LUTHERANS

the lutheran churches of europe were profoundly intluenced by the war of 1914-8 and its after- effects. the external changes were least marked in sweden, denmark and norway, where the relation between the churches and their states has remained undisturbed; in germany and the new national states they have been far-reaching. i. in the old world german lutherans.—the german revolution of 1918 put an end to the siummepiskopat (sce 17.142) and the reorganisation of the german empire aimed at the separation of church and state. since an immediate complete separation would be dis- astrous to the churches.and not to the best interest of the state, the churches were guaranteed diminishing state support, with the ultimate purpose of divorcing them entirely from the state governments. by this arrangement the churches have, in part, the character of voluntary associations and, in part, that of state controlled institutions. to mect this new situation they have been obliged to reorganise. the forms of reorganisation have not been identical in all the states, but two tendencies have been lutherans generally observable—one, to increase the powers of the synods at the expense of the consistories (sce 17.142), the other, to vest the spiritual oversight of the church in a single official, known as bishop, chief pastor, or some other equivalent title. two problems have presented especial diflicultics. the one is the problem of aim and purpose. is the church to continue, un- der new forms of administration, to be the one recognised institu- tion of religion for that state (woelkskirche), or is it to be an insti- tution for the promulgation of a single doctrinal type of chris- tianty (bekenniniskirche)?) the second problem concerns the re- lation of the church to the state schools. no fully satisfactory solution of either problem has been reached as yet, though the idea of the volkskirche seems, for the present, to have the stronger following, and the general trend is toward a separation of the church from the schools. the acute economic depression of 1922-4 affected most dis- astrously those elements of the laity from which the greatest measure of church support was to be expected, and it subjected the clergy to severe privations. all the activities of the churches were impaired, and the great voluntary associations for christian work—the societies for foreign and inner missions—were prac- tically paralysed. substantial financial support was furnished during this crisis by lutherans of foreign countries, especially of america, and with the beginning of economic recovery the nor- mal church activities were, by 1926, gradually being resumed. central european countries—the formation of the new national states of poland, latvia, estonia, czechoslovakia, yugoslavia and hungary has been followed by a new organisa- tion of the lutheran churches in those countries. the same tendencies that were operative in germany have shown them- selves in these lands. the churches have tended to organise with a large measure of self-support and self-government. where entire independence of the state has not been feasible it has been apparent as the ultimate aim. an episcopal form of spiritual oversight has also been introduced into most of these churches. all of them have had to contend with economic difliculties simi- lar to those in germany. russia and rumania —in 1924 the lutherans of russia were permitted, for the first time in their history, to organise as a russian church with a synod and two bishops. in rumania, on the other hand, the disestablishment of the transylvanian lu- theran church has caused severe, if temporary, hardships. or membership statistics for the lutheran churches of europe are, as a rule, quite unreliable. this is especially true of those countries where the churches have been in organic connection with the state, and where all those who did not formally withdraw were counted as members of the state church. on questions of doctrine the same divergences (sce 17.142) continue to exist. the more conservative element has been organised since 1868 in the gencral lutheran conference (lligemeine evangelisch-lutherische konferenz), an international! society for the maintenance of confessional lutheran teaching. in 1922 the conference united with the american national lutheran council in the calling of the first lutheran world convention, held at eisenach, germany, in aug. 1923. the members of the convention came from 20 diflercnt countries, in- cluding the united states and canada, and effected a new international organisation, with an executive committee of six members, charged especially to secure co-operation among the lutherans of the world in works of mercy, foreign missions and care for migratory lutherans, and ‘in cases of emergency to speak for the whole lutheran church.” the lutheran alliance is a society of ultra-conservative lutherans, the members of which are drawn chiefly from the free churches of germany. il. in the new world united states and canada.—in 1924 the lutheran church in the united states and canada had 2,622,554 communicant members divided among 20 ecclesiastical bodics. the largest of these were the united lutheran church (856,180), the missouri synod (645,969), the norwegian lutheran church (299,213), the augustana synod (217,616), the lowa synod (168,266), the joint lutsk—luxembourg / synod of ohio (161,021), the joint wisconsin synod (139,226), the lutheran free church (30,320), the danish church in america (20,045) and the finnish national church (20,000). the synodical conference, a consultative federation, comprising the missouri synod, the joint wisconsin synod and two smaller bodies, formed a single well-defined group with a membership of more than 800,000. the names of many of these bodies point to one of the reasons for their separate existence. at their organisation nearly all of them were expressions of the church consciousness of groups of immigrants from the lutheran coun- tries of europe, and they continue to perpetuate, to a greater or smaller degree, the religious tradition of the countries of their origin. with the slackening of north european immigration toward the end of the roth century the nationalistic traits tended to become less marked, and the process of americanisation was greatly hastened by the world war. since ror4 the foreign languages are rapidly being replaced in the services by english and the separated bodies have been drawing closer together. organisation.—in 1918 the united lutheran church was formed by the union of the general synod, the general council and the united synod in the south. these three bodies repre- sented a single line of american tradition reaching back to colo- nial days. most of their synods owed their foundation, directly or indirectly, to the work of henry melchior mihlenberg, the great colonial missionary (d. 1787). they had had doctrinal differences, but these were regarded as too small to keep them longer apart. the augustana synod, a body of lutherans of swedish origin, did not enter the union, though it had been a part of the general council. in 1917 three bodies of norwegian lutherans united to form the norwegian lutheran church in america. since 1921 discussions have been in progress looking towards the union of other separated bodies. the national lutheran commission for soldiers’ and sailors’ welfare was or- - ganised in 1917 to minister to the spiritual welfare of the 400,000 lutheran men in the army and navy of the united states. its membership included all the larger bodies except the missouri and wisconsin synods. it was dissolved in ro2t. the national lutheran council was organised in 1918 by the same bodies that had previously organised the commission. its purpose was to provide an agency for certain kinds of co-operative work. its most important task has been to extend aid to the lutheran churches of europe during their period of reconstruction. be- tween 1918 and 1925 it distributed among the lutherans of 20 different countries more than $6,500,000 in money ani goods. doctrines.—doctrinally, the lutherans of america are pro- nounced conservatives. all of them subscribe to the augsburg confession and the small catechism, and most of them accept the whole body of the 16th century lutheran confessions. their doctrinal differences have been, at times, acute, but have usually concerned the theological interpretation of the confessions. their form of government is theorctically congregational, but the whole tendency in the larger bodies is towards a rather highly centralised synodical administration. the most conscrvative type of american lutheranism is represented by the synodical conference. its theological standards are those of 17th-century orthodoxy; it strongly opposes any recognition of or co-opera- tion with other churches, and it is vigorously hostile to the mem- bership of its pastors and people in secrct societies. the united lutheran church, though insistent upon the enforcement of confessional standards, is less rigid both in theology and practice. | bibliography.—j. schneider, kirchliches jahrbuch, published annually by c. berthelsmann, giitersloh; proceedings of the lu- theran world convention (1923) (philadelphia, 1925), andin german (leipzig, 1925); annual reports of the national lutheran council (new york, 1919-21); a. r. wentz, the lutheran church in amer- acan history, philadelphia (especially part v1 ) (1923); the lutheran world almanac, published by the national lutheran council, new york, 1921-3 (1926); arndt, die werfassung des deutsch- en reichs mit kommentar (berlin and leipzig, 1921}; baumont and berthelot, l'allemagne lendemains de guerre et de revolution (paris, 1922); year book of the churches, 1924-5 (new york). (c. m. j.) lutsk: see guck. 747 lutyens, sir edwin landseer (1869- ), british archi- tect, was born in london march 29 1869. after a brief training in the south kensington schools and in architects’ offices, he received his first commission at the age of 19. he afterwards designed a number of country houses, in which he gradually developed an individuality of design which was, however, tem- pered by a reticence which dissociated his work from any attempts at “‘ originality.”” much of his domestic work was dene in connection with the restoration of old houses; the largest example of his powers in this direction is the treatment of lindisfarne castle, holy island (1903-12). he also executed much civic work, being responsible for the country life offices in london and for the british sections at the exhibitions in paris (1900) and rome (1911). the garden suburb at hamp- stead, london, has many good examples of his treatment of small houses. it was as the architect of the new delhi (see deu) that the culmination of his professional career was reached. healso designed the cenotaph in whitehall, london. sir edwin, who was knighted in 1918, became an associate of the royal academy in 1913 and was elected a full academician in 1920. the royal institute of british architects awarded him its gold medal in 1921. luxembourg (see 17.145), a neutral and independent grand duchy, in economic union with belgium. its area is 1,034 sq. m., and the population 267,447 (1922). luxembourg was admitted to the league of nations on dec. 16 1920. invasion of 1914.—on aug. 2 1914 the german armics invaded the grand duchy on the pretext that it was necessary to protect the german control and working of the luxembourg railways against a french invasion. the main line of the railways of the grand duchy, which belongs to the railway company of guz1- laume-luxembourg, had been first worked by the french railway company of the east, but from 1872, by a condition of thetreaty of frankfurt, by the german state railways. on aug. 4 herr von bethmann hollweg admitted to the reichstag that the violation of luxembourg neutrality was wrong, and promised reparation. the invasion was aviolation of the treaty of london of may 11 1867, which had placed the neutrality of the grand duchy under the collective guarantee of great britain, austria, france, prussia and russia. the luxembourg govt. and the «evereign protested against this violation, but the grand duchy remained in german occupation for the duration of the war. after the armistice, the railways of guillaume-luxembourg were pro- visionally run by france. after the evacuation of the country by the german troops, luxembourg denounced its accession to the german zollverein, to which it had belonged since 1842, and from jan. 1 rotg it constituted an autonomous customs territory, while, by virtue of articles 41 and 268 of the treaty of versailles, it enjoyed the right of exporting to germany for five years, duty free, goods equivalent in quantity to its average pre-war export to germany. the dynasty—political complications decided the grand duchess, marie-adelaide, who had succeeded her father, grand- duke william, in 1912, to abdicate jan. 10 1919, in order to save the independence of the grand duchy, and she was succeeded by hersister, princess charlotte, (b.1896). the latter married on nov. 6 1919 prince felix of bourbon-parma, brother of the ex-empress zita of austria. maric-adelaide died jan. 24 1924. by the referendum of sept. 28 1919 the luxembourg pcople pronounced by 66,811 votes for the maintenance of the monarchy with the grand duchess charlotte as sovereign, as against 16,885 votes for a republican regime, and by 60,133 votes for an eco- nomic union with france against 22,242 votes for an economic union with belgium. association with france would have helped the agrarian interest, while the vinegrowers stood to gain from association with belgium. customs union with belgium.—after the occupation of frankfurt, carried out jointly by french and belgian troops (april 8 r920), the french govt. made a declaration renounc- ing the negotiation of a customs union with luxembourg in favour of belgium. relations with belgium had been strained as a result of the plebiscite, but the new negotiations between 748 belgium and luxembourg culminated in a convention (signed july 25 1921) establishing an economic union between the two countries which came into force may 1 1922, to last for 50 years. the chief stipulations of this treaty are as follows:— 1. the customs frontiers between belgium and luxembourg are abolished, commercial treaties in the name of the union are to be drawn up by belgium, luxembourg adopts customs legislation and tariffs from belgium, but preserves her own customs admin- istration, the customs receipts of the two countries, as well as the yield of the taxes on beer, vinegar, sugar, tobacco, marga- rine, etc., with the exception of the tax on alcohol are pooled, ‘and the total, after deducting a certain sum calculated accord- ing to the price of cereals, and devoted to the encouragement of the cultivation of cereals in the grand duchy, is divided be- tween belgium and luxembourg in proportion to the popu- lation, approximately in the proportion of 28 to i. 2. the paper currency in the grand duchy of state notes, re- sulting from the withdrawal of german notes after the armistice, is reduced to 25,000,000 fr., and may only include notes not ex- ceeding the value of 10 francs. the remainder of the note cir- culation of the grand duchy is made up of notes of the national bank of belgium, except a circulation of 6,250,000 fr. in notes py the international bank of luxembourg, which has the privilege of issue. 3. the belgian state should share in working all the luxem- bourg railways (standard normal gauge).? 4. belgian consuls have charge of luxembourg interests wher- ever there are no luxembourg consuls. this provision leaves in force the agreement of jan. 7 1880, between the netherlands and luxembourg, which placed luxembourg political interests under the protection of dutch diplomatic representatives, in all coun- tries where luxembourg has nodiplomatic agents, except in paris, berlin and brussels. constitution. —by a law of may 15 1919 the constitution of the grand duchy was revised in a more democratic direction. the powers of the sovereign were limited, universal suffrage, with proportional representation, was instituted, and the franchise was conferred on women. but the most interesting innovation was the creation of the law of april 4 1924, of five chambers for traders, industrialists, agriculturists, artisans, private employees and workmen, election to the chambers being by electors in these occupations above the age of 21, and main- tenance by compulsory contributions by the electors. these chambers have the power to create and maintain institutions, the right to propose bills which must be submitted to the cham- ber of deputies, and they have a right to be consulted before laws affecting their professional interests are passed by the chamber of deputies. population.—according to the census of 1922, the population of the grand duchy was 267,447, that is 101 persons per sq. km.; of these 33,436 were foreigners, chiefly germans (15,500) and italians (6,170), the latter being employed chiefly in the mining and metallurgical industries. according to the last census of occupations in 1907, 36:8 % of the population was occupied in agriculture and gardening, 41:7% in industry and mines, 12-2%) in commerce and transport. since then the proportion in industry and commerce has certainly grown at the expense of agriculture. the chief towns of the grand duchy are, besides the capital, luxembourg, with 46,709 inhabitants, the three centres of the iron industry: esch-sur-alzette, 22,100; differdange, 13,728; and dude- lange, 0,400 inhabitants. production, industry and trade.—in 1925 luxembourg _pro- duced 5,984,000 tons of iron ore against 7,333,372 in 1913. there were, in 1925, 47 blast furnaces, out of which only 37 were going, which produced 2,344,000 tons of pig-iron as compared with 2,547,861 tonsin i1g13. the seven steel foundries of the grand duchy produced in 1925 2,084,000 tons of steel compared with 1,182,227 in 1913. german capital, which before the war dominated the metal works of the grand duchy, has been replaced since by luxembourg, belgian and french capital. besides the factories which they own in luxem- bourg, the luxembourg metal companies own or control mines, collieries, blast furnaces, steel works and factories for iron and steel manufacture principally in france, belgium, germany and in brazil. their branches are established in all quarters of the globe. 1 long negotiations on the railways question ended in a conven- tion, signed at brussels on may 13 1924, under which the [.uxem- bourg system is administered by a luxembourg company, the bel- gian govt. acting conjointly with the luxembourg authority where belgian interests, particularly transit interests, were concerned. but this convention was rejected by the luxembourg chamber of deputies on jan. 20 1925. therefore the line is still under french control. the negotiations between luxembourg, belgium and france over the luxembourg railway are still continuing. luxemburg, rosa—lvov besides the ancient industries of sole leather, slates, metal con- structions, china, explosives, gloves, drapery, woven wear, brewing and tobacco, long established in luxembourg, new industries have grown up, and have made considerable way. these are the cement in- dustry, which produced 75,441 tons in 1924, the manufacture of sparkling wines, fancy leather and brushes. finance.—in 1913 the public consolidated debt of the grand duchy was about 10,000,000 francs. in 1925 this debt had risen, in consequence of the charges which the state had to assume during the war to assure the feeding of the population and to meet the deficits in the budget caused by the upheavals during and after the: war, to 196,000,000, plus a loan of 175,000,000 issued in belgium in 1922 and intended for the exchange of notes of the luxembourg state for notes of the national bank of belgium. since 1924 the state budget has been balanced. railways. —on may 13 1924 @ convention between the governments of luxembourg and belgium was signed at brus- sels. under the terms of this convention the entire railway system of luxembourg will be administered by the societe des chemins de fer prince henri, under the control of the grand ducal govt., conjointly in so far as questions of interest to belgium are concerned, particularly as regards transit, with the belgian government. this agreement was completed by a final protocol signed at brussels on oct. 14 1924, which settled the economic and technical questions, relating to the belgian, grand ducal and french interests, raised by the separation of the guillaume-luxembourg railway system from that of alsace- lorraine. brptrograpuy.—albert calmes, der zollanschluss des gross- herzogtums luxemburg an deutschiand von 1842 bis 198, 2 vol., (frankfort, 1919); n. welter, j dienst (luxembourg, 1949): c) lu xemburg, rosa (1870-1919), german socialist, was born at zamoe¢e, russian poland, dec. 25 1870. having taken up socialist political activities in poland, about 1895 she mi- ‘grated to germany, where she married a german workman in order to acquire german nationality. in 1898 she edited the saxon arbeiterzeitung, but shortly afterwards joined the staff of the leipziger volkszeitung. she took part in the russian revo- lution of 1905, and on her return to germany founded with kar! liebknecht the spartacus league. in 1914 she was sentenced to a year’s imprisonment for inciting to insubordination and throughout the world war remained in preventive custody. after the revolution she edited, with liebknecht, the com- munist paper, rofe fahne. they were arrested on jan. 15 1919 on the charge of instigating the street fighting in berlin which had taken place a few days earlier. whilst being conveyed to the moabit prison they were brutally attacked by the mob. lieb- knecht was shot dead and rosa luxemburg died a few hours jater from injuries received. brpliography.—hiler works include die krise der sosialdemocratie; briefe aus dem gefdngnis and briefe an karl und luise kautsky, 1896~1918. seealso g. zinoviev, karl liebknecht et rosa luxemburg (1919); c. p. a. f. liebknecht, the murder of karl liebknecht and rosa luxemburg (1924). lvov, prince george eugenievich (1861- ), russian statesman, belonged to the old russian nobility. he spent the greater part of his life in zemstvo, that is, local government work (see 23.876), being a member of the executive board of the tula zemstvo from 1888 and president from 1g02-5. in 1905 he was elected member of the first state duma and joined the tight wing of the constitutional democratic party. during the russo-japanese and world wars he took an active part in the organisation of zemstvos for the relief of sick and wounded soldiers and in the latter war was president of the all-russian union. on march 14 1917 lvov was elected prime minister and minister of the interior of the first russian provisional gov- ernment. unfortunately his government proved a complete failure. a new coalition cabinet was formed on may 16 and lvov again accepted the leadership of the cabinet and the portfolio of the interior, but he had no real influence in political life, and he resigned from both offices on july 7. (see russi.) after the bolshevist revolution in november, lvov was arrested and imprisoned in ekaterinburg but he escaped to siberia and eventually settled down in paris. lyall—lyttelton lyall, sir alfred comyn (1835-10911), british writer (see 17.148), died in the isle of wight april 10 rort. lyautey, louis hubert gonzalve (1854- ), french soldier, was born at nancy (meurthe-et-moselle) nov. 17 1854. having passed through st. cyr and the staff college, he first served as a cavalry officer, and was then appointed in 1894 to the staff of the troops in indo-china, where he took part, under general gallieni, in the operations against the pirates of upper tongking. he accompanied general gallieni to madagascar, where he distinguished himsclf by repressing an insurrection and by his able government of the southern part of the island. fe applied himself to working out. and putting into practice new and eminently successful methods of colonia] government. having returned to his regiment as its colonel, he was soon after ap- pointed to the command in the territory of ain sefra, which was being disturbed by incursions from morocco. we was then placed in command of the oran division, and was entrusted with the carrying out of international agreements with regard to morocco. having restored order on the algerian-moroccan frontier, as far as moulouya and guis, he took command of the x. corps at rennes. in april 1912, in view of the serious situation at fez, the gov- ernment decided to send him to morocco as high commissioner and resident-general to quell disturbances and to consolidate the recently declared protectorate. immediately on his arrival he succeeded in relieving fez, and initiated the work of pacification and colonisation which was to result in a few years in the creation of a well organised government ona solid basis. on the declara- tion of the world war, although formally ordered by the govern- ment to evacuate the interior of morocco, so as to liberate the greater part.of his forces, he did not yield an inch of ground, and maintained for four years a glorious struggle against all the efforts of an enemy subsidised by germany, while he actually increased the subjugated territory. in dec. 1917 general lyautey was appointed war minister, but resigned after three months in order to return to morocco. from 1920 to 1924 he continued his work by conquering the at- las, and by establishing a defensive barricr to the north of ouer- gha. as a reward for these services he was made a marshal of france in feb. 1921. in 1925 he organised a victorious resistance to the attacks of the rifi under abdel-krim, and did not resign the post of resident-general until order was completely restored. the work of marshal lyautey in morocco was of considerable importance. not only was the country pacified by the adoption of judicious methods of colonial government, but by construc- tive work and fine organisation a province was built up with a great economic future (see morocco). he was made a member of the french academy in 1914, and wrote numerous articles on colonial administration. [lis letters from tongking and mada- gascar were published in 1920. (m. gu.) lynn, mass., u.s.a. (see 17.172), increased in population from 89,336 in ig10 to 99,148 in 1920, of whom 27,858 were for- eign-born, and 103,147 in 1925 (massachusetts census). ‘the aggregate value of its manufactures rose from $71,503,000 in 1909 to $160,906,000 in 1919, while the number of wage-earners in the factories remained unaltered. the effect of the post-war depression and of the dispersion of the boot and shoe industry is seen in the figures for 1923: value of products, $95,935,221; number of wage-earners, 22,506. from second place in 1905, lynn had fallen to sixth in 1923 in the manufacture of boots and shoes, ranking after new york, brockton, st. louis, haverhill and milwaukee. in 1917 a lock-out in the shoe factories (april 18 to sept. 20) affected 15,000 workers. the commission form of government, adopted in 1910, was abandoned in 1918 for a charter providing for rr councillors and for a mayor with large powers. lyons, sir joseph (1848-10917), british business man, was born in london sept. 29 1848 and educated at a jewish school. in early life he studied painting and exhibited at the royal institute, but by 1886 he had turned to business enterprises, in conjunction with the brothers isidore (d. 1920) and montague gluckstein. this led to the foundation of the catering firm of 749 j. lyons and co., ltd., of which he became chairman. he began by catering at public exhibitions, and next opened tea-shops in london, the first in 1894. twenty years later these numbered over 200 and provided cheap food for the large class of clerical workers and junior members of professions. later he opened several restaurants of a more ambitious nature, as well as hotels on the no-tipping principle. he was knighted in rg1r, and died in london june 22 1917. see mrs. stuart menzies, modern men of mark (1920). lyons, trance (sce 17.174), had a population of 561,592 in 1921. in 1922 about 140,000 persons were employed in the silk industry and several large factories were built in 1924. the manufacture of artificial silk is of growing importance. the international fair, first held in 1916, has shown a notable increase of business and aims at rivalling leipzig. a permanent ex- hibition building on the banks of the rhene was nearing com- pletion in 1926, and space for exhibitors was also being reserved on both sides of the road on the left bank of the river and in the square near the main railway station. poland and sovict russia were represented at the exhibition for the first time in 1923. the wilson bridge over the rhene was opened in 1918. from 1916, during the war, lyons was a centre for the exchange of seriously wounded french and german prisoners. a syndicalist congress was held in the city in rorg. lys, battle of the: sec german offensive. lyttelton, alfred (1857—10913), british politician, was born feb. 7 1857, the youngest child and eighth son of the 4th lord lyttelton. tis mother, daughter of sir stephen glynne and sister of mrs. w. e. gladstone, died six months after his birth. all the eight boys were brought up to be keen cricketers, the cricket ground at hagley, worcs., their home, being close to the house; all went to eton, and six were in the eton eleven. the eldest, viscount cobham (1842-1922), became a land commissioner and a railway commissioner; gen. sir neville lyttelton, g.c.b. (b. 1845), an experienced soldier, was gover- nor of chelsea hospital; spencer lyttelton, c.b. (1847-1913), was three times private secretary to his uncle w. e. gladstone when prime minister; the rictt rev. arthur lyttelton, 1.1. (1852-1903), was bishop of southampton; and the rev. edward lyttelton, d.d. (b. 1854) was headmaster, first of haileybury, and then of eton. alfred was the most famous cricketer of them all. indeed for nearly all ball games he had an extraordinary aptitude. he excelled in football of three kinds, and in fives, racquets and especially tennis—holding the amateur championship for tennis from 1882 to 1896. at cricket he was equally good as a bat and as a wicket keeper. he was four years, 1872-5, in the eton eleven, and captain the last year; four years, 1876-9, in the cam- bridge eleven, and captain the last year. moreover, he played for england against australia, and for the gentlemen against the players; and for some years was a notable member of the middlesex eleven. the infectious joyousness of his nature, his sterling character, his solid, though not brilliant, intellect and his prowess at games gave him an undisputed lead among his contemporaries. he was king of the place before he left eton; and when he went up to trinity college, cambridge, in 1875, he gained a similar ascendancy. after taking his degree with a second class in history, he was called to the english bar in 1881. here his reputation stood him in good stead; he soon obtained a considerable practice, and in due course became kk. c. his thoughts turned early to poli- tics. though by family tradition and in idealistic outlook a lib- eral, he found himself unable to support the wome rule policy of his uncle, w. e. gladstone, and so postponed any attempt to enter parliament until after the latter’s retirement. but in 1895 he became m.p. for warwick and leamington as a liberal unionist, retaining the seat till 1906, when he was defeated. after a few months’ interval, he was returned for a london con- stituency, st. george’s, hanover square. ile was appointed, in t900, chairman of a commission to en- quire into the various concessions which president kruger and the volksraad had granted to companies and private individuals 750 in the transvaal, and to report which should be maintained and which annulled. in pursuance ef the investigation he spent the autumn of 1900 in south africa; and he so impressed lord mil- ner by his qualities that the high commissioner hoped to secure him as his successor. it was, however, as colonial secretary, in the conservative govt. of mr. balfour in 1903, that his south african experience was utilised. his tenure of office lasted two years and was marked by the drafting of a temporary constitution which should give representative institutions to the transvaal until such time as it should be safe to concede responsible government. this constitution was never put in force, as sir henry campbell-bannerman’s ministry deter- mined that they would risk the grant of responsible government at once. he incurred much odium by sanctioning the scheme for importing chinese coolies into south africa in order to remedy the shortage of native labour and to restart the mines and thereby the whole economic machinery of south africa. lyttelton when his party went into opposition he took an active share in resistance to the drastic liberal policy, and especially to the welsh disestablishment bill, which was repugnant to him as a man of deep religious feeling and an earnest churchman. he also lent a helping hand to many social movements, and was a decided supporter of woman sufirage. his first wife, whom he married in 1885 and, who died in 1886, was the brilliant laura tennant, sister of lady oxford and as- quith; his second wife, married in 1892, was edith sophy, daughter of archibald balfour. she, with a son, captain oliver lyttelton, and daughter, survived him. his death came very unexpectedly, on july 5 1913, after an injury in a local cricket match. mr. asquith, then prime minister, spoke of him in the house of commons as having come nearest, of all men of his generation, to that ideal of manhood to which every english father would wish to see his son aspire. see edith lyttelton, alfred lyttelton, 1917. (gy ec.b) mcadoo—macdonald cadoo, william gibbs (1863— __), american law- m yer and politician, was born near marietta, ga., oct. 31 1863. he entered the university of tennessee but did not finish his course. in 1882 he became clerk in the u.s. circuit court of chattanooga, read law and three years later was admitted to the bar. he began practice in chatta- nooga, but in 1892 removed to new york city. there he became interested in the problem of passenger transportation. in 1902 he formed the new york and new jersey railroad company, which took over the abandoned hudson river tunnel from ho- boken to new york, and in march rgo4 this tunnel was com- pleted. in 1909 the tunnel under the hudson river to down- town new york was finished. in 1912 he was vice-chairman of the democratic national committee. he was a strong sup- porter of woodrow wilson for president, and on the latter’s election he was appointed, in 1913, secretary of the treasury. in this position he contributed largely to the working-out of the new federal reserve banks system. at the outbreak of the world war in europe he favoured strict neutrality. after america’s entrance into the war he was called upon to raise unprecedented sums of money. ile was suc- cessful in floating four liberty loans between may 1917 and oct. 1918, amounting in all to more than $18,000,000,000. he also secured the creation of a bureau of war risk insurance for shipping, later extended to include life insurance for soldiers and sailors in the world war. when the railways were taken over by the federal government in 1917 he was appointed director-general. he favoured the league of nations, woman suffrage and the prohibition amendment. he resigned the secre- taryship of the treasury in dec. 1918, and the directorship of railways the following january. he then resumed the practice of law in new york city. at the democratic national conven- tion held at san francisco, june 28 1920 and following days, mr. mcadoo was placed in nomination for the presidency, and on the first ballot obtained the highest number of votes, 266; at the 36th ballot his vote ran to 399, but after that he lost ground, and j. m. cox received the nomination on the 44th ballot. mr. mcadoo was again placed in nomination for the presidency at the democratic national convention held at new york city in june 1924. on the first ballot he obtained the highest number of votes, 4314, on the 69th ballot he had 530, but after that his strength steadily declined, and on the 103rd ballot, when j. w. davis was nominated, he received only 12 votes. mr. mcadoo married, as his second wife, eleanor randolph, daughter of president wilson. macarthur, mary reid (1880-1921), british politician, was born aug. 31 1880 in glasgow, where her father had a large drapery establishment. breaking with the conservative tradi- tions of her family, in 1903 she came to london to be secretary of the women’s trade union league, into whose work she breathed new life. in 1906 she founded a new general trade un- ion for women—the national federation of women workers. the anti-sweating league, which she helped to found, and her evid- ence before the select committee on home work did much to convince the public of the necessity of the trade boards act, passed in 1909. it wasmainly due to her efforts that boards were established in various sweated industries. in 1914 she became secretary of the central committee for the employment of women. later she wasinstrumental in improving the condition of the women war workers. in 1911 she married w. c. anderson, who was chairman of the labour party in 1914 and m.p. for atter- cliffe (sheffield) from 1915-8. in 1918 she unsuccessfully contested stourbridge in the labour interest. after herhusband’s death in 1919, she lectured, mainly on peace, in the united states which she again visited for the labour convention conference at washington. she died on jan. 1 1921, leaving one child, a daughter, born in igts. see m.a. hamilton, jfery afacarthur: a biographical sketch (1925). io! mcbride, sir richard (1870-1017), canadian politician, was born at new westminster dec. 15 1870, and was educated first in that city and later at dalhousie university, halifax, nova scotia. he was called to the canadian bar in 1892, and entered the british columbian parliament as member for dewdney in 1898. in 1g00 he became minister of mines and in 1902 leader of the opposition. in june 1903 he became prime minister for the province and retained that position until 1915, when he became agent-general for british columbia in london. he was made k.c.m.g. in 1912 and died in london aug. 6 ror7. m’carthy, justin (1830-1012), irish politician and writer (see 17.200), died at folkestone, kent, april 24 1912. mccormick, robert rutherford (1880- ), ameri- can editor, was born in chicago, ill., july 30 1880. he graduated from yale university in 1903, studied law at northwestern university law school and was admitted to the illinois bar in 1908, commencing practice in chicago. he was active in civic circles from 1g04 to r91o. in 1910 he became associated with his cousin, joseph medill patterson, as co-editor and publisher of the chicago tribune, being president of the chicago tribune company. under their direction the tribune enormously in- creased both in circulation and the amount of advertising matter carried, becoming one of the most influential papers in the united states. in 1916-7 mccormick served as major in the rst illinois cavalry on the mexican frontier, and in 1917 was attached to gen. pershing’s staff, a.e.f., in france. later he was trans- ferred to the 5th f.a. of the 1st div., and promoted to the rank of colonel. in 1921 in conjunction with his cousin, he started in new york city a daily illustrated paper, followed in 1924 by liberty, a weekly publication, both of which obtained immediate and large circulations. in 1912 they organised the ontario paper co. to make paper for their newspapers, followed in 1924 by the tonawanda paper co., to make magazine paper, the two produc- ing in 1925 about 500 tons of paper a day. maccunn, hamish (1868-1916), british composer (see 17.209), died in london aug. 2 1916. macdonald, james ramsay (1866- ), british politi- cian, was born on oct. 12 1866 at lossiemouth, a little fishing village on the moray firth. his father was a labourer, his first home a “ but anda ben.” at drainie board school he received an elementary education and continued as a pupil teacher. coming to london at 18, he worked at 12/6d. a week asa clerk. he continued his own education by evening classes, laboratory work and incessant reading. a breakdown in health ended his dream of a scientific career, and sent him to journalism. macdonald’s experience and reading made him a convinced socialist. he joined, in 1894, the independent labour party, founded by keir hardie, and in 1895 stood, unsuccessfully, for southampton. as a member of the london county council he completed his training for public service, and, after his marriage, in 1896, with margaret ethel gladstone, niece of lord kelvin, made frequent journeys abroad. in 1897 he paid his first visit to canada and the united states; in 1902 he went to south africa; in 1906, travelled through the pacific to australia and new zealand; in 1910, visited india, whither he returned in 1913 and ro14 as a member of the royal commission on the civil service. at meetings of the socialist international, he was the spokesman of british labour on the continent. stages of his career.—three main stages may be noted in his political career: the creation of the labour party, the war and the labour government. in the ‘nineties, the great trade unions still stood aloof from politics, or were satisfied with a vague alli- ance with the liberal party. the propaganda of the independent labour party, with which he was prominently associated, was directed to convincing the unions of the need of a political party for labour; in 1899 the trade union congress was induced to set ud a committee to consider parliamentarv action. out of 752 this came the labour representation committee, of which mr. macdonald was secretary. thanks to his energy, patience and tenacity, the hostility of some unions and the apathy of others was broken down and a labour party came into being in 1goo. after the return of 29 m.ps., run by the labour representation committee in 1906, the battle was won; the party became an effective force. but it was in 1918 that mr. macdonald's ideas were fully realised. the party was reorganised and thrown open to all workers by hand or brain, and in 1925 had over 3,000,000 members. elected as m.p. for leicester in t906, by 1911 he was leader of the labour party in the house of commons. a constructive critic of sir edward grey’s foreign policy, he opposed, on aug. 4 1914, the view that there was an “ obligation of honour ” to go to war. the specch was an agreed one, but the majority.of the party broke away. he had alrcady refused suggestions of office; he now resigned his leadership. he was denounced in public and private, and had to face the fact that his views were not ac- cepted by the nation at war. in 1918 he lost his seat at leices- ter, and in ro2t failed to get in for east woolwich. although out of the house of commons till late in 1922, his influence on opinion steadily grew. by 1922, the party took his view of the peace treaties, and resisted the tendencies that split nearly every labour party abroad. in 1912, he had countered the demand for the substitution of industrial (“ direct ’’) for parliamentary action in syndicalism; in 1919, when, under the stimulus of russian events, this demand reappeared as the communist doctrine of force, he wrote parliament and revoliu- tion and parliament and democracy, in which he gave a definite and logical lead against the tactics of violence and championed parliamentary democracy. the 1922 election registered his moral ascendancy. labour, with 140 members, was the second party in the state, and he himself, returned for aberavon, was chosen by his colleagues leader of the opposition. his leadership produced a marked change in public opinion, and focused general interest on himself and on labour. he raised its claim to be fit to govern at the sudden election of 1923, and came back with 192 followers. the conservatives had been defeated on the main item in their programme, and, at a great meeting in london, mr. macdonald declared that labour would take office, if given the chance, in order to render national serv- ice. on jan. 24 1924 he accordingly moved a vote of no confi- dence in the unionists, which was carried with liberal support. next day the king called upon him to form a government. the first labour cabinet was announced on jan. 24, and on feb. 12 the new prime minister set out its general programme in the house of commons. in this, the first item was peace; with this supreme object in view, he took the post of foreign secretary in addition to that of first lord of the treasury. the unsettled state of europe, aggravated through the occu- pation of the ruhr, was a primary cause of distress and unem- ployment in britain. british prestige had fallen low: relations between britain and france were bad, between france and ger- many threatening. the reparations question blocked the way. in jetters to m. poincare, published on feb. 4 and march 3, mr. macdonald, with firm friendliness, set out the british point of view, and had soon created a new atmosphere, one of confidence and hope. when, on april 13, the experts committee on repa- rations issued a unanimous report, he at once accepted it on the part of britain as a basis for settlement. in may, m. poincare was replaced by the radical m. herriot, who in june came over to london to discuss the european position with mr. macdon- ald. friendship with italy had already been established by the latter’s action on jubaland. on july. 16 1924 an allied conference assembled in london, over which he presided, for the specific purpose of putting the experts’ report into operation. within a fortnight, agreement had been reached and the german delegates called in. on aug. 16 the london settlement, the first negotiated agreement since the war, was initialled. by mutual! consent, the experts’ plan was put in effect, and the reparation problem thus lifted out of the political sphere. france, at the same time, agreed to evacu- macdonald ate the ruhr within a year and certain towns at once. negotia- tions for an anglo-german commercial treaty, since signed, were initialled. in sept. mr. macdonald and m. herriot at- tended the fifth assembly of the league of nations at geneva, and there submitted a plan, the protocol, for the climination of private war and the submission of all disputes to arbitration, after general mutual disarmament. in the house of commons, meantime, the difficulties of the government’s minority position were growing. mr. snowden’s budget met with gencral approval; a housing act was passed, and the machinery for the relief of unemployment improved. but when mr. macdonald sought to complete his peace work by making treaties with russia, whose de jure recognition had been his first act as foreign secretary, the liberals broke away. in oct. the government was defeated on a motion, calling for a select committee, on their dropping of the prosecution of a communist named campbeli. in the general election, then declared, the press was exceedingly hostile, and labour was identified with bolshevism. the campaign culminated in the publication of a document purporting to emanate from m. zinoviev, president of the moscow international, urging british communists to tamper with the army, and of a note from the foreign office, issued without the signature or sanction of the secretary, animadverting on russian propaganda, polling took place on oct. 29; as a result the conservatives came back with a great majority. the labour vote went up by over a million, but its representation was reduced to 150. on nov. 4 mr. mac- donald resigned, and resumed his leadership of the opposition. his party, in conference in 1925, confirmed his leadership with striking enthusiasm, and expressed its pride in the achievement of its first government. in 1924, while prime minister, he was given an ll.d. by glasgow university, and macle a freeman of glasgow, and of dundee. in 1925 edinburgh made him a free- man, and the university conferred an ll.d. an estimate—the permanent significance in british political history of a man who had created a new political party and en- abled it to conduct a government, is obvious. but mr. macdon- ald’s contribution cannot be measured by this unless it is also noted that he made the party the vehicle of a new political philos- ophy, which serves to give precision and content to the idea of democracy. his socialism, derived from wide study of men and institutions, of science and history, has been expressed through writings and speeches which have modified opinion over a wider range than that of professed adherents. in it, two main streams may be detached—the scientific and the moral. accepting the design suggested by evolution, he postulates, instead of a hap- hazard and unwilling adaptation, or the resistance to change that provokes revolution, a conscious acceptance of its principle through a planned social organisation bascd on communal need and service—such an “ organisation of things as invites the co-operation of minds.” mind, in his view, is the instrument, consent the method, of social advance. consistently rejecting violence, he opposes war and revolution alike. a steadying as well as a constructive force in the british labour movement, he realised that ideas are the moulding force in human development; the moral clement colouring his thought and action, gave to his appeal to the masses the accents of a gospel. macdonald’s views on socialism can best be studied in his books. among them the more important are: soctalism aud society (1905); socialism and government (1909); the awakening of lidia (1911); the secialist movement (1911); syndicalism (1912); the social un- rest (1913); national defence (1917); parliament and revolution (1919); parliament and democracy (1919); the government of india (1919); a policy for the labour party (1920); and socialism, critical and constructive (1921). in addition, his biography of his wife, margaret ethel macdonald (1912); and a volume of essays and travel pictures, wanderings and excursions (1925) may also be mentioned. see c. w. mullins, the patriotism of ramsay macdonald and others (1916); l. n. le roux, j. ramsay afacdonald, sa vie, son euure et sa pensee (1919); “* iconoclast’? (m. a. ilamilton) the man of tomorrow, j. ramsay macdonald (1923); j. ramsay macdonald, 1023-25 (1925); h. tracey, from doughty street to downing street. the rt. hon. j. ramsay macdonald, m.p. (1924); j. bardoux, j. ramsay macdonald (1924); g. glasgow, ifacdenald as dipiomatist (1924). (m. a. h.) macdonell —macedonia macdonell, sir john (1846-1921), british jurist, was born at brechin, forfarshire, aug. 11 1846, and was educated at the universities of aberdeen and edinburgh. he was called to the bar by the middle temple in 1873 and for some years was counsel to the board of trade and the london chamber of commerce. in 1889 he was made a master of the supreme court and in 1912 was appointed king’s remembrancer. in rgor he was made quain professor of comparative law in the university of london and he was president of the society of public teachers of law (1912-3), a member of several royal commissions, and editor, for many years, of the journal of comparative legislation and international law. in 1913 he was elected a fellow of the british academy and in 1o1r4 was created k.c.b. besides editing the state trials (1887), the civil judicial statistics (from 1894) and the criminal judicial statistics (from 1900), he published works on the subjects of capture at sea and the law of master and servant, and was the author of many papers on international law. he was also for 40 years a leader writer on the times, london. he died in london march 17 1921. macedonia (see 17.216), a territory embracing the former turkish vilayets of monastir and salonika, and part of the vilayet of kosovo, now divided between greece and serbia. all statistics of macedonian nationalities must be received with the greatest caution and have a very relative value. the ‘* peace handbook for macedonia” states with considerable diffidence that “‘ before 1912 there were approximately 1,150,000 slavs, 400,000 turks, 120,c00 albanians, 300,000 greeks, 200,000 vlachs, 100,c00 jews and 10,000 gipsies.”’ m. palles estimates the population of greek macedonia as 43° greck before the immigration of the greek refugees and as 90% greek in 1925. there is a movement among the greeks of greek macedonia for local government; this is quite distinct from the bulgarian propaganda in favour of an “‘ autonomous ” mace- donia, which, like ‘‘ autonomous”? eastern roumelia in 188s, could be ultimately annexed to bulgaria. | political histery—since 1911 macedonia has thrice become a battlefield. when the first balkan war of t9t2 broke out, while the bulgarians directed their principal efforts against the turkish armies in thrace, their serbian and greek allies ad- vanced into macedonia. the great serbian victory at kuma- novo leit skoplje, the capital of dushan’s medieval empire, open to the victors, and the greek successes at sarantaporos and yenije-vardar led to the occupation of salonika. in 1913 the quarrel which arose out of the division of the macedonian spoils between bulgaria and her allies provoked the second balkan war, of which macedonia was again the theatre. the greeks defeated the bulgarians at kilkis and the serbians routed them at oveepolje. but the retreating bulgarians laid seres, a flour- ishing town, in ashes, and the writer, visiting it a year later, saw an empty petroleum tin in every greck house. violence was also practised at nigrita, doxaton and drama. the third treaty of bucharest, signed aug. 10 1013, divided macedonia between greece and serbia; the greek frontier stretched from the mesta, thus including the rich tobacco plantations of kavalla, to kenali near monastir, which became serbian. bulgaria was excluded from what had been to her nationalists her “ promised land,” and king constantine was hailed at athens as a second ‘ bulgar-slayer,”’ the successor of basil if. for the first time for five centuries macedonia was governed by christian nations. as inevitably happens when- ever turkish rule ceases there was everything to create. the victors of the wars of 1912-3 took over a land neglected com- pletely by its turkish governors; its marshes were undrained, its rivers unembanked, its ports undredged, its cultivable lands (with the exception of the tobacco fields) either uncultivated or else cultivated by the most primitive methods. serbians and greeks set to work upon this colossal task to the best of their experience and limited means, but they had had no time to achieve much when in 1914 the world war broke out, and in 1915 macedonia for the third time in three years became the scene of balkan conflicts and was soon converted into one of the european cockpits. 19° the entry of bulgaria into war against serbia, on oct. 14 1915, was speedily followed by the capture of shtip, radoviste, veles and skoplje and the evacuation of monastir, although the serbians held the babuna pass between skoplje and prilep for more than a week. meanwhile, the allied troops had landed at salonika (q.v.) on oct. 5, which thenceforth became the base of their operations in macedonia. but they had to retreat from doiran and krivolak to the vardar and thence to salonika in dec., while in may 1916 the strategic position of fort rupel, commanding the struma valley, was, with the acquiescence of the greek govt., betrayed to the bulgarians, who occupied kavalla and all eastern macedonia. at last, after the appoint- ment of gen. sarrail as commander-in-chief, the allied offensive began. the british advanced on doiran and along the struma; the french and the reconstituted serbian army retook monastir, while italian troops landed at salonika and the provisional govt. of m. veniselos,” now established there, on nov. 23 declared war on bulgaria and germany. when the spring cam- paign of 1917 began, fighting was resumed near monastir and doiran, and the french and russians extended their front towards the lake of okhrida, while the greeks at the battle of srka in 1918 contributed to the allied victory. the franco- serbian offensive on the vardar in sept. of that year, combined with the anglo-greek attack near doiran, where a monument now commemorates the british fallen, led to a complete rout of the bulgarians, who on the 25th asked for an armistice, signed on the 29th, on the day when the french entered skoplje. next day bulgaria surrendered unconditionally; macedonia had con- tributed her share to the defeat and at last had rest. the peace settlement of 1919 divided macedonia between greece and yugoslavia, while bulgaria was excluded alike from macedonia and the aegean. but that she will permanently acquiesce in that settkement may be doubted from a study of her past claims. bulgarian komitadjis still threaten from time to time the danger zone where the three frontiers converge. inci- dents such as that between greeks and bulgarians near petritch in oct. 1925, referred by both parties to, and settled by, the league of nations, remind western europe that macedonia is still volcanic soil. greek settlement 1n macedonia.—the emigration of the greek refugees from asia minor and turkish thrace after the greek disaster in the asia minor campaign of 1922 has, however, com- pletely changed the cthnographical situation, and has solved the racial question in greek macedonia, whose population, formerly only 43%, is now 90% greek. economically the change is equally striking. thanks to the work of the refugees’ settle- ment commission, created by the league of nations in 1923, and to the refugee loan of £10,000,000, issued under the aus- pices of the league, villages have arisen throughout parts of greek macedonia where there was not a house before. com- petent judges belicve that the refugees from asia minor will in time do for macedonia what the expelled french huguenots did for england, for they have brought new industries with them. it is calculated that when the anglo-american concession for draining the vardar marshes has accomplished its work, not only will malaria, the curse of macedonia, be diminished, but also that country will supply the rest of greece with cereals, now imported, and will thus improve the rate of exchange. railway communications.—since the opening of the last section of the greek railway between thessaly and the macedonian system in 1916—a connection long refused by the turks—macedonia is traversed by the simplon-orient and prague expresses to athens, and an improvement of the permanent way will further shorten the journey. difficulties between greece and yugoslavia have, however, arisen with respect to the portion of the railway between salonika and the yugoslav frontier station, gjevgjelija, which belonged to a french company, now bought out by the greeks. the yugoslavs have obtained a “ serbian zone’ in the port of salonika, but, despite the fact that since aug. 1925 serbia has for the first time had direct railway communication with the adriatic at spalato, serbian nationalism tends to regard salonika—towards which the croats and slovenes are indifferent—as the natural outlet of serbian mace- donia. the signature of the bulgarian minorities’ protocol by the greek representative at geneva was the occasion of the denunciation by the yugoslavs of their alliance with greece, and the subsequent 704 negotiations for its renewal had (up to april 1926) failed, although the greek assembly refused to ratify the minorities’ protocol. meanwhile, considerable improvements have been made, notably in the railway stations of serbian macedonia, and the frontier question of the monastery of st. naum has been settled with albania. production and industrial development.—but it would be im- possible for macedonia, after five centuries of turkish neglect, to achieve a high grade of civilisation in 13 years. nevertheless, macedonia has already shown signs of an industrial future. cotton is grown near seres, woollen goods are produced and 17,000 tons of tobacco were grown in 1924, and 26,000 in 1923 in macedonia and thrace. the refugees have replaced the turkish tobacco planters in macedonia, and in 1924 they were cultivating 2,250 acres more than before. in 1923 the value of the tobacco exported from kavalla reached three milliards of drachmai, and an american tobacco com- pany is established there. the usual corollary of industrialism has made its appearance at kavalla in the form of the labour disputes of 1924. macedonia 1s, indeed, the only part of greece where there are any signs of bolshevism, a phenomenon to the growth of which the individualism of the greek character is very unfavourable. the greek peasant is naturally conservative; and it is only among the new elements of the macedonian population, greeks who in some cases speak only turkish and have little to lose, that bolshevik propaganda can find disciples, jewish element.—macedonia is the only greek territory which furnishes a large jewish element to the population. the salonika jews, settled there for centuries, probably preferred turkish to christian rule; but they have accepted greek citizenship and formed a special electoral college for the elections to the new greek senate (still in abeyance). their traditional business qualities contribute to the economic development of the province, now placed under a governor-general, see also bulgaria. bibliography.—n, b. many books on this subject have racial bias and are propaganda. see however: peace handbooks, vol. 4, no. 21, macedonia (1920); gen. m. p. e. sarrail, \fon commande- ment en orient, r9r6-8 (paris, 1920); william miller, the ottoman empire and its successors, rsort~1922, ed. 2 (cambridge, 1923); r. f. h. duke, report on the industrial and economic situation in greece for the years 1923 and 1924 (london, 1925). (w. ml.) mcgill university (see 27.775).—the position of mcgill as providing exceptionally ample facilities for instruction and research in applied science has been maintained and strengthened since 1g10 in many respects. a new wing giving additional space to the work in electrical engineering has been erected. a university clinic has been established under direction of the pro- fessor of medicine who is also chief medical officer of the royal victoria hospital. in 1910 the carnegie corporation of new york gave $1,000,000 in recognition of mcgill’s science and sacrifice in the world war. in 1920 the rockefeller foundation gave $1,000,000 for the faculty of medicine, $1,000,000 was given by the provincial govt. for general purposes and $4,400,- ooo was raised from the graduates and citizens of montreal as a general endowment. the income from investments is about $1,000,000. in 1923-4 the rockefeller foundation gave $500,000 for medical research, lady strathcona gave $120,000 to endow a chair of zoology, and other substantial gifts and bequests have been made to the university since roro. after the world war sir arthur currie, g.c.m.g., k.c.b., was chosen principal of the university. mach, ernst (1838-1916), austrian physicist and psycholo- gist (see 17.232), died near munich feb. 19 1916. machar, jan svatopluk (1864- ), czech poet, was born at kolin feb. 29 1864. his early works, such as confiteor consist of sentimental verses written under the influence of lermontov, heine and de musset. he afterwards turned his attention to social and political satire, exemplified in such volumes as afagdalena (1891), and warriors of god (1895-6). the most important phase of his poetical activity began, how- ever, with the publication of golgotha (1901), the first of a series of volumes in which the destinies of mankind are surveyed through sceptical and anti-clerical eyes. [12 the glow of the hellente sun (1906) and the poison from judaea are titles which sufficiently indicate the point of view from which machar wrote his historical impressions. he traced, in the form of monologues, portraits and short dramatic scenes, the chief personalities in history, from the earliest times to the napoleonic era and beyond. as a prose writer, machar exhibits the same incisive qualities which distinguish his poetry. he attracted much attention by his book, reme (1907) in which personal bias mcgill university—machine guns is fully expressed and by the jail (1917-8), a graphic description of his imprisonment by the austrian authorities during the world war. machine guns (sce 17.237).—the machine gun is an auto- matic small-arm weapon, usually provided with a fixed mounting and capable of sustained accurate fire. a heavy machine gun does not differ materially from an ordinary machine gun in design, but as its calibre may be from o-5 to o-g in. it is neces- sarily of a heavier and stronger make. the weight of a machine gun, however, is limited by the consideration that by whatever means it may be transported, it must in the last resort be “‘man-handled ” into position often over considerable dis- tances and under difficult conditions. on the other hand light- ness and portability are desirable only in so far as they are consistent with strength, for to a large extent it is on the strength, and therefore, weight, of the mechanism that the ability of a gun to sustain fire depends. ammunition.—rille ammunition can be projected by a machine gun with incapacitating effect at ranges at which the fire of the riflleman would be inaccurate and wasteful owing to the big variation caused by the personal error. theoretically it might be desirable to have special machine gun ammunition such as the long-ranging (6,000 yd.) streamline bullet used by the united states and swiss armies; but in view of the enor- mous quantities of ammunition required for the small arms of modern armies, it seems probable that any advantage would be more than counterbalanced by the difficulties of supply, organisation, etc., that would be involved in having different types of ammunition for rifles and machine guns. mounting.— the fixed mounting with which the machine gun is provided increases the accuracy of all ordinary shooting, and thus enables the gun to be used either for indirect fire, or for fire over the heads of friendly troops, when supporting an attack or covering a retirement. to support rigidly a machine gun weighing from 40 to 50 lb., the mounting must be strong and fairly heavy, otherwise the combination will be top heavy and unsteady, and the shooting in consequence will be inaccurate. the mounting must permit of the gun being traversed through as wide an arc as possible, and also permit alterations in eleva- tion to be made. the tripod mounting of the american o-3 browning machine gun has elevating and _ traversing dials, graduated in degrees, etc., to facilitate “‘ fire direction.” fire capabilities —machine guns for ground use normally have arate of fire of about 450-500 rounds per minute, but, owing to the necessary replenishment of empty belts or magazines, etc., the number of rounds actually fired per minute is much less. in aircraft a higher rate of fire is desirable, and is usually ob- tained. by reason of its capacity for sustained fire the machine- gun can provide prolonged supporting fire on the battlefield besides being useful for barrage work. the ability to fire single shots is an advantage, because such shots do not disclose the identity of the machine gun and are useful for observation of range, for testing the working and for keeping water-cooled guns from freezing up in cold) weather. there are also certain tactical advantages, especially in the case of detached units of cavalry, whose ammunition is on pack transport and is there- fore limited. cooling systems.—for sustained fire an efficient cooling system for the barrel is essential. the higher the temperature of the barrel, the less its resistance to wear. there are three systems in use, namely, radiation in air, a combination of raciation and draught of air and water-cooling. in the case of aircraft machine guns no special provision for cooling is necessary as the barrel is exposed to the rush of cold air, heavy barrels with radiating rings are sometimes employed for ground use (e.g., the french hotchkiss). such barrels are comparatively safe from damage by ordinary usage or by small-arm bullets, but they suffer from the disadvantage that when they get hot, the heated air rising from them, known as “ mirage,” causes the target to appear to be in movement, and thus interferes with the aiming of the gun by eye. the radiation and the draught system 1s employed in lewis guns (sec rifles and light macuine guns). machine guns the water-cooling system is the most common. the barrel, for nearly the whole of its length, is surrounded by water con- tained in a casing which, in the case of recoiling barrels, is fitted with glands to prevent leakage. inasmuch as prolonged rapid fire causes the water to boil, a steam escape is necessary. in arid countries the renewal of the water given off as steam is often a serious difficulty, and in any case there is always the risk of the escaping steam disclosing the position of the gun. accordingly a flexible tube is usually attached to the steam es- cape whereby the steam is led into a portable condensing chamber, and converted back into water for use again in the gun. in cold weather guns having recoiling barrels may be put out of action, except for single shots, by the water freezing, but no instance is known of a water-cooled gun being out of action by reason of heat, provided the water-casing has been kept well supplied. the water increases the weight of the gun by about o lb., and for this reason light machine guns rely on radiation for their cooling. mechanical safety —all automatic weapons are required to be * mechanically safe,” that is, the design must be such that the gun cannot be fired unless the action is fully closed and the cartridge properly supported. even then, it should only be able to fire by means of the trigger mechanism, which itself must be proof against heavy jarring. safety catch (“‘ applied safety ’’) devices are usually operated by a single, simple movement. to be perfectly efficient, they should operate directly on the firing pin or striker, and should preclude the possibility of its ever being able to reach the cartridge by accident. typical patterns —a few details of typical different patterns of machine guns are given in the table at the bottom of the page. bulgaria used a -315 maxim (tripod mounting and pack trans- port) and switzerland a -295 maxim (tripod and reff carriage, pack and man’s back). in other details both guns follow the german pattern. the belgian hotchkiss differs from the french in calibre (-301), mounting (carriage with removable tripod) and mode of transport (limber). the czechoslovak schwarzlose is identical with the austrian weapon. £90 for the automatic operation of machine guns power may be obtained in three distinct ways, viz.: from the gases generated by the explosion of the charge, from the recoil of the barrel and from the backward thrust of the cartridge on explosion. in some types of gun two of these principles of operation are combined. a= ns fic. 1.—browning water-cooled machine gun (u.s.). gas-operaicd guns.—most light machine guns and the hotchkiss, which is the primary machine gun of the french army, are typical of the first method. the gas is diverted through a hole in the barrel near the muzzle to operate a piston or lever. in the colt machine gun the gas issuing from a hole near the muzzle impinges the machine guns of six countries austria france germany great britain italy usa pattern if schwarzlose hotchkiss maxim (1908)? | vickers mk. 1. revell browning calibre ‘215 315 “311 303 256 300 5 - 52. (1902) l sed weight ee a 55} (1916) 10 283 37} 30 cb.) | with water for cooling 494 48} 383 483 37 cooling system water air water water water water how operated cartridge gas recoil assisted recoil assisted combination of recoil projection! by gas by gas recoil, inertia and cartridge projection how fed belt 250 rounds | metal strips 30 | belt 250 rounds | belt 250 rounds | magazine 50 belt 250 rounds! rounds nn ee ee toggle joint link on bolt dropping to lock in recess inertia heavy breech action having elbow locking system rounds toggle joint rotating wedge locking block temporarily rising to _ locking two engage with joint and | in body moving parts breech block strong spring mounting tripod 433 ib. tripod 4-legged sledge tripod 484 ib. tripod 474 lb. tripod 72 ib. (1907) +7 |b. 54 ib. (1917) 58 ib. (1915) 50 ib. (1919) how transported pack onc-horsed wagon or pack | wagon or pack | wagon or pack pack carriage and pack sighted up to (yd.) 2,620 2,190 2,190 2,900 2,190 2,800 ? rearward thrust of cartridge projects breech block to rear. 2 during the world war the erfurt gun was made. it was very similar to the 1908 gun, but weighed less—empty 31 ib., full 37 lb. tripod 513 pounds. ® mark ii. gun is for aircraft. it is air-cooled and uses a metal disintegrating link belt (any length). 4 belts for aircraft are of metal disintegrating links. 756 on the front end of a lever hinged at its rear. the front of the lever, being blown down by the gases, revolves backward round its hinge and in so doing extends springs which operate the mechanism. this gun is now practically obsolete. barrel recoil only.—the u.s. browning water-cooled gun (see fig. 1) operates by barrel recoil alone. on the explosion of the cartridge the barrel, barrel extension and breech block move back- wards locked together for $ inch. the locking block for the breech block is then forced downwards, and, the action being unlocked, the breech block travels to the rear, compressing the return spring. an extractor pivoted to the breech block then withdraws a live round from the belt in the feed block. at the end of its rearward travel, it is forced down, so placing the new round in grooves on the face of the breech block and in line with the chamber. the empty cartridge case is knocked off the face of the breech block through the ejection open- ing underneath the gun. the return spring then pushes the breech block forward to close and load the gun. the cartridge belt is led into the feed block by the action of a slide carrying a pawl, which, engaging behind the leading round, forces it into position for the extractor to grip. in this way the belt is led through the gun. a paw! on the floor of the feed block prevents the belt from slipping backwards. the slide is worked to left and right by a lever operated by apr’ working on a cam-shaped slot in the top of the breech ock. the firing pin, housed within the breech block, is cocked by the action of a pivoting lever during the backward travel of the breech block. the other end of this lever, engaging with ramps on the top of the gun, is caused to rotate round its pivot. when the breech block goes forward it 1s pivoted into position for the next cocking action. to release the firing pin to fire the gun, a trigger, when the breech block is fully forward and locked, engages with a sear which holds back the firing pin against its spring. in this way, the ‘* me- chanical safety ” of the gun is secured. when the trigger is pulled, the sear disengages from the firing pin, which then flies forward to fic. 2.—vickers machine gun (great britain). fire the round. so long as the trigger is pressed the gun fires auto- matically. a springed component called the accelerator is also embodied. its function is to assist the recovery of the barrel and, cocked by the barrel extension moving backwards and _ released by the breech block going forward, regulates the timing of the locking of the latter. ; recoil and gas.—in the vickers gun (see fig. 2) recoil of the barrel is assisted by the backward thrust of the gases partially trapped at the muzzle. the barrel projects through the front of the water casing, and on it is carried a muzzle cup. surrounding this isa muzzle attachment, screwed to the water casing and having a small hole in it, through which the bullet passes. the gases following the bullet strike the front end of this attachment and rebound on to the muzzle cup on the barrel, so increasing the recoil energy of the latter. the barrel, with side-plates attached, recoils about one inch. the left side-plate operates a lever, which, with another, works a slide on the feed block, to the right on recoil and to the left on recovery. this feed block is above the breech. the slide has two pawls, which, when it is to the right, engage behind the new round in the cartridge belt and push it to the left into position, where it is withdrawn from the belt by the moving extractor on the lock. on recoil the lock, locked to the barrel, moves with it. {n the rear of the lock is the crank to which the lock is connected by the head of the side levers and connecting rod, in which the former engages. bearings in the rear of the right and left side-plates carry the crank, the left one being detachable. on the right, outside the casing, is a crank handle. this handle has a curved rearward extension called the tail. just clear of this tail on the side of the gun isa roller. on recoil, the curved part of the tail hits this roller and is caused to rotate. being attached to the crank, the latter is rotated, thereby machine guns causing the lock to be unlocked and withdrawn from the breech, during which movement the lock is cocked. there is, farther for- ward on the crank handle, a hump, which, when mecting the reller, causes the crank and sile-plates to move forward, so returning the barrel to its forward position. in the left axis of the crank is a recess, into which a feathered lever called the fuzee engages. this, by means of jinks, engages with the fuzee spring, which is secured to the left of the casing. when the crank rotates, the fuzee rotates, and this spring is extended. when the rearward rotation of the crank is finished, the spring, working through the fuzee, rotates the crank in the opposite direction, so causing the lock to go fully forward into the locked position against the breech, with its firing pin cocked. the extractor is operated vertically on the lock face by side and extractor _ levers. it has two flanges in which the cartridge rims ride and are so held to it. when the lock is fully forward, the extractor is at its highest point, and if a round be in the feed block, it is gripped by the extrac- tor. when the lock goes back, this round is withdrawn from the belt, and, after about 33 in. of travel, the extractor falls and places the round in line with the chamber. when the lock goes forward this round is pushed into the chamber, and the extractor, rising again, grips another round in the feed block, there being then two rounds s 4, a wr las tie a teal ltt et a ad i, =, ni wi gf tg 4) moan mo, ‘ a if ~ walgn mg ah vs i or ges 4 aw | bey au . ae : - ‘a ‘ag : : ‘ © _ ne x mirada § , boss in hahha a & es ns as ats [fyey .. - a ses oa a ps one awa ree ss ce 115) ellady day 1, nii ff ac win ., we od bly : za up x ‘ wenn allen. " wg, ‘~ \ ‘| (es a pi fs ly say == si (za "feds ad i} mr me tm : | (ff a = = ee , ty, - we, “allen ae rg naa nz ‘a fic. 3.—schwarzlose machine gun (austria). on the extractor, one in the feed block, the other in the chamber. through the extractor is a hole, through which the firing pin pro- trudes to fire the round in the chamber when the extractor is in its highest position. on the recoil of firing, the flanges, still gripping the case in the chamber, withdraw it, and when the extractor drops again, this empty case drops through the bottom of the casing. projecting from the top of the lock is the tail of the trigger. along the cover of the gun is situated a spring-operated sliding trigger bar. the rear of this is connected by the trigger bar lever to the firing lever with thumb piece, which is carried on the rear crosspiece. when the thumb piece is pressed forward the trigger bar is drawn rearwards and pulls or trips the tail of the trigger projecting from the lock, thus releasing the firing pin and firing the gun. a spring- operated safety catch on the rear crosspiece prevents the operation of the thumb piece until disengaged by the fingers of the firer. cartridge projection.—the austrian schwarzlose (see fig. 3) is operated on a principle known as “ cartridge projection,” 1. ¢., by the backward thrust of the cartridge driving the action to the rear. the barrel is fixed, and the moving parts are operated by the thrust of the cartridge head on the breech block. to ensure that the car- machine guns tridge does not grip the chamber after the explosion, and so retard its rearward thrust, provision is made to oil each round entering the chamber. on firing, the breech block is driven to the rear against a strong: spring, extracting the fired round from the chamber, and rotating the crank and handle. in rear of and underneath the breech is the feed wheel, round which are studs. underneath the bolt ts a cam-shaped slot, in which each of these studs ride in turn, thus causing a rotating movement of the feed wheel. at the front of the fore part are two sets of teeth. the belt is led into the gun between these teeth, which then engage the rounds at each end and lift them into position for withdrawal from the belt by means of a claw on the underside of the breech block. ‘the round is thus drawn to the rear into a channel in the feed wheel. during this withdrawal, the channel is rotated slightly to the left, so bring- ing the round into position in front of the breech block, which is now in its rearmost position. the main spring then drives the breech block forward and the round enters the chamber, rotation of the feed wheel being also effected, and the next round being prepared for a similar operation. ejection is effected by a plunger on the right of the breech block face. a heavy firing pin protrudes through the breech block, and at its rear is a solid arm that curves forward. this portion engages with a suitably shaped similar arm in the crank, when the latter is rotated during the backward travel of the breech block, thus with- drawing the firing pin. when withdrawn, the bent of the firing pin engages with the sear on the breech block, and it is cocked. on the left side of the solid arm of the firing pin is a pivoted arm, the trigger, projecting forward and downward. the front end of the trigger bar, which is ramp shaped, is in front of this arm when the firing pin is cocked. its rear end is engaged with a trigger bar lever, operated by the firing lever thumb piece, mounted on the rear cross piece. on the thumb piece is the safety catch. to fire the gun, the safety catch is pressed towards the right and the thumb picce forward. this with- draws the trigger-bar, and the ramp at its forward end raises the pivoted arm, or trigger, until disengaging its bent from the sear on the breech block, when the fring pin 1s free to fly forward to fire. mechanical safety is provided by (a) the cap of the cartridge not being in line with the firing pin hole till the breech block is fully forward, and (b) by the main spring bearing against the solid metal at the rear of the firing pin, thus driving the breech block forward, so that it is impossible for the firing pin to strike the cartridge cap if the breech block be not fully forward. recoil and cartridge projection.—the italian revelli uses a com- bination of barrel recoil and cartridge projection. at the rear of the barrel a sleeve is attached by means of ribs. inside this sleeve is the breech block. when the gun is fired all three move together to the rear for a distance of 4 mm., after which the breech block goes on free for about 6 in., compressing the recovery spring within it. this spring also operates the firing pin within the breech block. the bent on the firing pin protrudes down through the breech block, and, when this goes forward under the influence of the recovery spring, the bent engages with the right hand, or primary, of two sears projecting up- wards through the body casing. this sear is released by a spring plunger connected to a thumb picce in the rear crosspiece, and is disengaged from the bent on the firing pin to fire the gun. by setting a small lever on the rear crosspiece, the spring plunger can be regulated to give continuous or single shots. the secondary or icft- hand sear is to ensure“ mechanical safety.” if the sleeve and breech block are not fully forward, this sear continues to protrude and engages with the bent on the firing pin. it is operated by an arm protruding from a rotary wedge underneath the sleeve. this wedge, by a spring, is rotated fully forward when the sleeve and breech block are in their forward positions. its arm then rises, and pressing up- wards the front end of the secondary sear, clears the rear end of this sear from the path of the bent of the firing pin. the cartridges are contained in a magazine holding 50 rounds, there being 10 compartments, each with a platform and spring. as each compartment is emptied, the magazine is moved to the right and the next compartment is employed. the breech block, on going forward, takes the top round from the compartment and inserts it in the chamber. the moving across of the magazine as the compart- ments are emptied is effected by a lever protruding from inside the body casing, and engaging in spaces in the magazine. this lever is kept out of action by a spring plunger engaging with it, but, when the compartment platform rises on being emptied, it disengages the spring plunger, so permitting the lever to function. the lever isona pivot, to one end of which is attached a strong spring. the other end of this spring is connected to a system of levers working in short grooves in the sleeve, every backward movement of which causes this spring to extend and endeavour to produce the requisite motion in the magazine lever. mechanical safety is further effected by means of a little rocking lever on the left front edge of the breech block, into which one end projects. in the body casing is a recess for the other end of this lever. the firing pin on going forward encounters the inner end and forces the other end outward. unless the breech block be fully for- ward, the outer end is not in position to enter this recess in the body casing, and the firing pin is intercepted by the inner end of the lever, and so preventing from protruding to fire the round. ejection with this gun is vertically upwards. lol locringc actions as the locking action is perhaps the most important part of the mechanism of any automatic weapon, a short description is given of the well-known method employed in the vickers gun and also the unusual methods employed in the schwarzlose and revelli guns. fig. 5. fics. 4 and 5.—locking action of the vickers machine gun. the vickers (see figs. 4 and 5).—the lock is connected to the crank by (1) the side lever head, whose axis is a, and (2) the connect- ing rod, whose axis is b. the axis of the crank isc. fig. 4 shows the unlocked position with the lock back. fig. 5 shows the locked posi- tion. in the locked position, axis b is slightly below axis a and c, and the crank, under b, bears hard on the crank stops. the rearward thrust of the cartridge on explosion thus passes through a, b and c. as b is lower than a and c¢, it cannot under pressure rise above the line ac and so unlock the action. it must tend downwards. how- ever, the crank is already bearing on the crank stops under b, hence no movement here is possible and so the locking action is effected. except that the crank revolves downwards instead of upwards, the system of locking in the maxim gun is practically identical with that employed in the vickers. fic. 6.—inertia sealing of the breech in the schwarzlose machine gun. inertia sealing of the breech in the schwarzlose,—there is no posi- tive locking in the gun, reliance being placed in heavy moving parts and a strong spring, to induce sufficient inertia to seal the breech. with a view to ensuring the exit of the bullet from the barrel before the inertia is overcome, the barrel is abnormally short. the mechanism includes a massive, heavy breech block a (see fig. 6), connected by the crank link b (which is attached to it at axis c) to the upper axis of the crank, d. the lower axis of the crank e works in bearings in the body-casing of the gun and has no backward or forward movement. in rear is a strong spring pushing the bolt forward. the thrust on the face of the breech block pulls the crank link to the rear. it, in turn, pulls the crank to the rear. rearmost position forward position fic. 7.—locking action of the revelli machine gun. however, owing to the set of the crank with reference to its non- recoiling axis e, considerable resistance to the rearward motion of the breech block is set up. thus it is that, coupled with the ney y. re- sistance offered by the strong antagonistic spring and the weight of the moving parts, sufficient inertia is created to prevent the breech from opening prematurely. the revelli.—on explosion, the barrel with sleeve a (see fig. 7) recoils, and the gases, acting through the cartridge head, impart a rearward movement to the breech block b. at this stage, the breech block and sleeve are locked together by a claw c, on a rotating wedge with axis d. the rearward movement of the breech block causes the wedge to rotate to the rear. in so doing, the claw, which passes through a slot in the sleeve, bears against the latter at the shoulder e, and helps to force the sleeve and barrel rearward. after 758 a and b have moved about 4 mm., the claw is entirely disengaged from the breech block, which continues to the rear under its own mo- mentum. the wedge in rotating compresses a strong spring, so the tip of the claw bears against the under side of the breech block, and is prevented from regaining its forward position. hence the sleeve cannot do so until the recess in the breech block returns to within 4 mm. of its forward position. the long arm of the wedge is that which engages with the second- ary sear introduced for ‘‘ mechanical safety ” and referred to in the description of the gun. cee. rees) machinery: see actomatic machinery; tfe-xtile machinery.