LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF

london uni- versity has problems which are directly related to its dual nature and to its immediate history. the first attempt to found a university in london was made by sir thomas gresham in 1548 when seven professorships—divinity, music, physic, astronomy, geometry, law and rhetoric were endowed, but this project never attained full fruition. in 1825 thomas campbell, the poet, ad- dressed a public letter to brougham, as a result of which uni- versity college came into being and opened classes in 1828 in arts, law and medicine. creation by charter —on nov. 28 1836 the university of london and university college, respectively, received charters. the university was constituted an examining body, while university and king’s colleges were constituted the teaching centres. the university was thus created as an examining body and as such undoubtedly achieved a great reputation for im- partiality, thoroughness and high standard, so great being its prestige in medicine and surgery in particular that its degrees were and still are sought after even in preference to those of older universities, especially by students from the dominions. teaching university established —the cowper commission (1894) submitted a report in 1894, embodied in the university act of 1898, which forms the present constitution of the univers- ity. in accordance with statutes approved by parliament in 1900, the teaching colleges were federated with the university but were not subject to any financial control. indced, the au- thority of the university is limited to the recognition, or refusal of recognition, as teachers of the university, of teachers in the colleges and to the approval of courses of study. thus a dual university was established, combining the functions oi examina- tion with the functions of teaching in its federated schools. all affairs appertaining to the teaching institutions of the university fall under the administration of the academic council, which reports directly to the senate. this section of the univers- ity has become known as the internal side. all other functions not to do with teaching, which had been performed by the old examining body, fall under the administration of the council for external students which also reports directly to the senate. this section of the work of the university is known as the exter- nal side, and the degrees granted to students examined by this body, but not taught necessarily in the schools of the uni- versity, are called external degrees. the senate remains the executive authority to accept, to modify, or to reject as it wills the recommendations coming from these two great statutory councils thus constituted. the senate.—the senate, as the executive and co-ordinating body, comprises three nearly equal sections. one represents the teaching or academic side (16 representatives chosen by the faculties), one represents the external side (16 representatives london, university of chosen by the graduates constituting convocation) and a third section of 21 members consists of representatives chosen by the crown and other outside electing bodies. the chancellor and chairman of convocation, who are elected by the whole body of convocation, complete a senate of 55 members. the third section named above acts in some sense as a jury between the equal bodies representing the academic and external interests. practically all the business of the university is conducted by committees. the senate exercises its important functions by reception of reports from these committces, and has proved in practice a remarkably efficient instrument. incorporation of colleges —in 1905 university college was incorporated with the university. this was followed in 1908 by the incorporation of king’s college. the effect of incorporation is difficult to estimate. nominally the colleges are under the control of the university; in fact they are very largely inde- pendent of that control. no other school has wished to secure incorporation, while king’s college has expressed the desire to cancel incorporation if this should be possible. royal commission.—in 1909 a royal commission, over which lord haldane presided, was appointed with wide terms of refer- ence and after taking evidence published its report in 1913. the following significant remark was made by a commissioner on the first day of taking evidence: my point is this: what is the use of a royal commission or any other body attempting to organise university teaching, and to elevate it and to enhance the value of the degree if the external degree remains, if unrecognised colleges are doing as good work as the recognised ones? the commission made recommendations which would result in the complete extinction of external degrees in the more or less near future. the commission further recommended the constitution of a senate of 15 members of whom two only were to be representatives of the teachers with one representative of graduates of convoca- tion, while the 12 others were to be appointed variously but in such a manner as to ensure bureaucratic control of the univers- ity. these drastic proposals met with very little public approval and lapsed during the war. however, a departmental com- mittee was appointed by the board of education in 1924, when lord haldane was lord chancellor in the ministry of mr. ramsay macdonald, for the purpose of preparing statutes for legislative approval to give effect to the recommendations of the royal commission. vigorous protests have been made against the constitution of the departmental committce.! progress and development.—notwithstanding the disturbance inseparable from these repeated commissions, the university under its present constitution has prospered exceedingly. since 1915, roughly speaking, the internal side has trebled and the external side doubled in the number of students. inasmuch as the internal side started from zcro it has naturally progressed at a greater pace than the external side. twenty-five colleges have sought and obtained recognition as “ schools of the university.” faithful to its tradition of far-seeing initiative, the university has founded degrees in commerce, which have already proved a most notable success. new chairs have been founded—largely by private munificence—in response to the ever-increasing com- plexity of modern science and industry. research in every field of scholarship and science is sedulously encouraged. the uni- versity library has been developed and improved. more recently the university has solved the very difficult prob- lem of its relation with the imperial college of science and tech- nology. this college had long nursed the ambition to form a technological university giving its own degrees. it has now, by the adjustment of certain examinations, accepted whole- heartedly the position of a “‘ school of the university.”’ the 'the committee recommend—inter alia—the creation of a coun- cil of the university to control finance, and of a collegiate council composed of members of the senate. to give effect to these recom- mendations, which have been vigorously criticised, legislation will be required. some financial control is unavoidable if co-ordination is to be secured, and to effect this without discouraging prospec ae ot an- noying actual benefactors will not be easy. (ep, &. b.) londonderry—loos, battle of great medical schools with their splendid traditions, so much older than the university itself, have accepted the system of the appointment of their professorial teachers by the university. very significant is the change that has taken place in the relations between the internal and the external sides. the external side, threatened with extermination, was placed upon its defence, and a perfectly unnecessary feud between external and internal interests became thus accentuated. with the increasing prospect that the commission’s report would never be carried into effect hostilities died down and when the hal- dane recommendations were revived by the appointment of the departmental committee the two sides of the university joined in a united protest which was submitted to the departmental committee in an identical memorandum prepared by the aca- demic and the external council respectively. the secret of the increasing confidence of the schools in the university central administration is to be found in the lightness and tactfulness of the control exercised by that administration. the colleges are free institutions, voluntarily submitting to guidance and leadership, but retaining essential independence. any attempt to substitute for this system an encroachment upon the liberties of these federal institutions would spell disaster. the university has become the largest university in the british empire. indeed, it is an increasingly important link of attachment, for it accepts students from every part of it on terms entirely equal. it still holds out an ever more helpful hand to the poor student unable to obtain a collegiate education. at the same time the number of its collegiate students, multiplied threefold in ro years, testifies to the confidence which academic bodies repose in it. it continues to attract to its governing body men distinguished in every walk of life. ces g, i.) londonderry, charles stewart henry vane-tem- pest-stewart, 7th marquess of (1878-1915), british polli- tician, was born in london may 13 1878. educated at eton and sandhurst, he entered the house of commons in 1906 as unionist member for maidstone. from 1914-9 he served in the world war, being twice mentioned in despatches. made a privy coun- cillor for ireland in 1918 and a k.g. in 1919, in 1920-1 he was under-secretary for air, and in june 1921 took office as minister of education for northern ireland. from this position he resigned jan. 6 1926 and was succeeded by viscount charlemont. his father, charles stewart vane-tempest-stewart, the 6th marquess (1852-1915) (see 16.969), was a prominent leader of the opposition to the home rule bill of 1912 and was one of the first to sign the ulster covenant, sept. 28 1912. he died at wynyard park, stockton-on-tees, feb. 8 1915. long, walter hume long, rst viscount (1854-1924), english politician, born at bath july 13 1854, was the eldest son of richard penruddocke long, of rood ashton, wilts., and his wife charlotte, daughter of fitzwilliam hfume dick. he was educated at harrow and christ church, oxford. being the heir of an old county family with a tradition of parliamentary service, it was natural that he should contemplate a political career. he entered parliament in 1880 as conservative member for north wilts, and sat in every house of commons till he was created a peer in may 1921, though he changed his constituency several times. he obtained office early, and showed administra- tive power and common sense in positions agrecable to a capable country gentleman—parliamentary secretary to the local government board 1886-92, president of the board of agri- culture 1895-1900 and president of the local government board 1900-5. his administration at the board of agricul- ture was marked by the stamping out of hydrophobia through the strict enforcement of a muzzling order for dogs; and the tenacity and resolution which he showed in carrving his policy through, in the face of a violent agitation by many dog owners and «log lovers, raised him greatly in public esteem. in march 1905 mr. long was chosen by mr. balfour to suc- ceed mr. wyndchan, after the latter’s breach with irish union- ism, as chief secretary for ireland. he at once restored unionist confidence by reducing the under-secretary sir anthony (after- | foo wards lord) macdonnell, to definite subordination to himsclf as the responsible minister, and by the firmness with which he proceeded to enforce the law and repress agrarian intimidation. the impression which he produced tn ireland in the few months before mr. balfour’s resignation was so considerable that he, an englishman, was returned to parliament in the general elec- tion of 1906 for a dublin seat. in the years of opposition which followed he proved a vigorous opponent of mr. birrell’s policy of /atssez-fatre in ireland and of mr. lloyd george’s proposals with regard to the land; and a more benevolent critic of the government old age pension scheme and of mr. burns’s admin- istration at the local government board. when mr. balfour resigned the leadership of the conservative party in nov. tort he was the candidate of the more conservative branch of the party; but both he and his rival, mr. austen chamberlain, agreed to stand aside in favour of mr. bonar law. with the other conservative leaders he joined the first coalition ministry in 1915, returning to his old post of president of the local government board; and in the second coalition ministry (1916) he was colonial secretary. he had been hitherto a decided oppo- nent of woman suffrage, but, along with mr. asquith and others, he was converted by the services of women during the world war, and in 1917 he introduced in the house of commons the franchise bill, which became law in the following year, and under which women over 30 obtained the vote. when mr. lloyd george reconstructed his ministry in the beginning of 1919 mr. long became first lord of the admiralty and had the difficult task of supervising the reduction to a peace basis of the gigantic navy which had been built up during the war. for some years his health had been periodically unsatisfactory, and in the spring of 1921 he resigned office. mr. bonar law’s break-down in health occurred almost immediately afterwards, and mr. long heartily supported the election of his old rival mr. austen chamberlain to the leadership of ‘the conservative party. a few months later he was raised to the house of lords, amid gen- eral approval, as viscount long of wraxall. he did not hold office in either mr. bonar law’s or mr. baldwin’s government, and died sept. 26 1924 at rood ashton, wiltshire. he had married in 1878 lady doreen boyle, daughter of the oth earl of cork. his elder son, brig.-gen. walter long, c.m.g., d.s.o., fellin action jan. 27 1917, and lord long was therefore succeeded in the peerage by his young grandson. (g. e. b.) long, john davis (1838-1915), american lawyer and pol- itician (see 16.974), died at hingham, mass., aug. 28 1915. loos, battle of, was fought between the british and german armies, sept. 25-8 1915. the british offensives in the spring of 1915 at neuve chapelle, aubers and festubert, and the trench offensive against the lorette ridge, made only small gains, at heavy cost, and by july the arras front was again stabilised. a stalemate ruled on the western front for the rest of the summer. plans of french hweadquarters—despite the non-success of their spring offensive, french headquarters were not disposed to relinquish all efforts to break through the german lines in france until such time as the british could attack on a great scale. it was desirable to do something in the west to relieve the situation in russia, which was steadily growing worse. accord- ingly, gen. joffre laid his plans for a big effort in champagne to be combined with a franco-british attack in artois, the french x. army attacking the vimy ridge, the british 1. army between lens and the la bassee canal. if both succeeded it was hoped to establish touch between them east of lens, which was to be “ pinched out,”’ not attacked direct, and should this coincide with a real break-through in champagne there might be a chance of intercepting the germans in the great salient between soissons and arras. composition of british force.—the british share was to be on a far larger scale than in may; for the main attack nine divisions were available, six others were to contribute by creating diver- sions elsewhere. careful economy in ammunition and the greatly increased output from the factories at home had allowed the accumulation of a fair supply of shells, and the enemy’s own 736 weapon, gas, was to be employed. it was hoped that by using gas it would be possible to attack on a really wide front, much more extensive than would have been possible if the bombard- ment by the artillery had been the sole means of preparing for the assault. to the main attack three corps were allotted: on the right, sir h. rawlinson’s iv. corps attacked from loos to hulluch; sir h. gough’s i. corps, on the left, making for the line ifulluch- haisnes-auchy. on both wings defensive flanks were to be formed under cover, of which the central divisions would push on towards the haute-deule canal, cross it at pont 4 vendin, and connect up with foch’'s troops. the cavalry and the newly formed xi. corps (sir r. haking}, which included the guards, making their debut as a division, and the newly arrived 21st and 24th divs., would support this advance. assault on german front line.-—four days’ bombardment, of an intensity as yet unknown, preceded the assault, which was launched at 6.30 a.m. on sept. 25. the bombardment was as effective as the limited amount of ammunition allowed, and the germans’ deep dug-outs greatly reduced its results by sheltering the trench garrisons, while unluckily the wind prac- tically failed and the gas therefore proved a great disappoint- ment. this was all the more serious because the artillery had been unable to do as much damage all over the wide front at- tacked as they had accomplished at neuve chapelleon the narrow frontage then attacked. however, over most of the front the wire had been well cut and the attackers carried the german front system and swept on towards their second set of trenches, about a mile in rear. on the extreme right the 47th div. suc- cessfully established a defensive flank connecting their old line with loos, which was reached and carried by the scots of the 15th division. the 15th’s left, however, was exposed by the failure of the rst div’s. right brigade, which found a long stretch of uncut wire covering trenches at lone tree, so that the left brigade which got in and penetrated to hulluch, though after heavy losses, found its right uncovered and could not maintain its advanced position. the 7th div., on the right of the i. corps, carried its first objective after heavy fighting but could not pierce the german second system of defences in front of cite st. elie. on its left the oth (scottish) div. took the hohenzollern redoubt and fosse 8, and a detachment reached the german second system but in insufficient strength to break through. the left division, the 2nd, attacking astride the la bassee canal failed to take its objective. results of the allack—the attack had resulted in the capture of a long stretch of the german front line with 20 guns and many prisoners; losses, however, had been heavy, and though at several points the sccond system had been reached there was no touch between the diflerent parties. these, moreover, had pushed beyond the range of effective artillery support, while neither gough nor rawlinson had sufficient reserves in hand to link up the different advanced parties; the xi. corps was too far back to reach the front in time and the check to the 1st div. at lone tree left the rsth’s flank dangerously uncovered. as at neuve chapelle, there was an opening but there were delays. the germans threw in their reserves, drove the ad- vanced troops of the 15th div. back to hill 70, just east of loos, ousted those of the rst from hulluch, got in after nightfall between the 7th and the oth, and retook some quarries west of cite st. elie and made the oth’s centre recoil to fosse 8. but at no point could they regain their old front line and they had to pay heavily for the ground they regained. second attack—on sept. 26 an effort was made to break through between hulluch and loos, using the two “ new army ”’ divisions of the xi. corps. but the germans were pressing so hard at the hohenzollern redoubt and on hill 7o that two brigades had to be diverted to those points, and the advance of the main bodies was greatly retarded by the con- gestion of the roads with transport, and other unforeseen delays. they could not reach their assigned position in time, and before the attack could be started a german counter-attack recaptured bois hugo, midway between hulluch and loos. artois offensive. loreburn this point had been reached by the right of the rst div. late on the previous evening, the dislodgment of the germans at lone tree having at last let it get forward but too late to do much consolidation or link up with its left brigade at hulluch or with the r5th div. at hill 7o. early in the morning a brigade of the 2ist div. had taken over bois hugo but had barely done so before the counter-attack dislodged it. moreover, the british guns had been unable to register the german second line de- fences and the bombardment of them was ineffective. the 24th div. pushed forward across the lens-la bassee road but was enhladed from bois hugo by machine-guns, found the german wire and defences practically intact, and fell back in some disorder. the 21st div. had already done the same after failing to retake bois hugo, and the greater part of hill 70 passed back into german keeping, the defences being outflanked from the north as well as attacked in front. the i. corps, too fully occupied in holding its ground, could make no progress. unsatisfactory result-—by the evening of sept. 28 the chance of a break-through was gone. on sept. 27 the guards div. regained much lost ground on hill 7o and secured a better line from bois hugo to hulluch, but this merely improved the tac- tical situation at an awkward point. elsewhere, german pres- sure was heavy, especially against the i. corps. fosse 8 was lost and efforts to retake the quarries failed, and though for several days a hold was with great difficulty maintained on the hohenzollern redoubt it, too, was lost on oct. 3. however, a big german counter-attack on oct. 8 all the way round from loos to the hohenzollern, was decisively repulsed, and _ five days later the 46th (n. midland t.f.) div. covered part of the hohenzollern, and the r2th (eastern) div. considerably improved the position nearer cite st. elie. this was the last attack on any large scale; the position in the salient which had been driven into the german lines gradually quieted down and before the end of oct. had become as thoroughly stabilised as any other part of the fronts. long before the fighting on the british front had relapsed into normal “trench warfare” the french had abandoned their the german front line was cheaply carried (sept. 25), but though for some hours the german defences on the vimy ridge were only scantily manned the french failed to reach them in time. their plan of limiting their objectives strictly meant that what they took they secured but it meant also delays in reaching the more distant objectives. by sept. 27 reserves had filled the gap and brought the french to a stand- still, vimy remaining in german hands thus, loos, like neuve chapelle and the may offensive, had failed to produce any change in the strategical situation, the tactical gains made had been dearly bought and no really sub- stantial relief had been given to the russians. still, the ger- mans also had lost heavily, and the experience gained in the planning of so large an attack, far the biggest operation as yet attempted by the british army, had been most valuable. at loos it had been attempted to apply the lessons and to avoid the errors of neuve chapelle. there, chances had been lost through over-deliberation and rigidity, through waiting till others were up level, so that all might go forward together; at loos, pushing on too deep, regardless of what others were doing, had occasioned overrunning and ultimately losing positions which greater deliberation might have secured. but loos showed the germans that the “‘ new army ”’ divisions were a factor with which they must reckon seriously, that when the whole of the “ new armies”? were in the field a great british offensive would be a formidable danger. see j. ewing, the iistory of the oth (scottish) division, 1914-19 (1921); also see worltp war: bibliograplly. (ce ten, ) loreburn, robert threshie reid, 1st eart (1846- 1923), british lawyer and politician, was born at corfu april 3 1846, and was educated at cheltenham and balliol college, oxford, where he had a distinguished career, winning the ireland scholarship in 1868. he was called to the bar in 1871, and in 1880 entered politics as liberal member for hereford. in 1882 he became a q.c. and, having in 1885 lost his seat at hereford, lorentz—los angeles was returned in 1886 for dumfries burghs, retaining the seat until 1905. in 1894 he was for a few months solicitor-general and was knighted, and during 1894-5 was attorney-general. he received the g.c.m.g. in 1899, and from that year until 1906 he was counsel to the university of oxford. on the formation of sir henry campbell-bannerman’s govt. in 1905, sir robert reid became lord chancellor, and was raised to the peerage as baron loreburn. to him, while chancellor, the passage of the court of criminal appeal act (1907) was largely due. in 1912 he resigned on grounds of health. lord loreburn, who was created an earl in july ro11, published capiure ut sea (1913) and how the war came (1919). he died without issue nov. 30 1923, when the title became extinct. lorentz, hendrik antoon (1853- ), dutch physicist, was born at arnheim july 18 1853. in 1878 he was appointed a professor in the university of leyden, a post which he held until 1923. from 1883 to 1895 he worked upon his electron theory and in 1892 published his theorie electromagnetique de maxwell et son application aux corps mouvanis. this was followed in 1895 by the famous treatise versuch einer theorie der elektrischen und oplischen erscheinungen in bewegten kerpern. in 1909 appeared his theory of electrons and its application to the phenomena of light and heat, which gives the resume of lorenta’s researches and contains the lectures he delivered in new york in 1906. in 1902 he was awarded, with pieter zeeman, the nobel prize for physics. among his other works may be mentioned text book of the differential and integral calculus (1882; german ed., 1900) ; visible and invisible movements (1901); abhandlungen tiber theoretische physik (1907); the einstein theory of relativity: a concise statement (1920); clerk maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (1924). from 1919 his lectures for the university courses were published, under his personal supervision, with the title of lessons on theoretical physics, eight volumes of which had appeared in 1925. lorenz, adolf (1854- ), austrian surgeon, was born at vidnava, silesia, april 2t 1854, of poor parents. he entered vienna university and studied surgery under billroth, nicoladini and eduard albert, afterwards becoming a demonstrator, and then a professor at the university. his best known studies are those relating to club-foot and flat-foot. he published numerous studies on his special subjects, the most important being dre lehre vom ererbten plattfusse and ueber die operative ortho pddie des klumpfusses. lorenz also invented the deutsches gipsbett which proved to be a great advance on bradford’s plaster beds which had previously been in general use. lorimer, george horace (1868- j, american editor, was born at louisville, ky., oct. 6 1868. [lis early education was received at the mosely high school, chicago, whence he proceeded to colby (me.) and yale universities. after being for a short time in business in chicago, he turned to journalism, becoming a reporter and correspondent on several newspapers. in 1897 he became literary editor of the saturday evening post, and in 1899 was made editor-in-chief. the remarkable success of this periodical can be attributed in no small measure to mr. lorimer’s keen appreciation of the public taste coupled with his ability to meet it. he adopted the policy of selling 7/e saturday evening post at a price (5 cents) much below the cost of manu- facture, and thereby securing a circulation that made its pages an extremely attractive advertising medium. he wrote letters from a self-made merchant to his son (1902), which achieved great popularity; old gorgon graham (1904); the false gods (1906); jack spurlock prodigal (1908). lorraine, early operations in: sce frontiers, bat- tles of the. | los angeles, cal., u.s.a. (see 17.12), had, at the end of 1925, a population estimated at over a million and an area of 421-71 sq. miles. the population within the city limits increased from 319,198 in 1910 to §76,673 in 1920. there were 15,579 negroes, 14,230 japanese, chinese and indians and 112,057 foreign-born whites. about 1920 began an influx of population to southern california which surpassed even the movement of earlier years. because of its geographical position and the embryonic state of 737 most of its industries, los angeles had no war-time inflation and consequently escaped the experience of post-war deflation. on the contrary, the influx of population and the discovery, at al- most the same time, of rich new oil-fields in the vicinity, caused a “boom” which lasted through the first quarter of 1924, reaching its greatest intensity in 1923. business generally fell off in r924, and in the first half of 1925 an actual decrease of pop- ulation was discernible, but this was more than made up by gains in the last six months of the year. 7 communications.—in 1919 only six steamship lines made the port of los angeles regularly. in 1925 there were 60 lines handling gen- eral cargo, 35 tank lines and 35 lumber lines. the total number of ship arrivals in the year ending june 30 1925 was 5,901. the har- bour had, at the end of 1925, io m. of wharves (6 m. owned and operated by the city) and more than 50 m. of municipal harbour belt-line railway tracks; the channels and hasin in the inner harbour had a depth of 30 ft. at low tide; in the outer harbour, at more than a mile of wharfage, of 35 ft.; the main channel had been doubled in width, to 1,000 feet. the electric railways in 1925 operated over 1,508 m. of track, extending to a radius of 75 m. outside the city. a one-mile subway and a terminal building, constructed 1924-6, greatly improved the service between important residential sections and the business district. commerce.—within a few years after the close of the world war the commerce of the port of los angeles rose to more than that of any other ocean port in america except new york. the total tonnage (imports, exports, coastwise and inter-coastal) was 2,380,622 short tons in the year 1918-9, 26,550,464 in 1923-4 and 22,268,421 in 1924-5, with a value respectively of $86,481,470, $643,221,303 and $671,406,570. exports to foreign countries amounted to ahout $75,000,000 in 1925; imports from foreign countries, to about $35,000,000. the increase was due partly to the demand for lumber (most of it from british columbia) and other building materials, and for crude rubber, but chiefly to the great increase in the produc- tion of oil. it was at first piped out through the harbour in a crude form. with the development of refineries a larger part of it (by 1924) was shipped in a refined state. great britain was the prin- cipal market for gasolene (162,615,222 gal. in the year 1924-5); china for kerosene; chile for fuel oil. industries —between 1910-9 los angeles became an important industrial centre, and after 1919 tts manufactures grew fully as fast as its population. factory products, within the city limits, were valned at $68,586,000 in 1909; $278,184,000 in i919; $313,589,985 in 1921; $417,654,081 in 1923. the federal census of manufactures, however, limited to factory products, does not include motion-picture films, which until 1924 were the city’s most valuable product, or such commodities as manufactured gas; and it does not include any plants outside the city limits. tabulations by the chamber of com- merce, including all manufactured products, give the following figures for the metropolitan area: (1919) $618,772,000; (1921) $800,926,641; (1923) $1,151,643,537; (1924) $1,202,677,004. the leading industries in 1924, with the value of their products, were petroleum products, $221,880,293; motion-picture films, $168,000,000 (estimated to be 75% of all produced in the u.s.); iron and steel machinery, $99,117,430; meat products, $67,987,146; lumber and planing-mill products, $64,327,685. petroleum products occupied the leading position for the first time in 1924, having increased steadily each year from $83,867,716 in i9ig. water and power.—vhe los angeles aqueduct, 250 m. long, bring- ing water from the owens river in the sierras, in amounts to supply a population of 2,000,000, was placed in service in 1913. in the process of extending the city service to the vast new areas which had been annexed, new water mains were installed at the rate of over one mile a day during the year ending sept. 1 1925, bringing the total in service to 2,654 miles. to provide for anticipated needs in the future, plans were already well advanced for constructing a still longer and larger aqueduct to bring water sufficient for a population of 7,500,000 from the colorado river. a bond tssue of $2,000,000 was authorised june 2 1925, to begin preliminary work and acquire the nocessary rights of way. the bureau of power and light (established 1909), owned and operated, by 1925, five hydroelectric power generating plants along the line of the aqueduct, producing a total of 110,000 h.p., which furnished 60% of the total amount of energy distributed by the bureau, the other 40% being purchased wholesale from a private corporation. public buildings and improvements.—a fine hall of justice was completed in dec. 1925, including a county jail to replace the one constructed in 1902, \n 1925 plans had been accepted and a site chosen for a new city hall; a new public library was approaching com- pletion (cost $2,000,000); the first unit of the $12,000,000 project for a county museum was completed; also the coliseum (seating capacity, 77,000) built by the city and county jointly; and the patriotic hall, built by the county as a memorial to the soldiers and sailors of the country’s wars. a city-planning commission was set up in igto. by 1925 the city had a plan covering its entire area, and including zoning provisions, major and minor highway system, park, boulevard and channel parkway system. -_ 738 education.—the public-school system included (nov. 1925) 234 elementary schools, i1 special schools, 14 junior and 23 senior high schools, with 7,495 teachers. the university of southern california (enrolment 12,007 in 1924-5) established about i920 an extension division known as the metropolitan university, which had an enrol- ment of 4,900 in the autumn of 1925. government.—aa new charter, adopted in 1924 and operative from july 1 1925, provides for the initiative, the referendum, the recall and an executive budget. the mayor (the chief executive, with wide appointive powers}, the city attorney, the controller and the seven members of the board of f-ducation are clected at large. the 15 members of the council (the legislative body) are elected by districts. the principal functions of government are entrusted to 16 commissions of five members each, appointed by the mayor and serving without salary, which in turn appoint and fix the salary of general managers for their respective departments.’ losski, nikolai onufrievich (1870- ), russian philosopher, was born at kreslavka, vitebsk province. he was educated at kreslavka and at the university of st. petersburg (leningrad) where he studied first science and then philology. from 1916 to 1921 he was professor of the same university, but in 1922 he was compelled to leave russia and went to live in prague. losski is the representative of intuitionalism in epis- temology. according to his views, knowledge is immediate con- templation (intuition). his intuitionalism differs from berg- son’s in so far as he considers the ideal-rational forms to be elements of realities, intuitively cognisable. his kind of in- tuitionalism leads to concrete ideal-realism, his idealism being as concrete as realism. he assumes not only concrete real being, but concrete ideal being as well, 7.¢e., supra-temporal and supra- spatial substantial agents with creative force, which are the basis of spatio-temporal being. abstract ideas obtain their significance and importance exclusively from the substantial agents, who create the real according to constitutive abstract ideas {e.g., mathematical principles) and normative abstract ideas (e.g., moral ideas, etc.). the doctrine of the creative force and superqualitativeness of substantial agents leads losski to his teaching of the freedom of the will. among losski’s most important books are die grundlchre der psychologie vom stand punkte des voluntarismus, published in russian (1903), in german (1905); the intuitive bases of kinowt- edge (1904; eng. trans., torg); and mundbuch der logik (1922), in german (1926). the titles of his untranslated russian works may be given in english as follows: jatroduction to philosophy; the world us an organic whole; principles of epistemology; matter and lifc; freedom of will. loucheur, louis (1872- ), french politician, was born at roubaix aug. 12 1872. after studying at the ecole poly- technique he embarked upon a highly successful career as an engineer and contractor. both in france and abroad he grad- ually developed an extensive business, and the advent of the world war with its necessitics gave fresh prosperity to those industries concerned with the manufacture of arms and muni- tions. when in dec. 1916 m. briand decided to give certain offices to non-political men of high technical ability, he called upon m. loucheur to be an under-secrctary of state. in the cabinet formed by m. clemenceau in 1917, which lasted until jan. 1920, he was minister of munitions. after entering parliament in nov. 1919 as deputy for the nord department, he became minister for the liberated regions in the briand cabinet, jan. 1621. in that capacity he negotiated with the german minister of reconstruction, herr walter rathenau, the wies- baden convention for facilitating payment in kind of part of the reparations. during the two years which ensued, m. cloucheur distinguished himself by upholding before the cham- ber, with great argumentative ingenuity, various schemes [or remedying the financial situation. on nov. 28 1925 m. briand appointed him minister of finance in his new cabinet. but he found every group in parliament violently hostile to the seven proposals which he submitted for alleviating the financial crisis. the finance commission of the chamber twice rejected five of these proposals and he therefore resigned dec. 15, having held his portfolio exactly 17 days. louis iii.,ex-king of bavaria (1845-1921), was born jan.7 1845 and assumed the regency in succession to his father (see 3.550) losski—louisiana on dec. 12 1912. in accordance with the bill passed by the bavarian diet he assumed the crown on nov. 5 1913.! after the proclamation of the republic on nov. 7 1918, the king, with the queen and his daughters, left munich. the royal family resided first at berchtesgaden, and afterwards at a_ castle assigned to them on the shores of chiem see. on nov. 13 he formally signed his abdication, and relieved all bavarian officials, oflicers and soldiers from their oath of allegiance. tie died at sarvar, hungary, oct. 17 1921. louisiana (sce 17.53).—the population of the state as esti- mated in 1926 was 1,918,591, compared with a census enumera- tion of 1,798,509 in to20 and of 1,656,388 in 1910. during 1910-20 the negro population decreased from 713,874 to 700,257, or from 43-1 to 38-90% of the total. the population of new or- leans, the principal city, was estimated on july 1 1924 at 409,534 compared with a census enumeration of 387,219 in 1920 and of 339,075 in 1910. a priculture.—the most important industry of the state has always been agriculture. the total value of all farm crops in 1920 as reported by the bureau of the census was $231,506,c00. the total number of farms in 1920 was 135,463, representing 4 gain of 14,917 during the decade, but a slight decrease occurred in the following four years, there being 132,451 in 1925. corn, cotton, sugar-cane, rice and hay, in the order named, constituted the most important field crops. the bol! weevil temporarily caused a sharp decline in the production of cotton, but with better methods of combatting this pest and the stimulus of high prices the vield increased from 279,000 bales in tg21r to 501,523 bales in 1924. another effect of the boll weevil has been the trend toward more diversified farming, with a consequent increase in the yield of maize (indian corn) which reached the maximum of 35,022,000 bu. in i921. the vield in bushels in subsequent years was as follows: 1922, 29,002,000; 1923, 24,702,000; 1924, 18,998,000. this decline was a result of low prices in this period as compared with the price of cotton, which made the latter the more profitable crop. ‘the livestock industry also gained in im- portance as a result of this diversification, although the state in 1924 still ranked only thirty-fourth in the value of livestock on the farms. louisiana leads all other states in the production of rice, the yield over a period of years averaging nearly half the total raised in the united states. the crop of 1924 amounted to 17,078,000 bu., with a value of $23,226,000. practically all the cane sugar produced in the united states comes from louisiana. the trucking industry has acquired considerable importance in the vicinity of new orleans, and the raising of strawberries has proved profitable on the cut-over pine lands of livingston and tangipahoa parishes. citrus fruits are grown in considerable quantity along the mississippi river below new orleans. manufacturing—the value of manufactured products, at fac- tory prices, in 1923 was $624,682,620, a gain of 30-4% as com- pared with r92r. the average number of wage-carners employed in factories during 1923 was 94,597, 4 gain of 11-1% over 192i. the production of lumber and timber products is the leading manufacturing industry of the state, both in respect to value of products and number of persons employed. the total value of lumber and timber produced in 1923 was $132,682,000, an in- crease of 44-3°5 over 1921. petroleum refining came second in 1923 in value of products, with a total output valued at $102,405,- 962, representing a gain of 8-6° over 1921. sugar refining came third, with products in 1923 valued at $88,151,711 and showing a gain of 66° over 1021, when the sugar industry was suffcring from severe depression. in spite of the increase in tarifi duties on sugar in 1922 the louisiana sugar industry is at a disadvan- tage in competing with tropical countries that are free from the hazard of frost anc, also enjoy the advantage of cheaper labour. the number of sugar factories in the state decreased from 124 in 1921 to 82 in 1924. in 1924 many of these establishments shifted from the manufacture of raw sugar to the production of syrup, the output of which amounted to 9,920,000 gal., compared with 6,718,000 gal. in 1923. 1 king otto, who had been kept in confinement as a lunatic, died on oct. i1 1916, louisville—louvain afiserals —until 1924 louisiana led all other states in the pro- duction of sulphur, but late in that year production in calcasieu parish was suspended because of the exhaustion of the deposit. this came after 25 years of production with a total yield of about 10,000,000 tons of sulphur. it was this deposit which made the united states the chief sulphur-producing country in the world, and the louisiana product virtually displaced sicilian sulphur, which at one time held first place in the world’s markets. in 1923 louisiana ranked third in the production of rock salt and fifth in that of all salt. the output in that year was'350,000 tons, compared with 265,000 tons in 1920. the rock-salt deposits lie in the extreme southern portion of the state, and yield a product of unusual purity. most of the petroleum produced in the state comes from the parishes of caddo, red river, de soto and clai- borne. the state’s output in 1924 was 21,124,000 barrels. the record output of 35,714,000 bbl. was attained in 1920 after the opening of the great homer pool in claiborne parish. some of the wells in this district for a time yielded as much as 30,000 bbl. daily, but after 1920 production steadily declined. education.—the constitution of 1921 vests control of the pub- lic elementary and high schools and all other state educational institutions except the state university in a board of education of eleven members. school attendance is compulsory for 140 days in each school year by all children between the ages of 7 and 14 years. this law, however, has not been strictly enforced because of the lack of school facilities, and in 1923 only 76-8 °% of the white children of school age, and 58-2°, of the negro children were en- rolled. substantial improvement in school facilities, however, occurred after 1919. in that year total school expenditures were $9,702,000; by 1923 they had increased to $25,430,000. the aver- age salary for white male teachers in 1923 was $1,353, compared with $1,011 in 1919; for white female teachers $1,009 in 1923, com- pared with $598 in 1919. between 1919 and 1923 salaries of negro male teachers increased from $298 to $525, and of female negro teachers from $217 to $408. ifistery —although the state is normally democratic, there was a temporary defection from the democratic party after 1913 in that section of the state where the production of cane sugar is the chicf industry. this was due to the unpopularity of the tariff act of 1913, enacted by a democratic congress and materi- ally reducing the duties on sugar. by 10920 the breach in the party was healed. the state ratified the eighteenth (prohibition) federal amendment aug. 3 1918. the industrial canal at new orleans was opened to navigation feb. 6 1923. this canal con- nects the mississippi river with lake pontchartrain and gives shipping more direct access to the sea than is possible by follow- ing the winding course of the river for 90 m. to its mouth. the canal is 53 m. long and was 5 years in building. the governors after 1908 were: jared y. sanders (dem.) 1908~12; luther e. hall (dem.) 1912-6; ruffin g. pleasant (dem.) 1916-20; john m. parker (dem.) 1920-4; henry m. fuqua (dem.) 1924- . (w.0.s.) louisville, ky., u.s.a. (see 17.63), lost one of its principal industries through the elimination of its distilleries by the eighteenth (prohibition) amendment to the federal constitu- tion. its tobacco market was affected by the development of co- operative marketing and loose-leaf marketing of tobacco in kentucky. in compensation many new industries were added to the already long list. the total output of the plants within the city was valued at $1o1,284,000 in 1909; $204,366,000 in 1919; $240,537,718 in 1923. in 1922 annexations of territe.y (11,000 ac.) increased the area to 36 sq. m., but important plants were still outside the corporate limits. the leading industries in the louisville district in 1925 were tobacco (value in 1923, $25,678,- 000), car works, sanitary plumbing fixtures, petroleum refining, slaughtering and meat-packing. the population in 1920 was 234,891 (g1-4 males to 100 females), of whom 40,087 were negroes (a slight decrease since 1910) and 11,667 foreign-born (a decrease of 34%). aspecial census in dec. 1925, under the supervision of of the u.s. census bureau, showed a population of 305,935. bank clearings increased from $667,947,515 in ro1r4 to $1,611,927,608 in_1924. investment in building in the six years 739 following the world war amounted to over $100,000,000, of which more than half was for 10,000 dwellings. many of the characteristic low structures were replaced by apartment houses, hotels and tall business buildings. by 1925 sewer construction costing $4,600,c00 was completed, and additional work of an equal amount was under way; the municipally-owned water company was beginning a four-year programme of expansion, to cost $4,498,000; construction of the war memorial auditorium was awaiting the outcome of litigation over the site; a new municipal highway bridge to jeffersonville, ind., was planned; work was begun on the elimination of grade crossings, and also on a hydroelectric plant (initial capacity 108,oc00 h.p.) at the falls of the ohio. canalisation of the ohio river from pittsburgh to louisville was completed in 1925, and completion of the project to cairo is expected by 1920. in 1910 the public schools were placed under the control of a non-partisan board of education. the university of louisville (enrolment, 1925, 1,200) moved its school of arts and sciences to a new 55-ac. campus in sept. 1925, and $1,000,000 was voted by the city in november for new buildings. additions to the university include the speed scientific school (opened 1925); the louisville college of dentistry (formerly affiliated to centre college); an art museum (under construction); and an extension centre for negroes (to be opened 1926). the southern baptist — theological seminary also moved (jan. 1926) to a new campus of 51 ac. and a fine plant built at a cost of $2,000,000. lourenco marques, delagoa bay (see 17.65), has a popu- lation (1925) estimated at 22,000, including 8,000 europeans. there is safe entrance to the harbour and the minimum depth of water in the cockburn channel is 25 feet. the port offers ample accommodation and facilities to shipping, including coal- ing and cold storage plant. many of the leading merchants are british and most of the traffic of the port is transit trade with the transvaal, whence it obtains its coal for export and bunkering. competition between the port and durban for the rand trade led to a convention (known as the mozambique convention) being made with the transvaal in 1909. among other things it provided that 50 to 55° of the railway traffic in the “‘ competi- tive area ” of the transvaal should pass through delagoa bay; the percentage going through the bay in 1914 was 48-79 and never exceeded that figure until 1922, when it was 52-86. the union govt. then denounced the convention, which lapsed on march 31 1923. the provisions it contained for the recruitment in portuguese territory of native labour for the transvaal mines and forbidding differential duties on merchandise passing be- tween lourengo marques and the transvaal were, however, preserved by a modus vivendi. negotiations for a new convention had not, up to the middle of 1926, resulted in an agreement. the value of goods in transit through lourengo marques was £4,547,000 1n 1912; £2,334,000 in rg15; £5,176,000 in 1919 and £4,806,o00 in 1923, in which year re-exports were valued at £1,244,000, as against £411,000 in 1912. exports of local produce were valued at £162,000 in 1913 and at £789,000 in 1923. the number of vessels entering the port in 1924 was 644, the tonnage being 3,060,000 gross. in the latter part of 1925 the deprecia- tion of the portuguese currency and the abolition of the use of sterling currency caused serious difhculties to importers and led to strikes and disturbances which continued into 1926 when the position began to improve. sec the delagoa directory, 1925 (lourengco marques and london) and the south and east african year book (london, annually). louvain, belgium (see 17.67), with a population of 40,693 in 1923, suffered very severely during the world war, and was given the croix de gucrre in 1925. in aug. 1or4, after the german entry, about one-third of the town was burnt, including the whole of the rue de la station and the place du peuple, the vieux marche, the palais de justice, the theatre, and the famous halles universitaires, with its splendid library; the interior and roofs of the collegiate church of st. peter were seriously dam- aged, and the chimes destroyed. the elaborate gothic hetel de ville, damaged in 1890and in process of restoration in 1914, was 740 used as headquarters by the germans, and was not further harmed; the restoration has since been completed. restoration works—rebuilding, studiously on the old models, was started soon after the war, and early in 1925 few signs of the ruin done were outwardly visible, though much remained to be finished. the place de la station, where a number of civilians were killed and buried, has been renamed place des martyrs, and the rebuilt rue de la station is now called avenue des allies. a striking war memorial has been erected. the university was reopened in 1919, with a larger number oi students than before the war. the foundation stone of the new university library was laid in rg21, and the first wing opened in 1923. the building, in the flemish style, is being paid for by american citizens, and books and fittings have been contributed by many nations. about 500,000 books had been collected when the new wing was opened, nearly 50,000 coming from the john rylands library, manchester. the church of st. peter was undergoing restoration in 1926. low, seth (1850-10916), american administrator and educa- tionalist (sce 17.72), died at bedford hills, n.y., sept. 17 1916. lowell, abbott lawrence (1856- ), american educa- tionalist (see 17.73), built for harvard at his own expense 2 president’s house, which was finished in 1912. from the time that he became president (1909) he took great interest in the social life of the students (see harvard university). president lowell was a strong supporter of free speech among the members of the faculty. after the outbreak of the world war in 1014 he refused to accept the resignation of prof. miinsterberg, who had defended the german cause. in 1915 prof. kuno meyer, of the university of berlin, sent a letter of protest because of the pub- lication in one of the college magazines of a satirical poem, gott mit uns, by an undergraduate. in his reply president lowell pointed out that freedom of speech was an important character- istic of american universities as distinguished from those in germany. he was chairman of the executive committee of the league to enforce peace, and later was a strong supporter of the league of nations. lowell was the author of public opinion and popular government (1913), based on lectures at johns hop- kins university; the governments of france, italy and germany (1914), abridged from his earlier government and parties in con- tinental europe; and greater european governments (1918), abridged from earlier works. his brother, percival lowell.(1855~10916), american astrono- mer (see 17.73), died at flagstaff, ariz., nov. 12 1916. in 1910 he lectured in london before the royal institute, and in paris before the association astronomique. lowell, amy (1874-1925), american poet, critic and lecturer, was born feb. 9 1874 in brookline, mass., being a sister of abbott l. and percival lowell she came of a line of public-spirited lawyers and men of affairs, who for three generations had been, like herself, lovers and planters of gardens. she received her education from her mother, who was an accomplished musician and linguist, and from private schools; and she later travelled abroad extensively, visiting greece, constantinople and egypt. after her father’s death in 1900 she occupied herself with municipal affairs, until “ about 1902,” she writes, ‘‘i discovered that poetry ... was my natural mode of expression. and from that moment i] began to devote myself to it seriously.” but she published nothing for nine years, when, in rg10, her first published poem appeared in the atlantic monthly. her first volume, .1 dome of amazty- coloured glass, is dated 1912. thereafter her books followed each other in rapid succession: sword blades and poppy seeds (rg14); six french pocis: studies in contemporary litcrature (rors); men, women and ghosts (1916); tendencies in modern american poetry (1917); can grande’s castle (1918); pictures of the floating world (1919); legends (1921); fir-flower tablets, with florence ayscough (1921); a critical fable (1922); john keats (1928); what’s o’clock (1925); east wind (1926). during all this period miss lowell contributed critical articles to various magazines, and lectured extensively. in 1920 she received the degree of litt.d. from baylor university. she had suffered low—lucas, edward verrall from a serious malady for years, and on the eve of a visit to england, during which she was to have lectured at oxford, cambridge, eton, edinburgh and elsewhere, it became acute, and she died suddenly, may 12 1925, at brookline, mass. miss lowell, during her later years, was the most striking figure in contemporary american poetry. her vivid and power- ful personality, her intellectual vigour and independence, and her zest in life gave her a conspicuous and in some respecis a unique position. she was an acknowledged leader of the group in america and england which called itself the imagists. but through all her radicalism ran a strong conservative strain, and she never abandoned conventional verse forms, nor for some years before her death had she been affiliated with any school. among her contributions to poetry must be reckoned the per- fecting, in her best work, of the technique of “‘ free ”’ verse; her almost unrivalled command of the vocabulary of sensuous im- pressions; the wide range of the themes to which she has given poetical expression, and the clarity and restrained beauty of many of her shorter poems. her most important critical work, the result of long and devoted labour, is the biography of keats, which essays to reinterpret him as ‘‘ a new generation of poets and critics ”’ regards him. 6 ee pre bes lowell, mass., u.s.a. (see 17.76), had in 1920 a population of 112,759, an increase of 6-1% in 10 years. the foreign-born population numbered 38,116 (including 10,180 french cana- dians), a decrease of 12-5%. in 1925 the state census showed a decrease of the total population to 110,542. the factory output had a value of $59,688,000 in 1909; $137,802,000 in 1919; $80,- 645,704 in 1921; $100,998,057 in 1923. lowell was affected by the long strike of the textile workers in 1922. the commission form of government was adopted in rg11, but in 1920 the charter was again amended, providing for a mayor elected at large and a city council composed of one member from each of the nine wards and six elected at large. on dec. 9 1925, 10 officials, including the mayor and a former mayor, were arraigned on charge of cor- ruption. a beautiful memorial auditorium was erected (1921) in honour of the men and women of the city who took part in the wars of the country. lowell has the usual characteristics of a mill town—a preponderance of women in the population (92-8 males to 100 females, 1920), a high proportion of women and children at work (38-7 °% of all females 10 years of age and over, 8-8°% of the children 10-15), a high infant mortality (107 deaths under one year per 1,000 births, 1923) and a low percent- age of home ownership (26-1% in 1920), due to mobility of jabour. sce george f. kenngott, the record of a city; a social survey of lowell, massachusetts (1912). loyson, charles (1827-10912), better known as pere hyacinthe, a famous french preacher, was born at orleans. he was educated for the priesthood and entcred the carmelite order. his eloquence drew large crowds to his advent sermons in notre-dame between 1865 and 1869, but his orthodoxy fell under suspicion, and in 1870 he associated himself with ddllin- ger’s protest against the dogma of papal infallibility (sce 14.512, 20.67). being excommunicated he broke finally with the church of rome, and removed first to geneva and then to london. he married an english lady, emily jane merriman, and settled in paris in 1877, where he founded an old catholic church. he died in paris feb. 9 1912. lucas, edward verrall (1865- ), british man of letters, was born at brighton and educated at university college, london. he then started journalism, working first on a sussex newspaper, then in london with the globe, and became a fre- quent contributor to punch and later its assistant editor. he acted for many years as publisher’s reader to the firm of methuen, and became head of this company after the death of its founder (1925). lucas wrote a very large number of miscellaneous books, but is best known as a light essayist in the vein of elia, and published many collections of these essays. his edition of the letters of charles and mary lamb (1903-5) and his life ef lamb (1905) likewise showed how congenial was his talent with that of elia. [le was successful also as a writer of travel impressions, lugas, john seymour—euck among these being a wanderer in holland (19003), a wanderer in london (1906) and a wanderer in paris (tg09), and his books on art showed powers of wide appreciation, as in the british school (1913), vermeer of delft (1922), john constable (1924). light fiction, children’s books, humorous skits and many anthologies have also issued from his singularly fluent pen. lucas, john seymour (18409-1023), british painter (see 17.93), died in hospital at southwold, suffolk, after an accident, on may 8 1923. “buck, or lutsk, battles of.—under this heading are described the russian attacks on their southwestern front— which extended from the pinsk marshes to the northern frontier of rumania—during the summer and autumn of 1916. these attacks are generally known as “ brusilov’s offensive.” the original break-through of the austrian front occurred near the town of suck (lutsk), in volhynia, on the river styr, which thus gives its name to the whole series of operations (sce eastern european front: map). general situation in may 1916.—after the costly failure of their attacks in march (see lake narocu, barres or), the russian supreme command had set to work to prepare a large scale offensive on the front west of motodeczno, as their contri- bution to the great general allied offensive which was to open on all fronts on july rt. elaborate preparations were made during april and may for this motodeczno attack, in which 26 divisions were to carry out the initial assault. the russian line was at this time divided into three fronts: the northern, from the gulf of riga to south of dvinsk, containing 38 divisions; the western, down to and inclusive of the pinsk marshes, containing 58 divi- sions; and the southwestern, down to the rumanian frontier, containing 38 divisions. the pinsk marshes also formed the dividing line between the german and austrian sectors of the eastern front. in the german sector there were approximately 42 german and two austrian divisions; in the austrian sector there were 38 austrian and three german divisions. since the great offensive of the central powers against russia had come {to an end in the autumn of rors, their forces on the eastern front had been considerably reduced. the germans had taken troops for their verdun offensive, and the austrians during the spring had withdrawn formations for an offensive against italy. the russians, on the other hand, had recovered rapidly from their disasters of the previous year; the ranks were full and muni- tions more plentiful than before. preparation of brustlov’s offenstve.— gen. brusilov suc- ceeded ivanov as commander-in-chief of the south-western front in march. he was a cavalry soldier and had commanded the viii. army since the commencement of the war with con- spicuous success. he received instructions to prepare attacks on the south-western front to distract the enemy’s attention from the main russian effort at motodeczno. the four armies under brusilov were: the vitl. (kraledin) from the kowel-kiev rail way near rafatowka to about kremenets, 11 divisions and four cavalry divisions; the xi. (sakharov) from kremenets to near tarnupol, eight divisions and one cavalry division; the vii. (shcherbachev) from near tarnupol to potok, seven divi- sions and 35 cavalry divisions; and the ix. (lechitski) from potok to the rumanian frontier, 10 divisions and three cavalry divisions. there was one corps (two divisions) in reserve. the austrian iv. army (archduke joseph ferdinand), from near rafalowka to dubno, with 10$ divisions and one cavalry division, and the it. army (behn-ermolli, from dubno to near kremenets, with eight infantry and two cavalry divisions, were opposed to kaledin; the german southern army (von bothmer) with one german and nine austrian divisions and two cavalry divisions, held a long front, corresponding approximately with those held by the russian xi. and vii. armies; while the aus- trian vii. army (pflanzer-baltin), with 8} divisions and four cavalry divisions, opposed lechitski. in the actual number of divisions there was little disparity between the total forces at the disposal of either side; the russians had 38 divisions and 12 cavalry divisions tothe austro-german 37 divisions and nine cav- alry divisions; but the russian divisions were larger. the austrian 741 front had been strongly fortified and organised, and in spite of the removal of some of their most reliable divisions and much heavy artillery to the italian front the austrians were confident of being able to hold their ground. about the middle of april, brusilov had ordered each of his army commanders to select a sector of attack and to make prep- arations with the resources at his disposal within his own army to penetrate the enemy’s front in that sector. preparations were to be complete before the middle of may. these attacks were designed simply as aids to the main russian offensive in the north, timed for july 1. on may 14, however, the austrians began an offensive in the trentino against italy. the italians ippealed to the russians to relieve the pressure by attacking the austrians on their front. brusilov accordingly launched his attacks on all four army fronts on june 4, without any expecta- tion of a decisive break-through or arrangements for exploitation of success on a large scale. the break-through at zuck.—the sector of attack chosen by kaledin, commander of the viii. army, centred on the village of olika, east of buck. the bombardment began on june 4 and the assault was made by the xl. and viii. corps early on june s. the xl. corps carried three lines of enemy trenches and pene- trated over two miles, and the viii. corps, though less successful, made considerable progress. the advance continued on june 6 and on june 7 reached suck. by this time a wide gap had been made between the austrian iv. army and the ii. army further south, and a great opportunity for the numerous russian cav- alry seemed to have come. but of the four cavalry divisions allotted to kaledin’s army, two had been used to hold trenches so as to enable infantry to be concentrated for the assault and one was dispatched by brusilov in a fruitless raid along the rail- way towards kowel through marshes entirely unsuited for cav- alry action. the one remaining division could accomplish little. meanwhile the left wing of the viii. army occupied dubno on june 9; on june to the front of the army lay along the line of the rivers styr and ikwa, from rozyszeze through euck to dubno. attacks of the nt., vii. and in. armies.—tyhe attack of the xj. army northwest of tarnupol was a failure. shcherbachev’s vii. army attacked in a sector on its extreme left near the vil- lage of jaziowec. after two-days’ bombardment the infantry assaulted early on june 6 and carried the enemy positions; next day the austrians were driven behind the strvypa. the russians crossed the river on the 8th and gained further ground during the next two days. counter-attacks then arrested their advance for the time being. lechitski’s ix. army attacked some 20 m. north of czernowitz, near the village of okna, with complete success. by june to the front was broken and the austrians retreated in disorder behind the prut. czernowitz was captured on june 17. consequences of brusilows success —thus by the middle of june the austro-german front south of the pinsk marshes was completely broken on both flanks, and two armies, the iv. and vii., were in full retreat. in the centre bghm-ermolli’s and von bothmer’s armies still held, though their outer flanks had been driven in. on three-quarters of the whole russian southwest- ern front their armies were moving forward. these entirely unexpected results of an offensive undertaken purely as a dem- onstration reacted instantly on the whole strategy both of the russians and of the central powers. on the russian side, the new situation demanded the immediate transfer of the principal reserves from the north, where they had been grouped for the motodeczno offensive, if brusilow’s success in the south were to be exploited. the decision was taken promptly enough, the motodeczno offensive was abandoned, lesh’s iii. army astride the pripet was ackled to brusilov’s command and troops were hurried south as rapidly as the capacity of the railways would permit. unfortunately for the russians, the poverty and low efficiency of their communications gave the enemy time to con- centrate sufficient reinforcements to restore their front before the full weight of the russian reserves could give a fresh impetus to the advance. . for the germans, the sudden reverse came at a difficult time, 742 for they were fully engaged at verdun and were expecting a franco-british offensive at an early date; obviously, too, events might have a decisive influence on the attitude of rumania. re- inforcements were at once collected to restore the situation; to close the principal gap, it was decided to stage a counter-attack on a large scale on both sides of the kowel-rowne railway. this attack was entrusted to von linsingen, the german commander of the austro-german army holding the area of the pinsk marshes opposite the russian iii. army. he was reinforced by three german divisions from the northern part of the eastern front, four from france and two austrian divisions from the trentino. during the whole of the latter half of june, as these reinforcements arrived, he counter-attacked persistently towards euck and tothe north and south of it. these attacks, though they brought the austro-german forces little gain of ground, had at least the effect of limiting kaledin’s break-through. on july 4, the left of lesh’s iii. army, in conjunction with kaledin’s right, launched an attack in the bend of the styr east of kowel and drove von linsingen’s army back to the stoched river. this put an end to the austro-german counter-attacks, and there were no further important operations on this part of the front till the end of july. occupation of bukovina.—meantime, lechitski in the south was completing the conquest of the bukovina. after the capture of czernowitz, part of the austrian vii. army retreated pre- cipitately south to the carpathians, pursued by the left wing of lechitski’s army, which occupied kimpolung on june 24. ilis tight wing, advancing between the dniester and the prut, won a victory on june 28 and occupied kolomyja on the following day. at the beginning of july the austrians in the south received rein- forcements and made a series of counter-attacks opposite kim- polung and delatyn. these were defeated, and lechitski’s right wing occupied delatyn on july 10. his army was now, however, enormously extended and had to halt to await reinforcements. reorganisation of command by the central powers —the ger- man command, which had since the beginning of june sent 16 divisions to the front south of the pinsk marshes, naturally claimed an increased influence on the direction of operations on this front. very shortly after the first break-through at tuck they had insisted on the removal from his command of the lv. army of the archduke joseph ferdinand and on the extension of von linsingen’s sphere of command southwards to the north- ern frontier of galicia. the greater portion of pflanzer-baltin’s vii. army had also been transferred to von bothmer command- ing the german southern army. it was now proposed to appoint hindenburg to the supreme command of the eastern front as far south as lemberg; the remainder of the front, on both sides of the dniester and in the carpathians, was to be under the aus- trian heir apparent, archduke charles francis joseph, with the german general von seeckt as his chief of staff. this arrangement was eventually brought into force early in august. the archduke charles had originally come from the italian front at the beginning of july to command a xii. army, which was to be formed from troops on the spot and fresh rein- forcements, and was to deliver a counter attack on a large scale on both sides of the dniester in a southeasterly direction. but as the incoming reinforcements had always to be thrown into the battle so soon as they arrived, the formation of the xii. army and the proposed counter-offensive never took place. instead, the iii. army command from tirol took over the troops between the carpathians and the dniester. the arch- duke’s command thus comprised the vii., iiif. and southern armies. | battle of brody.—during the latter half of july, while the viii. and ix. armies on the flanks paused to await reinforce- ments, brusilov ordered sakharov’s xi. army, which had ex- tended its front northwards to beyond dubno, to take the offen- sive. it attacked near boromel, southwest of huck, on july 16 and drove the enemy back across the lipa. sakharov then moved south on brody, which he captured with 40,000 prisoners on july 28—a fine victory. meanwhile shcherbachev’s vii. army, in spite of repeated attacks northwest of buczacz to- luck wards monasterzyska, had failed to make much impression on von bothmer’s southern army. lechitski, however, at the end of july gained some ground towards stanislau. attack on keowel.—towards the end of july the russian guard army (i. and ii. guard corps, i. corps, xxx. corps, guard cav. corps) detrained from the north and took up a front be- tween the ii]. and viii. armies. the guard had not been in action since the previous sept. and had been carefully trained and kept in hand for a great occasion. it was now de- cided to use it to force the line of the stoched river and capture kowel. it is dificult to understand why this line of advance was chosen for a supreme effort. the terrain is mainly marsh and advance is usually possible only on narrow causeways. the attacks, which commenced on july 28 and were continued up to aug. to resulted in a complete and costly failure. the guard army lost 55,000 men for a trifling gain of unimportant ground. brusilov thereafter abandoned the direct advance on kowel; but continued up till the middle of oct. attempts to enlarge the suck salient in the direction of wiodzimierz wolynski. all these attempts ended in failure. conclusion of the offensive—in the south, lechitski attacked again south of the dniester on aug. 7 and drove back kevess’ if{i. army. he occupied stanfslau on aug. 10 and nadwerna on aug. 12. on this latter date the vii. army occupied monas- terzyska. under the threat from this flank and pressure from sakharov’s army south of brody, von bothmer now at last gave up the original line which he had held throughout all the turmoil, and withdrew towards brzezany. austro-german counter-attacks in the carpathians in the first half of aug. had little success. on aug. 20 the russians reorganised their front so as to allow lechitski’s ix. army to have as its only task the forcing of the carpathian passes be- tween delatyn and kimpolung, in order to protect the right flank of the rumanians, who joined the allies on aug. 27. in spite of severe fighting throughout sept. little progress was made on this front. nor was any appreciable advance made elsewhere on the southwestern front in spite of repeated as- saults. in oct. the defeat of the rumanians necessitated the transfer of troops to that theatre and the abandonment of fur- ther offensive operations. the summer which had opened so brilliantly ended in disappointment and failure. results of the offensive-—although brusilov had recaptured practically the whole of the bukovina and large portions of eastern galicia and volhynia and had taken some 350,000 prisoners and over 400 guns, the cost had been exceedingly heavy. the casualties on the southwestern front were over a million. these losses and those suffered in the abortive attacks on the northern and western fronts in 1916, at lake naroch, baranowicze and riga, were in the end the principal cause of the rapid infection of the army with anti-war propaganda when the revolution came. in fact the revolution itself was partly due to disappointment at the outcome of the 1916 campaign, from which so much had been hoped. the campaign showed the striking contrast in fighting qualities between austrian, german and russian troops. in spite of their lack of artillery and technical equipment, brusilov’s armies broke through the strongly forti- fied austrian lines and would have completely destroyed the austrian armies but for the presence of german troops, against whom their assaults invariably broke down. it is difficult to trace any strategical conception underlying the russian operations; the time and place for the various at- tacks seem to have been chosen on purely local considerations. this was largely due to the unexpected nature of the success and to the poor communications, which prevented the timely transfer of reserves from one portion of the front to another. hailed by her allies as proof of the complete regeneration of the russian army, brusilov’s offensive was really its death-knell. bip_riocraphy.—e. von falkenhayn, general ijteadquarters, 7914-6, and its critical decisions (translated 1919); sir_a. w. f. knox, with the russian army, 1914-7 (1921); m. hoffman, the war of lost opportunities (1924). (see also world war: birli0g- rapily.) (a. p. w.) lucy—ludendorff lucy, sir henry (1845-1924), british journalist, was born at crosby, near liverpool, dec. 5 1845. educated in liverpool, he began life in a liverpool merchant's office, but soon became a reporter for a shrewsbury periodical. in 1870 he joined the staff of the pall mall gazette, london, and in 1873 became par- liamentary reporter to the dailynews, with which paper he had a long connection in various capacities. in 1881 he also joined the staff of punch and won a great reputation as the contributor of its parliamentary sketch signed ‘‘ toby m.1.’? he was knighted in 1909 and retired from parliamentary work in 1916. he published his autobiography, sixty years in the wilderness, in 1909, and the diary of a journalist in 1920. he died feb. 20 1924. ludendorff, erich (1865- ), german soldier, was born at kruszevnia, in the province of posen, april 9 1865. when 18 years old, he entered the prussian army. in 1894 he joined the general staff, and, except for an interval of two years as company commander, remained on it from 1894 to 1913, under count schlieffen and the younger general von moltke. as chief of the aufmarschableilung' since 1908 he played a prominent part in the mobilisation preparations. the last great increase in the strength of the army in 1913 was largely due to his initiative and energy. during the year preceding the out- break of the world war he commanded first the 39th fusilier regiment at diisseldorf, and afterwards an infantry brigade at strasbourg. at the outbreak of the world war ludendorff was quarter- master general of the ii. army. his voluntary assumption in the beginning of aug. of a decisive rele at the capture of the fortress of liege gave him his first great opportunity. h[e took over the command of the 14th brigade of infantry, in the place of general von wussow who was killed, and, breaking through the ring of fortifications at its head, seized the interior of the town. he was rewarded on aug. 22 by being made chief of staff to hinden- burg in the viit. army which was fighting in east prussia. campaigns in east prussta-——the battle of tannenberg revealed. his powers of generalship, for he there demonstrated the justice of the theory of annihilation. the victory of tannen- berg over the russian army of the narew was more than another cannae. for in this case there was not, as in former days on the aufidus, merely one enemy to be dealt with. on the con- trary, the attempt was made to envelop the greatly superior main body of russians in the presence of a second enemy force threatening the rear. and the attempt proved successful. in the subsequent operations which led to the first battle on the masurian lakes and to the heavy defeat of the russian army of the niemen, the enemy’s right wing was supported on the lake, and so only an envelopment of the southern wing was possible. the operations, therefore, took the form of an attack on the enemy’s front and on his exposed flank. the strategic success lay in the liberation of east prussia from the enemy. the german army of the east became avail- able for the immediate support of the austro-itungarian ally, by this time in dire straits. this support was rendered in the bril- liant oct. campaign of the newly-formed ix. german army directed through southern poland upon the vistula. its pur- pose—to facilitate the austrian efforts in galicia by drawing off upon the ix. army the strongest possible body of russian troops—was attained in a degree entailing grave danger to the outnumbered germans themselves. the menace of envelop- ment by a vastly superior enemy, pouring up from the direction of warsaw, was parried and beaten off by ludendorff by means of an exceedingly gallant defensive action, carried out during withdrawal. in nov., after a rapid regrouping of the main ger- man forces, an advance was made from the wreschen-thorn line against the right flank of the main body of the russians, lying in west poland. in the absence of sufficient strength a simultaneous frontal attack was impossible. but even so, the success achieved in the battle of 56dz was great. the russians were definitely relegated to the defensive—and, in the pursuit 1 the department which draws up plans for transport, disposition of troops and advance. 743 which followed, were flung back behind the bzura and the rawka. during the fighting in masuria in feb. 1915 ludendorff achieved the destruction of another russian army in the region of the upper bobr. this was followed by a period of relative inactivity on the german eastern front lasting for several months. not before the middle of july 1915 did the army group of hin- denburg resume the war of movement. by an attack directed upon and beyond the lower narew it relieved, by means of a converging offensive, the army group of mackensen which had advanced from galicia into southern poland between the vistula and the bug. in the ensuing operations the russian army was driven out of the vistula positions and out of the whole of poland towards the east. after a brief resistance the fortresses of warsaw, nowogceorgiewsk (modlin) and kovno fell. but no decisive issue was reached, because general von falkenhayn, chief of the german general staff, rejected the proposal of hindenburg and ludendorff, which was to advance with the german left wing in a northerly direction through kovno and vilna upon minsk, thereby cutting the russian railway com- munications, north of the polesia. had the operations been conducted in accordance with the views of hindenburg and ludendorff, the russian army might have been dealt a mortal blow in the summer of 1915. later, in sept., the attempt was made on the german left wing, but with inadequate forces, to embarrass the retreat of the section of the russian army with- drawing northwards from polesia past vilna; but the moment for success on a grand scale had gone. after the victorious conclusion of the balkan campaign in the winter of 1915-6 ludendoriff contemplated a great offensive into the heart of the ukraine, with the object of breaking the back of the economic resistance of greater russia, which was already cut off from the sea. the offensive necessitated the occupation of rumania; but general von falkenhayn rejected this scheme, and chose verdun instead of kiev as the objective for operations. accordingly in the year 1916 the eastern front of the allied central powers was assigned the duty of protecting the rear of the offensive movement in france. this task was amply fulfilled on the northern wing but on the southern wing, held by the austrians, the front completely collapsed in june and july at suck and in galicia. the balance in the east was restored with difficulty by the intervention of the german command. on aug. 29 field-marshal von hindenburg assumed the office of chief of the general staff of the armies in the field, in the place of falkenhayn, and ludendortf became first quarter- master general. in contrast with their predecessor’s point of view, the two men still promised themselves triumph, but a triumph which could only result from a more vigorous conduct of the war by drawing upon the whole available strength of the country in wealth and population. the methods adopted for the utilisation of these resources were expressed in the so-called “ hindenburg programme ” of war industries and in the so-called law of auxiliary services; and here ludendorff could only co-op- erate by means of suggestions and demands. in his own sphere too, he found that, owing to the almost desperate military situ- ation inherited from his predecessor, he was not at first able to put into practice schhieffen’s doctrine of annihilation. the result of the offensive against rumania was that this new enemy was overthrown in the winter of 1916. this victory was of inesti- mable value to the central powers, for new sources of economic power were thereby opened up. submarine warfare.—after the defeat of the rumanian army there remained but one further task. this was the frustration of the attacks of the enemy in the west, greatly superior in numbers and material. the restoration of the balance of strength thus aimed at was to enable the central powers later to deliver an offensive with decisive effect. a favourable diversion of this kind, however, could only be counted upon, if, during the stra- tegical defence on land, england could be reduced to desperate straits. an intensified u-boat warfare in the blockade area round england was therefore adopted, a weapon, recourse to which 744 had hitherto always been postponed on the score of political considerations. the disadvantage of this course was that it would give the united states a pretext for war on the side of the entente; but regarding this as inevitable, ludendorff hoped to render england disposed for peace, bcfore the americans should be in a position to throw considerable forces into europe. unrestricted u-boat warfare did not altogether fulfil expec- tations. the technical perfection of the enemy’s defensive weapons and the ample scale upon which they had been com- pleted contributed to this in a very material degree. on the other hand, without the adoption of unrestricted u-boat war- fare the strategy of the central powers would have been alto- gether unable to hold the balance on land in suspense until, after russia’s collapse in the spring of 1918, there dawned a well- ' founded prospect of forcing a decision in france before the american forces on land became effective. in the spring of 1917 in the western theatre of war luden- dorff was enabled, by a timely withdrawal to the siegfried posi- tion and by the elasticity of his defensive tactics, to impose a check upon the allied attack carried out with a gigantic expend- iture of men and material. subsequently he had another oppor- tunity of vindicating his theory of annihilation in the warfare on land. under the blows dealt by the german hammer at tarnopol, riga, dage and gsel, russia fell. the reckoning with italy followed in the autumn of 1917, but the situation in the west, particularly in flanders where the fighting raged with undiminished fury, rendered it impossible for ludendorff to secure a decisive victory. the offensive of 1918——the german resolution to take the offensive in the spring of 1918 was rendered imperative by the general position. the psychological condition of the army per- emptorily demanded that the rele of anvil should be exchanged for that of hammer. conditions at home called for a potent remedy against the threefold poison instilled by the hunger blockade, enemy propaganda and revolutionary agitation. germany’s hard pressed allies had for long rested their sole hopes of delivery on the efforts of germany. ludendorff saw only one road by which a tolerable peace, in harmony with the honour of the german people, could be reached, the road of military vic- tory. this again could be attained solely by means of an offen- sive which should be decisive, and in taking this course he hazarded everything. a series of small attacks with limited objectives or a powerfully conducted defence would in favourable circumstances only have secured a temporary advantage, but could not prevent the enemy from finally giving full effect to his superior strength in a battle of annihilation. it is questionable whether the choice of direction for the offensive on i'rench terri- tory can be defended. many critics would have preferred an offensive in italy, but apart from the natural difficulties, even the destruction of the italian army could at best only have preceded the main decisive operations on french soil. it has been questioned whether ludendorff assembled ade- quate forces for the spring offensive of 1918. in march, at the beginning of this offensive, the germans disposed of 193 divisions and three brigades in the franco-belgian theatre of war. the estimates of the forces commanded by the entente in france and belgium at the beginning of the spring offensive vary be- tween 167 and 180 divisions. the germans, therefore, enjoyed a slight superiority in the number of divisions. ‘the original intention that a section of the austro-hungarian forces should take part in the decisive encounter in france was finally thwarted by the opposition of the habsburg emperor. ludendorff accord- ingly chose the expedient of indirect assistance to be rendered by a relieving offensive carried out by the austro-hungarian army in upper italy. this offensive, however, was undertaken much too late for the objective in view, in the middle of june, and, moreover, ended with a severe reverse. the occupation of rumania called imperatively for four divisions and a greater number of landsturm formations. the invasion of the ukraine, carried out in feb. and march, demanded about 20 weak divi- sions, including eight divisions of landwehr and three of cavalry. it is disputable whether it would have been wiser to abandon ludiendoriff the enterprise in ithe ukraine. the secretary of state of the kricgsernihrungsamt urged with the utmost :emphasis that the economic resources of the ukraine should be thrown open to germany. failing this, the austrians’ system of food supplies would collapse. the delivery of meat was important for ger- many, too, and the delivery of horses was, above all, a matter of the greatest urgency. on political and military grounds ludendorff had resolved to deal the first decisive blow in the west against the english. for this purpose he chose the southern flank, on both sides of st. quentin, as tactically the least defensible, with the intention of forcing his way through at this point and by advancing north of the somme towards the northwest, to roll up the whole front gradually and press the english towards the sea. the southern wing of the german offensive was to guard his flank against a relieving attack on the part of the french. this strategy became subject to certain changes in consequence of the unexpected magnitude of the initial success of the german southern wing, which continued the offensive across the somme and the crozat canal against the french, in order to effect a cleavage between the english and french at and beyond amicns. this end was not completely attained, and the result of the first offensive, though great from the tactical standpoint was strategically nugatory. a second attack on the lys front, against the english and portuguese, was made in the middle of april and was de- signed to gain possession of the commanding heights north of bailleul and to cut off the ypres salient; its result, however, was indecisive. during the following months, in spite of successive brilliant diversive attacks carried out against the french front, no further headway was made in forcing a decisive engagement in flanders; and the heavy toll of the spring offensives could not be made good rapidly enough. and yet, prior to the last great attempt to break through on both sides of reims in july 1918, there still remained a prospect of final victory for the german arms, the goal had nearly been reached—which was a proof that the strategy adopted might have succeeded and was, therefore, the right strategy. but the fortune of war was against ludendorff. ifis plans were revealed by treachery to the enemy, at a time when everything depended on secrecy and surprise. the great successes hitherto achieved had led to a wide extension of the german front, calling for the employment of disproportionately large forces and offering in its many angles and salients dangerous surfaces to the enemy’s aitacks. these factors now made their disastrous influence felt. but the final cause of ludendorft’s tnability to resume the initiative lay in the absence of a free command of reserves, due to the drying up of the sources of supply at home. when the german command fell back on the defensive before hostile attacks, ludendorff realised that there was nothing to be done except to hold out until diplomacy succeeded in securing a tol- erable peace, or to perish with honour. on oct. 26, however, he was overthrown by the cabinet of prince max of baden. the collapse of germany’s allies, combined with difficulties at home, rendered hopeless any further resistance by the army in the field now thrown upon its own resources. general ludendorff was above all a man of action, and one who rated formation of character and the attributes of leader- ship more highly than the acquisition of comprehensive learning. his resolution, his almost super-human and invincible powers of work and action, his understanding of the moral factors in war- fare, inspired the german army with boundless confidence in his leadership and qualified it for mighty exploits. if like hanni- bal and lee he failed in the final issue, it was through no fault in generalship, but was partly due to slowness in realising that his weapon had grown blunt and that the population at home was no longer capable of the effort of endurance and the indis- pensable will to victory. his powers of leadership reflected his character; brain, heart and will were all unsparingly enlisted in the service of one aim, the honour of his country. along this path he was impelled to travel, whether it led to victory or defeat. lugard=—-luther bintrograpny.—f. ludendorff, meine kriegserinnertngen, 1914-8 (191g), trans. as aly war memories, 1914-8 (1919); ww. spickernagel, ludendorff (1919); e. ludendorff, aviegftihrung und politik (1922); h. camon, ludendorff sur le front russe, 1914-5 (1925). (w. f.) lugard, sir frederick john dealtry (1858- ), british administrator (see 17.115), was, on the completion of his term of office as governor of ilongkong, appointed in march 1912 governor of both northern and southern nigeria, with instructions to amalgamate the two administrations. the amal- gamation became effective on jan. 1 1914, sir frederick being given the personal title of governor-general. he guided the affairs of nigeria throughout the world war, retiring in 1910, and was made a privy councillor in 1920. in 1922 he published the dual mundate, a book dealing with the duties of european powers in tropical africa. in nov. of that year he became a member of the permanent mandates commission of the league of nations (see mandates, nigeria). lukeman, henry augustus (1871- ), american sculptor, was born at richmond, va., jan. 28 1871. he studied at the national academy of design, n.y. city, and was a pupil of launt thompson and daniel chester french, perfecting his knowledge of anatomy by his year’s study at bellevue hospital. in 1894 he spent a year in paris studying under falquiere at the ecole des beaux-arts, and on his return to the united states settled in new york city. his work includes portraits, busts, statues, memorials and bas-reliefs, among the best known being “ mann, the law giver of india” for the appellate court building, new york city; the statue of president mckinley at adams, mass.; ‘‘ genoa,” the figure of columbus on the u.s. customs house, new york city (1905); the soldiers’ monu- ment at somerville, mass. (1908); the group ‘‘ women of the confederacy,” at raleigh, n.c. (1912); the soldiers’ memorial, red hook park, brooklyn, n.y. (1920); the equestrian statue of ‘francis asbury,’ washington, d.c. (1921). he was ap- pointed in 1925 to succeed gutzon borglum as sculptor in charge of the stone mountain memorial near atlanta, georgia. (see atlanta.) lunacharsky, anatoly vasilievich (1873- ), russian politician, author and dramatist, was born in the prov- ince of kiev of well-to-do parents. he joined the revolutionary movement when still at college in kiev, and afterwards studied natural science and economics at the university of zurich. he began his revolutionary activities in russia in 1895 and was de- ported to vologda in 1897, where he remained for three years, achieving a reputation as a brilliant writer and lecturer on so- cialism. in 1993 lunacharsky joined the bolshevik or ‘ majori- ty’ wing of the social-democratic party. he met lenin in the following year, and also joined the editorial staff of the bolshevik paper v pered (forward). while doing literary work of a general nature he was chieily concerned with social democratic propa- ganda and with lectures and political meetings for russian stu- dents and political refugees abroad. during the revolution of 1995 lunacharsky was imprisoned for his political activities, and when the subsequent political reaction set in he left russia and went to live in italy. together with gorky and bogdanov, a well-known social democrat, he formed the so-called “left-wing ”’ of bolshevism (opposed to lenin on certain theoretical points), and was one of the promoters of the social democratic party schools at capri and bologna. from the outbreak of the world war lunacharsky maintained a determined internationalist attitude and disseminated violent anti-war propaganda in paris and switzerland, renewing closer contact with the lenin group after a temporary estrangement. at the same time he made a careful study of educational prob- lems in switzerland, and this was to prove extremely useful to him later in his career. the revolution of march 1917 brought him back to russia, and he immediately joined lenin and trot- sky in their revolutionary opposition to the provisional govern- ment. he was arrested after the bolshevik rising in july; but was subsequently liberated and elected vice-president of the petrograd municipal board. in the initial stages of the oct. revolution and during the civil war, lunacharsky proved him- 745 self one of the ablest political speakers of the new soviet state, and was an energetic and successful emissary of the military revolutionary council to the various war fronts. as people’s commissar for public instruction in the new soviet govt., lunacharsky rendered inestimable services by ensuring the pres- ervation of works of culture and art during the civil war. he devoted himself to the promotion of mass instruction, and of culture and art in soviet russia, while his especial concern for the welfare of the theatre did much to further the development of the russian stage. a man of exceptional culture, steeped in philosophical and scientific studies, lunacharsky also won his spurs in the field of literature. he wrote 14 plays (published in 2 vol.), of which several were produced with conspicuous success in russia and in berlin. ‘‘ vasilisa the wise, ” ‘‘ faust and the city” and ‘ the magi” were translated into english by leonard magnus and published under the title of three plays (1923). he also wrote books on politics, economics, philosophy, literature and art. lunacy: sce insanity. lund, troels frederik (1840-10921), danish historian (see 17.123), published in 1t90q9 nye tanker i det xvi. aar- hundreds. in 1911-2 appeared his historical tales, tider og tunker. he died in 1921. see knud fabricius, 7roe/s lund (1921). lung: see iieart and lung surgery. lupu, nicholas (1876- jy, rumanian politician, was born at arsura (rumania) on nov. 8 1876. he started his career as a country doctor and entered politics in 1905. he played an important part during the peasant revolt in 1907 when, as prefect of the falciu district, he succeeded in pacifying the peasants without having recourse to violent measures. in 1913 he was elected deputy and in 1919 he entered the vaida- voevod coalition cabinet as minister of the interior, represent- ing, together with mihalache, the peasant (tsaranist) party, of which dr. lupu became one of the principal leaders. during the worlkt war, dr. lupu visited russia, france, i:ngland, italy and the united states and carried on an active propaganda campaign on behalf of rumania. luschan, felix von (1854-1924), austrian anthropologist and cthnographer, was born on aug. rr 1854 in vienna. he studied medicine in vienna, anthropology in paris, became demonstrator in physiology at the university at vienna, and in 1878 organised the austro-hungarian section for anthropology and ethnology at the world exhibition in paris. whilst a military doctor in bosnia, he studied anthropology and archae- ology, and in 1880 travelled in dalmatia, montenegro and albania. during the following 1o years he was often in asia minor and egypt, and in 1883 excavated the ruins of sendschirli in northern syria on behalf of the berlin oriental committee. after a brief period as lecturer in anthropology in vienna, he became directorial assistant at the ethnological museum in berlin, of which he was director from 1goq4 until his death, on feb. 7 1924. his works include: beitrdge zur welkerkunde der deutschen schuisgebiete (1897); die ausgrabungen von sendschirlt, 2 pts. (1893, 1898); bettriige zur ethnographic von neu-guinea (1899); beitrage zur anthropologie von kreta; rassen und vdelker (1908); velker, rassen und sprachen (1922); anthropological view of race; papers on inter-racial problems communicated to the first universal race congress (london, 1911); “ the early inhabitants of western asia,” jour. roy. anth. inst. of great britain and ireland (1911). luther, hans (1879- ), german statesman, was born in berlin march 10 1879, and studied law in berlin, kiel and geneva. after ending his studies he entered the local adminis- tration service. at first he was stationed:in charlottenburg, and from 1907-13, in the magistrat in magdeburg under the former minister of finance, lenze. in 1913 he was elected secretary to the german and prussian “‘stadtetag,” and thus was able during the world war to prove his high administrative abilities. on july § ro18 he was elected burgomaster of essen in the ruhr district. in this responsible position he gained the reputation of being one of the best local administrative officials in the west of 746 germany. on dec. 2 1922 he entered the cuno cabinet, and became minister of food and agriculture. he retained his post in essen and, when the french marched into the ruhr in jan. 1923, he returned to essen immediately. the episode is well- known of how the general commanding the troops marching into essen wished to speak with the burgomaster at the door of the rathaus (town hall). dr. luther sent a message that he was only to be seen in his office. the order was repeated twice, but at last the general was obliged to give way. this manly attitude of dr. luther earned him high esteem in the turbulent, warlike atmosphere in the ruhr at that time. after cuno ceased to be chancellor, luther retained his office in the stresemann cabinet. in stresemann’s second cabinet, he became minister of finance. as finance minister of the reich, he was able to perform most signal services in stabilising the german currency (which had fallen into an abyss) and in re- storing balance to the budget of the reich. dr. luther kept his office in the marx ministry which followed, and had a share in the preparations for the conference of london and the conclu- sion of the dawes agreement. in the autumn of 10924 he con- cluded the dawes loan for germany. he has himself given an account of his work in restoring the finances of germany (see feste mark— solide wirtschaft, 1924). after the elections in dec. 1924, marx, 1n spite of many endeavours, was not able to form a new cabinet, and luther took over the task in the middle of jan. 1925. a cabinet was formed under him, which was the first since the revolution of r918 to include members of the ger- man national party. luther carried through a great taxation reform, completed the revaluation legislation and made a pro- visional customs tariff which made it possible to commence negotiations for commercial agreements with some prospect of success for german economic life. this economic legislation was accompanied by the locarno policy initiated by stresemann with the essential agreement of luther, who, as chancellor, was responsible for the conduct of policy as a whole. at the conference of locarno, the german delegation which initialled the clauses of the treaty, was led by luther as chancel- lor. after his return from locarno, the german national party left the government. in spite of this, the cabinet found a ma- jority for the policy of locarno, and on dec. 1 1925 signed the rhine pact and the arbitration treaties in london, after which it resigned. after tedious government crises, luther again re- ceived the mandate to form a cabinet. as the social democrats forsook the chancellor, there was nothing left but to form a cabi- net out of the moderate bourgeois parties. dr. luther was not a party politician, and often proclaimed his freedom from the par- ties in a pronounced fashion. while in charge of the affairs of the reich he distinguished himself by extraordinary energy and sober clarity of political judgment, and the german people in- dubitably made important progress towards reconstruction un- der his leadership. on may 13 he resigned his office as chancellor. (see germany.) (f. kre.)