{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1926:logic:f9236e94c0d8",
    "title": "LOGIC",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "0655299757340e286f811f7a1c2e2938420a0ce0e0b1c6d5822fe2291c5e6bce",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "the most important contributions to logic during the pre-war vears, 1911-4, are to be found in two works of h. driesch, ordnungslehre (1912) and die logik als auf- gabe (r913), in the encyclopaedia of philosophical sciences, vol. 1, logic (1913), and in the new, enlarged edition of b. bosan- quet’s logic, or the morphology of knowledge, 2nd ed. (1911). j. m. baldwin’s genetic logic, vol. 3 (1911) only carried a stage further the work which was inaugurated five years earlier; miss e. e. c. jones’ new law of thought (1910, etc.) was of limited interest; p. coffey’s science of logic (1912) was intended as a textbook for catholic students; c. a. mercier’s new logic (1912) loeb, jacques—logic and f. c. s. schiller’s formal logic (1912) display more con- tempt than understanding for traditional logic. like other human pursuits logic suffered during the world war. the years 1915-8 are almost a blank in the history of logic—j. dewey’s essays in experimental logic (1916) being mainly a collection of older essays, and a. e. davies’ textbook of logic (1915) being only a textbook. writers and trerr views driesch.—according to driesch, logic is the theory of order. the theory of order results from self-reflection. its most com- prehensive principle is that of the economy of assertions. this principle is not merely a matter of convenience, but expresses the essential nature of thought. in this respect driesch differs from avenarius and mach. according to driesch the funda- mental truth of philosophy is “i think something.’”? now what- ever is thought is thought to be orderly; and the task of logic is to ascertain what makes experience orderly. thought is always directed to problems, which it endeavours to solve by placing them in some orderly system, it is with the help of thought that life achieves progressive orderliness. rowce.—of the six essays on logic contained in the first vol- ume of the encyclopacdia of the philosaphical sciences the most important is that by j. royce, who, like driesch, tries to treat logic as a science of order. in his account of induction, he denies that inductive reasoning is guided by the principle of the uni- formity of nature, or by the principle of sufficient reason. neither helps the investigator to decide whether, or to what extent, he may generalise in a given case. according to rovce the validity of induction rests on the assumption of some order in the objects investigated, and the reliability of a “fair sample ” as a means of judging a whole range of facts. a fair sample is ore chosen without bias. of such samples, he maintains, there are always more that more or less resemble the whole than such as differ widely from it; so that judging a whole range of facts by means of a random sample is more often approximately right than wholly wrong. the chief advantage of mathematical sciences is that the mathematical results deducible from hypotheses needing verification present a vast range of samples, and the precision of mathematical concepts renders it easy to decide whether an observed sample agrees with the anticipated result. bosanguet—the new edition of bosanauet’s logic contains considerable additions. book ii., chapter 8, deals with the criti- cism that his theory of judgment commits him from the start to metaphysical absolutism. if every judgment qualifies reality by an abstract universal, and no combination of such universals can confer particular individuality, there can be but one ultimate individual to which all predicates belong.. this is absolutism. bosanquet retorts that no finite individual is self-dependent or self-contained, that is, a real substance. even the self finds its reality in something beyond itself. but an individual not sclf- complete can be predicated of the whole of which it is a part. chapter 9 discusses criticisms of the coherence theory of truth. bosanquet maintains that truth is its own criterion—it can only be tested by more of itself. any system can be tested fur- ther only by being made more complete. the view that truth is only an adaptation to vital necds, is claimed by bosanquet to be the same view in principle. but while approving the attempt to claim for logic the realm of life and practice, and to apply the general idea of natural selection to the development of thought, bosanquet protests against the narrow conception of practice which limits it to external action. intimately connected with the coherence theory of truth is his subsequent book on implication and lincar inference (1920). according to this all inference is of the same type, namely, im- plication. the essence of implication is interrelation between the parts of a system (or concrete universal), which makes mod- ification in some parts clues to the modification of others. syl- logistic inference is linear, not systematic, and therefore not true inference. in true inference we survey a system of facts, see it in its relation to the whole of reality, and read off the implica- tions. the inference is immediate if we can read oif the implica- logic tions directly; it is mediate if we must construct this system first. the starting-point of all inference is the realisation that to deny the truth of a// propositions would involve self-contra- diction, denying this very denial. we must consequently believe some propositions, even if we question the truth of this or that proposition. in true inference we transfer our certainty that some propositions are true to the truth of the proposition in- ferred. in the last resort, all inferences may be reduced to the alternatives: ‘‘ either this proposition is true, or no proposition is.’ within the system from which we start we read off con- clusions the denial of which would shatter the whole world of our experience. bradley.—the philosophical absolutism of bosanquet is also emphasised in f. h. bradley’s essays on truth and reality (1914) and in the new edition of his principles of logic (pub- lished in 1922 with numerous additions). bradley repudiates his previous assumption of ideas divorced from judgments, and of judgments divorced from inference. the concrete conceptual fact is inference, of which mere ideas and simple judgments are bare abstractions. inference is the ideal self-development of a given object taken as real. the given object is an ideal content before us, and it is taken to be real as being in one with reality, or the real universe. the possibility of inference rests upon the fact that the object is not only itself, but is also contained as an element in a whole; in fact, it ¢s itself only as being so contained. from the nature of the case inference must always be incomplete, and subject to unknown conditions. but this ultimate problem does not concern logic. other writers —among new editions of older books on logic mention may also be made of h. w. b. joseph’s iafroduction to logic, 2nd ed. (1916), w. wundt’s logik (3 vol., 4th edition, tgtg-21), l. t. hobhouse’s theory of knowledge (1921) and a. heiler’s logik (1922). wundt’s logik has not undergone any radical changes, and retains its important place. hobhouse reasserts his fundamental principles that the systematic inter- connection of judgments is the true line of advance in the inter- pretation of reality, and that the categorical judgment asserts a reality independent of itself. hftler’s logik is practically a new book. while excluding epistemology it includes a good deal of psychology and philosophy. more particularly it shows the infuence of a. mcinong’s gegenstandsichre, which distinguishes “ existence’ from ‘ being,” of which it is only one species. whatever is false has being, but not the being of what is true. on the whole, heiler defends traditional logic, holding that the syllogism, for instance, formulates a kind of reasoning actually used in practical life, even if there are also other forms of reason- ing. one of the novelties of the book is the classification of judgments into four classes according to their evidence, namely, (1) those immediately evident and certain, (2) those mediately evident and certain, (3) those immediately evident and probable, and (4) those mediately evident and probable. the book also contains a number of essays on logistics by e. mally. johnson —the most ambitious new work on logic during the period 1911-25 is that of w. e. johnson. his logic is planned in four parts and is intended to cover the whole field. (part i. appeared in 1921, part ii. in 1922 and part iii. in 1924; part iv. has not appeared yet.) logic is conceived to be concerned with the analysis and criticism of thought, and it is considered impossible to draw a rigid distinction between logic and philos- ophy, or between logic and science. in thought he distinguishes two aspects, an epistemic and a constitutive aspect. the con- stitutive aspect consists of the content of knowledge (which has itself a logically analysable form); the epistemic aspect is that which depends on the variable conditions and capacities for the acquisition of knowledge. the unit of logic is the proposition (or that of which truth and falsity can be significantly predi- cated). in contrast with the rather common class-interpretation of propositions, johnson lays stress on the intensive aspect. . implication ” is potential inference, and assumes different relations in different cases. there are two principles of deduc- tive inference:—(1) the applicative principle states that a prop- osition of the form ail s is p warrants the inference of a prop- 129 osition of the form the given sis p. (2) the implicative principle states that a compound proposition of the form ‘x’ and ‘x implies y’ warrants the inference of a proposition of the form ‘y’. the syllogism involves both principles. the following argument may illustrate each of the two principles and their combination in the syllogism. all quadrilaterals have their opposite sides equal, if they are parallel (every mp is p if my). .. the quadrilateral abcd has its oppo- site sides equal, if they are parallel (the given mp is pif m). the quadrilateral abcd has its opposite sides paralled (the given mp is #). . the quadrilateral abcd has its oppo- site sides equal (the given mp is 9). (1) applicative principle (2) implicative principle johnson distinguishes between the constitutive and the epis- temic conditions of valid inference. the constitutive condition is that the premises must be er#e and must imply the conclusion. the epistemic condition is that the thinker must be in a position to know that the premises are true, and that they imply the con- clusion, without having to know beforehand that the conclusion is true. but now, the two principles of deductive inference re- quire universal premises. how are these obtained? johnson says, by tvduction. but he uses the term induction in an unu- sually wide sense, namcly:—for any process of starting from certain instantial premises and reaching a generalisation. he formulates four types of induction, namely:— (1) tututtive, (2) summary, (3) demonstrative and (4) probable. of these the last corresponds to ordinary empirical induction; and samamary in- duction corresponds to so-called perfect induction. by tituitive induction johnson means the process by which we obtain the fundamental principles of inference and the axioms of pure logic, mathematics, etc. it is not suggested that these are merely empirical generalisations, but that they are obtained by reficc- tion on particular instances of them. this may happen in two wavs:— (1) the counter-applicative way, when we can see that what is true of this instance is true of any other instance, and (2) the counter-implicative way, when, having made a particular inference which is valid, we can see that its validity is due to a certain type of formal relation which holds between the premises and the conclusion. these modes of procedure cannot be safcly applied without special insight into the subject-matter of the investigation. under demonstrative induction are included certain types of hypothetical svllogism in which the instantial premise leads to a universal conclusion. for example:—~ “ every specimen of argon has some the same atomic weight. this specimen of argon has atomic weight 39:9. therefore, every specimen of argon has atomic weight 39-9.’’ under the same head johnson also includes the familiar canons of induction as reformulated by himself in four figures of agreement, difference, composition and resolution. of prodblenzatic induction there are two varieties. there is pure generalisation, that “ all things which are #7 are p,”’ if all the observed things which were m were also p; and there is cluss-fractional induction (usually called statistical generalisa- tion), that “a certain proportion of things which are m are also ’.” that proportion having been noted in the observed cases. from all these forms of induction johnson distinguishes under the name of eduction, the argument from “ certain instances of s which are m are p ” to “ the next s that is 27 will also be p.” the discussion of various psychological and metaphysical prob- lems is a striking feature of johnson’s logic. the only other contemporary attempt at a comprehensive logic is t h. ziehen’s lehrbuch der logtk auf posiltvistischer grundlage, etc. (1920). this treatise contains not only much that is psychologica al and metaphysical but also a history of logic, which is perhaps the most useful part of it. on the whole, logic has not yet reached the stage of having clearly defined boundaries, and is apt to trespass on the domains of mathematics and psychology, of epistemology and ontology, 739 according to the taste of the writer. its state is like that of israel under the judges, every man doeth that which is right in his own eyes. there are signs, however, that the necessary differentiation may come about in another way. there is a marked tendency towards a greater division of labour, as may be seen from the number of treatises devoted entirely to special groups of logical problems, such as those of formal-symbolic inference (or logistic), the methodology of the sciences, the theory of knowledge (or epistemology) at the basis of science, etc. bibliography of books not already mentioned :— formal-symbolic.---l. conturat, algebra of logie (1914); c. i. lewis, a survey of symbolic logic (1918); l. wittgenstein, tractatus logico-philosophicus (1922); b. russell and a. n. whitehead, principia mathematica (1925). methodological.—j. m. keynes, treatise on probability (1921); a.d, ritchie, scientific method (1923); j. nicod, le probleme logique de l' induction (1924); a. wolf, essentials of scientific method (1925). epistemological.—b. russell, problems of philosophy (1912), and our knowledge of the external world (1914); e. becher, natur- philosophie (1914); d. c. macintosh, the problem of knowledge (1916); e. mach, erkenninis und irrtum (1917); 11. dingler, die grundlagen der physik (1919); a. n. whitehead, an enquiry concerning the principles of natural knowledge (1919-25), and concept of nature (1920); e. meyerson, de l’explication dans les sciences (1921); e. becher, geisteswissenschaften und naturwissen- schaften (1921); b. bavink, ergebnisse und probleme der naturwissen- schafien (1921); c. d. broad, scientific thought (1923); t. l. von haering, philosophie der naturwissenschaft (1923); c. d. broad, the mind and its place in nature (1925); fe. a. burtt, metaphysical foundations of modern physical science (1925); w. p. montague, the ways of knowing (1925). (a, wo.) logue, michael (1840-1924), irish ecclesiastic, was born at kilmacrenan, co. donegal, oct. 1 1840. he was appointed professor of theology and belles-lettres at the irish college in paris, where he was ordained a priest in 1866. he became bishop of raphoe in 1879, archbishop of armagh in 1887, and in 1893 was raised to the cardinalate. during the world war he de- precated participation by the clergy in sinn fein agitations, but in 1918 opposed conscription on moral grounds. in 1919 and 1921 he rigorously denounced the campaign of murder against the police and the military, at the same time criticising severely the policy and methods of the british government. he died at armagh nov. i9 1924. london, jack (1876-1916), american novelist, was born at san francisco jan 12 1876, and educated at the university of california. a born adventurer, he went to sea at the age of 17 and served before the mast. he went with the first rush to klondike in 1897 and tramped across the states and canada, being in gaol more than once as a vagabond. in 1904 he went to japan as war correspondent, and in 1914 to mexico in the same capacity. in 1906 he started on a voyage round the world in a 50-ft. ketch-rigged yacht and disappeared for two years. his novels, for the most part published first in london, reflect his wild, adventurous life, the best known being te son of the wolf (1900); the call of the wild (1903); moon face (1906); martin eden (1909); south sea tales (1912); and his last, the little lady of the big house (1916). he died at glen ellen, cal., nov. 22 1916. see the book of jack london (1921), by his wife, charmian london. london (sce 16.938).—greater london had, in 1926, a popu- lation of about 7,500,000 persons, but nothing has occurred in the years since 1910 to alter materially the story of its site, although under the heading of climate some diminution in the density of its fogs may be noted. divisions, buildings and communications the characteristic divisions so well marked in the past have been gradually broken down since the close of the war, and for various reasons many large private houses have been converted into flats, maisonettes, boarding-houses, and, nearer the centre, business premises. the residential turnover is most marked in regions north and south of hyde park, while in boroughs such as hackney or stepney or those lining the south bank of the river the tendency is towards the intrusion of business. in the suburbs, after the complete cessation of house building, growth has been resumed, and has been fostered by the electrification logue—london of railways or the extension of railways previously electrified and the development of motor transport. an interesting feature before the war was the establishment of the hampstead garden suburb in the north of london, in which the houses were limited to eight per acre. a very important factor in the development of greater london was the passing of the unemployment (re- lief works) act of 1920, designed to benefit ex-service men, which permitted land required for new roads to be entered upon within seven days. under this act it was possible to provide in the outer area many of the urgently required main and relief roads before access to the centre was hopelessly blocked by the multiplication of housing schemes. the period since 1910 included also someveryimportant changes in the aspect of the streets in the central area, the greatest perhaps being the passing of nash’s regent street and quadrant. all idea of a unified scheme for rebuilding was abandoned except for the quadrant itself, where an adaptation of the plan of shaw’s piccadilly hotel was followed. the widening of the strand advanced considerably, and the kingsway and aldwych improvement initiated in 1899 was brought appreciably nearer con- clusion, other improvements completed included the woolwich tunnel in ror2 and the opening from trafalgar square into the mall by way of the admiralty arch. cross-river communica- tions were improved by the reconstruction of southwark bridge, while the money for a new road bridge at lambeth was voted by the london county council. a movement that threatened completely to alter the appearance of the western districts was inaugurated by the sale of the garden ground in mornington crescent and endsleigh gardens, a new building on a portion of the latter open space being finished in 1926. parks.—parks and open spaces continued to be added to the amenities of the city and the outer areas, the most important including the clearance and opening to the public of a portion of the river front at shadwell and the preservation of prince’s square, stepney, in the built-up area. in the outer areas progress was made in the preservation for the public enjoyment of the wooded bastion of shooters hill to the south-east, and an im- portant addition to hampstead heath and parliament hill fields on the north was secured by the purchase of a considerable portion of lord mansfield’s estate known as kenwood. monuments —the historical monuments of the past were not greatly interfered with during the period, although con- siderable perturbation was caused by the publication of a report containing suggestions for reorganising the work of the church of england in the city of london that indicated the possible sale of 19 churches, including many designed by wren. later still signs of weakness appeared in the foundations of waterloo bridge which led to a unanimous resolution of the london county council to remove the entire structure, action being only delayed on the urgent representations of a number of lead- ing professional and learned societies. the report of the experts on the steps necessary for preserving the dome of st. paul’s cathedral jed to the closing to the public in 1925 of the whole space beneath the dome and the choir. important works of preservation were also undertaken for the roofs of westminster hall and the great hall at hampton court palace. new buildings —the modern architecture of the metropolis was enriched by the addition of a number of striking buildings, including (to mention only a few) the new london county hall at the east end of westminster bridge, the port of london authority home in trinity square, britannic house and adelaide house in the city, bush house at the end of kingsway, australia house in aldwych, the wesleyan central hajl and the mid- dlesex guildhall in westminster, the royal automobile club in pall mall, the new north frontage of the british museum and the headquarters of the british medical association in bloomsbury. a considerable impetus was given to the produc- tion of fine street architecture by the institution of a medal by the royal institute of british architects for the best street facade completed each year. the first to win the award was the new wolseley building in piccadilly, and the next the shepherds bush pavilion. the general tendency towards change was most london marked in the city area, where the spires and towers of wren that had so long dominated the view were slowly but surely engulfed in the rising tide of commercial architecture, the most notable instance being the almost total eclipse of the view of st. magnus spire and the monument from london bridge by the erection of adelaide house. in the west end another marked transformation was the erec- tion of a huge block of millionaire flats and shops on the site of devonshire house, piccadilly. the monuments and memorials in the metropolis were added to in a marked degree, though not always as the result of the world war, for the period included the completion of the queen victoria memorial before bucking- ham palace and the king edward vii. memorial in waterloo place. amongst the many war memorials should be mentioned the cenotaph in whitehall, the grave of the unknown warrior in westminster abbey, the memorial to london’s soldiers in front of the royal exchange, belgium’s gratitude and the air force monument on the embankment, and the artillery and machine gunners’ memorials at hyde park corner. work on the guards’ memorial on the horse guards parade was started in 1925. interesting additions to the nomenclature of london were made in various districts, particularly the revival of the name aldwych for the crescent section of the holborn to strand improvement, and that of petty france to the roadway in west- minster passing under the shadow of queen anne’s mansions. communications communications, as far as the trunk lines serving the metropolis were concerned, received no additions, but a vast change was almost imperceptibly carried out by the grouping of the great companies. the introduction of electri- cal working on many suburban lines was another feature of this period. although no entirely new tube was opened, the reconstruction of the old city and south london line was taken in hand and completed, with its junction with the hamp- stead tube at camden town, and work was started on an ex- tension of theline to morden. the golders green terminus was connected with edgware, and a new tunnel beneath the thames from charing cross to waterloo and kensington was also start- ed. a tube was specially constructed by the post office for connecting up the various sorting offices, and private proposals for an even more comprehensive system for goods traffic con- necting the various termini were laid before the ministry of transport. horse traction vanished finally from the tramway systems, now operated almost entirely by the london and mid- dlesex county councils, and the l.c.c. lines were extended a little nearer the city by being carried over the new southwark bridge, but no lines were actually permitted through the city or west end, although proposals for this were discussed. the principal change in traffic was, however, the enormous in- crease in the number of motor omnibuses plying in the streets, brought about by the appearance of numerous independent companies, popularly termed “‘ pirates,’’ while the london gen- eral omnibus co. ran more frequent services and operated many fresh routes, including some running right out into the surrounding country during the summer months; and many new and improved types of omnibuses were placed on the streets, including a few with covered tops. the chaotic conditions intro- duced by this great increase in the number of vehicles, and by the appearance of independent omnibus companies, combined at times with the operation of a great number of road repairs, some no doubt delayed by the war, finally led to a great step forward in the control of traffic, which took the form of the appointment of a london traffic advisory committee, whose duties were to advise the ministry of transport on matters relating to london traffic. an important addition to the continental facilities of london was the opening of daily air services to paris, brussels and amsterdam, connecting with other services to all parts of europe and also to africa. population, education and amenities the population of greater london in rorr was 7,251,358, and in 1921 7,480,201; while that of the administrative county was 731 4,521,685 in rorr, and 4,484,523 in 1921. that of the outer ring was 2,729,673 in rgr1 and 2,995,678 in 1921, while that of the city was 19, a7 in 1911 and 13,709 in 1921. greater london increased by 10:2°% between rgor and ror1, and by 3-2% be- tween 1o11r and 1921, while the county of london had decreased by 03% ando-8°%. the statistics for the metropolitan boroughs are as follows:— area da paiat increase ic opulation (+) or statute decrease ac. iqi! 1921 —_ battersea 2,163 167,743 | 167,693 | — 50 bermondsey . 1,503 125,903 | 119,455 | — 6,448 rethnal green 760 128,183 | 117,238 | —10,945 camberwell . 4,480 | 261,328 | 267,235 | + 5,907 chelsea . 660 66,385 | 63,700 | — 2,685 deptford 1,564 | 109,496 | 112,500 | + 3,004 finsbury : 587 87,923 | 76,019 | —ii,904 fulham . ; ‘ ; 1,706 153,284 | 157,944 | + 4,660 greenwich . . | 3,859 | 95,968 | 100,493 | + 4,525 ilackney : . : 3,287 | 222,533 | 222,159 | — 374 hlammersmith 2,287 | 121,521 | 130,287 | + 8,766 hampstead 2,265 85,495 | 86,080 | + 585 holborn 405 49,357 | 42,796 | — 6,561 islington 3,092 | 327,403 | 330,028°| + 2,625 kensington 2,290 172,317 | 175,686 | + 3,369 lambcth 4,083 | 298,058 | 302,960 | + 4,902 lewisham . . | 7,015 | 160,834 | 174,194 | +13,360 paddington . . . | 1,357 | 142,551 | 144,273 | + 1,722 poplar . : 2331 162,442 | 162,618 | + 176 st. marylebone : ; 13473 118,160 | 104,222 | —13,938 st. pancras . ; : 2,694 | 218,387 | 210,986 | — 7,401 shoreditch 658 | 111,390 | 104,308 | — 7,082 southwark i,13! 191,907 | 184,388 | — 7,519 stepney . 1,767 | 279,804 | 249,738 | —30,066 stoke newington . 863 50,659 | 52,167 | + 1,508 wandsworth . 9,107 | 311,360 | 328,656 | +17,296 westminster, city of . 2,503 | 160,261 | 141,317 | —18,944 woolwich . 282 121,376 | 140,403 | -+19,027 city of london (c ounty corporate) 678 19,657 | 13,706 health and hospitals —the birth-rate for the administrative county was 20°9 in 1922 and 20-1 in 1923 per 1,000 population. in greater london the figures for the same years were 20:2 and 19:5. the death-rate for the same periods in the administrative county was 13-5 and 11-4 per 1,000 population, and for greater london 12-5 and 10-7. in the hospital world great campaigns were instituted to place the leading institutions on a firm finan- cial basis, and considerable alterations and improvements were carried out at westminster and st. george’s amongst others, while the removal of king’s college hospital to denmark hill was completed. during 1925 it was decided to rebuild the middlesex hospital. the growing share of women in the hospital work of london was illustrated by the existence of several hos- pitals entirely managed by them. the activity of the london county council was notable in the direction of the improved treatment of tuberculosis and other virulent diseases, and in the campaign against infant mortality. water, lighting and heating. —the water supply of london was largely increased by the completion in june 1925 of the huge reservoir at littleton with a capacity of 6,750 million gallons and a water surface of 723 acres. the estimated income of the water board for 1925-6 from all sources was £4,695,000, and the estimated expenditure £4,809,120, but as a balance was brought forward no precept on the participating authorities was needed. the policy of the board, adopted in 1916, to save coal by chlorinating raw thames water, some 70,000,000 te 100,000,000 gal. per day, was entirely successful both financially and from the point of view of the public safety. the treated water is allowed to flow by gravity down the staines aqueduct instead of being pumped into the reservoir. figures give but little idea of the size of the board’s undertaking to the average person, but it may be stated briefly that in the average daily con- sumption of water (about 36 gal. per head), london would empty 24 times daily a tank as large as trafalgar square (two and a half acres) and as high as the nelson column. an important step in the lighting (and heating) of london 732 was the appointment under the electricity (supply) act 1910 of electricity commissioners to supervise the supply of electricity under the ministry of transport. the electricity district as determined extends well beyond the area known as greater london, covering 1,858 sq. m.; the current in this area being distributed by 44 local authorities and 44 private companies. that there is plenty of room for both electricity and gas in sup- plying the metropolis with light and heat is evident from the fact that one of the largest of the gas companies in 1925 reported an increase of 24° in its sales during the preceding ro years. by the end of 1922-3 the cost of the fire brigade had risen to nearly {800,000 (including pensions), and the number of calls attended, other than chimney calls, during the same period was 3,845. the curve of value of insured property in london showed a marked increase in the preceding 1o years, the total reaching over £2,000 million. education.—the general trend of education in london is natu- rally in accordance with that of the whole country, but it is inter- esting to note that its total cost to london during 1922-3 amounted to over £12,000,000, of which, of course, approxi- mately half was refunded by exchequer grants, so that the actual charge on the rates amounted to a fraction over 31rd. in the fr. the london county council is the statutory authority for the administrative county of london, and the education committce of so includes 12 co-opted members who must be persons of experience in education and of whom five must be women. in 1925 there were 17 women members altogether on the committee. the council had not in 1925 availed themselves of the power lo extend the age for compulsory attendance at school conferred on them by the education act of roar. recreation.—the museums, art galleries, etc., requisitioned for use during the war, gradually resumed their normal functions, and a new feature was introduced in the form of guide lecturers to conduct parties round the various sections, new rooms were added to the tate gallery, and the british museum was greatly enlarged by the wing to the north opened in 1914. the london museum, on the lines of the musee carnavalet in paris, was removed from kensington palace to stafford (now renamed lancaster) house owing to the generosity of lord leverhulme, and a special museum illustrating the development of furniture making was opened in hoxton in ro14 in the centre of the cab- inet-making district of london. several new theatres were opened during the early part of the period under review, including the winter garden in drury lane, the ambassadors and st. martin’s in seven dials and princes in shaftesbury avenue. a movement was started to reconstruct the old sadlers wells theatre and open it on the same lines as the ‘‘ old vic.” after the war few new theatres were built, but on the other hand there was an enormous in- crease in the number and size of cinematograph houses, one of which, namely, that at shepherds bush, as already mentioned, won the medal for the best street frontage for the year offered by the royal institute of british architects. the demand for playing pitches for games of all sorts in public recreation and other open spaces increased exceedingly, and amongst other innovations many hard courts for lawn tennis were laid down by the london county council. professional football was largely supported also, and the construction of the british empire exhibition grounds at wembley saw the removal of the final for the football assn. cup to the stadium. ‘“ sat- urday ” starts in first-class cricket, and increased interest in county cricket generally, led to considerable additions to the accommodation for spectators at both lord's and the oval. the government of the metropolis at the elections to the london county council in 1919 (postponed during the war) 68 municipal reformers, 40 progressives, one independent and 15 labour members were elected. at the ro22 elections the figures were—municipal reformers 82, progressives 25, labour 17; and in march 1925, municipal reformers 83, labour 35, progressives six. in con- tested elections only, the number voting in 1919 was 16-6% and london, conferences of 36-8% in 1922. for the metropolitan borough councils the figures were—27'9°> in ro1g and 36:4% in 1922. for the guardians’ elections the results were much lower, being only 7-7°9 in 1919 and 22-8°% in 1922. in dec. 1924 there were no contested elec- tions for the court of common council of the city of london. the boundaries of all the london parliamentary boroughs were re-arranged by the act of 1918, except those of the city of london, the total number of constituencies being 61, each ret urn- ing one member and the city two. finance-—the financial government of london was not modified to any important extent during the 15 years, although some temporary measures had to be adopted during the war. a td. rate over the administrative area was estimated to pro- duce £207,553 for 1924-5 on the statutory assessable value of the county which was computed as £49,813,0o01 on april 6 1924. the average rate for the area was rather over r1s., the highest figure being 23s. in poplar and the lowest os. od. in the city of westminster. the total net debt of london on march 31 1923 was given as £122,988,798, and the total charge for interest and repayment was £7,192,473. one of the principal financial obli- gations left by the war was the provision of working-class dwell- ings, and the net debt on these throughout the county area in the year 1922-3 stood at £20,160,004, with a charge of {1,174,788. the total net debt of london has increased by about £18,000,000 since the year 1018. : the history of london during the period under review has really been the story of the interruption of its natural growth in population, extent, wealth and progress and its gradual resump- tion. in 1015 the city suffered from the first hostile attacks launched against it for nine centuries, and it was remarkable that in spite of persistent attempts from the air the total mate- rial damage throughout the whole area amounted to less than one-fifth of that sustained in the great fire of 1666, while hardly a building of historical value was injured. 3 ; brp_tography.—the best general reference is the subject index published by the british museum library every five years. the guildhall library has prepared a special catalogue of london books subclivided into an infinite number of subjects. for general informa- tion also sce london statistics, published by the london county council, and the slecounis of the corporation of london, as also the annual reports of the l.c.c. and the metropolitan boroughs. other books relating to london published during the 15 years include: ilistory, the survey of london, published jointly by the london county council and the london survey committee, and the publica- tions of the loudon topographical and other kindred societics. sce also walter h. godfrey, a fzistory of architecture in london (i911); g. r. s. taylor, 7itstorical guide to london (1911); w. r. lethaby, hestininster abbey (1911); r. nevill, london clubs (1911); sir g. l. gomme, the making of london (1912); h. 1). irvine, a history of london (1912); ef. beresford chancellor, annals of the strand (1912); w. f. taylor, the charterhouse of london (1912); thomas j. barratt, annals of tampstead (1912); a. st. john adcock, the booklover’s london (1913); wilfred whitten, 1 londoner's london (1913); a. w. clapham, some famous buildings and their story (1913); p. a. harriss, london and its government (1913); hilaire belloc, the river of london (1913); reginald blunt, jn cheyne walk and thereabouts (1914); e. v. lucas, london re- visited (1916); margaret e. tabor, the city churches (1917); sir g. j. younghusband, the tower from within (1918); claude mullins, leadon’s story (1920); w. g. bell, unknown london (1920); e. a. webb, history of bartholomew the great (1921); the london socicty, london of the future (1921); m. h. cox, london government (1922); ernest law, kensington palace (1923); c. g. ilarper, afore queer things about london (1924); h. f. westlake, story of westminster abbey (1924); l. wagner, london inns and tat- erns (1924); the london county council and what tt does for lon- don (1924); westminster abbey, the royal commission on historical monuments (1925); a. e. davies, story of the london county coun- cil (1925); amongst the best guides are findley muirhead, the blue guide (2nd ed., 1921), alwyn pride, overseas wisrttors’ guide (1922) and lawrence h. dawson, introductions to sk ae . a gs wm 5 as london, conferences of.—five meetings of allied states- men for the purpose of adjusting matters arising out of the peace treaties which concluded the world war were held in london in 1921-2. | | feb, 21-march 14 1921.—the representatives of the principal allied powers here carried on alternately two separate sets of negotiations, one with the representatives of the athens, con- london, port of stantinople and angora govts. on the near eastern question (see turkey), and the other with the german foreign minister, dr. simons. both sets of negotiations were failures. a weck after the conference dispersed the greeks launched a new offen- sive in their war with the turkish nationalists; while, a week before the conference dispersed, sanctions were taken against germany by the allied military occupation of diisseldorf, duisburg and ruhrort, outside the area occupied under the versailles treaty, and by the impounding of german customs receipts and the establishment of a new customs cordon between occupied and unoccupied territory. the cause of these measures was the presentation by dr. simons of an unacceptable counter- proposal to the reparation demands which the allied govern- ments had put forward at the paris conference of the preceding jan. 24-30 (see paris, conference of). germany appealed against the allied sanctions to the league of nations, but the league took no action. april 29-may 5§ 192t. eaiaie article 235 of the versailles treaty, germany was required by april 30 1921 to have made a first instalment of reparation payments in cash and kind to a total value of 20 milliard gold marks (approximately one mil- liard pounds sterling). as this period approached, it became evident to the reparation commission that germany would be in default under this head, and on april 29 the allied statesmen, after a preliminary meeting on the 23rd and 24th at lympne, met again in london to consider what should be done. new sanctions against germany were discussed, and an additional class of the french army was actually mobilised; but mean- while, on april 27, the reparation commission had declared their estimate of germany’s total liability, and the allied statesmen turned their attention from the non-execution of article 235 to the drawing up of a ‘‘ schedule of payments describing the time and manner for securing and discharging the entire obligation of germany for repatation under articles 231, 232 and 233 of the treaty of versailles.”” this document, which seems to have been drawn up by the heads of the allied governments, though issued in the name of the reparation commission, was sent to berlin on may 5, together with an ultimatum. meanwhile the german govt. had fallen; but on may 11, one day before the ultimatum was due to expire, a new ministry accepted the allics’ terms with the sanction of the reichstag. dec. 18-22 1921t.—a meeting between mr. lloyd george and m. briand (accompanied by m. loucheur), in consequence of a declaration by the german govt. that it would be unable to pay the two instalments next due under the schedule imposed by the ultimatum of may § 1921, followed. the prime ministers decided to call a meeting of the supreme council of the allies at cannes, and drafted, for submission to this mecting, a memorandum on the reparation problem in which they proposed to grant germany a partial moratorium in exchange for an increase in the stringency of allied control over german finances. at this meeting the eventual convening of a general european conference on recon- struction was also foreshadowed (see cannes, conference of). aug. 7-14 1922.—a meeting which arose out of the failure of germany to carry out the schedule of reparation payments to which she had pledged herself under duress on may 11 ro2t. the arrangement made between the german govt. and the reparation commission during the cannes conference (q.v.) had only postponed disaster, and since then the finances of germany had gone from bad to worse. at the london conference m. poincare brought forward, as conditions for granting germany a moratorium, proposals for “ productive guarantees ”’ which he had attempted to carry out next year after the franco-belgian military occupation of the ruhr. when these proposals were referred to an inter-allied committee of experts, the french found themselves in a minority of one, the other experts declaring that m. poincare’s proposals would bring in diminishing returns. counter-proposals of a milder kind were put forward by the british delegation, but as these in turn proved unacceptable to m. poincare the conference broke up without reaching a decision (sce reparations). 733 dec. g-it 1922.—-a meeting to consider the conditions for granting a reparations moratorium to germany, on which no agreement had been reached at the london conference of the preceding august. at this meeting m. poincare again pressed his plan for ‘ productive guarantees,’”’ which he expounded in greater detail than four months before. ile made it clear that he would not consent to a moratorium without taking these pledges, which included the military occupation of the ruhr. at the same time he countered the british plan for remitting a portion of germany’s total liability in return for the remission to france of part of her war-debt to great britain, by declaring that even in return for this guid pro quo he would only be willing to cancel “ c ” bonds, which were of merely nominal value. as these french terms were not acceptable to great britain the conference was adjourned. ca. je ts)",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926",
    "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:12",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "0655299757340e286f811f7a1c2e2938420a0ce0e0b1c6d5822fe2291c5e6bce"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}