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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:malay states federated:d77690c8794b",
    "title": "MALAY STATES, FEDERATED",
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    "verified_text": "for over 16 years all matters of common interest to the federation have been settled by the federal council, a body created in 1909 in accordance with the general wishes of the individual rulers. the council consists of the high commissioner (president), the chief secretary to the government, the four ruling sultans, the four british residents, the legal and financial advisers and eight nominated unofficial members; it meets generally three times a year and all federal legislation is passed by it. population.—the growth of the population is the measure of the states’ prosperity. according to the census of 1921, the population was 1,324,890, having increased since ro11 by 27-7 °%; it is still rising rapidly, and was estimated at the end of june 1924 to be 1,418,455. there are approximately 510,000 malays, 494,000 chinese, 305,000 indians and 5,700 europeans. the increase among malays, especially in selangor, is largely due to the influx of foreign malays who have settled in the coast dis- tricts to plant rubber; and the increase in the indian population also synchronises with the development of the rubber industry. there are indications that the immigrant races, who have done so much to develop the resources of the federated malay states, 774 are ceasing to regard these states as a place of temporary sojourn and tend more and more to make them their permanent home. commerce and indusiry—an indication of the continued prosperity of the states is afforded by the fact that for the six years following the world war there was a considerable trade balance; and for the years 1919, 1923 and 1924, the estimated value of the exports, which consist chiefly of tin, rubber and copra, was well over twice that of the imports. the average value of the exports is over 200,000,000 dollars. the export of tin-ore reduced to a metallic basis and of block tin has averaged 40,000 tons, and the market for this commodity, as also for rub- ber, has been greatly assisted by the policy of withholding stocks against current prices. in the case of tin the holding or releasing of stocks was arranged by voluntary agreement between the government, which held large stocks, and private holders. government assistance to rubber growers was given by the export of rubber (restriction) enactment, under which the percentage of release of stocks at the minimum duty rosc or fell according to the ruling market price. by this means a fair price was obtained for growers, and many plantations were saved from the ruin that must have resulted from the premature tapping of trees. the government continues to make a grant to the rubber growers’ association in connection with propaganda for new uses and markets for rubber. the establishment of a rubber re- search institute was approved in 1924, to be maintained by a special export duty on rubber. important research work had been done, before this, on the deterioration of rubber in storage, which was found to be due mainly to surface oxidation, from which it is indicated that the slab form is preferable to the creped form for storage. the mouldy rot disease (in negri sembilan) and the brown bast disease were further investigated. a govern- ment experimental coconut plantation has been started. the commercial timbers of the country are in process of being scientifically investigated, and the distillation of native woods has also been mace a subject of research. tin-mining continues to be the chief industry in perak and selangor and rubber the chief industry in negri sembilan and pahang. other ores produced are tungsten (wolfram and scheelite) and gold. the raub gold mine in pahang ts the only gold mine now working in these states; but alluvial gold is re- covered in various places. coal also is produced, the tonnage averaging between 350,000 and 400,000 tons annually. coco- nuts and rice are widely grown in perak, selangor and negri sembilan, in which last-mentioned state coffce is now but little grown, its place being taken by rubber. the timber industry is in process of development, and the whole question of the ex- ploitation and conversion of timber js receiving the active con- sideration of the government. already there are some 5,000 sq. m. of forest reserves, and the areas are being extended. railways.—communications in the federated malay states keep pace with the growing requirements of the tin and rubber industries. the total length of line now open to traffic under the federated malay states railway administration 1s over 1,000 miles. this includes the johore state railway, which at gemas branches into the west coast line to prai and to the siamese frontier; and the east coast line, which runs northward towards tumpat. the kelantan section is being extended southward to the east coast line to provide direct communication between kelantan and singapore. through traffic, over the west coast line, with the siamese state railways was opened in 1918, and between the federated malay states and kelantan via the si- amese railway in 1921. the johore causeway, which connects singapore with the peninsula, was opened in 1924. the causeway carries two lines of rails and a roadway; its total length is 3,465 ft. and its average headway at low tide is 47 feet. education.—in 1919 important movements for the extension of education were set on foot, despite difficulties encountered in increasing the number of teachers and the improvement of the teaching standard. a temporary scholarship scheme for sending teachers to hongkong university was set on foot, to serve until more training colleges were established and pending the opening of raffles college, founded in singapore. a malay college is malay states, non-federated established at kuala kangsan; the sultan idris training colleges provide malay vernacular teachers; and there are many chinese and tamil vernacular schools. binliography.—h. c. belfield, handbook of the federated malay states (1906); r. j. wilkinson, ed., papers on malay subjects (1914, etc.); r. o. winstedt, jfalayan afemories (singapore, 1916); federated malay states, civil service committee, reprint of memorials, minutes, correspondence, despatches and schemes, 1900 to ror7 (1917); r. o. winstedt, afalaya, the straits settlements and the federated and unfederaied malay states (1923); c. w. harrison, an illustrated guide to the federated malay states, 4th imp. (1923); malay states information agency, british malaya, trade and commerce (1924). (a. r.*) malay states, non-federated (sce 17.482).—these are johore (see 15.475; this form of the name, rather than johor, has come into official and general use), kelantan, trengganu, kedah and perlis. the populations according to the census of 1921 were johore, 282,234; kelantan, 309,300; trengganu, 153,- 765; kedah, 338,558; perlis, 40,087. malaria is severe except in trengganu, and infant mortality high, but both this and the general death-rate have been reduced with improvements in sanitation and provisions for medical service introduced under british supervision. to this, and to the more settled conditions brought about under it, is attributed in large part the substantial increase of the population recorded in all the states; although, as in trengganu about 1920, the benefits to the commercial classes were not immediately reflected in improved conditions for the peasantry. by an agreement made in 1885, the sultan of johore placed his foreign affairs under british govt. control and undertook, when required, to receive a british agent at his court. no such appoint- ment, however, was made until 1910. in 1914 a subsidiary agree- ment was concluded whereby a general adviser was appointed with powers similar to those exercised by british residents in the ¥ederated malay states. the other states, kelantan, trengganu and kedah, came under british protection in 1909 by virtue of a treaty signed at bangkok in 1909 under which the siamese govt. transferred to the british govt. all its rights over them. the officer administering the government of the straits settlements is the british high commissioner for all protected states in the malay peninsula. j ohore.—most of the interior of johore is covered with jungle, but already over 800,000 ac. have been alienated, chiefly in small holdings, for cultivation. rubber plantations occupy half this area and coconut crops about g0,oco acres. other agricyltural products are padi, betel nuts, african oil palms, taptoca, sago palm, gambia, pineapples, tuba and patchouli. the chicf mineral resources are tin-ore and iron-ore. china-clay is worked, but, owing to impurities, has not been found suitable for use in the bombay cotton-mills. good forest country exists north of labis, and timber production averages 20,000 tons a year. the export trade is of the average annual value of $50,000,000, of which rubber represents three-fifths, copra, tin-ore, preserved pine- apples, areca nuts and gambia, the greater part of the remainder. the johore state railway from kuala gemas to johore bahru is now leased to the federated malay states. the total length of roads maintained by the government is over 600 miles. | kelantan.—the dominating physical feature of kelantan is the flat plain of 1,0co sq. m., extending behind the low sandy coastline. this plain is densely populated, and closely cultivated with rice, coconut and fruit trees. of the total population in 1921 286,363 were malays, for the most part born in kelantan. chinese numbered about 12,000. the broken hilly country south of the plain is thinly populated, but it contains the bulk of the foreign-owned estates. the staple produce is rice, most of which is grown for domestic consumption. rubber, coconuts and betel nuts come next in importance. other notable industries are fishing and weaving; but there is no mining worth mention, though tin mining js likely to develop with increased transport facilities. recent prospecting indicates the possibility of gold being found in payable quantities. the total volume of trade is valued at about $9,000,000, of which exports represent about $5,500,000. the chief exports are gums and resins (mainly para malines—malta rubber), copra, dried betel nuts, dry and salted fish, poultry and cattle, silk and cotton goods and dried hides. trengganu.—with the transfer to great britain of the siamese suzerainty over the state of ‘trengganu in 1909, the sending of the triennial tribute of bunga mas (gold and silver filigree flowers) to the king of siam ceased, and a british agent with consular powers was appointed. in 19109, following the report of a com- mission of inquiry, the agent was replaced by a british adviser, whose advice must be sought and followed in all matters of gencral administration and all questions other than those touching the mahommedan religion. the soil and climate are suitable for the cultivation of para rubber, coconuts, coffee and pepper; but the potentialities of the country lie in its mineral resources. treng- ganu is the least opened up of the unfederated states; but it is undoubtedly rich in minerals: tin (lode and alluvial) and wolfram are worked, and graphite, hematite, magnetite and monazite have been found. the total value of the trade of the state is about $9,000,000, of which exports represent nearly $5,500,000. the bulk of these, consisting of para rubber, dried fish, tin-ore, and copra, go to singapore. agriculture employs over 48,000 people and fishing 9,000. about 95°% of the population are malays. many of the malay inhabitants show special com- mercial aptitude, and it is noteworthy that there are here in- stances, rare elsewhere, of chinese trade financed by malay capital. the suzerainty of kedah also passed to great britain in 1909 and the administration of the country was finally adjusted by a treaty signed at singapore in 1923. the population in 1921 was 338,544, of whom 237,043 were malays, 59,403 chinese and 33,019 indians. only about 100 of the aborigines (sakeis) are left, these being mostly located in the forest region of the muda river. in north kedah the people are mainly employed in cultivating rice, and in south kedah, rubber, coconuts and tapioca. the estimated annual value of the exports is about $21,000,000, over 50% of which represents rubber. there are several good metalled roads communicating with province wellesley, singgor and north perak. the federated malay states railway administration has extended its service through kedah into the independent and protected state of perlis and trains have been running regularly since 1915. bangkok and singapore are now linked up by a connection through perlis. perlis.—the principal industries in the small state of perlis are rice cultivation and tin-mining. most of the exports go to penang, with which country there is regular and frequent steamer communication. survey and land settlement—one of the principal reforms undertaken under british advice has been that in land scttle- ment, the demarcation of property boundaries, and the issue of titles. to this end trigonometrical surveys have been under- taken. in johore by 1925 a settlement act was in force in the districts of muar and batu, but not in other districts owing to the want of surveyors. in kedah the survey is expected to be finished in 1927, and the survey department of that state has also supervised the work in perlis. in trengganu a settlement enactment was passed in 1924. education has also received close attention. the new system in johore, in which english is taught concurrently with malay, promises success. the chief english school is that of bukit zohara at johore bahru. educa- tion has also notably advanced in kedah, where there are government english schools at alor star and sungei patani. a notable inscription in malay ona stone pillar, of date 1303, was discovered in 1923 near kuala trengganu. it has a strong admixture of sanskrit and some of arabic, and deals with certain phases of islamic law. noexample of this association of languages of earlier date than 1468 was previously known, and this in- scription, which has been deposited in the raffles museum at singapore, forms by far the earliest known record of the penetra- tion of mahommedanism into the malay peninsula. bibliography.—the straits bulletin (singapore, 1914, etc.); j. n.c. tiruchelvam, a tour in malaya (colombo, 1918); mrs. c. e.f. davie, jn rubber lands. an account of the work of the church in malaya (1921); r. j. wilkinson, a history of the peninsular malays, 110 3rd ed. rev. (1923); h. m. tomlinson, tidemarks (1924); g. p. stevens, ramblings of a rolling stone (1924); t. r. hubback, sport and motoring in malaya (1924); corveth wells, six years in the malay jungle (1925). (a. r.*) malines, belgium (see 17.489), had a population of 60,4209 in 1923. ‘the town was bombarded three times during the world war, and much damage done. the old palais de justice, restored shortly before the war, the school of music and the picturesque houses round the bailles-de fer were ruined, and the south side of the cathedral and the chimes badly damaged. the cathedral was in progress of restoration in 1926. the cloth hall, also restored before the war, is used as the town hall. in 1924 the conversations between the archbishop of malines, cardinal mer- cier, with some dignitaries of the anglican church about the cause of christian reunion brought malines again into public notice. mallock, william hurrell (1849-1923), british author (see 17.492), died at wincanton, somerset, april 2 1923. malmedy: sce eupen and malmedv. malta (sce 17.507).—the period 1910-25 comprises changes of paramount importance in malta, of which the most impor- tant are consequent on the world war of 1914-8. the maltese provided a garrison for malta, many seamen and stokers for men-of-war and minesweepers, and labour battalions for galli- poli and salonika; and they did excellent service in the hospitals. these services contributed to the grant of responsible govern- ment, which was established by the constitution of 1921. constitution.—on june 12 1920 the governor, lord plumer, com- municated the decision of the british govt. to grant a form of self-government which provided for responsible control by the maltese ministers of local affairs. the letters patent came into force on may 16 1921, and provided for the creation of a senate of 17 mem- bers, with a legislative assembly of 32, the latter elected by propor- tional representation and having control of its own ministers. judges are to be appointed by the governor in council, and can only be re- moved by a joint address from both houses of the legislature. the police are under ministerial control. each house makes its own standing orders and rules, and defines its privileges; such powers, however, are not to exceed those of the british house of commons. debates may be conducted in english, italian or maltese; but all official entries are to be in english or italian. all persons are to enjoy full religious liberty, no person is to be subjected to any dis- ability or exclusion from office on the grounds of religion. a covering despatch empowered the legislature at its first sitting to declare koman catholicism the state religion. english is declared the official language of the administration: italian is to be the official language of record in the law courts, british subjects, not of maltese birth, may claim to be tried in the english language. by the new letters patent, power to make laws regarding reserved matters—including everything pertaining to defence, the control of forcign relations, coinage and external trade—remains in the hands of the governor and commander-in-chief, assisted by a nominated council consisting of the heutenant governor and the legal adviser (as ex-officio members) with senior officers of the navy, army and air force. population and emigration.—the civil population, including gozo and comino was estimated on dec. 31 1924 at 223,088; according to the census of rorr it was 219,311. the death-rate in 1924 was 23.22 per 1,000 as against an average of 22-57 during 1910. economic conditions became critical after the cessation of the war. the number of unemployed was swollen in 1919 by the discharge of about 15,000 men by the naval and mili- tary establishments, whereupon organised emigration was neces- sarily resorted to in order to ensure a suitable outlet for maltese labour. the number of emigrants in 1924 reached the total of 3,277. the distress prevailing among the poorer classes after the war caused the government to continue the bread subsidy in 1920 and a grant in aid thereof amounting to £250,000 was made irom imperial funds. general want and discontent led to serious disorders and to loss of life by riots on june 7 1910. schools.—on dec. 31 1924 the number of government day schools was 597. there were 58 private schools with a total of 26,744 scholars. ‘the estimated expenditure on all branches of education for the year 1925 to april 1 was £92,370, excluding buildings. the teaching of italian in the infant schools and in the first and second year of the elementary schools was entirely abolished in 1923. 776 finance and trade.—the revenue for the year ending april 1 1925 was £773,015 and the expenditure was £757,966; as against, in ig1o, revenue £436,200 and expenditure £458,012. the amount of british treasury currency notes in circulation on march 31 1925 has been estimated at £750,000. the total number of acres under crops in 1924 was returned at 42,964. it is estimated that the agricultural produce of the islands could only support the present population for three months in the year; the balance of foodstuffs and necessaries has to be paid for by work done for the imperial forces, for the dockyard and for visitors and tourists, and also by large re- mittances to relatives at home which are received from maltese abroad; moreover interest from investments outside the islands, and accumulated capital furnish margins to adjust the adverse balance. | trade (inclusive of goods by parcel post but exclusive of bullion and goods in transit) was as follows:— 1914 1924 imports . . «. « £2,510,934 £4.416,453 exports. - ‘ 1,053,854 1,451,706 the exports in 1924 include £443,708 value of coal furnished to merchant ships. in 1924 the value of imports from the united kingdom was £1,367,291. the number of british steamers calling (not including war vessels and transports) was 349, with the aggregate tonnage of 989,517, and of foreign vessels 411, tonnage 696,501. defence.—the increased importance of malta as a naval base was developed considerably in 1925, producing a period of in- creased prosperity; a floating dock was installed in 1925 capable of lifting the largest ships. an aerodrome has been built at hal far, suitable for main‘line airways. the greater part of the fortifications has been made over for civil purposes, in view that the importance of aircraft has altered fundamentally the needs and methods of military defence. antiquities —palacological investigations have been continu- ous and excavations at the cave of ghar dallam have yielded im- portant results among which were the discovery of human teeth assigned to the neanderthal period and remains of many species of animals. in the period of 1910-25 archaeology has been en- riched by further excavations of neolithic temples, and by the announcement of professor keith that the collection of bones at ghar dallam are due to that locality having been adapted by the prehistoric inhabitants as a pitfall to catch elephants and other wild animals when malta was part of an isthmus which connected italy with africa, and was in the neighbourhood of a fresh-water lake. see m. h. egan, notes on malia (1922); p. f. bellanti, studies in maitese history (1924). (g. st.*) malvy, louis jean (1875- ), french politician, was born at figeac dec. 1 1875. in 1906 he entered the chamber as a socialist-radical and was an under-secretary in the monis and caillaux cabinets (1911), minister of commerce and postal ser- vices under m. doumergue (dec. 1913) and minister of the interior in the viviani ministry (june 1914). he retained this post under m. briand and m. ribot. on july 22 1917 m. clemenceau charged him with lax administration in dealing with defeatists and agitators, and he resigned on aug. 31. in october m. leon daudet brought against him a general accusation of treason. a commission, appointed at m. malvy’s own suggestion, decided on behalf of the chamber that the senate, sitting as a high court, should pronounce judgment on all the stated charges. on aug. 6 1918 the high court acquitted m. malvy of the charge of treason, but found him guilty of culpable negligence in the performance of his duties as minister of the interior from 1914-7, and sentenced him to banishment for five years, which he passed in spain. in 1924 he represented france at the morocco negotia- tions which took place in spain, and in oct. of the same year became president of the finance commission of the chamber. m. malvy again became minister of the interior in the cabinet formed by m. briand in march 1926, but he resigned in the follow- ing april. (see france.) malvy—man, evolution of man, evolution of.—the late sir e. b. tylor, writing on the evolutionary theory of man’s origin, made the following statement: “in one form or another such a theory of human descent has, in our time, become part of an accepted framework of zoology, if not as a demonstrable truth, at any rate as a work- ing hypothesis which has no effective rival.” (see 2.105.) when sir edward made this statement in 1910 he was in his 78th year; his memory could carry him back to a time when it was believed that man had come into the world as a special creation some 4,000 years before the birth of christ and owed no kinship to other living things. he was 27 years of age when darwin’s origin of species was published in 1859; in 1865, two years after huxley had issued his renowned treatise on afan’s place in nature, he himself published a work which threw a new light on human history, researches into the early history of mankind and the development of civilization. when darwin’s descent of afan came out in 1871, tylor’s primitive culture; researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art and custom, kept it company. by the end of the roth century he had seen chair after chair in the universities of the world filled by men who were convinced that evolution was true; .at his death in 1917, at the age of 85, he had seen another generation of inquirers grow up who, after applying darwin’s teaching to all departments of man’s world—to his body, mind and culture— remained convinced that, as a working hypothesis, the doctrine of evolution had no rival. summary of the evidence embryology.—no matter what aspect of man the student of to-day may select for study, the conviction that evolution (q.v.) is true is forced on him. if he investigates the development of the child in the womb he comes across a complicated series of appearances which can be explained only if darwin’s teaching is accepted. comparative anatomy—lif he studies the structure of man’s body he finds it framed on the mammalian plan, and if he com- pares it with that of anthropoid apes he finds the points of re- semblance to be so numerous and so close that he cannot think that such a degree of resemblance could be a result of mere chance. if he inquires into the periods through which a newly born child passes to reach manhood or womanhood, he finds the animals which are most human in this respect are the great anthropoids—the gorilla, chimpanzee and orang. if he takes into consideration the diseases to which man is liable, he finds that human diseases are more readily communicated to the great anthropoids than to any other living animals. particularly is he impressed by the fact that the blood of man and of the anthro- poid apes, when tested against each other, react almost in the same way. to account for the presence of so many vestigial structures in man’s anatomy, he feels impelled to suppose that man has come of an ancestry in which these vestiges were fully grown and useful. a child may be born with its body mal- formed; it may suffer from hare-lip, cleft-palate or many other kinds of deformity, including the presence of a tail; medical men cannot account for such malformations if they look on man as a special creation; they can give a rational explanation of their oc- currence in man’s body if they accept the teachings of evolution. palaeontology.—in recently formed strata of the earth fossil forms of man are found; those from the older strata are more ape-like than those from the newer. in still older strata are found fossil fragments of great anthropoids; in still more ancient, the remains of small anthropoids; deeper still in the earth’s records no trace of anthropoid has yet been discovered. in these older strata occur fossil remains of small monkey-like primates. the geological records, so far as they are yet known, support darwin’s theory of man’s origin; they are altogether against the belief that man appeared suddenly—a special act of creation. iluman races ——more especially is the student of human races driven to darwinism for an explanation of his many problems; even if he believed that man had appeared originally by an act of special creation he must formulate a theory of evo- jution in order to account for the divergent races now living. man, evolution of although in thought and deed man rises far above any member of the brute creation, yet students of his brain find that it is modelled, part for part, on exactly the same pattern as that of the anthropoid ape. those who inquire into man’s mental qualities, his emotions, his habits, his tendencies and his modes of thought, find much which can be explained only by supposing that he has ascended from a lower order. for these reasons all present-day students who are applying themselves seriously to the unravelling of man’s history accept the theory of evolution as a truth. this conviction has spread from professional circles into the public thought of our time and altered the outlook of a large section of the lay mind; yet there still remain numbers of the public of europe and of america who, impressed by the great and real differences which separate the mentality of the lowest grades of mankind from that of the highest grade of ape, cannot believe that man has arisen from a lower form by any natural or evolutionary process. the state of tennessee has passed a law forbidding, i state- supported schools, “‘ the teaching that man has descended from a lower order of animals.” in june 1925 mr. scopes, a school teacher, was prosecuted under this law, found guilty and fined $100. since then certain other states have enacted similar laws. mian’s genealogy darwin's views—although there is a complete agreement among professional students that man is a member of that order of mammals to which linnaeus gave the name “ primates ” and that his lineage, when traced backwards, will be found to branch off from the primate trec, there is a sharp difference of opinion as to the exact point in the tree, and the approximate date in geological time, at which ithe human branch separates from those other main branches which represent the lineage of anthro- poid apes and of monkeys. it is clear from statements made in (a) (b) (c) gorilla chimpanzee man a d e (d anthe void f type (e) : catarhine wonkes fig. fa. (f) (g) catarhine platyrhine type lype h) ee simian type _ fic. 1.—a diagram to illustrate darwin's conception of man's lineage. . fic. 1a.—another possible relationship, also mentioned by darwin. the descent of man, that darwin regarded the gorilla and chim- panzee as more nearly akin to man than other living primates and, on the evidence available in 1871, thought it probable that man and the african anthropoids were co-descendants of a mr common anthropoid which had its habitat in africa (fig. 1). he regarded the catarhine type of monkey—the type exemplified by the monkeys of the old world—as representatives of a still older ancestral form. darwin traced the common anthropoid stock, which gave birth not only to the ancestral lines of man, the gorilla and chimpanzee, but also to those of the orang and gibbon, back to a common catarhine type. this catarhine type, he presumed, was the offspring of a still older common simian or monkey-like type, one which existed in the eocene period of the earth’s history and gave origin not only to the catarhine monkeys of the old world but also to the platyrhine monkeys human gorilla races chimpanzee orang gibbons dryopithecus lipotylal type lipocercal type platyrhine type catarhine type common simian type lic. 2.—haeckel’s conception of man’s descent as illustrated by a phylogenetic tree, published in 1866. 4 of the new world. thus man’s history, as darwin saw it, did not begin until after the ancestral type of anthropoid had been evolved; the appearance of an anthropoid type from a common catarhine ancestor and this from a common simian stock, repre- sent prehuman stages in the evolution of the higher primates. it is noteworthy that darwin’s mind remained open as to the exact point at which the human stock branched off from the general primate tree; more than once in the descent of afan he writes as if the human lineage might have come off, not from the anthropoid stem, but lower down in the primate tree, from that of the common catarhine stock (fig. 1a). haeckel’s views.—on nooccasion did darwin throw his concep- tion of man’s lineage intoa diagrammatic form. the first to con- struct an evolutionary tree of man’s descent was ernst flaeckel; this appeared in his generelle af or phologie published in 1866, five years before darwin’s descent of fan was issued. this pedigree is still worthy of study (fig. 2). haeckel perceived that the small form of anthropoid ape, the gibbon, was more primitive and earlier in point of evolution than the three living great anthro- poid apes (orang, chimpanzee and gorilla) and supposed that in the evolution of the great anthropoids from the ancestral cata- rhine type there was interposed a small anthropoid stage to which he gave the name lipocerca (xuretvy, to lack, xepxos, tail). this small anthropoid stock (lipocerca) gave origin, he supposed, to gibbons and to the ancestral stock of the great anthropoids— for which haeckel proposed the name lipotyla (aurecy, to lack, tuan, cushion}—anthropoids which, unlike the gibbons, were destitute of ischial callosities or natural cushions on which gib- 778 bons and old world monkeys seat themselves. this cushionless anthropoid stock (lipotyla) he regarded as ancestral to the various races of mankind. from the lipotyla, which gave origin to man, there also branched off, at an early stage, the ancestry of the orang and, at a later, the common ancestry of the chim- panzee and gorilla. thus haeckel regarded the gorilla and chim- panzee as more nearly related to man than other living anthro- poids. it is also remarkable that he placed the extinct miocene form of anthropoid ape, known as dryopithecus, on the line which led up to the gorilla and chimpanzee on the one hand and to human races on the other. thus it will be seen that in hacckel’s opinion man was the descendant of an anthropoid ape. later, he introduced considerable modifications into this family tree. in the third edition of his evolution of afan (english translation, 1879) he interpolated into man’s ascent from an anthropoid to a human state an intermediate stage represented by ape-like men—beings who were manlike in form and in gait but lacked man’s power of speech. to such hypothetical beings he gave the name pithecanthropi. modern views.—in 1892 vrof. i. dubois discovered in the island of java the fossil remains of a being which answered very well to this hypothetical stage, and named this fossil form of evolving man pithecanthropus erectus. hacckel presumed that his pithecanthropi had lived in the pliocene period; prof. dubois is of opinion that his transitional form of man lived in java to- wards the end of the pliocene period. discoveries made by dr. g. e. pilgrim of the geological survey of india and by mem- bers of that survey in the latter part of the 19th century have | recent gorilla chimpanzee gibbon gna pleistocene man pithecanthropus phropithecus propliopithecus eocene tarsioids fic. 3.—a phylogenetic tree of the higher primates (after w. k. gregory, i916). proved that india, during the miocene period and the earlier part of the pliocene, was the home of great anthropoids of many and diverse kinds, several of them belonging to the type of dryopithecus which haeckel, at an early period, regarded as a possible ancestor to man. others of these fossil indian or siwalik anthropoids show affinities to the orang, to the chimpanzee and to the gorilla, while still another—s7eu pithecus—is regarded by dr. pilgrim as an early representative of the human family. notwithstanding these revelations from india and taking all their bearings into consideration the majority of modern authori- ties (dubois, w. k. gregory, elliot smith, keith), in construct- ing diagrams to illustrate the aflinities and lines of descent for the higher primates, depict the human stem (fig. 3) as springing from the vicinity of the stem which gave rise to the gorilla and chimpanzee. the conception, first formulated by haeckel, that a miocene anthropoid of the type of dryopithecus (fig. 3) may stand as a common ancestor to man and to the african anthro- poids is still regarded as possible. man, evolution of doubts ratsed by the occurrence af purallel evolution. there 1s a line of evidence, accumulating at the present moment, which tends to unclermine the confidence of those who have drawn up phylogenetic trees of man’s descent. all who have inquired into the evolution of horses and elephants, by the study of fossil forms found in widely separated regions of the world, have become impressed by the fact that horses and elephants in america have passed through evolutionary changes of the same kind and in the same order as have done their representatives in the old world. this tendency for the descendants of a common ancestry to undergo purallel or even converging evolution, has been very fully expounded in the published works of dr. henry fairfield osborn (origin and evolution of life, 19018). that parallel evolution has been potent in the order of mammals to which man is assigned there can be no doubt. the monkeys of the new world parted company from those of the old early in the eocene period; it is probable that at the time of their separa- tion they had only reached the stage represented by the tar- sioids, a family of monkey-like primates, which has now only one living representative—the tarsier (tursius spectrum) of borneo and other islands of the malay archipelago. although parted thus early, new and old world monkeys have acquired cor- responding structural modifications—modificatiors of a kind which we cannot regard as having been present in their common ancestor. the brain of the south american spider monkey (ateles), that of the old world monkeys of the semnopithek type, and that of the small anthropoid or gibbon, have many common characters which could not have been present in the brain of their eocene ancestor. we may legitimately infer, however, that a bias or tendency to produce similar or almost identical modificatiors was latent in the common ancestor. if parallel evolution has been at work in one section of the order of primates it may have been at work in another, and we must therefore keep in mind the possibility that man and the gorilla may have acquired their many and striking points of structural similarity independently. cope (1882) and hubrecht (1897) supposed that human lineage had parted from that of the anthropoids near the base of the primate phylum; if this were so man would have an independent pedigree of immense length. in more recent times prof. f. wood jones (the problem of afan’s ancesiry, 1918) has put forward the theory that man, because of the number of primitive and gen- eralised features of his structure, is to be traced back to an in- dependent origin from a tarsivid ancestor. such a view entails the need of supposing that the multitude of structural similari- tics shared by man and the great anthropoids must have been acquired by each independently—a supposition which is unac- ceptable to the majority of those who have made a special study of the higher primates living and extinct. klaatsch (die stellung der menschen im naturgansen, 1911), (evolution and progress of mankind, 1923) made a_ larger demand on the powers of evolution to reach the same end by diverse routes. this voluminous author traced the origin of mankind to an anthropoid ancestry, but supposed that the ancient inhabitants of europe—neanderthal man, known only from his fossil remains, and the living negro peoples of africa had arisen from the same stock as the gorilla and chimpanzee, while mongolian peoples and men of the modern european type had sprung from the same lineage as the orang. klaatsch be- lieved in the polygenetic origin of human races, whereas nearly all modern authorities hold a monogenetic theory of man’s evolution. they cannot believe that black and white races, which although outwardly dissimilar are yet structurally so alike and freely capable of interbreecling, could have sprung from different branches of the primate tree. they rely on the axiom that likeness in structure means similarity of descent. afan an aberrant primate—ti\\n charting the family tree of the higher primates modern authorities differ as to the position which should be assigned to man. prof. fugene dubois repre- sents the human stem as the main and direct continuation of the trunk of the primate tree (nature, vol. 53, p. 245, 1896); from this main trunk all the other members of the primate order man, evolution of are made to come off as side branches. man is given the central position of his order; he forms the apex of the primate tree. prof. elliot smith (£volution of mun, 1925) also gives the human family the central position as a direct continuation of the main primate stem. in reality man is the most aberrant member of his order; in brain and in the modifications of his lower limbs he has departed farther from the ancestral primate state, so far as we know that state by the study of fossil remains, than any mem- ber of the order; he has retained less of the structural organisa- tion of the original primate than all the others. apparently in the evolution of the higher primates there has been the same tendency as is to be noted in modern political parties—a tend- ency for an extreme wing to move ever further from the central group of conservatism. the human family represents the ex- treme wing in the order of primates; tarsius, greatly modified as it is, retains the essentials of the central or conservative group. man’s zoological position zoologists classify animals into families, sub-famuilies, genera and species, according to their degrees of structural likeness; they presume, although fully aware that parallel evolution can and does take place, that two animals, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee, which are so similar in the structural details of their bodies, owe that similarity to their descent from a common an- cestry. darwin urged rightly that in settling the zoological relationship of one group of animals to another, more weight must be attached to the points wherein they agree than to those in which they differ. huxley's views.—in the masterly analysis of man’s struc- tural relationships given by huxley in mui’s place in nature (1863), more stress was laid on the anatomical differences which separate man from the gorilla than on the points wherein they agree. huxley held that differences of a like kind and of an equal degree separated the gorilla from any form of catarhine or platyrhine monkey a critic might choose for comparison. he held that if evolution could produce the structural gap which separates a monkey from the gorilla it could also bring about the abyss which divides the gorilla from man. huxley’s conclusions are still valid; indeed, the modern anatomist is convinced that the structural hiatus which lies between a baboon or any other form of monkey and the gorilla is much wider than that which lies between the gorilla or chimpanzee and man. when tested by modern methods, the blood of the chimpanzee shows a much closer affinity in its reactions to that of man than to that of any old world monkey; the blood of monkeys of the new worl., when submitted to the same tests, reveals a still more distant affinity (prof. g. h. nuttall, blood immunity and blood rela- tionship, 1904). huxley incluiled in one family the great anthro- poids (gorilla, chimpanzee and orang), the small anthropoids (siamang, gibbons), and the various genera of monkeys of the old world; if we are to be guided by anatomical considerations we must give to each of these groups the rank of a family. the same rank—that of a primate family —must be given to the section which embraces all the various races and types of man- kind, living and extinct. the various genera of new world monkeys make up a fifth family of primates. the primate families —thus in that part of the living animal kingdom to which man belongs, there are five families—the human family, that of the great anthropoids, that of the small anthropoids, the family of catarhine or old world monkeys and the family of platyrhine or new world monkeys. these families are separated by structural gaps of about equal magnitude. from the platyrhine monkeys upwards, these familics form an ascending scries in the sense that each succeeding family marks a further departure from the ancestral tarsioid type, the point of highest differentiation being reached in the human family. evidence of maann’s descent anatomical.—the members of these five families of primates have a common structural substratum—an inheritance from the ancestral stock from which they have all descended. each family in the course of evolution has come by anatomical fea- 779 tures which are peculiar to itself. a full analysis of the struc- tural details of man’s body shows that about 30% of them are peculiar to himself. the corresponding characters of the gorilla number 16%; the gibbon has about the same proportion of features peculiar to its own family (keith, arrsta di antre- pologia, vol. 20, p. 1, 1916). as examples of man’s peculiar characters we may cite his nude skin, his projecting nose with well marked wings, the size of his brain, the strength of his thigh, the form of his leg, the shape of his foot. common characters—further analysis reveals in man’s body a series of characters which he shares with only two other living animals—namely, the gorilla and chimpanzee. these amount to nearly 9° of the total points selected for comparison, but if we include in this group features which man shares with the gorilla alone or with the chimpanzee alone, then man has in his body about 26% of characters which he shares with gorilla and chim- panzee or with gorilla alone or chimpanzee alone. such charac- ters, we presume, are derived from a common ancestor which gave birth to man and to the great anthropoids of africa, as examples of characters common to the three we may cite the air chambers which branch off from the nasal cavity. these have the same arrangement and are of the same number in man, gorilla and chimpanzee. another example is to be found in the small bones of the wrist. of the higher primates, only in these three has the os centrale disappeared as a separate unit from the carpus; yet in a foetal stage this bone is present in all three; and as a separate element in adults of all the other higher primates. descending still lower in the strata of human anatomy we encounter a group of characters which man shares with the three great anthropoids. we may speak of man and these three as the giant primates, for compared with the earlier types they are giants, or we may apply to this group haeckel’s convenient name—lipotyia. man shares with the other giant primates 10% of similarities of structural detail; to this we may add 5% which he shares with the orang and with the orang only, characters which the chimpanzee and gorilla have apparently lost or per- haps never possessed. going still lower in our analysis, we find over 8°, of characters which are common to the gibbon as well as to the great anthropoids. with the gibbon man shares 8% of structural features which are not to be scen in the bodies of the great anthropoids. in this case, again, we have to suppose that man and the gibbon came by those characters long after they separated from a common ancestor, or that the great anthropoids have lost them in the course of evolution while man and the gibbon have retained them. lower in the scale of our analysis we come upon features in man’s body which he has apparently retained from a catarhine ancestry; at least, to find their counterparts we have to go to the bodies of old world monkeys. in man’s body there are 5° of such catarhine features; in the gorilla’s body such features are three times as numerous. it is remarkable that platyrhine characters, features to be scen in the bodies of the new world monkeys, should be as numerous as catarhine in man’s body. there is a small residue of anatomical details in human anat- omy attributable to a still more distant past, a heritage from a tarsioid or lemuroid ancestry. from the details revealed by anatomical analysis it is plain that evolution has not proceeded in an orderly or simple manner in shaping the bodics of the higher primates; characters are curiously scattered. yet to explain the distriution of characters in the various families we must suppose that man’s ancestry is linked closely to that of the african anthropoids—the gorilla and chimpanzee. in some instances we obtain help in explaining the distribution of char- acters by calling in the aid of collateral or parallel evolution; in other cascs mendel’s discoverics in heredity assist us; further, we sce that the body of man and of ape is a great mosaic work of structural elements and that progressive changes may occur in one set of units while retrograde changes affect another set. in recent years the formation of the human embryo in the womb, the complicated changes which transform the embryo into a foetus and the elaborate processes which produce the organs of the ripe child from embryonic rudiments, have been 780 studied by an ever-growing army of inquirers and by methods which show an ever-increasing precision. embryologists find it necessary to assume that the law of evolution holds for man; unless they make this assumption they can offer no rational explanation of the complex changes which engage their atten- tion. in its broad lines development pursues the same course in the human body as in that of all vertebrate animals. what francis balfour in 1885 saw taking place with diagrammatic clear- ness in the embryo of the dog-fish has given clues to the more com- plexandobscure processes now known tooccurintheembryoof man. the developing human egg, when it becomes established in the mother’s womb, undergoes a series of elaborate and peculiar changes. the investigations carried out by the late dr. emil selenka (afenschenaffen. studien jdiber entwickelung und schidelbau, 1898-1906) revealed the fact that only in the wombs of four other living mammals, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang and gibbon, do the same changes take place. the process by which the placenta is formed, thus establishing a means of supplying the unborn child with nourishment, is exactly the same in man as in anthropoid apes. it is true that in tursizs we sce outlined the basal plan of placentation met with in the higher primates, but it is also true that in the placentation of the monkeys of the old world and also in that of the new world we sce a stage which leads on from the lower or tarsioid condition to the higher or anthropoid form. in the embryos of man and of the anthropoids an external jointed tail is produced in the fifth week of development; by the end of the eighth week it has shrivelled and become submerged, leaving a dimple at the point of the caudal region where it sinks below the surface. these are a few examples of some of the remarkable similarities which link the embryological history of man with that of the anthropoid apes. recapitulaution, interpolation, adaptation.—when in the later decades of the 19th century anatomists applied themselves to unravelling the development of man’s body, they expected it to recapitulate, in full detail, the various stages of his evolution. in this they have been disappointed, because in the growth of the embryo and of the foetus we see three different processes at work. we see recapitulation taking place; we also see new characters being interpolated from the time the embryo makes its first appearance until all the parts of a formed child are laid down; further we sce at every stage the body of the embryo and of the foetus being adapted to a life within the womb. when gill-clefts appear in the neck of the human embryo towards the end of the first month of development we sec a recapitulatory and very dis- tant phase exemplified. when we look at the developing human foot, with the expectation of finding an anthropoid phase, we search in vain. the great toe is never a free and separate mem- ber in the human foot as it is in the adults of all other primates. there is a stage in the development of the feet of primates when all the digits diverge equally from the tarsal base; man and ape pass through this stage and man clings to it as it were, whereas all the other primates pass on to a final prehensile stage. yet in the sole of the newly born child we see the same flexion lines as in that of the gorilla; we find the same muscles in the great toe of the human foot as in that of the gorilla; we find the joint at the base of man’s great toe, especially in the foetus, moulded in the same form as the gorilla. we cannot explain these appearances unless we believe that the human foot has been evolved from one like that of the gorilla, more especially as the foot of the gorilla shows a curious blend of human and monkey-like features. the human great toe does not recapitulate ancestral history; developmental changes which mould the great toe into the human pattern set in just when the simian ones are due; the human changes do not succeed but replace those that give the ape its prehensile foot. new changes have been intercalated in the evolutionary sequence. in a multitude of details the human embryo no longer recapitulates the series of changes gone through by its ancestors. it is true of every part of the human body; human characters begin to peer through its higher primate qualities before development is a month old. man, evolution of of the changes which affect the developing human body those which represent adaptations to life within the womb are the most important. the child draws its living from its mother’s body; it is sheltered and kept warm; it has not to seek its living nor defend itself; such qualities need not be attained until the time of birth; until then nature is free to work out what experi- ments she will. it is a remarkable fact that many of man's dis- tinguishing features are to be met with during foctal stages in the development of anthropoid apes. a stage which is transient in the foetal ape becomes permanent in man. we may take as an example the comparative hairlessness of man’s body. a foetal chimpanzee, in the eighth month of development, resem- bles a human foetus of the same age; both have hair growing freely on their scalps, but the rest of their bodies, although pro- vided with lanugo, appear to be nude. by birth the chimpanzee’s body is covered with hair, but the human child retains the foetal state. yet all known primates save man have their bodies thickly covered with hair; hairlessness is not an ancestral con- dition, but one made possible by the retention of the young in the shelter of the womb. the skin provides us with another example of foetal inheritance. in the fair or white stock of mankind the skin has become relatively free from pigment. in their earlier stages of foetal development apes are unpigmented; they darken as the time of birth approaches. white men have come by their colouring through the inheritance of a foetal con- dition, one which is certainly not ancestral. many examples might be cited of man coming by distinctive characters by retaining foetal states, but the following may be taken as representative. in all foetal primates the brain is rela- tively large and the jaws absolutely small; this is certainly not an ancestral state, for in all the older forms of primate the brain is small and the jaws large. man is distinguished by the large size of his brain and the relatively small size of his teeth and jaws. hlow he compares with adults of great anthropoid apes may be seen from the following data. we may take the capacity of the cranial cavity to represent the size of brain and the area of the palate to represent the size of the jaws. in a well-grown adult european male we expect a cranial capacity of 1,500 c.c. and a palatal area of 25 sq.cm., there being 60 c.c. of brain space for every square centimetre of palate. ‘the average male gorilla has a cranial capacity of 470c.c.,a palatal arca of 72 sq. cm., that is, 5°8c.c. of brain space for every square centimetre of palate. the corresponding figures for the average male orang are: 412 c.c., 62 sq. cm., giving a cranio-palatal ratio 6-6:1; in the average male chimpanzee the figures are: 390 c.c., 46$q. cm., giving a ratio of 8-5:1. there is a wide gap between the european cranio-palatal ratio 60:1 and that of the chimpanzee, 8-5:1. we may fill the gap somewhat by citing a tasmanian skull with a capacity of 1,350 cc., a palatal area of 36-7 sq. cm., and a ratio of 36-7:1. we finda still nearer approach to the anthropoid condition in the fossil skull of rhodesian man -n which the cranial capacity is 1,300 cc., the palatal area 41 sa. cm., the cranio-palatal ratio 31-7:1. even this ratio is far above that of the chimpanzee, 8-5:1; but if we take a suckling chimpanzee, in which the cranial capac- ity is 260 c.c. and the area of palate 13-6 sq. cm., we obtain a ratio 19:1, an approach to the human proportion. if we take a still earlier stage, such as may be observed in a chimpanzee foetus during the eighth month of development, we find a ratio which is human in its magnitude. man has come by his small palate by retaining a foetal anthropoid condition, and this is true of all the parts of man’s skull which are concerned in mas- lication. this tendency to foetal inheritance is not confined to the human branch of primates; in certain genera of new world monkeys, particularly in chrysothrix and cebus, we sec in their small jaws and large heads the same law at work. the belief that many of man’s foetal characters do not reflect ancestral stages, but foreshadow the trend of future evolution, was held by several anatomists in germany towards the end of the roth century, particularly by ranke. the law of foetal in- heritance, so far as it relates to man, has been greatly extended during recent years in a series of papers by prof. l. bolk of man, evolution of amsterdam (proc. of the roy. acad. of sc. of amsterdam, 1921-3). embryological evidence, if it has failed to reveal the pithe- coid states through which man has passed in his ascent, does provide conclusive evidence of his simian ancestry. in the de- velopment of his brain, for example, we see that the first fissures io appear are those which occur in the brains of the higher monkeys; the next are those which are found in the brains of the great anthropoids, and later still the secondary human sulci are formed; but never at any stage does the human brain corre- spond to that of monkey or of anthropoid. if embryology has failed to reveal the details of man’s history, it has shown that the processes of evolution are at work on the foetal body; if the study of the foetus does not help us to decipher man's past, it does seem to provide a basis on which we may forecast the future of the human body. the brain of the gorilla, in the totality of its characters, is the most like that of man; these two are struc- tural allies, yet evolution has moulded their bodies in opposite directions. during growth the gorilla replaces all its foetal characters by those of brutality and strength; in man the tend- ency has been to retain the delicate physique of the young and to shed those of a more brutal nature. why the one fate over- took the gorilla and another fell to man remains an enigma. biological evidence of man's evolution blood tests.—not only are the bodies of man and anthropoil apes fashioned on similar lines, but, as was demonstrated at the beginning of the present century, their living tissues give like reactions. in to900 dr. hans friedenthal injected a small amount of human blood into the veins of a chimpanzee; its vital qualities were so similar to those of the chimpanzee that no disturbance followed the operation. when an equal amount of the blood of a macaque monkey was injected into the veins of the chimpanzce there was a slight reaction; the corpuscles of the macaque's blood were destroyed and ejected by the kidneys. when the blood of an ox was used a violent reaction was pro- duced, the foreign blood being destroyed and thrown out. prof. g. h. f. nuttall, of cambridge university, thereafter elaborated a more precise method of estimating blood-aflinities, by which very small quantities of blood can be tested against specially prepared antisera. in t904 appeared his classical work blood immunity and blood relationship, containing the results of tests carried out on three species of anthropoid ape, 28 species of old world monkeys, and nine species from the new world. the blood of all these species was tested against a human anti- serum. the blood of the anthropoids gave a full reaction—100°%4; that of the old world monkeys gave a lesser reaction or pre- cipitation, one equivalent to 92% of the full; that of the new world monkeys 78 per cent. at the time prof. nuttall was making these investigations in england, dr. uhlenhuth was carrying out independent inquiries in germany, and reached corresponding conclusions as to degrees of affinity. the tests devised by nuttall and by uhlenhuth utilise the fluid or serum of the blood. recently drs. landsteiner and miller (jor. ex- perim. med., vol. 42, p. 841, 1925) have utilised the corpuscular elements of the blood and find that they give more delicate reac- tiors than those given by the serum. they devised tests which serve to distinguish the blood of the chimpanzec from that of man, but which failed to discriminate the blood of the white man from that of the negro. disease reactions.—the reactions of living tissue are also tested by disease. man is peculiarly susceptible to syphilis; the animals most akin to him in this respect are the great anthro- poid apes. monkeys are difficult to inoculate with syphilis, and when they suffer, take the disease in its mildest form. anthropoid apes are almost as suceptible to typhoid fever as man is. when chimpanzees are kept in confinement they are liable to that modern disease of man—appendicitis. anthropoids react to stimulants, sedatives and poisons in the same manner as human beings. the brains of the great anthropoid apes are smaller and are less convoluted than is the case in man, yet when the living cortex is stimulated by electrical methods, be it in man or anthro- poid ape, the same reactions follow when corresponding con- 781 volutions are excited. surgeons have found that observations made by experimental physiologists on the brains of anthropoid apes afford reliable guidance when they have to operate on the brain of man. thus the evidence supplied by vital tests bears out the conclusions forced on anatomists by similarity of structure—namely, that great anthropoid apes, in an evolution- ary scnse, are near akin to man. evidence of vestigial structures nearly all the structures which have become greatly reduced or are mere vestiges in the body of man have undergone a similar fate in the bodies of the anthropoid apes. in them as in man the tail has disappeared, all save its basal part, which has sunk beneath the surface to form the coccyx. it is true that the vermiform appendix of man is smaller than that of any of the anthropoid apes, and that in half of the europeans who reach the age of 70 its lumen has become closed, vet it 1s more than doubtful if this structure should be reckoned vestigial in the body of either man or anthropoid. the palmaris longus, the plantaris, the pyramidalis, muscles which are reduced or fibrous in man, are in the same state in anthropoid apes. such evidence points to a common origin for anthropoids and man, but it throws no light on man’s more immediate relationship to any member of the anthropoid group. there are two muscular vestiges, however, which point to man’s kinship to the african anthropoids. there is a muscle in the neck of monkeys which helps to lift the shoulder; it is called the jevaior claviculae. it has almost disappeared from man’s body; it is met with only once in a hundred dissections. this muscle shows definite signs of reduction in the gorilla and chim- panzee, but not in the orang or gibbon. all monkeys have a strong muscle called the latisstmo-condyloideus. when a monkey is climbing, and has seized a branch with its hand, it uses this muscle to pull the trunk upwards. it is a particularly strong muscle in the gibbon, well developed in the orang, somewhat reduced in the chimpanzee, partly fibrous in the gorilla, wholly fibrous in man, although in 5°, of human bodies some muscle fibres may be detected. lately dr. a. h. schultz, of the car- negie institution of washington, has found a remarkable exam- ple of the persistence of a vestige in man’s body (amer, jour. pihvsic. anthrop., vol. 7, p. t49, 1924). lemurs, which branched off from the primate stem at a very distant geological period, have a tuft of touch vibrissac at the wrist. monkeys were sup- posed to have lost these vibrissae; dr. schultz found them in foetal stages of monkeys both of the old world and of the new. on examining the wrists of human foetuses in the second month of development he found a raised plaque at the spot where the touch vibrissae are situated in lemurs. tue evidence of fossit remains pithecanthropus erectus —the discovery which throws most light on the evolutionary progress of man was made in java during 1891-2 by prof. eugene dubois, then a surgeon in the colonial military service, and later professor of geology in the university of amsterdam. in a stratum which contained the fos- sil bones of many extinct species of animals he obtained five fragments of a strange kind of being, one which he regarded as a transitional form between man and ape—a real missing link. he named it pithecanthropus erectus, and assigned it to a sepa- rate family of primates—one lying on the borderline between anthropoids and man. (pithecanthropus ercctus, ene menschen- achnliche ucberganegsform aus java, 1894.) the five fossil fragments found were: a skull cap which outwardly had the form which might be expected in a giant form of gibbon, a left thigh bone and three teeth. the most distant of the fragments were twenty paces apart. later he added a sixth fragment— part of a lower jaw found in another part of the island but in a stratum of the same geological age. the skull cap is flat, low and has great eyebrow ridges; its characters are more simian than human, yet when prof. dubois succeeded in obtaining a cast from the interior of the skull cap, that cast bore on it the con- volutionary pattern of the brain of pithecanthropus, and that 782 pattern proved to be altogether human. pithecanthropus, the fossil man of java, had a brain which was smaller, simpler and infinitely more primitive than that of the lowest living men. by this discovery prof. dubois caught the human brain in the act of evolving. certain cortical or convolutionary areas in man’s brain are known to be concerned with sight, hearing and touch, and the reception of messages from other sense organs; a ‘motor ”’ arca is concerned in the initiation and control of voluntary movements. between these primary areas of the cor- tex lie association areas which have to do with the memory and the interpretation of what is seen, heard or felt. the cortex of part of the frontal lobe—the prefrontal cortex—is concerned in the acquisition of skilled movements. these secondary or asso- ciation areas of cortex, which lie between and separate the pri- mary areas, are the basis of man’s educability—his capacity to learn from experience. in the brain of pithecanthropus the association areas are much less developed than in the brains of the lowest of living human races. yet all the essentially human parts are represented. it is even possible that the owner of this brain was capable of speech. a further study of the brain-cast has convinced prof. dubois that pithecanthropus must be placed in the human family (pree. roy. acad. sc. amsterdam, vol. 27, nos. 5, 6, 1924). the brain of this ‘‘ fossil ”? man is now estimated to have had a volume of at least goo c.c.; the largest-brained gorillas rarely rise above 600 c.c.; the lowest-brained of human beings occasionally falls below 1,000 cubic centimetres. pithecanthropus in size of brain lies on the verge of humanity. ilis teeth, if large, are essentially human in form of crown and root; the socket for the canine, in the fragment of lower jaw, shows that this tooth was not massive and pointed as in anthropoid apes. the thigh bone is human alto- gether, and gives proof that pithecanthropus walked as men do. pithecanthropus was assigned by prof. dubois, on reliable evidence, to a date late in the pliocene period; others on weigh- ing the evidence suppose that he lived early in the pleistocene period. if we accept the duration of the pleistocene as 250,000 years, and regard pithecanthropus as representing the evolu- tionary stage reached by mankind at the beginning of this period, then we have to conclude that man’s body had become adapted to its peculiar posture and gait before the end of the pliocene period, and that the higher development of the brain took place in the ensuing pleistocene period. eoanthropus.—the discovery which ranks next in importance to that of pithecanthropus was made by mr. charles dawson at piltdown, sussex, between the years ro1r and 1915. he found the greater part of the left half of a deeply mineralised human skull, also part of the right half; the right half of the lower jaw, damaged at certain parts but carrying the first and second molar teeth and the socket of the third molar or wisdom tooth. the lower jaw, on the region beneath the chin, had a bar of bone known as the “ simian shelf,”’ which until then had been regarded as a mark of the ape. later a pointed upper canine tooth was added; its characters were simian rather than human. the stratum of gravel proved to have been laid down early in the pleistocene period, and it is certain that the fossil fragments of this human skull were as old as the date of deposition. from the fossil fragments thus found, sir arthur smith woodward recon- structed an extinct genus of mankind, foanthropus, the dawn- man (quar. jour. geol. soc., 1913-5). subsequently (1915) in the deepest part of the gravel stratum there was found a remark- able bone implement hewn from the thigh bone of an extinct kind of elephant; in a neighbouring field two other fragments of a skull of the same kind came to light, and another molar tooth. some experts still doubt whether a lower jaw which resembles that of a chimpanzee in several respects should be assigned to a skull which is purely human in its characters. at first there were differences of opinion as to the size and characters of the brain of eoanthropus. amongst british authorities there 1s now agreement that the skull and jaw are parts of the same individ- ual, and that the brain, as revealed by casts taken from the interior of the skull, is human in its size and in all its characters. if we divide living races into three classes according to the size man, evolution of of brain, the large-brained having a cranial capacity above 1,450 cu.c., the small-brained a capacity under 1,350 cu.c., then eoanthropus certainly reached the upper limits of the small- brained class if not actually a member of the medium-brained group. the brain of eoanthropus has risen many stages above that of pithecanthropus; the bone implement affords evidence of manual skill and of inventive ability on the part of its owner. the eyebrow ridges of pithecanthropus are shaped as in the gibbon, chimpanzee and gorilla; in piltdown man they are fashioned nearer to the form scen in the skull of the orang. the discovery at piltdown shows that at the beginning of the pleisto- cene period a race of mankind had come by a brain that had reached a human estate, and that this race still retained certain definite simian characteristics in its jaws, teeth and face. neanderthal man.—in 1857 while workmen were clearing out the neanderthal cave near diisseldorf, germany, they found the vault of a fossilised skull and limb bones of a man who proved to be, in the light of further discoveries, a representative of an extinct species of man— homo neanderthalensis. a fossil skull which was dug up at gibraltar in 1848 is of the neanderthal type. fossil remains of the same kind have been found in bel- gium (at naulette, 1866, and at spy, 1886), but the caves of france have proved the richest source of neanderthal remains, particularly those in the valley of the dordogne. the evidence found at la chapelle (1908), at la terrassie (1909), at le moustier (1908) and at la quina (1911) made it quite clear that this extinct type of man, marked as he was by many simian traits of body, buried his dead with signs of respect. he worked flint implements with great skill, in the style or cul- ture known as mousterian. he was a hunter and lived in caves and rock shelters. his molar teeth were often shaped in a peculiar manner; his teeth have been found in cave deposits in jersey (1911) and in malta (1917). his remains have been found in moravia (1906) and at krapina in croatia (1899-1906). his culture has been found in italy and in england, but no trace of his body. only once have fossil remains of neanderthal man been found outside the limits of europe, in a cave situated on the western shores of the sea of galilce (1925). neanderthal man appears to have been the sole occupant of europe during the middle of the pleistocene period—throughout the time in which the mousterian culture prevailed in that con- tinent. the date of this culture may be put down tentatively as extending from 40,000 b.c. to 20,000 b.c.; perhaps its duration was much longer. remains of neanderthal man rather more primitive in type, and found in strata older than the mousterian strata of france, have been discovered at ‘taubach (1895) and at ehringsdorf (1914), both of these sites being near weimar, germany. the heidelberg mandible was found at a depth of 78 ft. in a sandpit at mauer, ten miles to the east of heidelberg, in 1907. the stratum in which it was found belongs to the deeper and older pleistocene series; this fossil jaw thus repre- sents a race which lived long before the men who practised the mousterian culture. yet so like is the mandible of heidelberg man to that of neanderthal man, in the majority of its charac- ters, that we may safely regard him as an ancestral representa- tive of the neanderthal species. in heidelberg man the canine tooth did not project above its neighbours as in eoanthropus. at one time it was believed that neanderthal man represented an ancestral phase of modern man. every bone of his body shows distinctive markings, many of these being of a simian nature. his eyebrow ridges were like those of the gorilla and chimpanzee; the roof of his skull was low like theirs, and yet in size of brain he equalled, if he did not surpass, modern euro- peans. he had, however, certain specialisations of structure which modern or neanthropic man does not possess. besides, the archaeological evidence is now complete that he was replaced in europe by the arrival of men of the modern kind—represented by people of the cromagnon type. for these reasons neander- thal man cannot be regarded as an ancestor of modern man. neanderthal man and men of the modern type, however, have so much in common that they must be looked upon as descend- ants of a common ancestor. : management —manchester rhodesian afan.—the fossil remains of rhodesian man which were discovered in the broken hill mine, northern rhodesia, in the summer of 1921, also bear evidence to the truth of man’s evolution. hus fossil remains lay deep in a filled-up cave; he was probably alive in africa when men of the neanderthal type dominated europe. his limb bones show that he was tall, quite 5 ft. ro in. in height, and stoutly made, after the manner of modern man. his skull, which is complete save the lower jaw, possesses many primitive traits. his brain space was small (1,300 c.c.);in point of development the brain falls below that of eoanthropus. the eyebrow ridges are extremely massive, and the face has features which recall those of the gorilla. yet his teeth, although large, are human in every respect and were ravaged by caries. rhodesian man might well stand as an an- cestral type to modern man. cromagnon and other races—the cromagnon type of man and other forms which appear in europe after the disappearance of neanderthal] man are fully developed men of the modern type; they differ from us only in robusticity of build and strength of jaw. the fossilised, capacious skull discovered at boskop, transvaal, in 1913, represents an extinct form of man of the bushman type. the tvalgai skull, derived from a pleistocene deposit and described by dr. s. a. smith (phil. traus., ser. b, vol. 208, p. 351, 1918), is of the same form as that of living aus- tralian aborigines, but possesses additional primitive features. prof. e. dubois discovered a pleistocene form of man at wadjak, java, one with a very large cranial capacity (proc. roy. acad. - sc. amsterdam, vol. 23, pt. 7, 1920). such discoveries, although they bear out the truth of evolution, do not throw light on man’s evolutionary pedigree. geological evidence of man’s antiouity artefacts in pliocene deposits -——\\i we accept pithecanthropus as representative of man’s estate towards the end of the pliocene period, then we must infer that man had come by his posture and his gait before the close of the phocene period, and that his brain underwent its greatest expansion in the earlier part of the pleistocene period; an inference which postulates a rapid rate for human evolution. in size of brain pithecanthropus was approaching the human minimum. it is difficult to conceive him as a maker of tools, yet in geological deposits which were laid down in east anglia during the pliocene period mr. reid moir has found flints which must have been shaped by beings which possessed skilled hands (pre-palueolithic man, 1921. the great flint implements of cromer, 1923). such evidence indicates that other gencra of the human family may have marched towards the human goal more rapidly than pithecanthropus. the early anthropoids——if man is a descendant of a great anthropoid, and the great anthropoid of a small, then a know- ledge of the geological levels at which these two forms occur should throw some light on the date of man’s evolution. the oldest trace of a small anthropoid so far discovered comes from strata of the fayum, egypt, laid down in the earlier part of the oligocene period. the half of a lower jaw with its teeth is all that has been found of this small anthropoid, which was described by von schlosser in rgtr. henamed it propliopithecus, and regarded it as an ancestral form of gibbon (w. k. gregory, the evolution of the human dentition, 1922). no fossil remains of great anthropoid apes have been found in strata older than those of the miocene period. of miocene great anthropoids, at least nine species have been discovered; one of them, sivapithecus, known from fragments of jaws and teeth found in the siwalik deposits of india, is regarded as a possible ancestor of man by dr. g. e. pilgrim, but a full consideration of the evidence leaves the expert unconvinced. in 1922 a tooth was found in pliocene beds of snake creck quarry, nebraska, which has been attributed to an anthropoid ape with human leanings to which the name /lesperopithecus was given by dr. henry fairfield osborn. unfortunately, the tooth was worn and its true characters hard to decipher; the fact, however, that such competent authorities as dr. osborn, dr. w. k. gregory and dr. w. d. matthew are convinced that a trace of a humanoid 783 anthropoid has been found in america will secure consideration for hesperopithecus. early in 1925 prof. raymond dart announced the discovery of the fossil skull of a young anthropoid ape, found in a limestone quarry at taungs, on the eastern border of the bechuanaland protectorate, near the transvaal frontier (vafure, 1925, vol. 115, p. 195). the geological evidence goes to show that this anthro- poid, which prof. dart named <australopithecus, cannot be older than the beginning of the pleistocene period, which elim- inates it from any place in the line of man’s ancestry. its ana- tomical characters place it in the same group of anthropoids as that to which the gorilla and chimpanzee belong. in some re- spects australopithecus is more human than either of the two living african anthropoids. summary.—thus, taking all lines of evidence into consider- ation, anatomical, biological, embryological and geological, we are led to the conclusion that man has been evolved from a lower form, and that human races, as we know them to-day, are the products of evolutionary processes. there remain great blanks in the line of evidence which links the origin of modern man to an extinct form of anthropoid ape. between the highest kind of anthropoid and the lowest type of man, represented at present by pithecanthropus, there remains a great gap; the transitional forms which fill this gap still remain to be discovered. yet the evidence as it stands, imperfect as it is, points to man’s departure from an anthropoid status early in the miocene period, certainly 1,000,000 years ago, perhaps more; that in the miocene and pliocene periods his body and limbs became adapted to a plantigrade posture; that his brain underwent expansion in the phocene, and particularly in the earlier part of the pleistocene period, and that as the brain reached a full human status the coarser outward appearances of the ape were shed. of the vital processes which brought about these changes we are as yet ig- norant, but it is manifest that in his evolutionary progress man has tended to acquire and preserve in adult years states which appear at first as transient conditions in foetal or infantile stages. it is becoming clear that the machinery of evolution is that which regulates development and growth, and in these matters knowl- edge is growing. experimental embryologists have proved that one group of developing cells can and does regulate the growth and behaviour of a neighbouring group. the theory of hormones has thrown a flood of light on the machinery of evolution (prof. chas. r. stockard, publications of cornell university medical college, 1924, vol. 10; keith, supplement to nature, aug. 18 1923). it has been proved that substances or hormones are carried by the circulation throughout the living body from a series of glands which include those of reproduction, the adrenal, the thyroid, the pituitary and pineal, and that the substances thus liberated in the body do control its vital reactions and its structural form. bibliography.—c., darwin, the descent of man, 2nd ed. (1881); t. h. huxley, afan’s place in nature (1863); collected essays, vol. 7 (1900); sir e. b. tylor, anthropology (1881); ernst haeckel, evolution of man, translation of 3rd german ed. (1879); sir e, ray lankester, the kingdom of man (1907); prof. gustav schwalbe, ‘“ studien zur vorgeschichte des menschen,” zettschrift fiir morpho- logie (1906); prof. g, elhot smith, evolution of man (1924); prof. f. wood jones, arboreal man (1916); w. l. h. duckworth, morphology and anthropology, 2nd ed. (1915); a. h. keane, jafan past and present, 2nd ed., revised by a. hingston quiggin and a. c. haddon (1920); prof. marcelin boule, fossil afen, translation of 2nd french ed. (1923); henry fairfield osborn, fen of the old stone age (1915); w. k. gregory, the origin and evolution of human dentition (1922); ales iirdli¢ka, the most ancient remains of man, 2nd ed. (1916); sir a. smith woodward, a gude to the fossil re- mains of man (1922); w. j. sollas, ancient itunters and their modern representatives, 3rd ed. (1924); sir arthur keith, the antiquity of man, 2nd ed. (1925); zuman embryology and morphelogy, 4th ed. | (1921); hugo obermaier, fossil man in spain (1924); carveth | ——_ read, the origin of man and of ifis superstitions (1920); prof. hermann klaatsch, the evolution and progress of mankind (1923); prof. w. koehler, the mentality of apes (1925). (a. k.) management: sce scientific management. manchester, england (see 17.544), has an area of 21,688 ac. (including areas incorporated in 1910 and 1913), and an esti- 784 mated population of 761,320. since r918 1o members have been returned to parliament, and the city was brought entirely under one board of guardians in 1915 and one board of overseers in 1916. the birth-rate varied between 1-86 and 2-37 in 1921-5, and the death-rate between 1-36 and 1-44. housing and ianprovements.—several housing schemes, includ- ing a number of wide new roads, have been undertaken, the largest being at blackley, moston, wilbraham road, anson and gorton, but the house shortage was still acute in 1926, although more than 5,300 houses had been built by the municipality since 1919, besides those erected privately. the council aim at completing 10,000 more by 1930, and had under consideration the question of the purchase of a site of 4,500 ac. in rural cheshire beyond and to the south of the city limits. in this area stand the wythenshawe hall and grounds (comprising 250 ac.), presented to the corporation for park purposes. a number of large parks and open spaces have been acquired, and include cringle fields, burnage (54 ac.); broadhurst park, moston (84 ac.); fletchermoss playing fields, didsbury (21 ac.); and green bank fields, levenshulme (24 ac.).. new parks are planned for withington (48 ac.) and choriton-cum-hardy (37 ac.), which have grown rapidly since the world war. new butldings—the horsfall education museum, ancoats hall, has been transferred to the corporation; the old parsonage, didsbury, was opened as a branch art gallery in 1923; and platt hall was handed over in 1925 as a branch art gallery and museum. <a new art gallery, surrounded by a wide, open space, for which the design was approved in 1925, is to be built on the site of the old royal infirmary in piccadilly. the infirmary has been moved to oxiord street, and several other hospitals have been built in its vicinity. a large wesleyan hall and institute was opened in peter street in 1910, the ¥.m.c.a. building in ror1 and the church house in deansgate in the same year. the exchange was extended and reconstructed in 1914-21; the historic free trade hall in peter street was bought by the corporation in 1921, and plans were made in 1925 for the extension of the town hall, to include the central library, then in temporary buildings on the piccadilly site. the new office being erected in king strect in 1926 for the ship canal co. will be the highest commercial building in the city. a textile institute, with its headquarters at st. mary’s parsonage, was founded in 1910; and a british cotton industry research assn., with offices and laboratories at didsbury, in 1919. premises are to be built at fallowfield for the grammar school. a radium institute, the first in the country exclusively for the use of radium in hospital treatment, was opened in nelson street in 1921. a statue of king edward vii. was unveiled in whitworth park in 1913, one of abraham lincoln in platt fields in rorg and a large war memorial on the foun- dations of old st. peter’s church in 1924. dlaying fields and a pavilion have been acquired at stretford as a memorial to men of the manchester ship canal company. public works —two additional pipe-lines have been laid from thirlmere, and the north cheshire co.’s water undertaking was purchased in 1921. in 1925 a beginning was made with the large haweswater scheme, to involve 84 m. of aqueducts, tun- nels and pipes. it is hoped to finish the work by 1934. a new electric power station was opened at. barton in 1923, and in 1925 it was decided to double its capacity. parliamentary powers were obtained in 1921 for the construction of a large gas-generating station at partington, and the present stations in the city will eventually be used only for distributing. par- liamentary powers were also obtained, in 1911, for a compre- hensive scheme to result in the whole drainage of manchester being carried to works at davyhulme. in 1925 the possibilities of an electric underground railway were under discussion. port improvements—in 1925 there were eight docks with a water area of 120 ac. and 5] m. of quays in the port. trafford wharf was rebuilt and re-equipped in 1924, and in 1925 the last five miles of the ship canal were being deepened to allow vessels drawing 28 ft. to come up to ellesmere port. road and railway improvements were also in hand at ellesmere port, manchester, victoria university of which is leased by the ship canal co., more wharves are to be built, and the company have acquirecl 1,000 ac. of land for industrial development. the corporation have determined to undertake a comprehensive civic survey. when the survey has been completed, recommendations will be made as to future action in matters municipal, social, economic, housing, parks, recreation facilities, commerce, industry, communications, and transportation. 7 though best known as the business and warehousing centre of the cotton industry, manchester has also become a great manufacturing and distributing centre for chemicals and dyes, and is one of the chief ports for importing oil. some of the greatest engineering workshops in the world are in the city or its immediate neighbourhood. motor-cars and commercial ve- hicles are made, and rubber manufacture and the ready-made industry are extending. (o. j. r. h.) manchester, victoria university of (sce 17.545).— the development of the university of manchester during the 2oth century, in common with that of the other english univer- sities, has been greatly affected by the war. at the same time, raluable contributions both to the defence of the country and to knowledge were made, especially by the scientific, technolog- ical and medical staffs who were called upon to face problems raised by the war. the number of students, which had reached 1,691 in 1gro, increased immediately after the conclusion of hostilities, and in 1920 was 2,900. it had in 1926 apparently stabilised itself at about 2,500. perhaps the most significant feature of this increase was the continued growth of the number of women students—730 in 1926 as against 336 in 1910. the botanical and physical laboratories and the extensions of the museum and library, completed during the four years 1910-4, were followed by the erection of a building to house most of the departments of the faculty of arts (1919), while new accom- modation was provided for the metallurgical department, and the medical school was internally reconstructed. the continued growth of the library, which contains over 200,000 volumes, led to further extension, and a bequest of mr. jesse haworth made possible the crection of a new wing of the muscum, to provide galleries for the exhibilion of the valuable ethnographical col- lections made by the late mr. charles heape and presented by him to the university in 1923. develo pments.—an appeal for funds in 1919 produced a sum of £250,000, and this made it possible to satisfy some of the needs rendered urgent by post-war conditions. new chairs have been instituted in russian and italian, in addition to a second chair of french. the lectureship in textile technology has been raised to the status of a professorship, and a similar development has taken place in psychology and in commerce and adminis- tration. a chair in english language has been instituted in addition to that in literature, and the second chair in law and the chair of comparative religion have been revived. the institution of a faculty of education in 1ror4, with a post-graduate degree of master in education, led to interesting researches in educa- tional method and administration, and the faculty received a valuable addition by the endowment by sir james e. jones of a lectureship in the training of teachers of the deaf. the same donor also endowed a hall of residence primarily for the accom- modation of women students preparing for the certificate inslituted in that subject. a gift from the carnegie united kingdom trustees led to the establishment of a special brary available for teachers and others interested in the education of the deaf. the university athletic grounds have been extended. they now cover 28 ac. and possess a finely equipped pavilion. the facilities for the residence of the men students have been in- creased by the recognition of two more halls; while for women students three new halls have been recognised, and the exist- ing ashburne hall has been extended to accommodate about 130 students. this extension, opened in 1925, includes a central block, providing a large hall, and beneath it a library in which have been placed the 8,oo0 volumes bequeathed by lord morley for the use of women students of the university. closer manchuria—mandate relations between the university and the local education author- ities have been established. there are three county and eight municipal authorities contributing annual grants. the resignation of lord morley as chancellor of the univer- sity took place just before his death in 1923. the earl of craw- ford and balcarres was clected as his successor. sir henry a. miers, previously principal of the university of london, anc appointed vice-chancellor of the university of manchester in rors, retired during 1926. mr. w. h. moberly, principal of university college, exeter, was appointed to succeed him. manchuria (sce 17.552).—in torr an agreement was con- cluded by the “ four nations” consortium, to finance the development of manchuria, but was blocked by russia and japan until their participation under conditions which secured to them continuance in their privileged position had been con- ceded. a treaty in 1911 and an agreement in 1916 further strengthened russia’s position in north manchuria, while the formal annexation of korea by japan in roto placed the nu- merous koreans in manchuria under japanese consular jurisdic- tion. by the beginning of 1911 the “‘ peaceful penetration ”’ of manchuria and eastern inner mongolia was proceeding steadily and under conditions generally similar to those which had characterised russia’s forward policy from 1808 to 1905. in ro12 the railway from changchun to kirin was opened to trafic. in may 1915, by the terms of a new treaty concluded by china as the result of the japanese ultimatum accompanying the ‘‘ twenty-one demands,” the lease of the south manchurian railway and of the antung mukden line was extended to go years (i.e., to 2002 and 2007 respectively). by the same treaty japanese subjects became entitled to lease land for trade, manu- facturing and agricultural purposes, and to reside and travel freely in south manchuria. by notes exchanged as the result of the same “ twenty-one demands ”’ china was to permit japanese subjects to open more mines in south manchuria. no foreign loans were to be made for the construction of railways in south manchuria and eastern inner mongolia without the preference being given to japanese capitalists; preference was to be given japanese in employing foreign advisers in south manchuria; and other promises were made favouring the japanese. in 1917 the whole of the railway system of korea was linked up with the south manchurian railway and placed under its admin- istration. under these conditions the activities and influence of the railway rapidly became dominant factors in the economic life of manchuria. in 1916 japan and russia agreed by treaty to support each other’s rights and interests in the far east. in dec. 1915 a loan agreement was signed between the chinese and japanese govts. for the construction of a railway from ssupingkai (120 m. north of mukden) to chengchiatun; this line was completed in dec. 1917. in oct. 1917 a revision of the changchun-kirin loan agreement was concluded between the chinese govt. and the south manchurian railway company, the result being a loan of 6,500,000 ven for a term of 30 years, ‘during which period the management of the line is vested in the south manchurian railway, on behalf of the chinese government. in 1918 there were agreements with japanese interests for the development of mines and forestry and for the construction of four railways. russo-japanese rivalry —the disorganisation of the central government in china and the collapse of russia after 1917 served to increase the economic, financial and political ascend- ancy of japan in manchuria. for example, after china's en- trance into the world war, some of the loans made to japanese by the peking govt. had as security properties and resources in manchuria. asa result, however, of the negotiations initiated by the united states in july 1918 for the establishment of a four-power consortium to co-operate in chinese finance, and of the subsequent pourpurlers between the british and japanese govts. on the same subject, the latter finally agreed (may 1920) —with some important reservations—to withdraw the claims, previously put forward by the japanese bankers, to exclude from the scope of the consortium ‘all the rights and options held by japan in the regions of manchuria and mongolia where 785 japan has special interests.’ japan’s power in south man- churia, however, continues to grow, but at the same time the chinese have by no means given up control, for they continue to form the great majority of the population, and the provin- cial organisation and administration are actively maintained. the dominant chinese figure in manchuria has increasingly been chang t'so-lin. general chang, in 1924 still in middle life, had once been connected with a band of nunghutze, or bandits, but he had been taken into the service of the chinese govt. and in 1911 he was military governor of fengtien. from then on, his power grew until by 1920 he was one of the major figures in the chinese political situation, and manchuria had become vir- tually a semi-independent principality under his control. rus- sian influence, moreover, did not disappear with the collapse of the old regime. for a time it was weakened, but with the estab- lishment of regular diplomatic relations between the soviet govt. and china in 1924, russian power, while by no means fully restored, was again increasing. despite an agitation in japan, the japanese govt. has main- tained its policy of strict neutrality in the civil war—a pol- icy reiterated by baron shidehara, the japanese minister for foreign affairs, in the diet in jan. 1926. some alarm seems to have been aroused in moscow by a contract given in april or may of 1925 by chang tso-lin to the south manchurian railway company for the construction of a line from taonanfu in inner mongolia to tsitsihar in northwest manchuria on the ground that it invades the old russian sphere of influence in north manchuria. rapid progress was made by the japanese with this railway which was expected to be open for traffic as far as the nonni river by aug. 1926. the sovict authorities are also reported to have protested against the strengthening of the japanese forces in north manchuria in 1925 as a violation of the spirit of the japanese-soviet treaty of 1924. (sce china; chinese eastern railway.) trade statistics. —the economic progress achieved in manchuria had been very rapid since 1912. this might have been expected in regions with vast undeveloped resources and with an increasing, industrious population. much of the expansion of its trade and industries must also be ascribed to the enterprise shown by the japanese in the development of mines, forestry and agriculture, and in improving transport, communications and currency. figures show the rapid increase of south manchuria’s trade and reflect the effects of the russian debacle upon the commerce of the northern province. in 1916 the maritime customs receipts in the northern provinces were 21° 5 of the total for manchuria. in 1920 they were 12° of the total, and in 1922 17 per cent. in 1919 the total direct foreign trade of manchuria was taels (hongkong) 299,523,736 and in 1922 it was 285,861,094. dairen (dalny) now ranks second only to shanghai in the list of china’s maritime ports. in 1922, 56:5°, of manchuria’s direct foreign trade passed through dairen (dalny). in 1908 the trade of manchuria represented 11-5 %o of china’s total; in 1918 the proportion had’ risen to 16-8 %5; in 1922 it was 17-5 per cent. naturally the bulk of south manchuria’s for- eign trade was with japan. the anarchical conditions prevailing in russia and siberia after 1917 served to increase japan’s economic and financial influence in northern manchuria, the rouble note being replaced in many parts of the country by the yen notes of the bank of chosen, which in jan. 1918 was given control of the treasury business of the japanese govt. in manchuria. at the end of 1918 this bank had 18 branches operating in manchuria (as against io in korea), and notes in circulation to the amount of 30,000,000 yen. according to the statistics compiled by the south manchurian rail- way, the population of manchuria in 1916 was 20,112,100, the post office estimate for 1922 was 22,083,434. (see ciina,) bibliography,—f. coleman, the far hast unvetfed (1918); the bank of chosen, official report on the “ economic history of man- churia (1920); aw official guide to eastern asta, vol. i.“ chosen and manchuria” (toky6, 1920); j. o. p. bland, china, japan and korea (1921); correspondence respecting the new financial con- sortiuim in china, british blue book, miscellaneous no. 9 (cmd. 1214 of 1921); manchuria: treaties and agreements (carnegie endowment for int. peace. div. of internat. law. pamphlet 44, 1921); a. wkin- nosuke, afunchuria (new york, 1925). thy. o:-1l) mandate.—the mandate system is a term applied to the conditions set up by the treaty of versailles for the administra- tion of the former overseas possessions of germany and turkey. mandatory powers are those powers which were selected by the supreme council of the allies to administer these territories under mandate. ‘the system is a novel experiment in the relations b 786 between a sovereign state and a country \\inder its control, in- volving new departures in international law. it was created by art. 22 of the covenant of the league of nations, which formed part of the treaty of versailles, and has thus gained the recogni- tion of all states that are members of the league. in its origin it was in the nature of a compromise. after the war the victorious allies naturally wished to retain the german and turkish colonies, in the conquest of which they had in most cases made great sacrifices. it was believed that these colonics had been subjected to misrule; pledges had been made to the native inhabitants, some of whom had taken part with the victors in the fighting, that they should not be handed over to the vengeance of their former masters; and finally, a misgiving existed lest, in case of rendition, germany might use them as recruiting grounds for black armies, and their ports as bases for submarines in a future war. on the other hand the allics had declared— more particularly in the pre-armistice statement of nov. 5 1918 —that annexation of territory was not their aim in the war. international control of some kind was the only alternative. joint administration was condemned as impracticable and op- posed to the interests of the people. even as a condominium between two powers only, it had given rise to friction in egypt, samoa and the new hebrides. the only other course lay in the appointment of an individual power in whom could be vested responsibility for the administration of each separate territory as an agent, or mandatory, of the league. for this course there were analogies in the delegation of quasi-sovereign powers to british and dutch chartered companies and in the control of the tonian is. on behalf of the powers by great britain in 1850. individuals also had been appointed as mandatories of the powers, as when king leopold undertook control of the “ inter- national free state of the congo,” or when prince george of greece was made governor of crete in 1808. the main defect of these delegations of sovereignty was that they provided no machinery to ensure the due execution of the trust, and it is the distinctive feature of the mandate syste that it attempts to remedy this defect. the league of nations afforded just such a supervisory authority as was needed, and its supervision is exercised through the medium of a standing committee, known as the “ permanent mandates commission.” the league had nothing to do with the assignment of the man- dates or with their terms, or with the extent and boundaries of the territories. these were determined by the supreme council. the united states, not being a member of the league, was no party to this arrangement, and she insisted that as an associated power her consent was necessary. ‘the mandates therefore were sub- mitted to her, and approved on condition that “ free and equal treatment in law and in fact was secured to the commerce of all nations.’”’ where the mandate did not ensure this she negotiated separate treaties with the mandatory concerned. terms of the mandates the mandates were formed to give expression in detail to the principles embodied in art. 22 of the covenant (q¢.v.), and since that article prescribes that their character must vary with the varying conditions of each territory they were divided into three classes to correspond with the three paragraphs of that article. class a includes the former turkish vilayets of “iraq, palestine and syria whose independence ‘can be provisionally recognised, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance until they are able to stand alone.’’ the two former were assigned to great britain, the latter to france. class b comprises the ex-german central african colonics— togoland, cameroons, tanganyika and ruanda—in which the mandatory is responsible for the administration and undertakes to promote the moral and material welfare of the people. tanganyika, and a small part of the cameroons and togo fell to great britain, the major portions of the two latter being assigned to france, while belgium became responsible for ruanda. class c territories include those which ‘can best be administered under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its territories, subject to the safeguards in the interests of the indigenous popula- tion\" which are laid down for class b. they are south-west africa, samoa, new guinea, the islands north of the equator in the west pacific and the tiny island of nauru. for these respectively mandate the union of south africa, new zealand, australia, japan and the british empire accepted mandates. in the case of nauru, great britain, australia and new zealand had by agreement in july 1o1g (before the issue of the mandate), jointly acquired control of the phosphate deposits, which constitute the sole value of the island, and they jointly undertook the execution of the mandate. since, however, the british empire has no single code of laws, the administration was assigned by the two others to australia for five years. the “ safeguards in the interests of the indigenous population ” to which reference is made are: (1) freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals; (2) prohibition of abuses such as the arms and liquor traffic and the slave-trade; and (3) prevention of fortifications, naval and military bases, and the military training of natives except for police and the defence of the territory. the mandates were conferred by the supreme council of the allies, and after acceptance by each mandatory were submitted to the council of the league, which was charged with the duty of seeing that their terms were in accord with the covenant. they were finally approved by the united states. the a class could not be issued until the treaty of lausanne came into force (aug. 1924). meanwhile an arab government had been sect up in, iraq, and a treaty had been concluded by great britain with it. on sept. 27 1925 the council formally accepted the undertaking of the mandatory to sce that the terms of this treaty (which embodied the obligations of the covenant) were adhered to, and this undertaking was substituted for the man- date. .these long delays were very prejudicial to the welfare of the people of asia minor. the territories were, however, ad- ministered in accordance with the terms of the covenant or under draft mandates. these terms are explicit. the mandate is a “ sacred trust of civilisation ”’ to be assumed by nations who (itter alia) “ by reason of their resources can best undertake this responsibility and are willing to accept it.”’ the altruistic nature of this pledge was confirmed in a reply to a german protest. “the mandatory powers,” said the allies, ‘in so far as they may be appointed trustees by the league of nations, will derive no benefit from such trusteeship.” a mandated territory differs from a protectorate in that the protecting power in the latter obtains rights over the population and against other powers, whereas a mandatory in its capacity as guardian assumes obligations both toward the population and the league. these thus acquire rights as against the mandatory. league control —the system, it has been said, differs from such partial precedents as have been cited, in that it attempts to set up machinery by which the proper execution of the mandate may be assured. this consists in the unqualified right of super- vision vested in the league which imposes upon each mandatory the obligation to submit an annual report on its administration. the permanent mandates commission examines these reports in the presence of an accredited representative. the commission consists of nine members of the following nationalities: belgian, british, dutch, french, italian, japanese, portuguese, spanish and swedish—to which has recently been added an ‘‘ additional member ” (swiss). the majority are nationals of non-manda- tory states. they are selected ‘‘ for personal merit and com- petence ”’ as private individuals, and not as representatives of their respective nations. they are nominated by their govern- ments, but approved and appointed by the council of the league, and may not hold any office under their government. a representative of the international labour office attends the sessions, and takes part in any discussions relative to labour. this international composition negatives any suspicion of bias, and gives to the commission the aspect of an impartial tribunal of practical men, whose object it is to promote co-operation while fearlessly exposing any breach of the covenant. its functions are purely advisory to the council. a permanent secretariat, under a director, collects and cir- culates all documents of interest concerning mandates and conducts the routine business. the duties of the commission are not confined to the annual review of the reports of the mandate mandatories. it receives any petitions and memorials from in- habitants of the territories and others interested, and these, unless trivial or irrelevant, are forwarded to the mandatory con- cerned before examination by the commission, which also makes a.special study of questions arising either in relation to the system or to the various problems of administration. notes for guidance in preparing their reports are circulated to man- datories, dealing with such matters as slavery, labour, traffic in arms, liquor and drugs, liberty of conscience, the judicial system, military forces, economic equality, education, public health, land tenure, public finance and matters relating to general adminis- tration and the moral and material welfare of the people. the proceedings are conducted in french and english, and are gen- erally held in private to facilitate freedom of discussion. full minutes are printed, which, together with the memoranda on special subjects and all other pertinent papers, can be obtained from the league publication department, or from its agents in london and other european capitals. the commission meets at least twice in the year at geneva, and its procedure is governed by rules approved by the council. the weak point in the system lies in the impossibility of independent verification of statements contained in the reports. this difficulty is inherent in the circumstances, for it would clear- ly be impossible either for the whole commission or any part of it to visit a mandated territory officially, and to sit in judgment on the policy of a sovereign power. even an official visit for the purpose of acquiring information would be of doubtful wisdom, as tending to weaken the prestige of the mandatory and to afford opportunity for malcontents to manufacture grievances. for information not contained in the report, therefore, the com- mission must rely on those public bodies or individuals who in- terest themselves in the welfare of native races, and on such memorials and petitions as may be presented to it. the sole means at its disposal—or at the disposal of the league—for compelling the proper execution of the mandate ts the force of public opinion, though in case of deliberate violation of the mandate and of gross maladministration, the council could no doubt send a commission of enquiry, and in theory the legal possibility of revocation for failure on the part of the man- datory to fulfil its contract no doubt exists. in order to obtain more accurate information, the actual administrators now generally appear as the mandatory’s representatives. steps are also being taken to secure a wider distribution of the sessional papers of the commission, with a view to enlarging the orbit of well-informed public opinion and perhaps of exerting an in- fluence on the standards of colonial administration. interpretation of article 22,—the creation of the mandates system—though a task of enormous importance, involving issues new to international law and affecting the destinies of many millions of the human race and of property in every quarter of the globe worth many hundreds of millions sterling, was only one of the many preoccupations of the versailles con- ference. owing to the circumstances of the moment many mat- ters of jess permanent and historic importance claimed an undue attention. critical examination and practical experience have therefore detected many points which require elucidation or authoritative interpretation. in some particulars, for instance, the mandates do not strictly conform to the terms of article 22. in the a mandates the treaty enjoins that “‘ the wishes of the communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory,” and it is common knowledge that the communities concerned were never consulted. the paragraphs in art. 22 on which the b and c mandates were framed do not contain any similar injunction, though explicit statements to the same effect had been made. military service -—again, the french mandates in west africa —unlike the british mandates for portions of the same territories (cameroons and togo)—contain a clause to the effect that “troops thus raised” (i.e., for purposes of local defence and police) ‘‘ may in the event of general war be utilised to repel an attack, or for defence of the territory outside that subject to the mandate.”’ it is difficult to reconcile this clause with the 787 words of the covenant. at the instance of the mandates com- mission the british govt. was willing to go even further than the covenant prescribes, and to agree to pledge itself not to enlist the natives of a mandated territory, even though they offered themselves for enlistment outside its frontiers—thus limiting its sovereign rights in adjacent territories not under mandate. the french govt. has declared its willingness to accept the same restriction. the original intention of the treaty would seem to have been to exclude all mandated territories and their inhabitants from participation in a general war; but the mandates for palestine and syria authorise the mandatory ‘‘ to make use of the ports, railways and roads for the passage of its troops and of all ma- terials, supplies and fuel,’ and local forces may be used for pur- poses other than defence. these countries thus automatically became involved in any war in which the mandatory may be engaged. it is not clear what is the position of the c mandates in this regard. liquor traffic—~the covenant enjoins the “ prohibition of abuses such as the slave-trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic.””’ some have urged that these words mean the enforce- ment of total prohibition alike for natives and non-natives. the mandates, however, only prescribe a “‘ strict control over the sale of spirituous liquors,” and the st. germain convention (sept. rg1tg), concluded soon after the versailles treaty by the same signatories, forbids the import of “‘ trade spirits” only. relying on these facts, others contend that the term “ liquor traffic’ is used in the covenant in the technical sense in which it is usually employed in west africa, and means the “ importa- tion of cheap, distilled liquors for sale or barter as an article of trade with the natives.” the mandates commission has consequently asked the council for an authoritative definition of this and other ambiguous terms used in the covenant. in the matter of equal commercial opportunity for all nations, the covenant itself failed to fulfil the expectations raised by the pre-armistice declarations of the allies. no obligation in this regard is imposed in the c mandates, while in the b class it is restricted to states which are members of the league. legal system.—the essential distinction between the b and c classes of mandates, in the terms of art. 22, lay in the dictum that the latter “can best be administered under the laws of the mandatory, as integral portions of its territory,” but the british and french mandates for cameroons and togo, and the belgian mandate for ruanda (all of the b class) contain a clause in identical terms. boundaries —yet another cause of practical difficulty is presented by the fact that in many cases the boundaries of the territories assigned under mandate were not defined, and it was apparently left to the individual mandatories to adjust them without reference to the league. in the case of ‘iraq this has led to an acute dispute with turkey. in palestine the boundaries of trans-jordania are still undefined. in northern syria the french, having, as it was understood, agreed to accept a mandate for cilicia, abandoned it to turkey without apparently any authority from the league to do so, and the frontiers are stilf in- determinate. so again in ruanda, where an adjustment, in- volving the cession of a considerable area by great britain to belgium, was effected and approved by the league. onthenorth-_ ern frontier of south-west africa negotiations are in progress between the union govt. and the portuguese. sovereigniy.—wider issues are raised by such questions as the nature and extent of sovereignty exercised by a mandatory and the international status of the inhabitants of a mandated ter- ritory. the former—which has been much debated by american publicists—is rather academic and juridical than of practical interest. it suffices for practical purposes that the mandatory has the absolute right to make and enforce laws, to raise troops, to set up tribunals, to appoint officials and to raise and spend revenues. sovereignty was not ceded by the treaty of versailles to the league, but to the victorious allies—indeed the highest court in south africa has recorded the opinion that the territories were not ceded at all, but placed by germany at the disposal of ¢ 788 the allies, to be administered under mandate—a status new to international law. the mandatory’s powers are exercised ‘in its capacity as such.” it has, for instance, been satisfactorily established by the mandates commission that such terms as “ crown (or state) lands’ and domains d’elat, where they appear in local ordi- nances, refer only to lands which are the property of the man- datory as such, in other words, to the mandated territory, and that any action on the part of the mandatory which had for its object (or would ultimately involve) annexation—as for instance the acquisition of large monopolistic rights, or of essential public services—would be contrary to the spirit of the covenant and the mandate. status of natives —the status of the indigenous inhabitants of a b or c mandate territory has on the other hand been the sub- ject of special definition. obviously, since the country is not annexed, they do not become the subjects of the mandatory. the formula was therefore adopted by the council that “ they should be designated by some form of descriptive title which will identify them as such,” viz., as “ persons administered or pro- tected under mandate.”” this confers no juridical status, and no privilege of citizenship, but art. 327 of the treaty stipulates that they should be entitled to the diplomatic protection of the mandatory when outside the mandated territory, and individ- uals may if they so desire become naturalised subjects of the mandatory. since residents in a british protectorate cannot acquire british nationality, and since a person “ protected under mandate ” could not be placed in a more favourable position in such a matter than a resident in a british protectorate it was decided at an imperial conference that the power of granting certificates of imperial naturalisation should be extended to persons resident in certain named protectorates, and in mandated territories. extradition treaties with france have similarly been extended, the natives being regarded for this purpose as ‘ assim- ilated ” to those of a colony. the application to mandated territories of special conventions, entered into by a mandatory power, has also been the subject of investigation and recommendation by the mandates commis- sion, in order to ensure that “ persons protected under mandate ” shall not be in a less favourable position in regard to their persons and property and their economic interests than the inhabitants of a protectorate or colony. permanence of mandates.—the revocation of a mandate for maladministration, though theoretically possible, is in practice unthinkable. voluntary transfer or abandonment gwith the sanction of the league) is hardly more conceivable. the terms of the covenant therefore contemplate self-government as the natural fruition of the mandate—in the case of the a class at no distant date. the new state—as is proposed in the case of ‘iraq— would then take its place as a member of the league, or perhaps, as in the case of south-west africa, would be federated with the mandatory. conclusion.—the mancate system enforces, for the first time in history, the principle of trustceship, and of public responsibil- ity to a supervising authority for the obligations laid down in the trust deed in regard to mandated territories. the annual report forms an effective means of inviting a popular verdict on the fulfilment of the trust, and this supervision constitutes a funda- mental distinction from annexation, whatever the degree of assimilation to other possessions of the mandatory. the league exercises supervision but not control, for the ultimate authority to which the stewardship of the mandatory is submitted is the public opinion of the civilised world. the standards of the covenant must obviously in the future be regarded as principles of general application. the mandate system is an international acknowledgment of the responsibility which the advantages of a superior intellectual culture and twenty centuries of christian ethics no less than the physical superiority conferred by the monopoly of firearms impose upon those powers which have accepted control of backward races. sce league of nations. bibliography.--ie. schnee, die deutschen kolonten unter fremder mandatherrschaft, t919-1922 (1922); g. l. beer, african questions manganese at the paris peace conference with papers on egypt, mesopotamia and ihe colonial settlement (1922); e. rouard de card, les mandats francais sur le togoland et le cameroon (1924); j. stoyanovski, la theorie generale des mandats internationaux (1925); see also m. o. ifucdson, “the league of nations and the protection of the inhabitants of transferred territories,” annals of the american acad- emy of political and social sciences (july 1921); & olivier, ‘ man- dates under the league of nations,” ivestern races and the world (1922); sir frederick lugard; ‘‘ phe mandate system,” edinburgh review (oct. 1923); “ the mandate system and the british man- dates,’’ royal society of arts journal (june 27 1924); w. e. rap- pard, “ the practical working of the mandates system,” journal of the british institute of international affairs, vol. 4 (sept. 1925). 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