quarter-inch ordnance map, in layer form, is completed for great britain. an excellent map of roman britain has been published by the ordnance survey. in canada an important series of topographical maps on the scale of one inch to one mile is being published by the dept. of militia and defence. these maps have been in progress since 1907. about go sheets have been issued covering an area of about 40,000 sq. m. in the provinces of ontario and quebec. the only complete series of topographica] maps of the union of south africa are those of the orange free state; these are on the scale of 1:125,000, or about half an inch to one mile. they were painted by the geographical section of the general staff. there has been a marked improvement in the character of the topo- graphical maps of india. up-to-date methods of colour printing have been adopted with success. india, also, has produced the largest block of sheets yet published of the regular series of the international map. ceylon is gradually being covered by an admirable series of one-inch maps in colour. ‘the new one-inch map of the federated malay states is a very satisfactory production. the mapping of kenya and uganda, which has made good progress, was stopped by the war and has not been resumed. work is being carried on in the gold coast and nigeria and in the sudan. the admirable and well-known series of maps of the u.s. geo- logical survey continues to be issued. the production of the elaborate french 1:50,000 series in colour was completely stopped during the war; it is now being published in a simpler form. the italians are mapping tripoli and italian somaliland on the 1:100,- 000 and 1:50,000 scales, and the map of italy on the 1:100,000 with brown contours and vertical hachures is a clear and useful map. the map of spain on the 1:100,000 scale in colours, pub- et ss iris, ne i so i ar ao a oe -= < r es from w. to e. along southern side, and so many from s. to n. along western side, the s.w. corner always being taken as the origin, and the distance along the southern side being always given by the first figure. thus the point z would be 63; 7.e., six divisions east and three divisions north from origin. 3. when more accurate definition is wanted (on the 1:20,000 or 1:10,000 scale) use exactly the same method, but divide sides into 100 parts and use four figures instead of two, thus 0847 denotes 08 parts east and 47 parts north of origin (sce point x). point y is 6303. 4. use o but not 10; use either two or four figures; do not use fractions (83, 43, etc.). the system of reference by squares shown g on the map and described above was used ¢ throughout the war by the british armieson 7 the western front. althoughclearand simple 6 in practice it was not ideal for gunnery pur- poses. for this reason it was decided shortly before the armistice to supersede it byanother and more universally useful system. } colours. —the topography was represented in three colours. the detail including towns, houses, railways, roads, woods and grid lines and numbers, was printed in grey, water in blue and contours in brown. military details such as trenches, battery positions, mine craters, obstacles, etc., were shown in blue (british) and red (german). british trenches were not shown t# extenso, but only for such dis- tance from the front line as might be assumed to be already well sur- veyed by the enemy. conventional signs.—the signs used for objects of military nature changed considerably during the war as the result of alteration of types of defensive and offensive works. 0123456769 793 lished by the spanish general staff, is in progress. there is an excellent series of maps of denmark on the 1:400,000 scale, pub- lished in colours by the danish general staff, and some fine maps have been issued by norway. a good start is being made with the mapping of poland. bibliography.—for examples and criticism of various kinds of topographical maps, see a. r. hinks, maps and survey (cambridge, 1923); c. f. close, text book of topographical and geographical surveying (stationery office, london, 1925); see also r. 1). salisbury and w. w. atwood (u.s. geological survey), the interpretation of topographic maps (washington, 1908). (ck. gly) marc, franz (1880-1916), german painter, was born at munich july 4 1880, the son of the painter, wilhelm marc; his mother was of french extraction. he studied at the academy in munich under h[ackl and w. von dietz. [fcr the first seven years of his career as a painter he showed little originality. the decisive impulse came only when he got into touch with the group of painters including kandinski, jawlenski and macke who founded the ‘ blue knight ” (blauer reiter) in 1911. one of his most famous pictures entitled “‘ tierschicksale ” (destinies of beasts) is characteristic of his whole work, which is singularly compact, not merely in choice of motive, but also in pictorial composition. a certain leaning towards metaphysics, towards abstraction from the world of reality, gives many of his pictures a problematic character. he also wrote a series of articles plead- ing the cause of the new painting. marc was killed near verdun on march 4 1916. march, francis andrew (1825-1911), american philolo- gist (sce 17.688), died in easton, pa., sept. 9 1911. march, peyton conway (1864- }, american soldier, was born at easton, pa., dec. 27 1864. he graduated from la- fayette college in 1884 and four vears later from the u.s. mih- tary academy. he graduated from the artillery school in 1898, and on the outbreak of the spanish-american war went to the philippines, remaining there three years and rising to the grade of lieutenant-colonel of volunteers. after honourable discharge from the volunteers in 1901 he was appointed captain of ar- tillery in the regular army. from 1903 to 1907 he was a mem- ber of the general staff and in 1904, during the russo-japanese war, was with the japanese army in manchuria as observer. he was promoted major in 1907, leutenant-colonel in 1912 and colonel in 1916. soon after america’s entrance into the world war in 1917 he was made a brigadier-general, u.s.a., and later major-general of the national army and in sept. 1917, major- general of the regular army. in 1917 he was with the a.e.f. in france in charge of the american artillery forces. in march 1918 he was appointed acting chief-of-staff, and the following may chief-of-staff with the rank of general. on june 30 1920 his rank reverted to that of major-gencral, and at his own request he was retired from active service nov. 1 1921. as chief-of-staff of the army, he reorganised the war dept., consolidated the regular army, national guard and national army divisions into a single army—the u.s. army; and initiated and carried into ex- ecution a programme which landed in france, by the time of the armistice, 2,000,000 men. marchand, jean (1883- ), french painter, was born in paris nov. 22 1883. he studied at first with bonnat and merson (1902-6), after which he deserted conventional teach- ing, and exhibited for the first time at the salon des inde- pendants in 1908. he visited russia and england on several occasions. ‘though marchand came under the iniluence of cubism between roro and 1912, his work in general was not greatly affected by it. his human forms are treated with power and discretion, while his landscapes and still life are tinged with an intense melancholy. exhibitions of his work were held at the carfax gallery, london, in 1915 and 1919. among mar- chand’s pictures may be mentioned “ les gueux” (1906); “ le depart ” (1910); “ suzanne au bain” (1911); “ trois baigneuses ” (ro12); “le carafe” (1913); “la gardienne du foyer” (1914); “nocturne” (1915); “le soir” (rgtg). marchand, jean baptiste (1863- ), french general and african explorer, was born at thoissey (ain) on nov. 22 794 1863. after four years’ service in the ranks, he was, in 1887, appointed a sub-lieutenant. in 18809 he was on active service in senegal, was twice wounded, and made a chevalier of the legion of honour. in 1898 he carried out his historic occupation of fashoda (see 1.341), and for this he was promoted to commander in the legion of honour, having been previously raised to the grade of officer. in 1900 he became lieutenant-colonel, and was made colonel two years later. shortly after the outbreak of the world war he was appointed to command the colonial brigade of the xiv. corps, and in feb. 1915 was promoted a temporary- general of brigade. in the following may he assumed command of the roth (colonial) division. he was wounded in sept. 1915, and was made a grand officer of the legion of honour. on march 25 1916 he was made a substantive-general of brigade. on april 4 1917 he was promoted general of division and con- firmed as commander of the roth colonial division. he retired from the army in 1919 and was given the grand cross of the legion of honour in the following year. marconi, guglielmo (1874- ), italian wireless teleg- raphy inventor, was born at bologna on april 25 1874. his father, giuseppe, was an italian country gentleman who, in 1864, married miss annie jameson, daughter of mr. andrew jameson of daphne castle, county wexford, ireland. the issue of the marriage was two sons, of whom guglielmo was the younger. ile was educated privately at bologna, florence and leghorn. as a boy he took a keen interest in physical and electrical science. in 1895 the idea became firmly rooted in his mind that a system of telegraphy through space could be provided by means of electric waves, the existence of which had been foreseen mathe- matically by clerk maxwell in 1864 and later investigated experi- mentally by heinrich hertz, oliver lodge, righi and others. interesting scientific experiments had been carried out in lon- don and elsewhere with these electric waves, but marconi was the first to devise the practical means by which they could be made to provide a new and revolutionary method of telegraphic communication. in the early summer of 1895, marconi conducted a number of experiments at his father’s country house at pontecchio, near bologna. these experiments, made with crude and inefficient apparatus, soon began to give results which appeared to mar- coni to be remarkable, communication being established in that year over distances in excess of a mile. the first considerable advance which he mace was his discovery of the marked effect of the simultaneous use of elevated transmitting and receiving acrials connected to the ground through the generators (trans- mitters) and detectors (receivers) of electric waves. he discov- ered that by connecting one of the spheres of the spark-gap by means of a vertical wire to a metal plate buried in the earth, he was able to multiply many times the range of communication for a given amount of power. in his receiver marconi used the form of coherer, or sensitive detector, employing nickel and silver filings, connected to the earth and to an elevated conductor, in the same way as was done at the transmitting end, and provided with connections to a relay and other mechanical arrangements, which made it capable of receiving and recording the impulses of telegraphic signs transmitted through space from the sending station. in these early days, marconi also discovered that the distance of communication increased very rapidly if the height above ground of the elevated acrials was increased. this fact was pointed out in his first patent and was also clearly described in a letter dated nov. 14 1896 addressed by him to mr. william preece, afterwards sir william preece, engineer-in-chief of the british post office. in 1896 marconi came to england, and on june 2 of that vear took out the first patent ever granted for wireless telegraphy based on the use of electric waves. he continued his experi- ments in london, and in the same year demonstrated his inven- tion before officials of the post office and other representatives of british and foreign govt. departments. these demonstra- tions were first carricd out on the roof of the general post office, st. martin’s-le-grand, london. later experiments for marconi the post office were carried out on salisbury plain and across the bristol channel from penarth to brean down, near weston- super-mare, ranges first of two, then of four, and afterwards of nine miles were obtained. in june 1897, at the invitation of the italian govt., marconi went to spezia, where a land station was erected and communication with italian warships was established up to a distance of 12 miles. he was then invited to demonstrate his apparatus in rome, where successful tests were carried out in the presence of the late king humbert and queen margherita. other tests also took place at the italian chamber of deputies. the time was now almost ripe for wireless telegraphy to be applied to commercial and utilitarian purposes, and in july 1897 a company was formed in london to acquire the marconi patents in all countries except italy. this company was called the wireless telegraph and signal company limited, which in 1900 changed its name to that of marconi’s wireless telegraph company limited. for some time the company’s efforts were confined to furthering marconi’s pioneer work. a number of interesting tests and demonstrations were undertaken round the coasts of the british isles and abroad. permanent stations were erected at alum bay in the isle of wight and at bournemouth, this station being subsequently removed to paole, 14 m. from alum bay. wireless telegraphy was first used for commercial purposes in 1898, when the kingstown regatta races were reported for the dublin express by marconi by means of wireless apparatus installed on a tug which followed the yachts in the irish sea. in the same year, during cowes week, marconi was called upon to establish wireless telegraphic communication between osborne house in the isle of wight and the royal yacht “ osborne,” to enable the late queen victoria to communicate with the prince of . wales, later king edward vii. in this year also wireless teleg- raphy was first employed as a means of communication between lightships and the shore by installations on the east goodwin lightship and the south foreland lighthouse, separated by a dis- tance of about 12 miles. the utility of wireless in saving lifeat sea was demonstrated for the first time when, on march 3 1899, that lightship was run down by a steamer. the accident was at once reported by wireless to the south foreland, enabling life-boats to be promptly sent to the assistance of the light vessel. in march 1898 marconi established communication across the english channel between england and france. during this year wircless was also first utilised in the naval manoeuvres for communication between warships over distances of 74 miles. the first military application of wireless took place during the south african war. during this period numcrous improvements embodied in patents taken out by marconi were utilised. on april 26 1900 he applied for a patent for “tuned or syntonic telegraphy as well as multiplex telegraphy with a single aerial.’’ the important novelty was the incorporation of tuned closed with tuned open circuits in both the transmitter and receiver. this patent, the number of which was 7777, became famous in the history of wireless, and its validity was upheld in the high court by a dectsion of mr. justice parker. the principles on which this patent was based were fully described in a lecture given by mar- coni on “ syntonic wireless telegraphy ” before the socicty of arts in may 19or. in oct. r900 the erection of a long distance wireless tele- graph station in cornwall was commenced by marconi and pre- liminary tests were carried out up to a distance of about 200 miles. on dec. 12 1901 marconi, on his first attempt, succeeded in transmitting and receiving signals across the atlantic ocean from poldhu in cornwall to st. john’s, newfoundland. this achievement completely confirmed marconi’s opinion that electric waves would not be stopped by the curvature of the earth and therefore could be made to travel any distance separating any two places on our planet, a view he had held for many years in the face of considerable opposition. the wireless conquest of the atlantic may be regarded as the culminating point of marconi’s pioneer work. plate map —-= 000‘000'l: i fo aiwos ahl no dvw iwnoilvnualni ahl yoa slaahs jo wvaovig xaani pal pk proe alr ‘unaeees. ig! | i \ oi _ me oss z gr « a zo a z aa a 8 _-> —e—— tt whs = ascamsena wa a} — | ry it} rs s\ wy zam | eg pett keer : savage. fee | fovg2 2) a2 2ae ar b pets | ences scr rst ta ital ty, \ ww sssa naseer teu sewn, cura mnie| 3 aegee ea ors att eo rl bo) fp | rosser ttns ag? pe ay canatae poeta alag nm) \i 3% \\ } %, yq sooohtt bes 5 se f* \\ yan . $e. cepts los va a peas #5 %y a on oe oe ee as = — tm~ - ~~ h ee see ~ay,/° sone, ms _ % ” he * fe . 4 a all aa - — _ s70 waa mey = — —— — wana st an sws) pe — = ——— 10 lds lca, nus margarine in 1902 marconi, during a voyage on the american liner 5s. ‘“‘ philadelphia,” received messages up to a distance of 700 miles by day and 2,000 miles by night, thus first discovering the now well-known fact that wireless signals can usually be received over much greater distances at night than during the hours of daylight. marconi read a paper dealing with this phenomenon before the royal society on june 12 1902. at the time his conclusions were severely criticised and his results doubted, but later experience completely confirmed his observations. in 1902 marconi designed and patented a practical form of magnetic detector based on the effect of electrical waves on iron or steel when subjected to a varying magnetic ficld. this magnetic re- ceiver replaced the receivers up till then in use, and for over ten years remained the standard receiver on the great majority of sea-going vessels equipped with wireless. in 1905 he took out his patents for the horizontal directional aerial, which marked an advance in the design of jong distance stations. during the same year, in a lecture delivered before the royal institution, marconi first pointed out that most probably wireless transmissions right round the world to places near the antipodes would be carried out with greater ease and at lesser expenditure of electrical energy than would be necessary to much nearer places. later results fully confirmed the correctness of these views. in roro marconi, assisted by mr. it. f. round, re- ceived signals and messages at buenos aires from clifden (ire- land) over a distance of about 6,oc0 miles. in 1912 he devised a new method for generating continuous waves, commonly known as ‘‘ the timed spark system.” this system was employed for several years at many important long distance stations and by its means marconi sent the first messages ever transmitted by wireless from england to australia on sept. 22 1918. in 1916, during the world war, experiments were commenced by marconi in italy with very short waves, with the object of devising a directive, or beam system, of wireless telegraphy for war purposes. this was a principle on which he had also worked during his earliest experiments, but work on these lines had been put on one side in favour of the use of longer and longer waves combined with higher power. later, in england, with the assistance of mr. g. 8s. franklin, important results were obtained by the use of 15-metre waves between london and birmingham. the result of the tests with short waves carried out in 1916 and 1922 were fully described in public papers by marconi and franklin in 1922. (see wireless telegraphy.) these anticipations of marconi were fully justified by the re- sults obtained since that time with short waves by british and foreign experimenters. marconi was the first to discover in oct. 1924 that short waves of the order of 30 metres in length could be transmitted and received over the greatest distances during daylight. short waves have proved themselves capable, even when used with a minimum of power, of carrying out com- munications by night as well as by day over any distance, even to the antipodes. marconi demonstrated that short waves are much more amenable to control than long waves and they have the very great advantage over long waves that by the use of suitable reflectors, or by an efficient system of directive aerial, they can be directed in a beam as light waves are directed from a lizshthouse or searchlight. marconi stated publicly that this possibility of focussing and directing short electric waves would soon be applied universally and that except for broadcasting and shipping purposes it would no longer be necessary to send out waves at random in every direction. during the world war marconi served in both the italian army and navy. he also visited america as a member of the jtalian war mission to the united states government. in rorg the king of italy appointed him plenipotentiary delegate to the peace conference in paris, and in that capacity he attended the mectings of that conference and signed on behalf of italy the peace treaties with austria and bulgaria. he also attended in the same capacity the meetings of the commission on mandates held in paris and in london, and in other ways rendered valu- able services to the allied cause. fee the value of marconi’s work has been recognised by govern- ments, universities and learned societies all over the world. amongst the many scientific awards granted to him may be mentioned the nobel prize for physics in 1909, the albert medal of the royal society of arts, the franklin medal and the john fritz medal awarded to him in the united states for the “ in- vention of wireless telegraphy.” in the same year he was nominated by the king of italy to be a member of the italian senate. every great invention, when it has become established, has given rise to controversy as to who was the real inventor. doubts have been expressed as to whether marconi was in fact the inventor of wireless telegraphy. in the interests of historical truth, therefore, it is worth while to make the following quotation from the judgment given by judge william k. townsend of the united states circuit court of may 4 1905, in the action marconi wireless telegraph company of america versus de forest wireless telegraph company :— it would seem, therefore, to be a sufficient answer to the attempts to belittle marconi’s great invention that, with the whole scientific world awakened by the disclosures of hertz in 1887 to the new and undeveloped possibilities of electric waves, nine years elapsed with- out a single practical or commercially successful result, and that marconi was the first to describe and the first to achieve the trans- mission of definite and intelligible signals by means of the hertzian waves. the exact contribution of marconi to the art of spark telegraphy may be stated as follows: maxwell and crookes promulgated the theory of electrical oscillations by means of a disruptive discharge; ilertz produced these oscillations and described their characteristics. lodge and popoff devised apparatus limited to lecture or local ex- periments or to such impracticable purposes as the observation of thunder storms. marconi discovered the possibility of making these disclosures available by transforming these oscillations into definite signals and, availing himself of the means then at hand, combined the abandoned and laboratory apparatus and by successive expert- ments reorganised and adapted and developed them into a complete system capable of commercially utilising his discovery. other inventors, venturing torth on the sea of electrical move- ment, met the rising tide of the hertzian waves and allowed them to roll by without appreciating that this new current was destined to carry onward the freight and traffic of the world commerce. they noted their manifestations, suspected their possibilities, disclosed their characteristics, and hesitated, fearing the breakers ahead, im- agining barriers of impracticable channels and shifting sand bars. marconi, daring to hoist his sail and explore the unknown current, first disclosed the new highway. (f. g. k.*) margarine (see 17.704) was first made from fresh beef fat freed from tissue and digested at a temperature of about 110° f. with the pepsin obtained from pigs’ or sheep’s stomachs, ren- dered alkaline by a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. the process of manufacture was improved from time to time, and before the end of the war the product, particularly vegetable margarine, was so like butter in texture, flavour and appearance that it was difficult to distinguish from the product it was made to imitate. generally speaking, three types of margarine exist: (a) animal margarine, (0) vegetable margarine and (c) mixed margarine. varicties of margarine-—animal margarine has as a basis the material called oleo oif which is made by pressing premier jus by hydraulic presses, so as to separate the liquid oil (oleo oil) from the hard fat (stearine). premicr jus, as the name implies, is the first running of fat obtained by heating the fatty tissues of the caul and the kidneys of cattle at a temperature not exceeding 100° to 120° fahrenheit. this fat is washed with brine and allowed to crystallise or “ grain,” and is pressed to obtain the oleo oil. the fatty basis of vegetable margarine usually consists of a hard fat mixed with a liquid vegetable oil. the hard fat in this case is usually either about 25% of hardened (hydrogenated) oil, or 65 to 70% of cocoanut or palm-kernel oil. as liquid oils, cotton seed, arachis, soya bean and many others are used in accordance with the price and quality of the product desired. all these materials are subjected to a very drastic process of re- finement and deodorisation. in the case of mixed animal and vegetable margarine the solid fat is either premicr jus itself or olco stearine (i.e., the residue left after pressing premier jus). 796 whichever type of fatty basis is used it is subjected toa process of incorporation with milk. skimmed milk is generally used for the purpose, not so much for the sake of saving the cost as be- cause it is more readily obtained, and has greater bacterial purity than whole milk. the skimmed milk, previously pasteurised, is placed in vats (ripening tanks), and is there inoculated with a pure culture of lactic acid-producing organisms—mainly bacillus acidi lactis leichmann—which coagulate souring milk. the temperature is carefully controlled and, in a scientifically organised factory, the souring to the required extent is arranged to take place by a definite time. great care is taken to keep the culture free from adventitious organisms which would produce undesirable flavours and impair the keeping properties of the finished product. mould fungi are specially undesirable as they produce an unpleasant rancid flavour in the margarine, particu- larly when made with vegetable fats. when the milk has reached the desired state of sourness, it is churned with the fat, with or without artificial colouring matter, in specially constructed jacketed churns fitted with beaters for finely incorporating the previously melted fat with the soured milk. this churning process has to be carried out with great skill, care being taken to maintain the correct temperature and to stop the churning at the exact point when the emulsion reaches its maximum thickness, as continued churning causes the mass to become thin again. various types of emulsifiers other than churns are in use, some of which are very eflicient. when the emulsion has reached the desired state, the product is then finished by either the wet or the dry process. wet precess.—in the wet process the emulsion is projected against a violent spray of iced water, which causes the emulsified fat to solidify in fine globules; the solidified mass which is pro- duced subsequently floats on a tank of cooled water, from which it is removed and mechanically worked until the desired con- sistency 1s obtained. salt and preservative, if any, are incorpo- rated into the mass together with more colour. about 30% of milk is used in the wet process. dry process.—the dry process is more economical, and little more than half the amount of milk is then required. in this proc- ess the emulsion from the churns is run in a gentle stream on to large rolls cooled inside with brine. the emulsion, as it solidifies on the surface of the rolls, is scraped off by knives and then worked on tables, kneaders and rolls, in the same manner as in the wet process. admixture with butter—margarine, hke butter, must not contain more than 16% of water. the admixture of butter with margarine to the extent of more than 10°, of the former is prohibited. this regulation is still in force, though it seems origi- nally to have been made to dispel the fear of the farmer that butter might be adulterated with small quantities of margarine to make such an excellent product that his trade might suffer, and that the public might be defrauded. modern methods of analysis are able to cletermine the percentage of butter fat in margarine to within comparatively narrow limits, which was not the case when margarine was first invented. margarine usually contains 0-25°% of boron preservative, ex- cept the type termed “ fresh-roll,” in which no preservative is used; at present up to 0-5 % of boron preservative is permitted, but under new british regulations which will come into force in 1927 no preservatives will be permitted. the nutritive value of margarine has long been a subject of discussion. the chemical composition of butter 1s very similar to margarine, which actually gives the same number of calories or heat units as butter, and an average margarine is as digestible as an average butter. the average butter is characterised by considerable vitamin con- tent, whereas margarine is practically devoid of any such char- acteristic. (see w. clayton, margarine, 1920.) (er. br. g.p) margate, england (see 17.704), with an area of 2,961 ac. (in- cluding 468 ac. of foreshore), had a population of 46,475 in 1921. parts of garlinge and northdown were added to the borough in 1913. a town-planning scheme, providing for an industrial zone at the back of the town and restricting the number of houses to margate—marine engineering the acre elsewhere, has been put into operation. the town is very healthy, the death-rate being usually under 10 per 1,000. the municipality owns over eight miles of seafront, with promenades along almost the whole distance. a pavilion and winter garden have been erected in a hollow on fort green, and a pavilion on the jetty; the path along the cliffs to kingsgate has been made into a wide promenade, with a new bridge at palm bay; a seawall and undercliff promenade have been built, and a large bathing pavil- ion is (1926) in course of erection. a wing for tuberculous ex- service men was opened at the royal sea-bathing hospital in 1919, and a public library in 1923. the war memorial is in front of holy trinity church. during the widening of the min- ster-road in 1922 an anglo-saxon cemetery was discovered. during the world war 156 bombs were dropped on margate and 44 shells were fired,from the sea; considerable damage was done, but the casualties were few. marghiloman, alexandre (1854-1925), rumanian statesman, was born at buzeu july 4 1854. he studied jaw and political science in parts. in 1884 he was elected a deputy as a member of the conservative party, of which he became leader in 1914. at the beginning of the world war, marghiloman advo- cated rumania’s neutrality and when in 1916 bratianu offered him a portfolio in his cabinet, marghiloman refused on the ground that he could not assume the responsibility of an insufii- cient military preparation. he remained in bucharest under the german occupation, where he organised the relief work for the population. he emphatically rejected the proposals of the ger- man commander to form in bucharest a government for the purpose of concluding a separate peace. in march, 1918, margh- iloman went to jassy at the request of the king and formed a government which eventually signed the separate peace with the central powers. this treaty, however, was never ratified. when the war ended marghiloman ceased to play any part in rumanian politics and after his death in buzeu, may 10 1925, the conservative party ceased to exist, its members joining gen. averescu’s (people’s) party. margueritte, paul (1860-1918), french novelist (see 17.- +06), died dec. 30 1918 in paris. his later works included la maison brile (1913) and jouir (1918). marie, queen of rumania (1875- ), was born at east- well park, kent, oct. 29 1875, the eldest daughter of alfred, duke of edinburgh, second son of queen victoria. on jan. 10 1893 she married prince ferdinand, afterwards king of ru- mania. from this marriage six children were born: prince charles, who married princess helen of greece, princess eliza- beth, married to the ex-king george of greece, princess marie, later queen of yugoslavia, the princes nicolas and mircea (d. 1916) and princess hleana. the queen was a protestant, but the children, in accordance with the rumanian constitution, were brought up in the orthodox faith. queen marie took a great interest in the development of her adoptive country. red cross and charity organisations were farmed at her initiative and, as a red cross nurse during the world war, she looked after the wounded in hospitals and ambulances up to the firing line. queen marie devoted much of her time to writing, and her published works include the lily of life (1913), my country (1916), stealers of light (1916) and iiderim (1925). together with king ferdinand, queen marie was crowned at alba julia oct. is 1922.