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    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:liquor control:d8d9b25a17cc",
    "title": "LIQUOR CONTROL",
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    "verified_text": "in this article it is proposed to give the outlines of restrictive legislation in respect to liquor except as regards prohibition in the united states, which is treated under prohibition. see also bootlegging. i. in great britain in 1913 the act was passed granting, iuter alia, local option to scotland. the act provided that one-tenth of the electors of the area concerned could demand a poll to decide on the condi- tions of sale of intoxicating liquor. if 55° of the poll and 35% of the electors voted for no-licence the resolution to that effect would be carried: for a limitation of licences a bare majority of the poll and the votes of 35% of the electors would be sufficient. the third alternative to be put before the electors in each case was a resolution for no change. the local option sections of the act did not come into operation until 1920; the result of a poll thereunder is binding in the area concerned for three years, and no further poll can be tal:en during that time. defence of the realm regulations —the outbreak of the eu- ropean war, in ror4, at once raised the question of the necessity of some form of liquor control alike in the interests of efficiency in the fighting forces and amongst civilians engaged in munition works and other vital industries, and of economy in the provision of essential supplies. the defence of the realm act 1914 au- thorized the creation by orders in council of new authorities to provide for the safety of the realm, and the delegation to such new or to existing authorities of power to issue regulations for the same purpose. under this act regulations were immediately passed em- powering competent naval and military authorities to control the opening of licensed houses in the neighbourhood of defended liquor control harbours, and forbidding the sale or supply of intoxicating liquor to members of it.m. forces on duty or with intent to in- capacitate them for duty. by further regulations in subsequent years the same authorities were to close down or regulate the opening of licensed houses and to prohibit trading within the area under their control, and received further special powers over dockyards. in 1916 a general order was made under the act prohibiting the supply of intoxicating liquor to members ol the fighting forces on duty or in hospital. when the food short- age became acute, the food controller imposed stringent re- strictions on output in 1917-8. liquor control board.—the liquor control board was created in june rors, as the authority empowered under the defence of the realm act (no. 3) 1915 to issue regulations under the ro14 act to control the liquor trade in any district to which such control should be applied by order in council. the board was armed with wide discretionary powers including those of closing down licensed premises and clubs, regulating the hours of open- ing irrespective of the provisions of the licensing laws, prohibi- tion of the sale of specific liquors and of treating, and generally of regulating the supply and sale of intoxicating liquor. the control by the board was first applied to the lowlands of scot- land and the more important shipbuilding and industrial centres in england, but it was subsequently extended until, by the middle of 1918, it had been applied to 29 arcas covering in all three-quarters of england, scotland and wales. in these areas the board reduced the permitted hours of sale of all intoxicating liquors on week-days, which before the war had ranged from 19} hours in london to 11 hours in scotland, toa general maximum of 5} hours for consumption on licensed premises and 4} hours for off-sales, with a further reduction on sundays of halt an hour in each category. in the case of spirits the off-sale was further curtailed to 2} hours 5 days in the weck, and was prohibited alto- gether on saturday and sunday. in certain areas in the north and west of scotland the sale of spirits was, at the instance of the admirai!ty, prohibited absolutely and this prohibition remained in force until igfg9. the board further introduced compulsory dilution of spirits: spirits which before the war were retailed at 25° below proof (or 35-91% pure alcohol) were obliged to be diluted to 30° below proof (or 33-37 % pure aicohol), and were permitted to be sold at 50° below proof (or 23-49°%o pure alcohol). further regulations were made forbidding treating and extending existing provisions against credit sales of intoxicating liquor in licensed houses and clubs, and making illegal the common practice in the trade of giving an excessive measure to customers known as the “ long pull.” previously to the special powers given to the liquor control board, extended powers had been given to the licensing justices by the intoxicating liquor (temporary restriction) act 1914, but in view of the wider powers exercised by the board these are comparatively unimportant. many of the board’s regulations continued in force after the termination of hostilities in 1918, and the board was not finally abolished until the passing of the licensing act of 1921. . licensing act 1921.—that act, which applied to both eng- land and scotland, adopted and made permanent some of the regulations which the board had instituted, notably the prohi- bition of the “ long pull ” and of credit sales in the case of * on ” consumption. the act fixed the permitted hours of sale at 9 hours in london and 8 hours elsewhere, between 9g a.m. and 11 p.u. in london, or 10 p.m. elsewhere, and made them applicable not only to licensed premiscs, but also to registered clubs which before the war had been free from such restrictions. the times of opening of licensed premises within the fixed limits werc le!t to the discretion of the local licensing authorities, and in clubs at the option of the members, the hours so fixed to be included in the rules. the act also encouraged dilution by permitting all spirits to be sold without special notice at 35° below proof, in- stead of the standard of 25° below proof required before the war for all spirits except gin. on the other hand beer of an original gravity not exceeding 1-016° and containing not more than 2% of proof spirit was by the act not to be treated as intoxicating liquor, and no excise duty was required for its sale. sale to young persons.—in 1923 a bill was introduced in the house of commons by a private member, lady astor, and be- came law, prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquor to young 713 persons under 18 for consumption on licensed premises, with a slight modification allowing certain non-spirituous alcoholic drinks to be served with a meal in the case of young persons over 16. | ‘the carlisle expertment—an important experiment of the liquor control board, which has remained as a permanent in- stitution, was the introduction in 1916 of a system of state pur- chase and state supply of intoxicating iquor in certain areas. it was first tried in the carlisle area to combat drunkenness amongst the many thousands of munition workers drafted into the district for the new factories around gretna. in view of the differences in english and scottish licensing law, gretna and carlisle were mace into separate districts for administration, and a third district was subsequently created when the experi- ment was extended to the area of cromarty firth including dingwall and invergordon. the working of the system was in the hands of the board with the assistance of local advisory committees. on the final abolition of the board its functions were taken over by the home office and the scottish office respectively. the system was to purchase all breweries anc licensed premises in the districts for agreed sums by way of compensation. some of the breweries so purchased were closed down, the number in the carlisle district alone being reduced from five to three, with considerable saving in working expenses in all cases, and the number of licences was cut down by nearly one-half. in addition all grocers’ licences were suppressed, and facilities for “ off ’’- sales reduced by about 80°. many of the licensed premises retained were renovated, and where possible considerable struc- tural improvements were made to allow for the provision of cheap and good meals; and disinterested management was com- pleted by the appointment of salaried publicans who received commissions only on the sale of food and non-alcoholic bever- ages, and did not have to consider the interests of sharcholdcrs or of brewers or of competitors. under this system no liquor advertisements are displayed on licensed premises, and no money is spent in advertising intoxicants either in newspapers or on hoardings. further no money made out of the sale of intexi- cants can be subscribed by the department which js responsible for providing drink to any pcelitical organisation or to any anti- temperance propagandist body. ii. measures in other european countries denmark.—a comprehensive licensing law came into force in denmark on jan. 1 1913. the new law had for its object the effective regulation and control by the municipal and communal authorities of all places of entertainment where meals, lodgings, | refreshment, etc., are provided. a distinction in the regulations was made, as in other scandinavian countries, between urban and rural districts. the new law established ‘ off ’’ and ‘on ” licences for the sale of “ strong drinks '’ which included spirits, wines and all beers which. contained 21°, or more alcohol. special licensing boards were con- stituted in each municipality, to whose discretion the allocation of licences was absolutely entrusted. the licences which might be issued by the licensing boards were to be for life or a fixed term of years, and all licensed premises were to be closed for at least five hours be- tween 11 p.m. and 8 a.m. the age limit below which it was forbidden to supply young persons with strong drinks was to be fixed by local police regulation. in no case was the limit to be lower than 16, and only in four towns is it as low. stringent penalties were enacted for violation of the licencing law, including heavy fines, imprisonment and forfeiture of the licence. during the war, the distillation of spirits from home-grown wheat or rye was prohibited, though not from potatoes. an important law which came into operation in 1925 fixes the num- ber of licensed premises in existence on jan. 1 1924 as the maxi- mum. new licences are subject to a form of local option, and the local authorities are empowered to restrict the issue of a new licence to a public utility company on the gothenburg principle. iceland.—from 1912 there has been complete prohibition of the import or manufacture of liquor containing more than 2}% of alcohol with limited exceptions for medical and industrial 714 use. a slight relaxation has, however, since been made, under pressure from spain, to permit the importation of spanish wines. sweden.—an important piece of liquor legislation was the law of 1917 which made the “ bratt system ” universal through- out sweden. this system of liquor control, which came into force throughout sweden on jan. 1 191090, was a striking develop- ment, on the basis of the “ gothenburg system ” of disinterested management through controlling companies, or ‘“ bolags.” the “‘ gothenburg system ”’ had been confined to the control of the retail sale and distribution of the national spirit or “ bran- nin.” the sale of wine, beer and imported spirits had been out- side its monopoly. the effect of the new law was to bring the retail liquor trade— the trade in ordinary beer excepted—under the control of the system companies. all intoxicating liquors of an alcoholic strength greater than 3-6°% were thus affected. the beer manu- factured and sold in sweden is below that strength. the transfer of ‘ off’ spirit licences was abolished: the import of spirits, wines and beers was only permitted through the agency of the “ bolags ’; and the maximum amount of spirits purchasable by each citizen was limited to 4 litres per mensem. a new age limit was fixed, and persons under 21 and sometimes 25 were not allowed the right to purchase distilled liquor. convicted drunkards were also debarred from purchasing intoxicants. the private trader, however, still retained his interest in the whole- sale liquor trade. the organisation of the wholesale trade under the system companies was brought about through an enterprise founded by dr. bratt and his associates in 1917, called ‘‘ spritcentralen,” which, hv an enactment in 1923, obtained from the government the right to the exclusive wholesale sale of liquors other than beer until 1928. the system worked by the “ bolags \" is one of personal con- trol, in which the “ motbok ” or pass-book, plays a large part. the ‘‘motbok,”’ in effect, isa ration book with coupons entitling the holder to purchase his prescribed quantity of liquor in each month, and no more, norway.—a_ system of disinterested management has also been in force in norway for a considerable period. the “ sam- lag’ in norway takes the place of the “ bolag”’ in sweden, though its powers are more limited. the ‘ samlags ” control the sale of “ braendevin,” the national norwegian spirit, whilst beer and wine, except in rare instances are still in the hands of private traders. the norwegian system, based on the acts of 1871 and 1894, left two options open to cach community at the periodical poll: 1. the ‘‘ samlag \"' system for the retail sale of spirits, or 2, prohibition of all retail sale of spirits. the results of the 1913 polling showed a definite voting down of existing ““ samlags”: out of 26 towns polling; the ‘‘ samlag ’’ was voted down in 15. but, outside the “ samlags,”’ the sale of spirits is conducted by means of “ privileged \"’ (2.e., life interest) licences, wholesale rights and ieee “ off and “ on ”’ licences issued by magistrates and town councils, during the war period norway imposed far-reaching restric- tions, leading up to the total prohibition of the sale of spirits, both “on” and “ off.” the continuance of prohibition was endorsed at a national poll in 1919. ill. temporary war regulations ae legislation in other european countries, since rgt1, has mainly been concerned with the imposition of special restrictions during the war period, and the subsequent modification of those restrictions. france.—in france, for instance, the need for some control of the liquor traffic was recognised soon after the outbreak of the war, and one of the first war-time restrictions was the absolute prohibition of the sale of absinthe in feb. 1915. the opening of new establishments for the sale of spirits and other liquors eaeeet those having a wine basis) was also forbidden. in 1915, the “ off” sale of alcohol was forbidden before 12 noon, and the “on \"’ sale of spirits to women and children was absolutely pro- hibited. the sale of wine, beers and cider was, however, left un- touched. the war regulations have since disappeared. switzerland.—on the outbreak of war the swiss government pro- hibited the use of potatoes for the manufacture of spirits, and ra- tioned the sale of spirits by the state monopoly. ztaly.—in 1913 italy prohibited the importation and manufacture of absinthe and enacted a law requiring special permits for the sale of spirits and liqueurs. germany.—in germany the sale of alcohol was forbidden in the towns during the early mobilisation period; and restrictions were liquor control placed on the quantity of malt used in german breweries. sub- sequently, in 1915, further restrictions were imposed: i. the manufacture of spirits for beverages from potatoes and grain was prohibited. 2. the manufacture of beer was restricted by 40 per cent. 3. the sale of intoxicants in mobilisation centres was forbidden, 4. in berlin the sale of spirituous liquors in restaurants was for- bidden between 9 p.m. and g a.m. austria-hungary.—similar restrictions on the manufacture of spirits from potatoes and grain were imposed in austria-hungary during the continuance of the war emergency period. russia.—in russia, the fact that a government monopoly of the vodka trade had been established in 1894, enabled the tsar to estab- lish its total prohibition on the outbreak of the war. this state of things continued under the soviet regime until 1921, when the sale of wine in limited quantities was authorised, whilst the sale of beer was permitted without limitation. in 1924, by a decree of the soviet executive council, the sale of vodka was permitted once more. the sales are restricted by a card system of control, under which each adult citizen is entitled to pur- chase one bottle of vodka every 14 days through the agencies of the state spirit monopoly. finland.—the prohibition of vodka throughout the war period applied also to finland and to [’stonia. the prohibition of beer over 21°, of wine, spirits and stronger beverages was enacted in finland in 1919, and is still in force. estonia.—in estonia, however, legislation was passed in 1920 for the repeal of prohibition and for the substitution of a “ check ” system for the controlled sale of alcohol, somewhat on the swedish model, belgium.—on the outbreak of war in 1914 the government took prohibitive measures against the sale of spirits which continued in force during the german occupation. in aug. 1919’ an act was passed prohibiting the sale and supply of spirits for consumption on the premises in any place of public resort, including hotels, restau- rants and workshops, the“ off-sale ” of spirits was authorised pro- vided that at least two litres were sold at a time to each purchaser, this act was a modification of a scheme of total prohibition which had been promulgated by decree only when the government had its seat at havre in nov. 1918. in poland in 1921 a law was passed introducing the local option principle. in 1924 a government monopoly of the liquor trade was established under which the government assumed the entire control of the manufacture and sale of all spirits. latvia and lithuania have adopted laws regulating hours and con- ditions for the retail sale of alcohol. for the supply of intoxicating liquor in mandated territories, see mandates, bibliography.—report of the massachusetts committee on the gothenburg system (1893); e. gordon, the breakdown of the gothen- burg system (1911); j. purves, the scottish licensing laws (1923): j. paterson, the licensing acts (1925). (a.) iv. the united states and canada the article on liquor laws in the united states (sec 16.766) reviews legislation prior to 1910 i its historical development and under the four chief types of state and local legislative control: (a2) the licence system, (4) state prohibition, (c) local option, a combination of licence and prohibition, and (d¢) public dispensaries. it also covers federal regulation of the liquor traffic: (2) in inter-state commerce, (6) in federal territory, such as the district of columbia, military and naval sta- tions, indian reservations, and in certain particulars in the insular possessions, and (c) the revenue laws where regulation is frequently a dominant motive in tax policy. since 19ro there have been hundreds of state laws, local ordinances and federal laws, not directly related to the adoption of national prohibition (g.v.) as well as many important decisions of federal and state courts. this further illustrates the great diversity of procedure and methods and the wide range of legislative experiment in dealing with the liquor traffic and its attendant evils, which probably has no equal in any other country in the world or in any other period of history. it also reflects the very great difficulties encountered in the enforcement of such legislation and in correcting unforeseen evils arising as by-products of regulatory measures. a fairly complete and accurate descriptive list of these measures will be found under “‘ chronology ” in the year books of the anti-saloon league (pub. westerville, o.) especially the year book for toro. the rth amendment.—war-time prohibition became effective on july 1 1919, and the prohibition (18th) amendment to the constitution was ratified jan. 16 19109, effective jan. 16 1920, liquor control and the combined war-time prohibition enforcement code and the constitutional prohibition enforcement code, known as the “ national prohibition act ” and, popularly, as the volstead law, was adopted oct. 28 rgr19, in part effective immediately and in part relating to constitutional prohibition effective jan. 16 1920 (see prohibition). as far as state and local measures (1910-9) are concerned there were no new devices for regulation, and nothing to show any serious departure from the types of regulation referred to above, and discussed in the previous article. there was a notice- able trend away from the public dispensary and the many proposals to eliminate private profits from the industry or the trade, such as those involved in the gothenburg system, which was widely discussed, and licensing non-profit trading companies. there was also a marked and increasing trend in all sections of the country toward the extension of dry territory, the protec- tion of dry areas under local option, and the extension of state- wide prohibition. state prohibition in roro.—in 1gto state prohibition was in force in nine states. large areas of local territory in other states were dry under local option. it was difficult to protect this dry territory from violation through illicit trade aided and promoted by adjacent wet areas. texas in 1910 passed a law making the sale of liquors in no-licence territory a felony punish- able by from three to five years’ imprisonment, all the prohibi- tion states had tried in various ways to check the flow of liquor protected in inter-state commerce over which the federal authority had exclusive jurisdiction and with which no state had any constitutional right to interfere. congress had sought to aid in this effort in the wilson act in 1890 to divest in- toxicating liquors of their inter-state character by providing that ‘‘ liquors transported into a state . . . shall . upon arrival in such state . . . be subject to the opcration and effect of the laws of such state enacted in the exercise of its police powers, to the same extent . . as though such . liquors had been produced in such state.” although the wilson act presented grave constitutional difficulties it was sustained by the supreme court in j re ruhrer in 1898 (140 u.s. 545) but the rule of the decision in- terpreted the phrase ‘upon arrival in such state’? to mean that state control and regulation operated only “ after the ship- ment had reached its point of destination and had actually been delivered to the consignee.” this was not sufficient to stop the flow of liquor from wet areas outside the state. a mis- souri statute imposing an inspection fee on all liquors shipped from other states into missouri and offered for sale was upheld in 1905 (190 u.s. 17) as an exercise of the police power of the state within the meaning of the wilson act, and the chief aim of the act was undoubtedly to increase the state’s control over inter-state shipments. the iowa legislature had in the pre- vious year 1904 passed a resolution asking congress to amend the inter-state shipment law to prevent the shipment of liquors from one state to the dry territory of another. in the meantime the supreme court in delameter v. so. dakota (205 u.s. 93), decided march 11 10907, upheld a south dakota statute imposing an annual licence charge upon the business of soliciting orders for intoxicating liquors and its application when orders were to be filled from liquors at the time without the state. this was another method of checking inter-state trafhe from wet areas to dry and of enforcing state regulation or prohibition. still another effort was made in the same direction and this time with the clirect assistance of con- gress in the act to codify, revise and amend the penal laws of the united states approved march 4 1909. section 238 forbade any transportation company or its agents to deliver intoxicat- ing liquors in inter-state or foreign commerce to any fictitious person or to any other person than the consignee, unless up- on written order of the bona-fide consignee, and sec. 239 forbade the collection by the transportation company or its agents of the purchase price or in any manner acting as the agent of the buyer or seller of such liquor, and sec. 240 forbade the shipment in inter-state or foreign commerce of any package containing in- 715 toxicating liquors unless ‘‘ such package be so labelled on the outside cover as to plainly show the name of the consignee, the nature of its contents and the quantity contained therein.”? each of these sections provided heavy penalties for their violation. the webb-kenyon law— with the passage of the webb- kenyon law, march 1 1913, congress and the federal govern- ment took the first aggressive step in aiding effective state prohibition. ‘the title of the act, “ an act divesting intoxicating liquors of their intra-state character in certain cases,” indicates its broader scope and purposes as compared with the earlier wilson act which merely removed the bar of the original package decision (1890) to effective enforcement by holding that a state prohibitory law was inapplicable to sales of liquor in the original packages in which they were received from other states (leisy v. harden, 135 u.s. 100). ‘the webb-kenyon act removed another bar, namely, the federal protection of inter-state commerce, from the exercise of a state’s conceded powers over inter-state when applied to such inter-state com- merce as congress, in the exercise of its exclusive powers over inter-state commerce, has interdicted or from which it has re- moved the protection of inter-state commerce. congress in this act forbids the transportation of intoxicating liquors into a state by any persons interested therein “ to be received, possessed, sold, or in any manner used, either in the original package or otherwise, in violation of any law of such state.” the act presented grave constitutional difficulties, which led president taft to veto it on purely constitutional grounds, and in this judgment he was supported by his able attorney-general, mr. george w. wickersham, and the ablest lawyers in the senate. nevertheless, congress passed the act over the veto of the president, and the supreme court sustained its view in the clark distilling co. v. western maryland railway co., and clark distillmg co. v. american express co. and the state of west virginia cases (242 u.s. 311) decided jan. 8 1917. effects of webb-kenyon law.—the immediate effect of the webb-kenyon law was to stimulate state prohibition. the year 1914 saw state constitutional prohibition amendments adopted by popular vote and substantial majorities in arizona, colorado and washington, and rejected by substantial majorities in california and ohio. a state-wide prohibition law in oregon was adopted by a popular vote of 136,842 for, to 100,362 against, and in virginia by a majority of 30,365 out of a total of 150,000 votes. a considerable extension of dry territory was secured under local option votes in many other states. that this rising tide of prohibition was not confined to the states is seen in the adoption for the first time in 1914 in either house of congress of a resolution submitting a prohibitory amendment to the federal constitution. the hobson resolution passed the house of representatives dec. 22 by a vote of 193 to 189, but did not receive the two-thirds majority required. in 1915 alabama re- enacted a prohibitory law which was adopted in 1907 and re- pealed in rgt1, and idaho, iowa, arkansas and south carolina adopted state-wide prohibitory laws, idaho, in addition, sub- mitting to the people of the state a constitutional amendment, which was adopted in 1916 to become effective jan. 1 1917. the year 1916 also witnessed constitutional state prohibition adopted in michigan, montana, nebraska and south dakota. in 1917 congressional action again moved forward. the res- olution for the prohibition amendment to the federal con- stitution received the necessary two-thirds majority in both hlouses, and the amendment was submitted to the states for ratification. congressional enactments also prescribed prohibi- tion for the district of columbia and for the territory of alaska. a referendum on prohibition was provided for the i. of porto rico, which voted in july ro17. to adopt it by 99,775 for, to 61,295 against. early in 1917 congress enacted the anti-liquor advertising law with the so-called reed “ bone-dry ” amend- ment, the whole being an amendment to the post office ap- propriation act. this was a drastic prohibition of the use of the mails for advertising, or soliciting orders for liquor in “ dry ” territory, and was, therefore, a further application of the principle of the webb-kenyon act. 716 _ among the states in r917 indiana, new hampshire and utah adovted state-wide prohibition statutes, and new mexico a prohibition constitutional amendment. this made in all 25 of the 48 states, and, in addition the district of columbia, alaska and porto rico, which had adopted statutory state- wide or constitutional prohibition before the federal amend- ment was submitted for ratification; and in 1918, while ratifica- tion was proceeding, florida, nevada, ohio, texas and wyo- ming adepted state-wide prohibition statutes. utah adopted a prohibitory amendment to the state constitution. congress enacted a prohibition statute for hawaii, and passed the war prohibition act as an amendment to the agricultural appro- priation bill. a constitutional prohibitory amendment received a majority of 15,932 votes in minnesota, but failed by 756 votes to receive the majority required by the state election law. a constitutional state prohibition amendment was defeated in missouri by 300,354 votes against, to 227,501 for; and also in california. other state measures extended dry territory, and in several states state constitutional amendments were submitted to be voted on in 1919. ‘the war prohibition federal legislation is noted under after ratificution-provisions for enforcement in the discussion of prohibition (¢.v.). state action since ror9.—from jan. 10 ro19, the date when the federal constitutional amendment received the necessary ratification by two-thirds of the states, to 1926 state legislation in relation to prohibition, chietly consisted in state enforcement measures of great variety based on the concurrent powers pro- vided for in the amendment although in some states, a state constitutional amendment or state-wide prohibition statutes, previously adopted went into eifect by their terms after jan r r91g. in all to date (1926), 47 of the 48 states (maryland alone excepted) have adopted state codes or measures to enforce national prohibition. new york alone has repealed such a statute; and no other state has weakened its enforcement legislation by subsequent amendments, and several have re- peatedly tried to strengthen their enforcement legislation. tre laws in canada liquor laws in canada have followed closely in structure and in the forces determining their modification and enforcement those of the united states. they have not gone as far as to adopt national prohibition except for a bricf period during the war, by order-in-council, march 11 1918, in force from april 1 1938 until dec. 31 rotg. since roto local option with respect to licence extending to complete provincial prohibition of sale has been permissible under a iederal law, the canada temper- ance act (1875). but under the british north america act, which serves as the constitution of the dominion, only the federal authority can prohibit the manufacture, importation, exportation and transportation of liquors for beverage purposes. on may 18 rgt6a federal act ‘in aid of provincial legislation prohibiting or restricting the sale or use of intoxicating liquors ” (6-7 geo. v. ch. 19) was adopted and penalised the transporta- tion and delivery of intoxicating liquor or sale for transportation into a province in violation of the law of the province. this effort to remove “ federal protection ” from manufacture and shipraent, legal under dominion law, of intoxicating liquors whose sale was prohibited under provincial law or local option votes, was similar to the wilson and webb-kenyon acts in the united states. this act was amended nov. 10 1919 (10 geo. v. ch. 21) to include manufacture for illegal sale; but an amend- ment, adopted on the same day, to the canada temperance act (10 geo. v. ch. 9) added part iv., “importation and manufacture of intoxicating liquor,” and provided an alternative plan which it was thought woyld be more effective and better applicable locally to accomplish the same purpose. it pro- vided for prohibition of importation and of manufacture for illegal importation in any province by order-in-council after an approving referendum had been taken by the dominion govt. at the request of the provincial legislature. referenda in all provinces—from feb, 1 1921 to may a1 1923 seven of the nine provinces decided by referenda to pro- lister—lithuania hibit importation. similarly exportation of liquor from any province, except by brewers and distillers, could be prohibited by order-in-council under a further amendment of 1923. four provinces in 1922 and 1923 invoked this law. neither the importation nor exportation prohibitions were sufficient without a real federal prohibition law to enable the provinces to enforce satisfactorily their province-wide prohibition laws after the dominion declared the war prohibition for the dominion at an end. so three of the seven prohibition provinces swung over to state control, and there were in 1926 only four (ontario, new brunswick, nova scotia and prince edward island) wherein prohibition of sale continues. in feb. 1925 an amendment to the ontario temperance act permitted the sale of 4:4 beer, which does not seem to have made the enforcement of the pro- hibitory features of the ontario temperance act any easier. government ownership and sale or state control take various forms in the different provinces. the amount of liquor sold seems to have increased each year since 1921, when british columbia adopted the system of government warehouses and salesrooms with public liquor stares, only on a local vote which has been favourable thereto, only in the larger cities and towns; and there is said to be little or no curtailment of illegal sale and the abuses therefrom. in quebec, manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta and british columbia liquor is sold under government regulations. see promipition and the authorities cited there in addition to the following: u.s. bur. of int. rev., laws relating to national prohibi- tion kuforcement (1923); laws of 65th and 66th congresses relating to liquor (contains text of laws of previous congresses since 1890) and regulations no, 60, app. by secy. of treas. jan. 16 1920, under prohibition enforcement act, 1920; anti-saloon league year books (1910-25); ernest h. cherrington, fvalition of prohibition in the us, a chronological history (1920); proktbition and its enforce- ment, annals american academy of political social science, vol. 109 (phila., 1923); t. r. powell, “ the webb-isenyon law and decisions thereunder,” southern law quarterly, april 1917. (s:hcg, 1) lister, joseph lister, baron (1827-1912), british phy- sician (see 16.777), died at walmer, kent, feb. 10 1912. liszt, franz von (1851-1919), german jurist, a younger cousin of the composer, franz liszt, was born in vienna march 2 18s1. he qualified in 1875 as a teacher of criminal law at graz in austria, was a professor at giessen 1879, marburg 1882, halle 1880, and in berlin in 1899. in 1912 he became a member of the fortschrittliche volkspartei (progressive people’s party) in the reichstag. liszt’s life work was the scientific foundation and reform of the criminal law of which the basic principles are contained in his treatise der zweck- gcdanke im strafrecht (1882). it opposes the principle of re- garding punishment as a reprisal and sets up the claim of systematic prevention of a special nature. in the fight against the law breaker, liszt, together with the dutchman van hamel and the belgian prins, founded the juternationale kriminalis- tische vereinigung unternational criminalist union) in 1889 in which all reforms, which became the basis of modern criminal law, were initiated. liszt’s claims in favour of conditional sentence and pardon as well as postponement of punishment later passed into actual practice. at marburg he created the criminalist seminary, which later in halle and especially in berlin became a world-famed criminal institute at which students from all lands met. liszt was also a leading authority on inter- national law. he died at seeheim june 22 1919. ilis chief works are ameineid und falsches zeugnis (1876); lehrbuch des deutschen straufrechis (1881, 21st ed. 1919); lekrbuch des voiker- rechts (1898, 1tth ed. 1918); strafrechtsfdlle zum akademischen gebrauch, 13th ed. (1922); strafrechtliche aufsdtze und voritriige (1905). see also lbhandlungen des kriminatistischen seminars (1889, etc.); afitfetlungen der internutionalen kriminalistischen veretnigung (1890, etc.). | lithuania (lietuva), an independent european republic and amember of the league of nations (see 9.916). lithuanian territory includes the former russian govt, of kovno (kaunas), parts of suvalki and vilna governments and the autonomous territory of memel. the land frontiers are with latvia on lithuania the north, poland on the east and the south, and east prussia on the southwest. the lithuanian seaboard is short, but is extended by the addition of memel. the town and territory of vilna (wilno), claimed by the lithuanians as part of their state, is incorporated in poland (see vitna). the area is (1926)22,590 sq.m. and the population, 1924 (excluding memel), 2,203,312, of whom 83:9% were officially given as lithuanians, 7-6% as jews, 3-2% as poles and 2-5°% as russians.! the town of memel in- cludes 24,000 germans. : lithuania is, on the whole, a low-lying country watered by the niemen (“‘ nemunas ”’—name of a heathen deity) and its tribu- taries. the highest part is in the south and east, where the baltic hills extend in crescent formation from gumbinnen in east prus- sia through suwalki (suvalki) and vilna (wilno) to dvinsk. this chain of hills is broken by two valleys, that of the niemen ical ‘ re : eh ots ee ve |_.s 3] 1 wy : n ro ‘| english miles 4. 70 kilometres — ee | o 70 raslways - )__ 22\" (b)longe-of greent(c) 26” (0) flowing through grodno and olita (alytus) to kovno, that of the wilija (nerys), flowing from vilna to janow (jonaya) to its junction with the niemen below kovno. in the northwest is situated another triangle of hills, the telsiai-shavli (siauliai)- rasciniai. between these two hilly regions lies the plain of the niemen with its two principal tributaries, the nevezis and the dubysa flowing in from the north. the only other river of im- portance is the sventoji, flowing southwest to join the wilija near janow, and in the north the muga, which joins the aa (lielupe) at bauska in latvia. | i. political history early iistory.—(see 16.789.) the union between the kingdom of poland and the grand duchy of lithuania was brought about on feb. 141386 by the marriage of the lithuanian grand duke fogaila (jagiel- lo) to the polish queen jadviga, and was confirmed by the subsequent pacts of vilna in 1401 and 1432, of horodlo in 1413, of grodno in i501 and 1512, and, parliamentarily, of lublin in 1569. thus was established a political combination in which lithuania in point of territory was three times the size of poland. the contracting parties were to retain their names, laws, administrative institutions, financial anil military organisations. through the fact, however, that from 1501 onwards the lithuanians and the poles were ruled over by one sovereign and from 1569 onwards had a common legislature, the lithuanians, though ever anxious to break away, gradually sank into a state of dependence. the poles, past-masters in the art of political intrigue, never lost an opportunity of imposing their hegemony. accordingly the dual state was involved in a common downfall, and in the three partitions of 1772, 1792 and 1795, to which it was sub- jected at the hands of russia, prussia and austria, lithuania fell a prey to russia and prussia. but, while the tsarist regime, unable to denationalise a homogeneous population of a different religion and language, initially conceded a minimum of rights to the polish nation, in lithuania proper from the outset an unrelenting system of tyranny was established which was designed to break by force every non- russian element in the country. russia had annexed the six lithuanian governments between 1772 and 1795 and united them as the ‘‘ litovskaya gubernia \" in 1797, 1 fconomic and financial situation of lithuania (lithuanian state printing office, 1925), m7 thatistosay,before the treaty of vienna conceded her the kingdom of poland in 1815. at the warsaw diet of 1818, the liberal-minded alexander i. still! spoke of the reunion of lithuania with poland under constitutional forms. but the project lapsed because any measure of self-government by extending the power of the polish “szlachta '’ (and-owning noble class) in lithuania menaced russia’s influence in that country. yet, under the influence of the polish prince adam czartoryski, alexander i. encouraged education and enterprise. under nicholas [., the plan of the reunion of the two states was definitely rejected, his ukase of 1839 making lithuania the ‘‘ syevero-zapadni krai” (northwestern province). asa result of the polish rebellion of 1830, in which the peasantry, whether lithuanian, polish or white russian, did not take so great a part as the upper classes, the lithuanian statute, which had re- mained the law of the ftand through four centuries of union with poland, was replaced by the russian code in 1840. prominent lithuanians were forced to emigrate or exiled to siberia. as even the reign of alexander ji. brought no change in lithuania, the revolutionary spirit led to the great rebellion of 1863. this abortive insurrection, in which the polish nobility and in- telligentsia were primarily involved, though the lithuanians also took a prominent part, led to the suppression of the printing of lithuanian books by the dictator gen. muraviev, which measure was only abolished in 1904. tsarist policy was henceforth perfectly consistent in that it strove to make lithuania a genuine part of russia and sought to extirpate polish culture beyond the frontiers of the kingdom. period of popular represeniation 1o005-14.—russia’s defeat in the russo-japanese war and the revolution which followed in its wake led, in sept. 1905, to a measure of reform. the first national lithuanian assembly which, however, in the eyes of the tsar’s govt. was merely a revolutionary body tolerated for the time being, met at vilna. it consisted of 2,000 delegates who demanded au autonomy for the four governments of vilna, kovno, grodno and suvalki under a diet at vilna. it was the first modern attempt to define lithuania cthnographically, to respect national minorities and continue the connection with russia upon the federative principle. the electoral statute of 1905, by granting the four-class franchise (landowners, peasants, townsmen and workmen) favoured the rural population. only poles were elected to the first duma of 1906, | _ as the imperial ukase which followed the dissolution of the second duma of 1907 conferred more powcr upon the great landowncrs, it was modified as regards lithuania by a nationality clause which provided that the total of electors of each class should be in pro- sortion to the amount of land possessed by the respective national- ities in the district. this measure, applied by russian officials, was designed against the poles and the lithuanian nationalists, for not even the progressives who favoured autonomy for poland con- templated its grant to lithuania. in the third duma the five delegates allotted to the non-russian population of the government were all poles who joined the polish party; in kovno three delegates were lithuanians, one was a pole and one a jew. the war period.—the outbreak of the world war in 1914 led to a german invasion which, from midsummer rors until aug. 1919, lay heavily upon the land. to further their own purpose, which was the lasting hold over lithuania, the germans after the military collapse of russia allowed the phantom existence of a state. a lithuanian conference met at vilna (sept. 18-23 1917) and, in negotiations which dragged until march 1918, pe- titioned the german chanccllor, count hertling, for the restora- tion of the country’s independence under condition of a perpetual alliance between il and the german empire (bundesverhdltnis). the german clerical party caused the “ taryba,” or coun- cil of state, which was then largely under the control of their army of occupation authorities, to offer the lithuanian crown to prince william of urach, a younger member of the wiirttem- berg reigning family. on july rr 1918 he accepted under the title of “ mindove ii., king of lithuania,” choosing the style of a heathen prince of the 13th century who had fiercely resisted the teutonic order. the german annexationists thwarted this can- didature, which the council of state eventually cancelled (nov. 2 1918), but their delegates at the peace negotiations of brest- litovsk, in march 10918, upheld against trotsky the authority of the lithuanian council of state. their last argument rested upon this, that “ germany had recognised lithuania’s independence only on the condition that the conventions to be concluded, among them the form of constitution and the choice of a ruler, shall correspond to german interests’ (nordd. aligem. zeitung, aug. 1918). by the peace of brest-litovsk (march 3 1918), germany forced russia to abandon all claim on lithuania. 718 by nov. 1918, the magnitude of germany’s defeat being no longer in doubt, the taryba, or council of state, promulgated a provisional constitution under which it became the lithuanian parliament. the supreme power was vested in three persons, a. smetona, j. staugaitis and st. silingas, who on nov. 5 1918 in- vited prof. voldemaras to form the first independent adminis- tration on non-party lines, and reach an understanding with the national minorities within the still indeterminate frontiers, viz.: white russians, poles, jews and great russians. alone the pan- polish party reverted irreconcilably to the historic solution of union or federation with poland. the initial difficulties of sct- ting up an administrative machine on national lines were the greater as the troops of the occupying power were affected by the revolution which had broken out in germany. although kovno itself was evacuated in june roto and shortly afterwards southern and eastern lithuania, the area mitau-shavli-taurage remained in german hands until dec. 13. upon their final with- drawal, the germans allowed the bolshevik troops to march into evacuated zones at a mean distance of 10 kilometres. this was in direct violation of the terms of the armistice, concluded with the entente powers on nov. 11 1918. the voldemaras administration resigned on dec. 26 1918, the new premier, m. slezevicius, widening the cabinet. prof. volde- maras, whom the precarious situation of the country and the ap- | proaching peace conference called to paris, served as foreign minister, m. yeas as finance minister, m. velykis as minister of war. in jan. 1919 the near approach of the bolsheviks to wilno caused the removal of the government to kovno (kau- | nas) where the provisional national assembly recognised the — council of state (“ taryba”’) and the slezevicius cabinet as the | regular government of lithuania. the taryba voted the pro- | visional constitution, elected a. smetona president of the state and composed the statute for the election of the constituent assembly, on the basis of proportional representation. national defence began to be organised. the bolshevik advance reached its culminating point in may 1919 when hkovno itsclf was threat- ened. until sept. rorg fighting took place against the sovict forces, which were cleared out of the northern districts of the country, and until dec. against the so-called bermondt troops. meanwhile, the poles also had attacked the bolsheviks and in april 1919 captured vilna, establishing themselves there. on dec. 8 1919 the supreme council of the allies in paris laid down a provisional eastern frontier for poland, the so-called “ curzon line, ”’ which assigned to poland most territories where the polish element was in a majority, but excluded mixed and doubtful districts, the principal among which was vilna, city and province, which fell to lithuania. the polish govt. pro- posed to the lithuanian govt. joint action against the bol- sheviks, but the latter refused pending lithuania’s recognition as an independent state with wilno for its capital. the consequence was that the poles embarked upon large scale military operations against soviet russia single-handed. but although their invasion of the ukraine, in april 1920, was successful, the bolshevik counter-offensive, in july 1920, com- pelled the poles to retreat almost to the confines of warsaw. the lithuanians took advantage of the situation and reoccupied wilno (july 14 1920) which had had a polish garrison at the ime when the curzon line was laid down. but shortly afterwards the approach of a red army caused the lithuanians to evacuate in all haste, which action laid them open to the reproach that they were not able to hold what they had so long claimed as their patri- mony. the poles believed that they were fighting not only in de- fence of their own newly resurrected country, but that they were stemming the tide of the red invasion which threatened: to overflow into central europe. they accused the lithuanians oi surrendering an important strategic centre and an important railhcad, with the consequence that the left flank of the hard- pressed polish army was exposed. but, as it happened, the face of the war changed and the poles, turning on their bolshevik pursuers, defeated them and drove them back into great russia. immediately the lithuanians reoccupied vilna (aug. 24 1920) but came into conflict with the poles there and at suwatki. lithuania meanwhile the lithuanian constituent assembly, or ‘* seim,”’ composed of 112 members, met on may 15 1920. the president of the state, the national council and the cabiret resigned and, all power passing to the seim, the provisional government gave way to the permanent government. the state of war with soviet russia had been concluded by a peace treaty signed at moscow, on july 12 1920, under which the lithuanian claim to vilna and grodno was recognised by the bolsheviks, and lith- uania received 3,000,000 roubles in gold and 100,000 hectares of forest land for exploitation. a polish protest to the league of nations on sept. 5 1920 was followed by an agreement between the polish and lithuanian governments to refrain from hostth- ties and to respect the limits jaid down for them by an alloed miitary commission. a, line of demarcation agreed upon at suwatki on oct. 7, to come into force on oct. 10, again left wilno on the lithuanian side. but the coup de main of oct. 9 by the polish so-called ‘‘ rebel” gen. zeligowski (see vitna) placed vilna in polish hands. on march 14 1923 the allies recognised the fatt accompli. the lithuanians were compelled to remove their capital to kovno (kaunas) where it has since remained, but thevilna dispute continued to embitter relations between the two powers. the conference of ambassadors, in a note of june 2 1924, mvited the lithuanian govt. to enter into diplomatic and consular relations with the polish government. the lithuanian govt. countered with a proposal that the allied powers should call a conference at which their representatives would meet pol- ish and lithuanian delegates to reopen the territorial question. the conference of ambassadors replied in effect that the frantier question could not be reopened. the memel (g.v.) question proved to be almost as difficult of solution, but the lithuanians, imitating the conduct of the poles at vilna, seized memel on | jan. 15 1923 by a coup de main. the convention signed at paris on may 8 109024 laid down that the memel (klaipeda) territory constitutes an autonomous unit under lithuanian sovereignty. the de jure independence of lithuania was recognised by ger- many on march 23 1918, by sovict russia on july 12 1920 and by latvia and estonia in feb. 1921, and by the argentine re- public in march ro21. the long-drawn vilna dispute delayed formal recognition by the allies and the united states of america until the end of 1922. lithuania became a member of the league of nations on sept. 22 1921. constitution —under the provisional constitution of june 2 1920, the then president of the constituent assembly, m. a. stulginskis, acted as temporary president, his acts being coun- tersigned by the premier. his election was subsequently con- firmed by the seim. the definite constitution of aug. 1 1922 pro- vides for a president, elected by the seim, and for a cabinet with a premier responsible to the seim. the seim consists of 78 depu- ties, elected by universal, direct, secret suffrage on the basis of proportional representation, the electoral unit being of 50,000 inhabitants. internal affairs —in the constituent assembly, the majority was formed by the christian peasant party, which in 1921 car- ried an agrarian reform bill for the twofold purpose of breaking up large estates and of reducing the influence of the polish gentry who owned many of the biggest propertics. in 1922 the first lithuanian seim was constituted, but the german, jewish and polish minorities abstained from taking part in the elections on the ground that the government had treated them unfairly. in that year the revival of trade caused exports to exceed imports by nearly 500,000,000 marks, but the inflationary period in ger- many made it imperative for lithuania to adopt a currency of her own. accordingly, the gold standard was established and maintained, on the basis of a lithuanian litai (the litai to be 1/10 of adollar). the exploitation of flax was made a state monopoly. the necessity of getting an absolute majority caused the disso- lution of the scim in march 1923. the new elections showed the state of partics as follows: christian democrats 40, people’s party 15, national minorities 14, social democrats 9. asa resulta coalition between the two first named returned the galvanauskas cabinet to power, which continued in oflice until june 1924. lithuania then the christian democratic party took over the administra- tion, m. a. tumenas becoming premier. once again friction oc- curred with the minorities, especially with the jews, who make up 14% of the population. but tumenas prevailed, and the minis- try for jewish affairs was abolished. foreign policy.—the feud with poland caused lithuania to stand aloof from all negotiations for a baltic alliance. the re- sulting isolation was accentuated by misunderstandings with other powers. first and foremost among these was france, the friend of poland, which at the time of the lithuanian coup de main against memel maintained a small garrison in that town. further, the agrarian reform bill affected the proprietary inter- ests of ‘“‘ national minorities,’ polish, german, latvian, etc., which endeavoured to secure diplomatic protection outside the limits of lithuanian territory. again, the closing of the niemen, which was an economic measure designed to exert political pres- sure, invited commercial retaliation, while friction arose within the state itself between the purely lithuanian clergy and the clergy of polish extraction and education, which for a time vitiated diplomatic relations with the holy see. finally, the circulation of the ‘‘ ostmark,’”’ which had been issued during the german occupation and was not redeemed, was resented by the people, the more so as the german reichsmark was legal cur- rency until 1922, with the result that the lithuanian state suf- fered heavily by its depreciation. these troubles were, however, to some extent counterbalanced by happy relations with soviet russia which culminated in a treaty of non-aggression imposing strict neutrality on both parties in the event of a conflict between either and a third state. this treaty (as yet unratified) was ne- gotiated in april 1926 by prof. reinys, lithuanian forcign minister. in 1922 lithuania concluded a commercial treaty with great britain; in 1924, commercial treaties with germany and czecho- slovakia. on may 19 1924she agreed at the conference of kovno to enter into a tariff and customs union with latvia and es- tonia; and these three states also agreed to pursue a concerted foreign policy, especially in the assembly of the league of nations. bibliography.—a. jusaitis, the history of the lith. nation and tts present national aspirations (new york, 1919); j. j. hertmanowicz, tlistorical outlines on lithuania (chicago, 1921); lithuanian dele- gation to the league of nations: the lithuanian-polish dispute, a memorandum laid before the second assembly of the league of nations (1921); lithuanian information bureau: lithuanian recognition, etc., a collection of notes and letters (washington, 1921); p. vileichis, le conflit polono-lithuanien (paris, 1921); e. j. harrison, lithuania past and present (london, 1922); league of nations, military commission of control: differend entre la lithuante et la pologne. rapports dates du 24 dec. 1921, 12 fev., 6 mars et 20 mars 1922 (geneva-nancy, 1922). (w...l.2b)) ii. economic and financial history lithuania is essentially an agricultural state. of its total popu- lation (2,203,312 in 1923), nearly 80% live inthe country. the only large town is the capital kaunas (kovno), which had 92,446 inhabitants in 1923. the second town was klaipeda (memel) with 35,715 inhabitants; then came pancvezys (19,197), siauliai (shavli) (21,387) and ukmerge (10,604); the population of the three last-named towns is, however, largely agricultural. education.—thanks to the cultural conflict between the rus- sian govt. and the lithuanian pcople before the war, the abolition of the monasteries at the end of the roth century and the russianisation of elementary education, a large proportion of the population is illiterate. according to the 1923 census 43-18% of the men and 44-98% of the women could not read. considerable efforts were made by the lithuanian govt. to improve the educational system of the country and the budgetary educational grants rose steadily from year to year. in 1924 there were over 2,000 clementary and over 100 secondary schools. in feb. 1922 a university was opened at kaunas. the economic organisation of the country on its present basis may be considered as beginning after the treaty of july 12 1920 with russia; but progress was hampered by the protracted dis- putes over memel (g.2.) and vilna (q.2.). 719 _ agriculture.—the estimated distribution of lithuanian territory is as follows:— o/ ya 6 9 | hectares total area arable . : 2,595,000 462 meadow and pasture 1,415,000 25:2 orchards and gardens 169,000 3- woods and forests 909,000 16-2 peat bogs 180,000 3:2 uncultivated 349,000 6:2 5,617,000 too: the chief crops are rye, flax, oats and potatoes. the production of potatoes and rye would appear to have increased considerably since the war; but the returns are somewhat doubtful. the figures for 1924 and 1925 are given here. area under crops harvest (quintals) | hectares 1924 1925 1924 1925 rvg: ae 537,600 | 542,000 | 4,647,200 | 7,163,900 wheat ‘ 84,900 112,000 903,200 | 1,461,000 barley ; 196,000 205,000 | 2,028,600 | 2,562,500 ree oe . ‘ 325,000 345,000 | 2,697,500 | 3,415,500 axseed . ; 338,300 458,400 flax fibre . } 61,500 76,000 326,000 387,800 potatoes 176,400 163,000 |16,581,500 |14,670,000 in spite of a recovery since 1920 the production per hectare of rye in 1923 was only ae quintals, in 1924 8-6; wheat 9-9 and 10-6; barley 9-9 and 10-3. efforts were, however, being made to improve agriculture with the help of the co-operative organisations. experi- mental and model farms were started in different parts of the coun- try, stations for cleansing grain set up and breeding stock imported. as in the other baltic states co-operative societies play an important role. the most popular and numerous are, however, the consumers societies. indeed, agricultural co-operatives for the marketing of goods only began to develop after the monetary reform at the end of 1922. since the foundation of the so-called ‘‘ gamintojas ”’ (producer) or league of agricultural co-opcratives early in 1923 with the object of organising the export oc grain, flax, eggs, etc., and the import of fertilisers, implements and other agricultural re- quirements, the movement, assisted by the government, made very considerable progress. in 1924 flax was the most important article of agricultural export, accounting for about 20% of the total value of all exports. great hopes are, however, placed on the development of intensive dairy farming on danish lines, as under the agrarian law (see land tenure) no person may own more than 25 hectares of forest, nearly the whole of the forest area is exploited by the state; exclusive of the memel district, 828,500 out of 872,000 hectares. timber.—in the 25 years preceding the war, however, very large districts were denuded of trees, and during the war the forests suffered heavily as a result both of deliberate destruction and of the abnormal demand for timber. it 1s officially estimated that about 2,200,000 cu. inetres could be cut per annum without deforest- ating the country, granted adequate transport facilities. timber and manufactured and semi-manufactured wood constitute the most important group of exports. from 1920 on the export of sawn tim- ber made rapid progress as against that of unsawn timber, as shown by the following table:— amount in cubic metres (000's omitted) jan.— | oct.- sept. | dec. 1922 principal articles 1923 | 1924 wood: unmanufac- tured : ; wood: manufactured 293 | 200 industry.—no coal or mineral ore is mined in lithuania, and such industries as exist are, therefore, mainly dependent upon agriculture. industry suffered severely from the wars, and from subsequent political difficulties with poland, the meme! problem, to some extent from the loss of the russian market for metal manufactures and more recently from a banking and credit crisis. about half of the existing undertakings are occupied with the preparation of food products and beverages, the export of manufactured products is negligible. trade.—owing to the system of valuation employed the trade statistics up to the end of 1922 probably somewhat exaggerated the magnitude of the imports. the total turnover has increased steadily from year to year. 720 im poris and exports of merchandise and of bullion and specte = | special trade! value in millions of litai merchandise 1920 — 1921 | 1922 | 1923 | 1924 | 1925 import. . . 12 95 75 157 207 253° export. s , 55 | 58 77 147 267 243 balance® . —17 |—37 +2 |~10 |+60 |—i10 _ 1 imports for home consumption and exports of domestic produce. 2 provisional. : wt : s 2 2 excluding the movement of bullion and specie. the chief articles of export are: wood and wood products (about 25° of the total value of all exports in 1924), flax 20 %%, live stock 13 °o, eggs 7:5 %o, leather and hides 5:5°%, and grain’and flour 4‘. in 1924 43° of lithuania's total exports went to germany and 28% to the united kingdom. of her imports, which are essentially mis- cellaneous in character, over 80° were derived from germany in 1923 and about 63 % in 1924. ; currency.—since the autumn of 1922 lithuania has had her own currency: the litai (one-tenth of a dollar). this unit of currency was adopted as, owing to the number of emigrants and the extent to which dollar notes sent from the u.s.a. had circulated in the country during the preceding years when the german ost marks were depreciating in value, the population had become habituated to it. in connection with the monetary reform a central bank was established which has the sole right of note issue. national finance.—in 1923 the budget was balanced and from 1923-5 the proportion of total expenditure for military purposes and of total revenue derived from the felling of timber steadily dimin- ished. totals :— 1923 1924 1925 litai (in millions) 208-3 229-7, 259°3 the actual receipts and expenditure in 1923 amounted to 176-9, and 171-8, and in 1924 to 241 and 232-3 million litai. on jan. i 1924 the total debt of the republic amounted to 72-8 million litai of which 2-6 million litai was domestic. arrangements had been made with all creditor countries concerning the service of the foreign debt. communications.—the means of communication in lithuania were constructed to meet the requirements of a province of the russian empire and are ill-adapted for present purposes. thus memel, which is the chief port for the whole country, can only be reached from kaunas, either by an extremely circuitous route via liaulian, taurage and papegiai, or over latvian territory. for this reason the lithuanian govt. contemplated laying down two short lines linking kaunas with memel and giving northern lithuania a direct outlet at memel to the sea via pelsiai. the length of the rail- ways in 1925 was 1,138 km. large gauge, and 454 km. narrow gauge under state control, plus 48 km. of line under private management and the highways board and some 110 km. of private lines in memel. | the niemen, however, forms an important natural highway, being navigable for 419 km. and utilisable for the floating of logs for a much greater distance. the rivers necys and nevezys are likewise navi- gable for 20-30 kilometres. but these rivers are all frozen in winter when the transport of timber from the, forests to the nearest clearing station is accomplished. brpliocrappny.——e. t. harrison, lithuania past and present (1922); p. klimas, le developpement de etat lithuanien (1919); census returns, trade statistics, national budgets, statistical journal and other official lithuanian documents, (ay lys little entente.—the little entente is a political organi- sation, created after the world war, which binds together three central european states, czechoslovakia, yugoslavia and ru- mania, for purposes of their common interest. _ origins under the dual monarchy—those nations had in the past been throttled by the germanising and magyarising system of the old austria-hungary; one of the objects of the little en- -tente is to defend the freedom they won after the war against all attempts to restore the former regime. the little entente had its roots in a series of political acts and declarations dating back to the days of the old monarchy. in the austrian half of the habsburg empire the representatives of the small nations in the parliament at vienna joined in opposition to the centralising sys- tem which opposed the non-german peoples. in the hungarian half the oppressed slovaks, serbs, croats and rumanians met in 1848 and made a protest against magyar imperialism; they did so again in 1895 at budapest; and in 1905 ro non-magyar depu- ties of the budapest parliament formed a club for a like purpose. during the world war, when the austro-hungarian peoples revolted and helped the western entente to break the system of the estimates for this period balanced at the following little entente militarist imperialism, a common aim again produced common action. in april 1918 a congress of the oppressed: austro-hun- garian peoples was held at rome, and in the autumn of that year the central european democratic union was formed in america. a year earlier a great meeting of representatives of the austro- hungarian nations had taken place at kiev in russia and had established a special committee to fight against german and austro-hungarian imperialism. a prominent place was taken in all these actions by the czechoslovaks, yugoslavs and ruma- nians, supported by poles, by the italians of “ italia irridenta ”’ and finally by ukrainians. the co-operation of the first three nations was particularly close, and toward the end of the war they undertook diplomatic action in common. the little en- tente was formed soon after the peace treaties had been signed, when attempts began to be made by various elements of the pre- war regime to bring about a restoration of the habsburg dynasty. the formation of the little entente—the czechoslovaks, yu- goslavs and rumanians knew that a return of the habsburgs would mean the restoration of the german-magvar absolutism and the destruction of the freedom won by the political revolu- tion of 1918. the habsburg intrigues were chiefly engineered in ilungary, where the new regime in central europe was last to be recognised and where intense propaganda was conducted for the recapture of the slovak, serbo-croat and rumanian territory. the habsburg menace led to corresponding defensive measures on the part of the threatened states. the czechoslovak foreign minister travelled on aug. 13 1920 to belgrade, where, on the fol- lowing day, a defence treaty, of which the broad outlines had al- ready been negotiated, was concluded between the kingdom of the serbs, croats and slovenes and the czechoslovak republic, binding both states, in case of an unprovoked attack by hun- gary on either of them, to provide mutual aid the one to the other, and to refrain from making any alliance with a third power with- out the consent of both. at bucharest, whither the czechoslovak foreign minister proceeded from belgrade, the basis was nego- tiated on sept. 17 for an analogous entente. after all the questions of detail had been settled, that agree- ment also was given the form of a defensive treaty, and concluded on april 23 1921. on sept. 19 1920 rumania informed both those states that she recognised a similar obligation. she con- cluded special treaties to that effect with czechoslovakia on april 23 1921, and with yugoslavia in june of that year. the opportuneness of that defensive alliance was proved in april] and in oct. 1921, when two attempts were made to restore the habs- burgs. those attempts failed only because they met with the combined armed resistance of czechoslovakia, yugoslavia and rumania. the european side of the little entente-——the three states forming the little entente were aware from the beginning that mere defence measures would not suffice for the maintenance of the new regime if the states concerned were themselves lacking in creative forces, or failed to attain the greatest possible degree of political and economic solidarity and an atmosphere of mutual trust and fruitful co-operation throughout the whole area of cen- tral europe. the ultimate and wider aim of the little entente is therefore to educate central europeas to the advantages of uni- versal peace and european consolidation. the progress made in the realisation of this policy is best seen in the political and eco- nomic spheres. the main political object was to persuade all the central european states to work in peaceful co-operation with the new states, and much success has been achieved. starting from the treaty of rapallo between yugoslavia and italy and the agrec- ments worked out on the occasion of the visit of the czechoslo- vak foreign minister to rome in jan. 1921, that policy bore fruit in the czechoslovak-austrian agreement of dec. 16 1921, which bound both states to abandon hostile propaganda ~nd to settle all disputes by peaceful arbitration. the same principles were the basis of the czechoslovak-polish treaty of nov. 6 1921, which, although not ratified, created better relations between the two states, and, being followed by the polish-rumanian political treaty, materially improved the relations of poland with the little entente as a whole. litvinov—liver pool in the measures taken to save austria from financial ruin czechoslovakia had a large share, and did not hesitate to make sacrifices in the interests of mutual confidence. a like policy was followed by the little entente towards hungary, despite the fact that it had been the nationalist elements of tungary and their habsburg sympathies that had brought the defensive al- liance of the little entente into existence. the latter knew from the beginning that correct and, as far as possible, friendly rela- tions between it and hungary were essential to the complete pacification and consolidation of central europe. the states forming the little entente showed the best of good will in this respect, as is proved by the frequently repeated attempts of czechoslovakia to negotiate with the hungarian govt. from as early a date as 1921. if those attempts were unsuccessful, it was because hungary sought by an adventurous policy to avoid an understanding with her neighbours. the recent change in this respect, clearly duc to the failure of that hun- garian policy, is nowhere more welcomed than in the countries of the little entente, whose only wish is that the change be permanent, so that a new hungary, consolidated both ccono- mically and politically, may co-operate in the reconstruction of central europe. economic policy.—the economic policy of the little entente starts from the conviction that in central europe it is necessary not only to overcome the harmful results of the depreciated cur- rency, the obstacles to trade connections and the disturbances in the industrial world, but also to make up for the consequences of the disintegration of the old monarchy, which had constituted an economic whole. the basis of its economic policy, therefore, is the minimising of these results by the earliest possible establish- ment of commercial relations with each other and with the rest of the world. the political negotiations have therefore always been combined with economic negotiations, which have been the basis of a series of commercial treaties, at first between the states of the little entente and then with all the ncighbouring countries. questions of common interest to all the states spring- ing from the former austria-hungary have been discussed with good results at special conferences, ¢.g., those at rome and porto- roso in rg21, and, later, the special conferences dealing with passport, transport and other problems. the results of this eco- nomic co-operation have not of course been equally satisfactory in each of the states concerned, nor have they been enough in them- selves to restore healthy conditions to those states whose eco- nomic, financial and currency difficulties leit them with no alter- native to calling in international financial help. expansion of the system.—the increased activity and the de- termined policy of the states forming the little entente have outgrown the limits of the simple defence treaties which consti- tuted the original basis. on aug. 31 1922 that formal basis was considerably enlarged by the conclusion of a new treaty, in the second article of which both czechoslovakia and yugoslavia recognised the treaties concluded by czechoslovakia with ru- mania, austria and poland on the one hand, and by yugoslavia with rumania and i[taly on the other. in the third article both parties agreed to put their economic, financial and transport re- lations on a firm basis by co-operation; and finanty in a further ar- ticle they undertook to support one another in their international political and diplomatic relations and to take common measures if their common interests should be threatened. the principles incorporated in that treaty reveal both the spirit underlying the little entente and the basis of its future activity. emphasis is laid on the importance of economic co-operation and of solidarity in international affairs; the periodical renewal and extension of the existing system of commercial treatics, together with the ever increasing moral weight of the little entente in the councils of europe, prove that the statesmen of the little en- tente have a firm grasp of both political and economic realities. at international conferences, such as those of the league of na- tions, the representatives of the little entente have regularly spoken as one man, and have therefore contributed to a consider- able simplification of international relations, their behaviour is particularly noteworthy in that it is not only of a united but of a 721 pacifist character. the future aim of the little entente will be still further to promote the pacification and the consolidation of central europe. see also czecioslovakia; europe; rumania; yugoslavia, etc. (e. be.) litvinov, maxim maximovich (1876- ), russian poli- tician, was born at biclostok. when only 17 he entered military service as a voluntecr and while in the army became interested in marxism. when his term of service was completed, he devoted himself to propaganda, and became a member of the kiev com- mittee of the social democratic party. the president of that committee proved to be a police agent and the whole committee was arrested. after a year and a half in prison litvinov with 11 companions escaped from gaol, went abroad and took an active part in the iskra, the social democratic newspaper. when the split in the social democratic party occurred, litvinov joined the bolsheviks, or majority section, returned to russia illegally in 1903 and worked there as a member of the central committee until the revolution of roos5. in that year he attended the london congress as a delegate from the riga committee and took part with gorky in founding novaya zhisn (the new life), the first legal social democratic newspaper to appear within the bound- aries of russia. during the succeeding years of reaction, litvinov lived abroad, where he organised the sending of weapons to the revolutionaries in the caucasus. he took part in the international socialist bureau which he left at the beginning of the world war after protesting against the entry of socialists into bourgeois govern- ments and in general against socialist support of the war. after the november revolution (1917) in russia he was appointed diplomatic agent of the soviet government in england. he was subsequently arrested as a hostage for mr. lockhart, for whom he was exchanged. he afterwards became one of the most im- portant figures in the soviet diplomatic service, as assistant commissar for foreign affairs taking part in the initiation of peace negotiations with estonia, in negotiations at copenhagen with ‘ngland, in the genoa conference and, as president of the rus- sian delegation, in the subsequent conference at the hague. in 1925 he became a member of the revolutionary military council of the union and later chief-of-staff of the red army. liverpool, england (see 16.804)—the population of liverpool increased from 753,353 in 1911 to 802,940 in 1921. the municipal area was enlarged in 1913 by the inclusion of allerton, childwall, little woolton and much woolton to a total area (exclusive of 2,883 ac. of river bed) of 21,242 acres. the death-rate per 1,000 fell to 13-6 in 1924. the policy of slum clearance and the erection of large numbers of cottages followed by the council, which was begun before the war, has had beneficial results. over 6,000 houses had been built by 1924 under municipal housing schemes on large estates at larkhill, allerton and elsewhere, and 460 ac. were acquired in 1925 for a further big scheme at norris green, just outside the city bound- aries. garston has become an important shipping and coal export centre. since 1918 the borough has returned 11 members to parliament. public utilities, etc-—the total area of parks and open spaces is 1,396 ac., including the harthill estate of 323 ac. (1913), the walton hall estate of 1304 ac. (1913), the woolton wood estate of 62 ac. (1917) and the allerton and allerton towers estates of 228 ac. (1924). among important buildings erected since 1910 are the prominent royal liver and cunard buildings, near the janding stage; an art gallery at port sunlight, erected in memory of lady leverhulme; and the midland adelphi hotel. recent monuments include a bronze statue of king edward vil. in front of the cunard buildings; one to the engine room heroes, erected by international subscription in 1916, overlooking prince’s landing stage; one to sir a. l. jones at the george pierhead; and the cunard company’s war memorial column. the proposed liverpool war memorial is a cenotaph in front of st. george’s hall, in addition to the cathedral war memorial, which is a cenotaph and includes the roll of honour. <a holiday home for orphans was opened in 1924 as a memorial gilt from the churches of the city. 722 a merseyside municipal co-ordination committee was formed in 1922, with the object of improving local communications, particularly across the river. negotiations for financial assist- ance from the government were successful in 1924, and in dec. 1925 the boring of the mersey tunnel, which, it is hoped, will provide a solution of the very difficult traflic problem, was begun by the sinking of a shaft on the site of the old george’s dock. when completed, the tunnel, 44 ft. across, will contain a roadway for heavy traffic 36 ft. wide, with footways on each side, and beneath one for lighter vehicles. there will be two approaches on the liverpool side, one for heavy traffic at new quay and one for lighter at whitechapel. on the birkenhead side there will be one approach, near the woodside hotel. the urgent need of an additional water supply led to plans for the con- struction of a third pipe-line from lake vyrnwy (to be followed by a fourth), and the crossing of the mersey is to be effected by laying pipes in the river bed. work was begun in 1925. cathedral.—the work of building the cathedral, practically stopped during the war, was resumed in 1920. owing to the exigencies of the site on st. james’ mount the building lies north and south, the rubrical “east”? thus pointing south. the general plan, which is marked by strong individuality of style, consists of a great central space (200 by 72 ft.) formed beneath a central tower by the crossings of two pairs of transepis, a choir in three bays and a nave—the whole to have an interior length of 480 feet. the principal portal of the cathedral will be at the west side of the tower, not at the traditional west end. the stone is woolton red sandstone, which weathers to a greyish pink in a smoky atmosphere. the first section, which includes the lady chapel, was consecrated in 1910 and the choir, two transepts, and the chapter house were consecrated in july 1924. in the southeast transept is a memorial to the 55th division, and in the war memorial northeast transept there is a cenotaph. the building is heated by the hypocaust system. work on the great central space and the west transept was begunin 1925. (see architecture.) markets—a market was established at garston in 1920, and in 1922 a general market was set up on the site of the wholesale vegetable market in order to do away with the holding of un- authorised markets on waste ground. in the same year the frozen meat market was acquired, as a preliminary to the building of abattoirs and a meat market on the site of the stanley cattle market. port improvement schemes.—large schemes for the improve- ment of the port have been in process of execution by the mersey docks and harbour board since 1906. they include the construction of a great vestibule dock, 1,070 ft. long and 130 ft. wide, with a river lock entrance and two branch docks, at the north end of the dock estate. a lock 645 ft. long and go ft. wide, opened in 1921, connects the new dock with the adjacent hornby dock. these new docks will add 2] m. of quays to the port, and will be, it is said, the largest and best equipped in the world. work was suspended during the war, but was after- wards pressed forward. large extensions have been made to the electric equipment of the port, the landing stages enlarged to pro- vide further facilities for the embarkation of passengers, and a wireless telephone installed from the bar lightship to the harbour board offices. about one-third of the total overseas trade of great britain passes through liverpool, but since the war liverpool has given place to london as the first port for wheat imports. to provide accommodation for the growing oil industry a large area of land, known as the parkhill and dingle estate, has been set apart at the extreme south end of the dock estate for the erection of oil tanks, with pipe-lines to berths in the herculaneum dock. (o. j. r. h.)",
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