LEATHER

several noteworthy advances nave been made since 1g1o in the science and practice of leather manufacture. i. improvements in manufacturing methods new institutions —a notable addition to the institutions engaged more particularly in the study of stientific problems of the leather industry is to be recorded. in 1924 the american tanners’ council established a leather research department in the university of cincinnati as a memorial to members of the industry who lost their lives in the world war. in the first place the department is to be devoted to research work, but eventually it will extend its activities to the training of chemists for the industry. a leather research institute has also been established at the darmstadt technische iochschule. new bating materials —probably the most notable change in the processes of light leather manufacture is to be found in the utilisation of artificial bating or puering materials in place of the natural materials formerly used. in manufacturing soft flexible leathers the skins were exposed, after removal of hair or wool, to a bate or puer made by fermenting the excreta of fowls or dogs. the researches of j. turney wood of notting- 689 ham resulted in the production of a satisfactory substitute from the pancreas of animals, which contains enzymes capable of bringing about most of the desired changes in the skins. under various proprietary names, and usually mixed with ammonium chloride, pancreatic preparations have superseded the old type of puer to a great extent. the artificial bates are free from the objectionable features inseparable from the use of fermented natural material, are more uniform in composition, and their action upon skins can be better controlled. for a few purposes tanners find that the artificial bate is not entirely satisfactory, but a large proportion of european and american tanneries no longer use the natural bates. . new tanning materials —a great number of new vegetable tanning materials have been brought to the attention of tanners from time to time, but the staple materials now used are not very different from those employed in 1910. the use of mimosa bark as a source of tannin has certainly increased, and this material, grown largely in south africa, is exported either as such or in the form of a solid concentrated extract of the bark. several modern extract factories have been erected for this pur- pose at convenient points in south africa, and the product com- petes with the solid quebracho wood extract of south america as a relatively low-priced and efficient tanning material. the sulphite cellulose liquors, by-products of the paper in- dustry, have found some application in the leather industry. although not strictly tannins, when suitably treated they. com- bine with hide substance, and have been successfully used in conjunction with ordinary tanning materials in the production of sole leather. synthetic tanning matertats——as a result of the researches of dr. e. stiasny, of the leather industries dept. of leeds univer- sity, synthetic tanning materials have been manufactured and used on a commercial scale, and were particularly useful when the regular supplies of tanning materials were interfered with during the war. in principle the preparation of synthetic tannin is simple. phenolic bodies such as cresol are treated with sul- phuric acid, and under carefully regulated conditions the product is condensed with formaldehyde and partly neutralised with an alkali. the first synthetic tannin of this type was named ‘““neradol”’ by stiasny and manufactured by the badische anilin und soda fabrik. various firms now produce similar materials in most european countries and in the united states. the synthetic tannins have many of the chemical properties of tannin, and are capable of converting skin into leather, but they appear to give more satisfactory results in practice when used in conjunction with other tanning materials. a great many modified processes of manufacture have been suggested from time to time, but there 1s some diversity of opinion amongst tanners as to the merits of synthetic tannins, and in their present form it is improbable that they will replace the natural tanning materials to any great extent. the chrome process.—the chrome tanning process 1s now utilised in the manufacture of a large proportion of all boot upper leathers. it is estimated that in great britain about 80° of such leathers are now chrome-tanned, and this figure probably represents the approximate proportion used in other countries. chrome-tanned sole leather 1s now manufactured in appreciable quantity, and as the early disadvantages associated with it have been overcome, a waterproof, non-slipping chrome sole, more durable than the vegetable tanned product, is now produced. it will probably be used in increasing quantity, although more costly to produce than the older type, and this fact may restrict its use, use of pigments——in the finishing of coloured leathers pig- ments are now used in increasing quantity, as a more uniformly coloured surface can be obtained than is possible in most cases with coal-tar colours alone. the leather is dyed with solutions of the latter in the ordinary way, and in the final stages of finish- ing very finely ground pigments suspended in suitable media are sprayed or’ swabbed over the leather surface. on the highest grade leathers this may be unnecessary, but the appearance of medium and low-grade skins is improved by the treatment. 690 machinery.—the developments on the mechanical side of tannery equipment have been concerned chiefly with the 1m- provement of existing types of machinery. probably the most interesting to the british sole leather tanner is to be found in the perfection of the unhairing and fleshing machinery. machines which remove hair and flesh from skins and sides (i.e., half hides) have long been available and used in tanneries throughout the world, but the special difficulties connected with the manipu- lation of heavy whole hides were not met until the turner tanning machinery co., ltd., developed the pneumatic roll unhairing and fleshing machine. british sole leather tanners who work whole hides, as distinct from sides, through the earlier processes in the tannery, found this machine particularly useful when manual labour was scarce in 1914-8, and have continued to use it successfully since then. the liming of hides——two devices with the same object— the economisation of labour in the liming of hides—have been patented and found some application in sole leather tanneries. in both systems the hides are suspended in pits containing the depilating solution, and in one (forsare) the liquor is agitated and circulated between the hides by blowing compressed air through perforated pipes fixed at the bottom of the pits. in the other system (tilston, melbourne) the liquor is distributed by means of a paddle which moves slowly along the bottom of the pit. the heavy manual labour involved in handling and setting the hides by the orthodox method, where hides are piled in a pit, is avoided, but both of the new systems require a larger pit space for dealing with a given number of hides than does the older method. in the period under review there has been a notable increase in the number of chemists employed in the leather in- dustry, and there are few important tanneries which do not now employ one or more specially trained chemists on their staffs. (d. mcc.) ii. the trade in leather the main differences in the distribution of the industrysince tort affect the position of great britain and the united states. great britain, with the exception of certain classes of leather, is becom- ing a bigger producer and much less dependent upon import sup- plies. export from the united states has declined in quantity. the rest of the world remains approximately where it was, though there is a tendency to an increase in leather production in those agricultural countries where there is a substantial supply of hides which previously were exported, e.g., south africa. world production of hides ——there has been a small increase in the world’s annual supply of hides, though this increase has not been equal to the rate of increase in population within the same period. every tanning country has a certain supply of hides of its own, but most of the big ones require to import from other countries. dividing all countries into the two categories:—(a) ‘‘ tanning countries’ and (0) “ hide exporting countries,” there has been an increase in the aggregate in the number of cattle in the “ tanning countries ” of about 2% on a total of about 200,000,000 which is a rate of increase appre- ciably less than that of the population of those countries. on the other hand, there has been an increase of about 15° in the aggregate number of cattle in the “‘ hide exporting countries ”’ on a total of about 300,000,000. it is probable, however, that this is an overstatement of the real increase as in one or two countries the pre-war figures were defective. the most important hide producing country from which heavy leather tanners draw their supplies is argentina, in which country there has been a substantial increase in the number of cattle, the pre-war figure being 25,800,000 and the latest post- war figure being 37,000,000. in 1913 the export of frozen and chilled beef from the argentina was only 4,119,000 quarters. in 1921 the figure had risen only to 4,750,000 quarters, but by 1924 the total was 9,547,000 quarters, falling slightly in 1925 to 8,921,000. one of the most significant features about this increase, of considerable interest to tanners in estimating future supplies of hides, is the fact that the increased export has been mainly to the continental countries of europe. before the leather world war argentina exported practically no beef to those countries, but since the war germany, holland, italy, belgium and france have all imported beef from argentina on a sub- stantial scale. if this indicates a change in social habits in these countries leading to an increase in‘ the consumption of meat, there is likely to be a further demand for cattle in south africa and australia, as well as in south american countries, which will react favourably upon supplies of hides for tanners. against this, however, must be set off the diminution in the supply of dry hides from many parts of the world. the hides from the meat works throughout the world are by-products of the meat and would come forward in undiminished numbers even if the price obtained for them was substantially less than at present. dry hides, however, come from the outlying parts of the earth, and frequently the hide has to be carried some hundreds of miles by land before reaching the port. these hides are not forthcoming unless there is satisfactory return for the labour and costs involved, and a distinct relationship can be traced between the price and the supply of dry hides. during the period of high prices in 1919, for instance, some millions of hides were brought forth which would never have come forward but for the high prices ruling. owing to the increase in trans- port and handling charges, the return to the original holder of the hide now is less than it was before the war, and the dimi- nution in the supply is to be measured by some millions. the united states is now taking practically no dry hides, though the consumption in great britain is being maintained. tanning materials —the chief tanning material supplies before the war were quebracho extract from argentina and chestnut extract from various european countries as well as the united states. a rapid increase is shown in the exportation of quebracho extract from argentina and a decline, in comparison with the pre-war figures, in the export of logs, the figures being as follows:— quebracho quebracho logs extract tons tons 1913 383,964 79,684 1920 56,582 | 122,837 1921 30,857 120,100 1922 124,822 167,845 1923 113,639 208,586 1924 93,797 216,322 1925 116,940 274,245 supplies of chestnut, however, are diminishing. in france in particular, exports have fallen very substantially, because the forests in past years have not been properly replanted. imports of chestnut extract into great britain from france in 1913 were 35,800 tons, while the figure for 1925 was only 11,000 tons. in the united states also there is a reduction in the production of chestnut extract, due to the ravages of the chestnut blight. against this reduction, however, has to be set off the increased consumption of wattle bark as a tanning agent. the wattle tree, which was indigenous to australia and was introduced into south africa in the last decade of the past century, has made very rapid strides. ‘the australian industry has fallen to very small dimensions, but the exports of wattle bark from south africa increased from 65,000 tons in 1913 to 121,000 tons in 1922, declining slightly since. in addition to these exports of bark from south africa, substantial quantities are now con- verted into extract in south africa and exported to tanners throughout the world in the form of a solid extract, somewhat similar in appearance to quebracho extract. the biggest tan- ning material company in the world has interested itself in the developments of the south african wattle industry. demand for leather goods.—on the leather side, there has been a substantial increase in the amount of leather made for the upholstery of motor cars. although only a relatively small proportion of the cars manufactured in the world are uphol- stered in leather, the amount of leather required is substantial, and many firms who formerly produced leather for saddlery and harness work have turned over to this class of production. lebedev—lelds, university of a further change is the production of fancy leather for boot and shoe purposes, and the extensive use of coloured leathers has caused considerable difficulty to upper leather manufac- turers, who find that their industry has become one subject to fashion. it is probable that the consumption of sole leather in the world has not increased, as there have been a substantial number of substitutes which have made a certain degree of headway. the competition of substitutes against leather for the soles of boots, however, is largely an economic one, and with the lower prices of hides which have now been reached, it is probable that the field for the substitute will be limited. in belting leather also, in certain countries, substitutes have made head- way, though in the united states, where special propaganda in the interest of leather belting has been undertaken, the substi- tute has declined in importance. (e. c. sn.) lebedev, petr nikolajevich (1866-1012), russian physicist, a master of experimental research, was born on feb. 24 (old style) 1866 in moscow, son of a merchant. he was edu- cated at a german secondary school and a technical college in moscow, and in 1887 went to study physics under kundt in strasbourg. he took his doctor’s degree in 1891 and published his first research on the mossotti-clausius theory of dielectrics. in the same year he was appointed assistant in physics at the university of moscow and in 1892 professor. in 1895 he produced very short electric waves and published his work on the double refraction of electric rays. he also succeeded in proving, experi- mentally (1899), the existence of the extremely small pressure which light exercises on bodies. in 1901 appeared his classical work: experimental research on light pressure (published in 1913 in german in ostwald’s klassiker), finally in 1910 (annal- en der physik, april) he succeeded in measuring this pressure, theoretically determined by maxwell. in 1911 lebedev had to leave the university for political reasons, and started, with his pupils, a private laboratory. his further work was mainly on the origin of the earth’s magnetism, but death from heart failure on march 1 1912 stopped his ingenious experiments. he founded in moscow the lebedev physical society. in 1913 his collected researches were published in russian under the auspices of this society. (a. fo.) le cateau, battle of: see frontiers, battles of the. lecocq, alexandre charles (1832-1918), french musical composer (see 16.355), died in paris oct. 24 1918. ledger: see bookkeeping. lee, sir sidney (1859-1926), a british man of letters (see 16.363), died in london march 3 1926. he was knighted in rorr and was president of the english association in 1917. his lec- tures on the french renaissance in england were published in 1910; and his later works include principles of biography (1911) and shakespeare and the italian renaissance (1915). at the time of his death, he was engaged on the second volume of his official biography of king edward vii., the first volume of which had appeared a year previously. lee, vernon (pen-name of violet paget)({1856- _—i+d),, british author, was born in france, of english parentage, on oct. 14 1856. she lived almost entirely near florence, and was a well- informed and acute student of italian art, history and literature. her studies of the eighteenth century in tialy (1880) is typical of several books of essays; afiss brown (1884); hauntings (1890); vanitas (1892); sister benvenuta (1906); and louis norbert (1914) are among her novels. sutan the waster, a philosophic trilogy, was an ambitious «tramatic satire on war and civilisation (1920), and among many other works may be mentioned gospels of anarchy (1908), essays on political subjects, the sentimental traveller (1908) and the tower of afirrors (1914), essays on the spirit of places, and proteus, or the future of intelligence (1925). leeds, england (see 16.368), had a population of 458,320 in 1921, and in 1925 it was stated to be nearly 500,000. roundhay, seacroft, shadwell and part of crossgates were in- cluded in the borough in 1912, middleton in 1gr9, and part of adel-cum-eccup in 1925, making the total area 30,136 acres. in 1918 the parliamentary borough was redistributed in six divi- sions, each returning one member. the city museum was ac- 691 quired by the corporation in 1921 from the leeds phfosophic and literary society. kirkstall abbey house, an historic build- ing near kirkstall abbey, was bought by the municipality in 1924, and the old kirkstall bridge over the aire was replaced by a new bridge in 1912. the corporation owns the fine mansion of temple newsam, with an estate of 935 ac., in the hunslet rural district in the east of the city, where there is a fine collection of arms and art treasures. a farm in connection with the estate has been worked as a municipal] dairy farm since 1922. at middle- ton 316 ac. have been leased for a public park, and 427 ac. bought for a housing scheme. in 1924 and 1925 respectively the corporation obtained parlia- mentary powers to enable them to carry out very extensive street improvements in the city. new office buildings, capable of ac- commodating a staff of 350,were acquired and equipped in 1925. under the provisions of the leeds corporation act 1924 the city was constituted one township under a separate board of guard- ians by the amalgamation of the former townships of leeds, armley and bramley, ilolbeck and hunslet and the former par- ish of osmondthorpe. the construction of a reservoir at leigh- ton, 46 m. distant, was completed in 1926. in 1926 the tercente- nary of the granting of the city charter was celebrated. leeds, university of (sce 10.43).—in the period under review, the professorial staff has been strengthened by the institution of chairs in english language, philosophy, medieval history, applied mathematics, physical chemistry, agricultural chemistry, bacteriology, therapeutics and clinical surgery. new departments of russian and spanish languages and literatures and of geography have also been established. provision has been made for the residence of both men and women students, the university now has a hall of residence with accommodation for 120 men and four halls for women with accommodation for about 175 students. temporary structures were erected to accommodate the influx of students after the war and private dwelling houses were adapted for various departmental purposes. considerable additions have been made to the site, however, and the efforts of the university authorities are now being directed to the provision of a range of adequate and permanent buildings. the university council has set aside special funds to aid research in all departments. with the help of grants from the government, special investigations have been undertaken in animal nutrition, flax-growing, etc. a staff of research chemists has been appointed in the coal gas and fuel industries department, where investiga- tions are carried out in co-operation with the institution of gas engineers and the national benzole association. an international research laboratory for the leather industries has been established by means of public subscriptions as a memorial to professor h. r. procter. considerable developments have taken place in the department of pathology and bacteriology which works in close association with the leeds general in- firmary and the health committee of the corporation. in the department of agriculture a large volume of advisory work is done in the county. more than 1,400 problems were dealt with in 1924, 750 of them involving personal visits. research is in progress in all branches of agricultural science and organised courses of lectures, demonstrations, etc., are conducted in the three ridings of yorkshire. the rawdon baptist college, the york diocesan training college and the leeds central technical college (printing department) have been affiliated to the university, recognition being given, for purposes of degree work, to certain courses of study at these institutions. in co-operation with armstrong college, newcastle-upon- tyne, the university, at the request of the north eastern railway company, undertook the conduct of lectures and examinations in connection with the company’s educational system—a scheme which has since been extended throughout the area of the london and north eastern railway company’s service. striking developments have taken place in the extra- mural work of the university. five tutorial classes were conducted in 1910: in 1925 there were thirty-eight. in addition to these regular, three-year courses, a considerable number of one-year 692 classes, introductory courses, single lectures and extension courses are given each year throughout the university’s area. public lectures are arranged in the university each session on literature, history, art, science, music, etc., while mid-day music recitals have become a regular feature of university life. between rgr1o and 1914 the average number of students was 650. between ro14 and 1919 the average fell to 540 but rose in the quinquennium rg19g—24 to 1,329. there were 1,435 students in 1925. the appeal for a fund for new buildings produced £263,085 and £124,314 for the development of the university. sir edward brotherton, bart. gave £20,000 for bacteriological research. the clothworkers’ company have made capital as well as annual grants amounting in all to £251,333. sir james roberts and lord and lady cowdray have been generous benefactors. , lee of fareham, arthur hamilton lee, 1st viscount (1868- ), british politician, was born at bridport, dorset- shire, nov. 8 1868. educated at cheltenham and woolwich, he entered the royal artillery in 1888, retiring with the rank of bre- vet-major in 1900. from 1893 until 1900 he was professor of strategy and tactics at the royal military college in canada, during which period he organised the military survey of the ca- nadian frontier. he was british military attache with the united states army during the spanish-american war in 1898, and in the following year was military attache to the british embassy at washington. in rg00 he entered the house of commons as con- servative member for the fareham division of hampshire, which he represented for 18 years. he was civil lord of the admiralty from oct.1903 until the resignation of the balfour ministry in 1905. in ror2 he carried through parliament an act aimed at the white slave traffic. on the outbreak of the world war he rejoined the army, and served as a colonel on the staff. in 1915-6 he was per- sonal military secretary to the secretary for war (mr. lloyd george) and in 1917-8 director general of food supplies. he was made k.b.e. in 1916, g.b.e. in 1918, in which year he was created baron; and was sworn of the privy council in 1919. he joined mr. lloyd george’s administration in ro1gq, first as minister of agriculture and then as first lord of the admiralty (feb. 1g21- nov. 1922). in 1922 he was madea viscount. he was a member of the imperial cabinet in 1921, a delegate to the washington conference, nov. 1921-feb. 1922; and in 1923-4 chairman of the royal commission on the public services of india, for which he was created g.c.s.i. in 1925. in 1921 he presented to the nation, as a residence for the prime minister for the time being, the house and estate of chequers on which subject he writes in this en- cyclopeedia. lefroy, harold maxwell (1877-1925), british entomol- ogist, was born at crondall, hampshire, jan. 20 1877, and was educated at marlborough and king’s college, cambridge, where he graduated in 1898. he early specialised in entomology and became in 1899 entomologist to the imperial department of agriculture for the west indies,a position which he held until his appointment in rg03 as imperial entomologist for india. in 1912 he was appointed to the newly created chair of entomology at the imperial college of science and technology, south ken- sington, and in 1913 he became honorary curator of the insect house of the zoological gardens, london. he devoted himself particularly to the study of the life history of insects of economic importance in the field, and as imperial silk specialist for india in rorg and r916 he did much valuable work for the silk and cotton industries. during the world war as temporary licut.- colonel in mesopotamia he conducted sanitary measures against flies, and in 1917 served as an expert on the royal commission on wheat supplies, dealing effectively with the problem of beetles in wheat. he subsequently devised means of combating the depredations of the death watch beetle in old buildings. he died in london on oct. 14 1925, poisoned by the fumes of a gas with which he was experimenting for insect destruction. his publications include indian insect pests (1906); indian insect life (1909); a manual of entomology (1923); and articles in the | west indian bulletin, the agricultural journal of india, and many official papers. lee of fareham—legal education legal education (sce 9.603).—the purpose of this article is to indicate the main tendencies of legal education in england and wales since 1910, and to trace the general development of legal education in the united states from the beginnings to the present day. i. england and wales the most noteworthy feature of the period under review has been the greatly increased interest which law has received at the hands of those interested in education generally. two principal tendencies have been revealed—first, an increasing demand for scientific legal education for both branches of the legal profes- sion; and, second, the serious consideration by educational bodies of the advisability of including elementary instruction in law in the curriculum of the ordinary schools. systematic legal education is now provided by the older and the newer universities, the council of legal education, the law society and the approved law schools set up by the law society under the provisions of the solicitors act 1922. there are fac- ulties or departments of law at the universities of oxford, cam- bridge, london, birmingham, durham (armstrong college), leeds, liverpool, manchester, shefheld and bristol; and depart- ments of law at the following university colleges: aberystwyth, exeter, nottingham, leicester, southampton, bangor, swansea and cardiff. in some cases these faculties and departments provide qualifying courses for degrees in other faculties. thus, at the university of london, the degree examinations for b.sc. (economics) include industrial law, and for bachelor of com- merce (b.com.) commercial law, contract, banking and insurance. professional law schools —a degree in law, however, is not in england a professional qualification. before he can practise, the student must pass in the case of a barrister the examinations of the council of legal education, and in the case of a solicitor the law society’s examinations. the instruction provided by the council of legal education for such bar students as care to take advantage of it constitutes a complete curriculum in law. the organisation isin the hands of a director of studies and a body of readers of high standing. lectures are given in the inns of court jecture rooms. the law society from the year 1903 onwards has held a school of law at the law society, chancery lane, where lectures and classes under the control of a principal and director of legal studies and a body of readers, lecturers and tu- tors have been given to increasing numbers of students both for the intermediate examination and the final examination of the law society, and in lesser numbers for the degree in law at lon- don university. from 1903 until the passing of the solicitors act of 1922 atten- dance at a law school was entirely voluntary, and a matter of personal choice for each individual articled clerk. by the act of 1922, however, subject to certain exceptions, every articled clerk, before presenting himself for his final examination at the end of his period of articles, must have attended substantially for 12 months at an approved law school. to meet this require- ment law schools had to be organised in the principal provincial towns. the contribution of the law schools at oxford and cambridge to the cause of legal education is noteworthy. these universities supply practically the whole of the teaching staff engaged on this branch of educational activity as well as the bulk of the research students. nor are these activities confined to the academic field. at cambridge there are few colleges that do not possess their law clubs afliliated to the university law society; these bodies meet frequently for discussion and debate, and at intervals hold moots. this practice of mooting, which has also been revived in its ancient home, the inns of court, is a valuable addition to the practical side of legal education. law and general education.—apart from the study of law as a professional education, it may be said that educational estab- lishments generally have come to allow a greater importance to the knowledge of law as part of the equipment of every citizen. considerable attention and prominence has been given to the legal educa'tion matter by distinguished judges and others, and lectures have been given in which the idea has been formulated. it has not yet been found practicable, however, to introduce elementary law into the average school curriculum, and it may be doubted whether such a suggestion is likely to be carried into effect in the near future. clearly, only those who are approaching the conclusion of their school life would be able to profit by such instruction, and it is notorious that sixth-form students already have a very full curriculum. (ei be il. the united states american legal education begins in 1784 (or perhaps 1782), when judge tapping reeve of litchfield, conn., set up the first school for the teaching of the common law. early history—there had been no legal profession in the colonies until the 18th century. before the revolution a certain number of lawyers had received their training in england, in the inns of court. but a system of courts, manned by lawyers and requiring a trained profession to practise before them, was not called for by the economic conditions of the colonies until toward the middle of that century; nor were the executive and legislative justice, characteristic of the colonial polity, wholly superseded by judicial justice until after the revolution. legal education was at a low ebb in 18th-century england. the uni- versities had never taught the law of the land. the medieval system of the inns of court had decayed, and the system that now obtains had not been set up. hence there were no good models at hand after the revolution, and american legal educa~- tion had to develop its own methods. so far as the models were english, they were, first, the purely apprentice training of the lower branch of the profession in england (for in general the united states took the attorney or solicitor for its type, rather than the barrister}, and, second, the academic lectures on the law of the land which began with blackstone’s lectures as vin- erian professor at oxford. this example was followed eagerly in america. wythe’s lectures at william and mary (17709), wilson’s at the college of philadelphia, now the university of pennsylvania (1790), kent’s at columbia (1793) and parker’s at harvard (1815) were of this type. they were not instruction in law to prospective lawyers so much as lectures to young gentlemen as part of their general cultural training. later this plan of academic lectures upon law was grafted upon the appren- tice training which was the first typeof legal education in america. after the revolution, students ceased to go from america to the inns of court. then education for the bar became dis- tinctly american. beginning from this point, three stages of development may be distinguished. these stages correspond to three periods in american legal history. the method of each stage is a response to the needs of the period in which it grew up. apprentice training.—first, there 1s a stage of apprentice training, either in the office of 4 practising lawyer‘or in a law school organised as an expanded law office and applying office methods of instruction. this sort of training sufliced for the needs of the time immediately after the revolution. the develop- ment of judicial justice administered in courts by trained judges called for practitioners who knew the art of the lawyer’s craft. when the united states took over english law as the law of its several commonwealths, in the first instance it took over english legal procedure. except for land law, at the time of the revolu- tion the greater part of english law was expressed in terms of procedure. thus there was need of lawyers who knew how to bring a lawsuit and how to conduct it through the courts. ap- prentice training was adapted to this need. judge reeve’s law school grew out of the practice of taking a number of students into a country law offce where the press of business did not interfere with instruction. just because it grew out of such a law office, the exact date of establishment of the school at litch- field cannot be fixed. the law schools of the period were modelled on that institu- tion. in effect, they were but expanded law offices in which pre- ceptors who were practising lawyers carried on the teaching side of the law office as their chief activity. such was the harvard 693 law school, the oldest of the existing law schools in the united states, in its first stage (1817-29). at this time there was little differentiation of local law. but the whole tendency of the apprentice training was to dwell upon the local and temporary rather than the universal and enduring elements in the body of legal materials, and this unfortunate feature served to develop and entrench many provincialisms in the law of the several states, since, until, much later, the bulk of the profession was apprentice trained. in general the first stage prevailed until joseph story began to teach law at harvard (1829). also in many parts of the country the simpler needs of a rural or even pioneer society required nothing more than ar apprentice-trained profession, so that the method of that stage has persisted in many localities into the present. college teaching. —a second stage begins with the appoint- ment of story as dane professor at harvard, and extends until the epoch-making work of langdell after 1870. there was noth- ing in the way of a rule-of-thumb apprentice training, which, under 1oth-century conditions, could be done better in a law school than in a law office. but with the growth of the law something more than a rule-of-thumb training in practice was required, and the second stage of legal education was a response. from story to langdell the law schools continually increased in influence. the accepted mode of training came to be study in a law school in which law was taught by lectures and from text-books with the teaching apparatus of the old-time college. the era of expansion that followed the adoption of the con- stitution called for creative juristic activity and creative legis- lation. study of substantive law was called for. it was necessary to investigate each item of the common law of england with reference to its applicability to the conditions in the new world. the traditional materials of 17th-century english jaw had to be reshaped so as to make of them a common law for america. a mere apprentice training could not meet these demands. text- books had to be written to guide the courts in the new depart- ments of law, which were formative on every hand. these text- books came from the law schools and soon gained the upper hand as the bases of instruction, even where the whole spirit of instruc- tion remained that of the first stage. the best examples of the second stage are the teaching of story and greenleaf, and later of parsons, washburn and parker at harvard, the teaching of dwight at columbia, and the teaching of cooley and his col- leagues at michigan, scientific study of jurisprudence—in a third stage there is scientific study of the legal system of english-speaking countries on the basis of the sources. an analytical and a historical method, as methods of a general science of law, are applied to the sources, and thus system ts put into each branch and depart- ment of the law. by the time of the civil war the formative period of american law and legal institutions was substantially at anend. with few exceptions, the great text-books that had guided the courts speak from before the civil war. in the last quarter of the 19th century, law books tend more and more to be mere indexes to the decisions: they cease to be creative. the need of the time had come to be in another direction. now there was need of systematising the law which had developed in the period of growth. in response to this demand, within less than a decade after the end of the civil war, langdell, who was appointed to story’s chair at harvard in 1870, had inaugurated the method of study from adjudicated cases which has come to prevail in the majority of american law schools of high grade. this method seeks, through analytical and historical study of the sources, to give a grasp of the traditional art of deciding cases on the basis of reported judicial experience. it teaches the traditional art of developing grounds of decision from the authoritative legal materials. this is the enduring element in anglo-american law. conditions in many localities, in which requirements for admission to the bar are low, and candidates have insufficient preliminary training to enable them to study the sources directly, have led to persistence of the method of lectures and text-book instruction in schools in which the teachers are actively engaged in practice, and hence the spirit is that of = 694 apprentice training. in such schools local law and procedure are chiefly stressed. probably 60° of those who come to the bar to-day are trained in such schools. (r. po.*) legien, carl (1861—1920), german labour leader, was born dec. 1 1861 at marienburg (west prussia). a turner by profes- sion, he entered the trade union movement in itamburg. in 1887 he became president of the turner’s association, and in 1890 member of the general commission of the german trade unions. iie was president of this commission from jan. 1 1891 until the general german trade union association was founded in 1910, when he became its president, which he remained until his death. the leading organiser of the german trade union movement, in rgot he founded the international trade union league, being its first secretary from 1903-19. during the world war he prepared the way for the legal recognition of the trade unions, which was granted in jan. 1918. together with leipart, who succeeded to his post after his death, he formed the arbeits- gemeinschaft (community of labour) at the end of 1918—an institution destined to set on foot the reconstruction of german economic conditions after the war by co-operation between the employers federations and the trade unions, the latter enjoying equal rights. his last great achievement was putting down the kapp putsch in march 1920. he died in berlin dec. 26 1920. legien wrote many works on trade union questions, including die deutsche gewerkschaftsbewegung (1911). legouis, emile (1861- ), french scholar, was born at hontleur on oct. 31 1861. educated at honileur and in paris, after teaching for a year at the college d’avranches, he was made agrege d’anglais in 1885. he was next appointed lecturer at lyons; and after passing his doctorate in 1896, he became pro- fessor at lyons. in 1904 legouis was appointed special lecturer in english at the sorbonne. he is the author of many important critical works on english literature. | among his publications are le general michel beaupuy, with g. bussiere (1891); la jeunesse de wordsworth; tude sur “le prelude,” crowned by the academie frangaise (1896); shakespeare (1899); amor- ceaux choisis de la litterature anglaise, with m. beljame (1905); chaucer (1910); edmund spenser (1923); and with l. cazamian, histoire de la litterature anglaise (1924). he also collaborated in the translation of chaucer’s canterbury tales, crowned by the academie francaise, 1908. legros, alphonse (see 16.380) (1837-1911), anglo-french artist, died in london dec. 8 rort. lehar, franz (1870- _—+), hungarian operetta composer, was born at komarom, hungary, april 30 1870. after studying at vienna and prague, he became a conductor. his opera kukuska, afterwards called tatiana, was performed in 1806, and since then he has written about 30 operettas. the popularity of his music is due to the charm of its melodies; and especially to the orchestration of his waltz themes, which, with their sensuous grace, are typical of 2oth century light opera. his most famous musical comedies are the merry widow (1905) and the count of luxemburg (1909). he also wrote the man with the t hree wives; gipsy love; eva; alone at last; the blue mazur; fras- quita; and paganini (1925). lehmbruck, wilhelm (1881-1919), german sculptor, was born jan. 4 1881 at meiderich near duisburg, the son of a miner. he received his artistic training at the diisseldorf academy, lived from roro to 1914 in paris, where he gained recognition for his art, and afterwards resided in ziirich and berlin. lehm- bruck was a sculptor of great sensibility, and his art, especially in the last phase, is moving in its spirituality and tenderness. his best known works are: ‘ weibliche figur,” in duisburg; “ weiblicher torso,” at the hague; ‘ frau lehmbruck,” at essen; ‘‘ knieende” at mannheim; ‘‘ grosse sinnende ”; “ grosse riickblickende ”’; ‘‘ sterbender krieger ”; “ sitzender jiingling ”; ‘“ emporsteigender jiingling”’, and a portrait of fritz von unruh in frankfurt. he also produced numerous etchings of high merit. he died by his own hand in berlin m arch 25 19t9. sec paul westheim: w’. lehmbruck (1919). leicester, england (see 16.393), with a population of 234,143 in 1921, and an area of 8,582 ac., was created a city in 1919, and has grown rapidly, particularly to the south. at aylestone e legien—leland stanford junior university a town to accommodate 7,000 to 8,000 people is being built (1926) by the municipality on a site of 206 acres. a scheme has been approved by parliament, and is now being carried out, for the reconstruction of old, and the construction of new streets in the centre of the city, allecting between 700 ancl 800 buildings. the erection of a garden city at braumstonc is also contem- plated. a measure creating a diocese of leicester has received the royal assent after passing through the national church assembly and parliament. it will include the whole of leicester- shire, and st. martin’s church, constituted a collegiate church in 1922, will be the cathedral. the harvey lane baptist chapel was destroyed by fire in 1921 and replaced by the memorial hall—completed in 1924. the church of st. augustine’s, new- foundpool, was finished in 1912, and that of st. james the greater in 1914. another new parish was created in 1924, when | the church of the holy apostles was consecrated. de montfort hall, built by the corporation, was opened in 1913. in 1921 a university college was founded, the site and buildings in victoria road being the gift of mr. t. fielding johnson. an extensive addition to the colleges of art and technology has been decided upon and to this end certain ad- joining properties were purchased in 1924. a new central elec- 1ricity station was opened in 1922, and an extension begun in the following year. leicester is a partner with sheffield, notting- ham and derby in the derwent valley watcr undertaking. the first part of the scheme, which includes 35 m. of aqueduct from derwent valley to the ambergate reservoir, was finished in 1912. leipzig, germany (see 16.399), the fourth city of germany and a large industrial centre, had a population of 636,485 in r91q, including mockau and schenefeld, incorporated in 1915; esch- ocker-windorf, leutsch, paunsdorf and wahren, incorporated in 1922, added a further 32,105 persons to the population. the famous fair has been resumed, and is held yearly in september. the university is one of the largest in germany. the termina station, through which most of the traffic between prussia ana saxony passes, was completed in 1915; it contains 26 tracks and covers an arca of 172,000 feet. after the revolution there were serious demonstrations against the government in the city, and in april t919 a soviet republic was set up, but was put down by government troops in the following month. leland stanford junior university (stanford unriversitty) (see 16.406).—the work of the university has in recent years been so reorganised that the first two years consti- tute a so-called lower division with certain specified requirements, including biology, a course in citizenship, etc. the major de- partment system now becomes operative at the beginning of the junior year, and degrees are granted upon the recommendation of the departments. stanford sold most of its large ranch properties in 1919, and in 1925 had about $28,000,000 in invest- ment securities. its educational plant on the campus, together with the stanford medical school, lane and stanford hospitals, stanford school for nurses and lane medical library—all in san francisco—and the hopkins marine station on monterey bay, were valued in all at $11,000,000. the medical school owed its origin to the fact that the director of the cooper medical college in rg1o turned over that institution and the associated lane hospital to stanford. in addition to the schools of law, medicine, and education and the graduate school, there have been organised schools in biology and social science, also in 1925 engineering and a graduate school of business, and in 1926 a school of letters and a school in physical science. in 1921 the food research institute of stanford university was organised with the help of the car- negie corp. of new york to make a study of the production, dis- tribution and consumption of food. new dormitories for men and women have been recently constructed, so that 1,000 men and 250 women live in university buildings. there is a housing scheme by which practically all of the faculty and most of the students live on the campus. volumes in the library numbered 377,904 in 1924, of which 57,722 were in the lane medical library and 27,067 in the law library. herbert hoover, a lemaitre—lemberg, battles of graduate of stanford, presented to the university the hoover war library, comprising approximately 47,500 volumes and numerous documents covering the history of the world war. in 1924-5 the students numbered 3,312, of whom 500 were women and sor graduates. limitation in funds and equipment resulted in restrictions in the body to something over 2,500. there is now a tuition fee of $75 per quarter, and a tuition note system enables students to postpone payment until three or more years after graduation. military training is not required, but there is a field artillery unit of the reserve officers’ train- ing corps, and an ordnance unit was established in 1925. dur- ing the world war, stanford was represented by 3,000 of its members, graduates and’ undergraduates. training corps unit was organised in the war period. dr. rav lyman wilbur became president jan. 1 1916. (r. l. w.) lemaitre, francois elie jules (1853-1915), french critic and dramatist (see 16.408), died in paris jan. 21 1915. lemberg, battles of.—lemberg (polish, lwew), the capi- tal town of galicia, was twice during the world war the centre of a series of battles. the first series constituted the opening campaign between russia and austro-hungary in aug. and sept. 1914; it resulted in the defeat of the austrians and the occupation by the russians of the whole of eastern galicia. the second series was fought some 10 months later during the great russian retreat which was started by mackensen’s oifen sive on the dunajec in may rg15. it gave austria re-possession of lemberg and of practically the whole of eastern galicia. i. the battles of 1914 the main concentration of the austro-hungarian forces for action against russia at the opening of war in aug. 1914 was made in central and eastern galicia. in the general plan of the central powers the rele of the austro-hungarian army was to engage the main russian forces till the german army had over- whelmed france and was free to transfer its principal weight to the eastern theatre. alternative policies —two main alternatives were open to the austrians, to await attack or themselves to take the offensive. if the former course were chosen, the line of the river san, be- tween the carpathians and the vistula, was indicated as the strongest available position. on this they might well hope by an active defence to hold up the maximum russian effort for some time and to win local successes by counter-attack. but defence entailed not only the abandonment of eastern galicia but also the surrender of the passes over the eastern carpathians and the opening of a road into hungary. this might have serious political consequences. moreover, in the years preceding the war, the military opinion of almost every country in europe had proclaimed insistently that offensive action was the solution of all major difficulties in war. certainly conrad von h6tzen- dorf, the chief of the austrian general staff, optimistic by tem- perament, was not the man to adopt a defensive attitude willing- ly. he determined to attack, though the advantages hoped for from a speedier mobilisation were not secured owing to errors made during the preliminary deployment against serbia. the chosen line of attack was northwards against one flank of the polish salient; probably conrad hoped that a german offen- sive might eventually be made from east prussia against the other flank of the salient. the problem of supply was not easy, since the terrain between the vistula and bug rivers, where the advance was to be made, had been left, at the instance of the russian general staff, without good communications in antic- ipation of the austrian plan, it was indeed the obvious direc- tion of any invasion of russia from galicia, since an advance eastwards would leave the lines of communication exposed, while to the northeast lay the trackless marshes of the pripet. the rival forces.—the austrian main forces were divided into four armies, of which two, the i. (dankl) and iv. (auflenberg), were to carry out the offensive, directed on chetm (kholm) and lublin respectively; the it. (bohn-ermolli) and iit. (bruder- mann) were to be deployed east of lemberg to hold off the russian armies advancing from the kiev district. the ii. army a students’ army‘ 695 had, however, been originally dispatched to the serbian frontier, and was at first represented by one corps only, the xii. (kevess). north of the vistula, kummer’s group of austrian landsturm and woyrsch’s corps of german landwehr were to advance on sandomierz and dgblin (iwangorod) respectively, to protect the left flank of the i. army and to foster a polish rising in favour of austria. the russians also deployed four armies on their southwestern front. their plan was almost the exact counterpart of the austrian. they purposed to hold the austrian offensive wing by a defensive force of two armies on the line lublin-chetm, and to smash the austrian defensive wing by an offensive group of two armies advancing west from the kiev military district on lemberg. each of the opponents was thus dependent on the power of his defensive wing to resist the shock of the other’s striking force long enough to enable him to gain a decision by his main effort. both armies had large masses of cavalry, but there was a pro- nounced difference in their tactics. the austrian cavalry sel- dom practised dismounted fire action and were singularly in- effective on foot; the russian cavalry, on the other hand, fought largely as mounted infantry. the russian artillery shot well and was far more effective than the austrian, but the musketry of the austrian infantryman was better than that of his rival; he was also handier in manocuvre. the morale on both sides was excellent at the beginning, although that of the austrian was to deteriorate rapidly under defeat. in the higher command the russians held the advantage. ivanov, the gencralissimo of the southwestern front, was no strategist, though an experienced and well-loved commander; but his chicf of staff, aleksyeev, was one of the best brains of the army; and in ruzski (lit. army), plehve (v. army), brusilov (viii. army), and ewarth (iv. army) he had under him probably the four ablest army com- manders in russia—certainly the four most successful. conrad, the virtual commander-in-chief of the austrian armies—the archduke friedrich was the nominal head—was a man of deter- mined and obstinate character, but a better strategist in the office than in the field; nor were the austrian army commanders the equals of the russian. numerically, the russians had an advantage, though by no means an overwhelming one. the austrian striking wing, which comprised 350 battalions, r50 squadrons and 150 batteries, was superior in strength to the russian iv. and v. armies which had each four corps and two cavalry divisions; but their defensive wing (200 battalions, 170 squadrons, 130 batteries) was con- siderably inferior to the russian iii. and viii. armies, espe- cially before the arrival of the two corps of the ii. army which had been left opposite serbia. on aug. 15, before concentration was complete, the austrian cavalry pushed forward to ascertain the russian movements, but gathered little information. on aug. 20 the i. and iv. armies began their offensive. the first engagements in the neighbourhood of krasnik were favourable to the austrians, the advanced troops of the russian iv. army being driven back on lublin. the austrian i. army was strengthened by kummer’s landsturm corps, which crossed the vistula to join it, while woyrsch’s corps of german landwehr was in close touch on the left bank of the vistula. the mission of these two formations to foment an insurrection in russian poland had proved fruitless. batile of komarew.—the austrian iv. army now became engaged in a battle with the russian v. army, which lasted from aug. 26 to sept. 1. assisted by the archduke joseph ferdinand’s group, which had been formed from troops of the iii. army to manoeuvre between its left and the right of the iv. army, auffenberg attempted a double envelopment of the russian force. this manoeuvre met with considerable success; a large part of plehve’s army was at one time surrounded, and escaped only owing to the sudden withdrawal of the austrian corps which had seized its line of retreat—a withdrawal actuated by false reports of russian troops in its rear. the russian army was broken in two, part retiring on chelm and part on hrubies- zow on the bug. before the austrians could gather the fruits of 696 their victory, events in eastern galicia occasioned their recall. losses in the battle were heavy on both sides. operations in eastern galicia meanwhile the austrian cover- ing force (ii. and iii. armies) had met with disaster. although the ii. army consisted of one corps only and the iit. army was weakened by the absorption of the archduke joseph ferdinand ’s group in the kemarow battle, yet the high command sent the two armies forward to the attack. they joined battle with the russian iii. and viii. armies on aug. 26 on the line of the zlota lipa about zloczew. on the evening of aug. 27 they were forced to retreat. reinforced by the vii. corps from serbia, they again gave battle on the gnil'a lipa on aug. 29 and 30, and again suffered defeat. they now fell back through lemberg, which was evacuated on sept. 2, and took up a defensive position west of the city on the line of the wereszyca and the grodek lakes. battle of gredek—rawa-ruska—the rear of the victorious austrian i. and iv. armies was seriously threatened by the failure of the eastern wing. the question now arose of with- drawing the whole of the austrian forces to the line of the san, or of continuing the battle round lemberg on a different plan. conrad chose the bolder course and determined to seek an im- mediate victory. he ordered the iv. army to break off pursuit of the russians and to change front from north to south. the plan was that this army should strike towards lemberg at the right flank of the advancing russians, while the i]. and iii. armies held them. frontally. the complicated wheel of the iv. army had been executed by sept. 5. on sept. 6 it commenced its march southwards, leaving behind a group under the arch- duke joseph ferdinand to protect its rear. as it advanced south, its left column became engaged with the right of the russian iii. army and was pinned to the east of rawa-ruska, while the centre and right columns, meeting no resistance, continued southwards, and eventually wheeled into line with the austrian iit. and ii. armies, facing east. conrad changed his plan again; he had missed with his left, so now, like an obstinate but unskilful boxer, swung his right at the enemy, viciously but ineffectively. on sept. 7 he ordered the iv. army to stand fast and hold the russians to their ground, while the ii. and iii. armies left their prepared defensive posi- tions and struck northward at the russian left wing. a radical change of plan so hurriedly evolved was hardly likely to succeed. the ii. and iii. armies could make little ground, while the posi- tion of the iv. army rapidly became untenable. in its rear the i. army was being forced back from lublin by the reinforced russian iv. army, while the russian v. army had rallied and was again advancing, driving before it the archduke joseph ferdinand’s weak group. finally the left wing of the iv. army itself was being outflanked north of rawa-ruska by the russian ill. army. on sept. 11 conrad issued orders for a general re- treat to the line of the san. austrian refreat—the withdrawal was successfully carried out without serious interference by the russians. the ii. army retired in the direction of sambor, and the iii. towards prze- myesl, the iv. on jarostaw, and the i., together with kummer’s and woyrsch’s forces, to the lower san. the detachments farther cast, along the dniester, retired to the carpathians. the line of the san was not held for long. the russian iv. army had been reinforced by the ix. army from warsaw and forced a passage of the lower san on sept. 14. the austrians were too shaken and disorganised to enter on a new battle, and resumed their retreat, leaving the fortress of przemysl to stand siege. they finally halted on sept. 26 some 50 m. east of cracow on the line of the dunajec by tarnow and gorlice to the carpathians. the russians, who also required a pause for reorganisation—losses had been very heavy on both sides—made no serious attempt to follow up beyond the san. causes of austrian failure-—the advantage of “ interior lines” which the austrians enjoyed in this campaign has been partly discounted by the great size of modern armies and the time required to obtain the decision in a battle. it 1s true that the germans were at this very period gaining brilliant successes lemberg, battles of by action on interior lines against samsonov and rennenkampf in east prussia, but their achievements were only rendered possible by the inertia of rennenkampf. in galicia, the con- tinued pressure by ruzski’s and brusilov’s armies on the aus- trian detaining wing denied to conrad the time required to complete his successes in poland. but the austrian high com- mand appear to have suffered throughout from lack of a clear- cut plan, and to have depended too much on the course of events. it is difficult to trace in their original organisation for the cam- paign any recognition of the need for that ‘‘ mass of manoeuvre,” capable of being transferred from one wing to the other, which is the essence of action on interior lines. also, the ineffectiveness ‘for delaying action of their masses of cavalry deprived the aus- trians of a powerful weapon. the russian scheme of operations was straightforward and demanded only driving power by the higher commanders and hard fighting and marching by the troops. an opportunity of turning the austrian retreat into a rout seems, however, to have been missed, when the ix. army from warsaw directly reinforced the iv. army instead of being directed west of the vistula on the austrian line of retreat. ii. the battles of 10915 the fighting which led up to the second series of battles round lemberg in the summer of 1915 is described under the heading dunajec-san. after being driven from the san, the russian ill. army (now under lesh instead of radko dimitriev) and vii. army (brusilov) took up a position to the northwest and west of lemberg. their line ran from the vistula along the heights north of the tanew river, thence west of rawa-ruska by magierew and janew to the wereszyca river and gredck lakes. the xi. and ix. armies continued the line southeast along the dniester. comparison of dversaries—mackensen’s pursuing force consisted of the austrian iv., german xj. and austrian ii. armics, in that order from north to south. on the dniester were linsingen’s southern army and pflanzer-baltin’s vii. army. in the number of available formations there was no great dis- parity between mackensen’s group of armies and the russian iii. and viii. armies; on each side there were about 40 infantry divisions, and the russians had five or six cavalry divisions to mackensen’s two. but the two russian armies now embraced an improvised assembly of formations and units taken from all parts of the line; even so their losses "had not been made good and they were much under strength; there was a shortage of ammunition, both for guns and rifles; and morale had naturally suffered under two and a half months of continual defeat. austro-german attack—as usual, the main thrust at the russian position was delivered by the german xi. army. it was directed through magier6w against the line zelkiew- rawa-ruska, approximately at the joint between the russian iii. and viii. armies. the assault was made on june 10, after the russian position had been battered by the german guns, and the attackers broke right through to the rawa-ruska- lemberg railway. brusilov held on to a fortified position west of lemberg till the 22nd, and then evacuated it under the threat that came from the north and the direct pressure from the austrian it. army. re-grouping of armies.—the russian armies were now split apart; the viii. army retired fighting to the line of the upper bug and gnila lipa; at the same time the xi. and ix. armies gave up the dniester line below halicz. the iii. army mean- while, to protect the left flank of the warsaw salient, was forced to retire north towards lublin and chelm. to fill the gap be- tween the iii. and viii. armies, a new army, the xiii. under gorbatovski, was formed of troops drawn from the right of the iii. army and left of the viii. the austrian armies were also re-grouped; the ii. army, the southern army and vii. army were to continue the pursuit eastwards; mackensen with the iv., xi. and a new “ army of the bug,” to be formed under linsingen, was to strike northwards between the bug and vis- tula; while the i. army, withdrawn from the west of the vistula, was to fill the gap between the two groups. lemonnier—lenin the eastern group drove the russians back at the beginning of july from the gnila lipa to the zlota lipa; no farther fighting took place here till the end of august. farther east, pilanzer- baltin’s vii. army and lechitski’s tx. were engaged in an in- decisive conilict along the dniester between july 14 and ro. meanwhile on mackensen’s front the austrian iv. army had been heavily counter-attacked near krasnik by the russian iv. army and had been driven back some distance, losing 17,000 prisoners. the check was only temporary, and so soon as the re-grouping was completed, mackensen again advanced. for the further operations of this force, see brest-litovsk, battles or. (see also eastern front campaigns.) bissliography.—m., von gember, die russen tn lemberg (1916); h. miiller-brandenburg, schlacht bet grodek-lemberg, juni rors (1918); a. w. f. knox, with the russian army 1924-17 (1921); see also worlp war: bibliography. (ay pows) lemonnier, antoine louis camille (1844-1013), bel- gian poet (see 16.415), published among his later works l’amant passionne (1904); tante amy (1906); la matson qui dort (1900) and la chanson du carillon (1911); as well as l’ecole belge de peinture, 1830-1905 (1906). he died in brussels june 13 1013. see l. bazalgette, camille lemonnicr (1904). lenglen, suzanne (1800- ), french lawn-tennis player, was born at compiegne may 24 1899. she was taught to play tennis by her father and began to show brilliance at an early age, winning the championship of picardy when only 14 years old. in june 1914 she won the hard court singles and doubles in paris. during the world war she played in exhibition matches on the riviera for the french red cross 1916-8. in 1919 she made her first appearance at the wimbledon tournament and won both the singles and doubles championships, defeating mrs. lambert chambers in the final round. in the following year she won the ladies’ singles at wimbledon and mixed doubles champion with g. l. patterson. in aug. 1921, after again winning the singles and doubles at wimbledon, she visited america and was de- feated (2-6 retired) by mrs. mallory in the second round of the u.s.a. ladies’ singles championships. at wimbledon however, in the following year mlle. lenglen defeated mrs. mallory 6-2, 6—-o in the final round of the ladies’ singles. in the same year she also won the french national championship, took all three championships in the brussels tournament and was undefeated throughout the season. she again won the singles at wimblicdon in 1923 and 1925, but was obliged to retire in 1924 owing to ill- ness, as she was also in 1926. (see lawn tennis.) lenin, vladimir ilyich ulyanov (1870-1924), founder and guiding spirit of the soviet republics and the communist international, the disciple of marx both in theory and in prac- tice, the leader of the bolshevik party and the organiser of the oct. revolution in russia, was born on april 9 (22) 1870 in the town of simbirsk, now ulyanovsk. his father, ilya nicolaevitch, was a schoolmaster. his mother, maria alexan- drovna, whose maiden name was berg, was the daughter of a doctor. his eldest brother (b. 1866) joined the “ narodovoltze ” (freedom of the people movement),! and took part in the unsuccessful attempt on the life of alexander iii. for this he was executed in his 22nd year. lenin, the third of a family of six, completed his course at the simbirsk gymnasium in 1887, win- ning the gold medal. his brother’s execution, indelibly stamped on his consciousness, helped to determine his later life. in the summer of 1887 lenin entered the kazan university to study law, but was sent down in dec. of the same year for taking part in a gathering of students and was banished to the country- side. his repeated petitions in 1888-9 for permission to re-enter the university of kazan or to be allowed to go abroad to continue his studies met with refusal. in the autumn, however, he was allowed to return to kazan, where he began the systematic study of marx and first entered into relations with the members of the local marxist circle. in 1891 lenin passed the law examinations of the st. petersburg university, and in 1892 he began to practise as a barrister at samara. during this year and the next he appeared for the defence in several trials. his life, however, was 1 narodovoltze was a revolutionary terrorist society. 697 chiefly filled by the study of marxism and its application to the investigation of the course of the economic and political develop- ment of russia and subsequently of the whole world. in 1894 he moved to st. petersburg, where he came into touch with the workers and began his propaganda work. to this period belong lenin’s first polemical writings directed against the pop- ular party, who taught that russia would know neither capital- ism nor the proletariat. these were passed from hand to hand in manuscript form. soon after, lenin started a theorctical struggle against the falsifiers of marx, in the legal press.? in april 1895 lenin first went abroad with the intention of entering into rela- tions with the marxist group abroad known as the “ osvobozh- denie truda,” ‘* deliverance of labour ” (plekhanov, zasulich, axelrod). on his return to st. petersburg, he organised the illegal ‘‘ union for the struggle for the liberation of the working class,”’ which rapidly became an important organisation, carry- ing on propaganda and agitation among the workers and getting into touch with the provinces. in dec. 1895 lenin and his closest collaborators were arrested. he spent the year 1896 in prison, where he studied the lines of russia’s economic develop- ment. in feb. 1897 he was sent into exile for three years to the yenisei province in eastern siberia. at this time, 1898, he mar- ried n. k. krupskaya, his comrade in the work of the st. petersburg union and his faithful companion during the remain- ing 26 years of his life and revolutionary struggle. during his exile he finished his most important economic work, the devclop- nicnt of capitalism in russia, based on a comprehensive and systematic study of an enormous mass of statistical material (1899). in 1g00 lenin went abroad to switzerland with the intention of organising, with the ‘‘ deliverance of labour ” group, the publication of a revolutionary paper intended for russia. at the end of the year the first number of the paper iskra (the spark) appeared in munich, with the motto “ from the spark to the flame!” the aim of the paper was to give a marxian interpretation of the problems facing the revolution, to give the political watchwords of the struggle, and to organise on this basis a centralised “ underground ” revolutionary party of social democrats, which, standing at the head of the proletariat, should open the struggle against tsarism, rousing the oppressed masses, and, above all, the many millions of peasants. the idea of an organised party leadership of the struggle of the proletariat in all its forms and manifestations, which is one of the central ideas of leninism, is closely connected with the idea of the hegemony of the working class within the democratic movement of the country. this idea of hegemony, having become the central point of the leninist political conception and practical work, found direct expression in the programme of the dictator- ship of the proletariat when the development of the revolutionary movement had prepared the conditions for the oct. revolution. the second congress of the r.s.d.r.p. (brussels, london) in july and aug. 1903 accepted the programme worked out by plekhanov and lenin, but ended with the historic split of the party into bolsheviks and mensheviks. thereupon lenin entered on his separate path as leader of the bolshevik section, later the bolshevik party. the differences, which began at first with questions of party organisation, gradually extended to fundamental questions concerning tactics and finally to the question of the party programme. the mensheviks tried to bring the policy of the russian proletariat into line with that of the liberal bourgeoisie. lenin saw in the peasantry the closest ally of the proletariat. the occasional agreements and closer relations with the mensheviks failed to arrest the constant widen- ing of the two lines—the revolutionary and the opportunist—the proletarian and the petty bourgeois. the struggle with the mensheviks forged the policy which led to the break with the second international (1914), to the oct. revolution (1917) and to the change of the party’s name from the compromised title of social democrat to that of communist (1918). a revolutionary situation was created in the country by the defeat of the army and navy in the russo-japanese war, the 2 as <listinct from the press which was published _ illegally—- “underground ” by revolutionaries. 698 shooting of the workers on jan. 9 (22) in 1g05, by the agrarian disturbances and the political strikes. lenin’s programme was the preparation of an armed rising of the masses against tsarism, the creation of a provisional revolutionary government which was to organise the revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the workmen and peasants for the radical deliverance of the country from tsarism, serfdom and all medieval rubbish. accordingly, the third congress of the party, consisting exclusively of bol- sheviks (may 10905), passed a new agrarian programme which included the confiscation of the domains of the landowners and the tsar. in oct. rgos the all-russian strike began. on the 17th of the month the tsar issued his manifesto about the “ constitution.” in the beginning of nov. lenin returned to russia from geneva, and already, in his first article, appealed to the bolsheviks, in view of the new situation, to increase the scope of their organisa- ' tion and to bring into the party wider circles of workers, but to preserve their illegal apparatus in anticipation of the counter- revolutionary blows which were inevitable. in dec. tsarism began to counter-attack. the rising in moscow at the end of dec., lacking as it did the support of the army, without simul- taneous risings in other towns and sufficient response in the country districts, was quickly suppressed. in the events of 1995 lenin distinguished three main features— (1) the temporary seizure by the people of real political freedom, real in the sense of not being limited by their class enemies, apart from and in spite of all existing laws and institutions; (2) the creation of new and as yet only potential organs of revolutionary power in the shape of soviets of workers’, soldiers’ and peasants’ deputies; (3) the use of force by the people against those who had employed it against them. those conclusions, from the events of 1905, became the guiding principles of lenin’s policy in 1917 and led to the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of the soviet state. the suppression of the dec. rising in moscow threw the masses into the background. the liberal bourgeoisie came to the front. the epoch of the first two dumas began. at this time, lenin formulated the principles of the revolutionary exploitation of parliamentary methods in immediate connection with the strug- gle of the masses and as a means of preparation for a fresh attack. in dec. 1907 lenin left russia, to return only in 1917. now (in 1907) began the epoch of victorious counter-revolution, prosecutions, exile, executions and emigration. lenin led the struggle against all decadent tendencies among the revolution- aries; against the mensheviks, the advocates of the liquidation of the “ underground ” party—hence those known as “ liqui- dators ”—and of the change of their methods of work into purely legal ones within the framework of the pseudo-constitutional regime; against the ‘‘ conciliators” who failed to grasp the complete antagonism between bolshevism and menshevism and tried to take up an intermediate position—against the adven- turist policy of the socialist revolutionaries who tried to make up for the inertia of the masses by personal terrorism; finally, against the narrow partisanship of a part of the bolsheviks, the so-called “ callers-off,”’ who demanded the recall of the social democratic deputies from the duma in the name of immediate revolutionary activity, though conditions at that moment offered no opportunity for this. in this dim epoch lenin showed very vividly a combination of his two fundamental qualitics— that of being an implacable revolutionary at bottom, while yet remaining a realist who made no mistakes in the choice of methods and means. at the same time, lenin carried on an extensive campaign against the attempt to revise the theoretic basis of marxism on which his whole policy was founded. in 1908 he wrote a major treatise dealing with the fundamental questions of knowledge and directed against the essentially idealistic philosophy of mach, avenarius and their russian followers, who tried to unite empiric criticism with marxism. on the basis of a deep and com- prehensive study of science lenin proved that the methods of dialectical materialism as formulated by marx and engels were entirely confirmed by the development of scientific thought in lenin general and natural science in particular. thus lenin’s constant revolutionary struggle, in which he never lost sight of the smallest practical details, went hand in hand with his equally constant theoretical controversies, in which he attained to the greatest heights of comprehensive generalisations. the years 1912-4 were marked in russia by a fresh outburst of activity in the workers’ movement. breaches made their appearance in the counter-revolutionary regime. at the begin- ning of 1912 lenin summoned a secret conference of the russian bolshevik organisations in prague. the ‘“ liquidators’ were declared to be outside the party. the split with the mensheviks became definite and final. a new central committee was elected. lenin organised from abroad the publication in st. petersburg of a legal newspaper, pravda, which in its constant conflict with the censorship and the police exercised a guiding influence on the vanguard of the working class. in july 1912 lenin, together with his closest collaborators, moved from paris to cracow in order to enable him to be in closer touch with russia. the revolutionary movement in russia was growing, and was thereby giving the bolsheviks the preponderance. lenin, in active contract with russia, sent articles under different pseudonyms almost every day to the bolshevik legal newspapers, drawing the inevitable inferences from them in the illegal (‘‘ underground ”’) press. at this time, as well as before and after it, n. k. krupskaya, as his nearest helpmate, was the centre of the organising work. she received comrades coming from russia, gave instructions to others on their way there, set up “ underground ”’ connections, wrote conspirative letters, coded and decoded. it was in the small town of poronin in galicia that the declaration of war found lenin. the austrian police suspected him of being a russian spy and arrested him, but he was released after a fortnight and expelled to switzerland. a new and wider phase of lenin’s work now opened. it had an international scope. lenin’s manifesto, published in the name of the party on nov. 1 1914, denounced the imperialistic char- acter of the war and the war guilt of all the great powers, who for long past had been preparing a sanguinary struggle for the pur- pose of widening their markets and destroying their rivals. the patriotic agitation of the bourgeoisie on both sides, who threw the blame each upon the other, was shown to be a manoeuvre to deceive the workers. the manifesto points out that the majority of social democratic leaders were now on the side of the bour- geoisie of their own country, thus violating the resolution of the international socialist congresses and bringing about the down- fall of the second international. it points out that from the point of view of the russian social democrats the defeat of tsarism would be the most desirable issue of the war. the defeat of their “‘ own”? governments should be the slogan of the social democrats of all countries. lenin subjects to a merciless criticism not only socialist patriotism, but different shades of pacifism which dreams of peace but capitulates to war, and, while occupied with platonic protests, withdraws from the revolutionary struggle with imperialism. the struggle with pacifism develops into a great struggle with centrism, that is, with those elements of the working class movement which are midway between the social democrats and the communists, supporting the former in actual practice (for instance, the i.l.p. in great britain). the theorists and politicians of the second international redoubled their accusations of anarchism which they had before brought against lenin. as a matter of fact, all lenin’s theoretic and practical work, both up to 1914 and after, was characterised by a twofold struggle, on the one hand with reformism which from the beginning of the war gave its support to the imperialist policy of the propertied classes, and on the other hand with anarchism and all the different varieties of revolutionary adventurists. on nov. 1 1914 lenin promulgated a programme for the cre- ation of a new international “‘ to undertake the task of organising the forces of the proletariat for the revolutionary attack on capitalist governments, for the civil war against the bourgeoisie of all countries, for the attainment of political power and the victory of socialism.” lenin in sept. 1915 (sept. 5 and 8) there was held at zimmerwald in switzerland the first conference of european socialists who were opposed to the imperialistic war. thirty-one delegates were present. the left wing of the zimmerwald conference and of the later one at kiental adopted lenin’s demand for the transforma- tion of the imperialist war into a civil war, and became the nucleus of the future communist international. the latter worked out its programme, tactics and organisation under lenin’s guidance, and it was lenin who directly inspired the decisions of the first four congresses of the communist inter- national. lenin was prepared for his struggle on an international scale not only by his profound knowledge of marxism and his experi- ence of the revolutionary struggle and party organisation in russia, but also by his intimate acquaintance with the workers’ movement throughout the world. for many years he had fol- lowed closely the internal affairs of the most important capitalist states. he was a thorough master of the english, german and french languages, and could read italian, swedish and polish. his realistic imagination and political intuition often enabled him to reconstruct a complete picture from isolated phenomena. lenin was always firmly opposed to the mechanical application of the methods of one country to another, and he investigated and decided questions concerning revolutionary movements, not only in their international interrcactions, but also in their con- crete national form. the revolution of feb. 1917 found lenin in switzerland. his attempts to reach russia met with the decided opposition of the british government. he accordingly decided to exploit the antagonism of the belligerent countries and to reach russia through germany. the success of this plan gave occasion to lenin’s enemies for a fierce campaign of slander, which, however, was powerless to prevent him from assuming the leadership of his party and shortly afterwards of the revolution. on the night of april 4, on leaving the train, lenin made a specch in the finlyandsky station in petrograd. he repeated and developed the leading ideas it contained in the days which followed. the overthrow of tsarism, he said, was only the first stage in the revolution. the bourgeois revolution could no longer satisfy the masses. the task of the proletariat was to arm, to strengthen the power of the soviets, to rouse the country districts and to prepare for the conquest of supreme power in the name of the reconstruction of society on a socialist basis. this far-reaching programme was not only unwelcome to those engaged in propagating patriotic socialism, but even roused opposition among the bolsheviks themselves. pickhanov called lenin’s programme “ crazy.’’ lenin, however, built up his policy not on the inclinations and views of the temporary leaders of the revolution, but on the interrelations of the classes and the logic of mass movements. he foresaw that the distrust of the bourgeoisie and of the provisional government would grow stronger daily, that the bolshevik party would obtain a majority in the soviets and that the supreme power would pass into their hands. the small daily pravda became at once in his hands a powerful instrument for the overthrow of bourgeois society. the policy of coalition with the bourgeoisie pursued by the patriotic socialists, and the hopeless attack which the allics forced the russian army to assume at the front—both these roused the masses and led to armed demonstrations in petrograd in the first days of july. the struggle against bolshevism became most intense. on july sth grossly forged “‘ documents’ were published by the counter-revolutionary secret service. these purported to prove that lenin was acting under the orders of the german general staff. in the evening “ reliable ’’ detachments summoned from the front by kerensky and cadet officers from the districts round petrograd occupied the city. the popular movement was crushed. the hounding of lenin reached its height. he now began to work “‘ underground,” hiding first in petrograd with a worker’s family and then in finland; he man- aged, however, to keep in touch with the leaders of the party. the july days and the retributions which followed aroused a burst of energy in the masses—lenin’s forecast proved right in 699 every particular. the bolsheviks obtained a majority in the soviets of petrograd and moscow. lenin demanded decisive action to scize the supreme power, and on his side began an unre- mitting fight against the hesitations of the leaders of the party. he wrote articles and pamphlets, letters, both official and private, examining the question of the seizure of supreme power from every angle, refuting objections and dispelling doubts. he drew a picture of russia’s conversion into a foreign colony if the policy of miliukov and kerensky continued, and he predicted that they would consciously hand over petrograd to the germans in order to destroy the proletariat. ‘‘ now or never!” he repeated in passionate articles, letters and interviews. the rising against the provisional government coincided with the opening of the second congress of the soviets on oct. 25. on that day, lenin, after being in hiding for three and a half months, appeared in the smolny! and from there personally directed the fight. in the night sitting of oct. 27 he proposed, at the session of the congress of the soviets, a draft decree about peace which was passed unanimously and another about the land, which was passed with one dissentient and cight abstentions. the bolshevik majority, supported by the left wing of the socialist revolutionaries, declared that supreme power was now vested in the soviets. the soviet of people’s commissaries was appointed, with lenin at their head. thus lenin passed straight from the log cabin where he had been hiding from persecution to the place of highest authority. the proletarian revolution spread quickly. having obtained the land of the landed estate owners, the peasants forsook the socialist revolutionaries and supported the bolsheviks. the soviets became masters of the situation both in the towns and the country districts. in such circumstances the constituent assembly which was elected in nov. and met on jan. 5 appeared a patent anachronism. the conflict between the two stages of the revolution was now at hand. lenin did not hestitate for an instant. on the night of jan. 7 the all-russian central execu- tive committee, on lenin’s motion, passed a decree dissolving the constituent assembly. the dictatorship of the proletariat, said lenin, meant the greatest possible degree of actual and not merely formal democracy for the toiling majority of the people. for it guaranteed to them the real possibility of utilising their abilities, putting as it did in the hands of labour all those material goods (buildings for meetings, printing presses and so on) lacking which ‘ liberty ’’ remains an empty word and an illusion. the dictatorship of the proletariat in lenin’s view is a necessary stage in the abolition of class divisions in society. the question of war and peace provoked a new crisis in the party and the governing body. a considerable proportion of the party demanded a “ revolutionary war” against the hohen- zollerns, leaving out of account altogether the economic situation of russia and the temper of the peasantry. lenin felt that it was necessary for propaganda purposes to drag out negotiations with the germans for as long as possible. but he demanded that, in the event of a german ultimatum, peace should be signed even at the price of a loss of territory or the payment of an indemnity —‘ let us give way in space, but gain time,” he said. the revo- lution kindling in the west would sooner or later undo the hard terms of peace. lenin’s political realism manifested itself in all its strength in regard to this question. the majority of the central committee in opposition to lenin made a further attempt to avoid yielding to german imperialism by declaring the state of war at an end, but refusing at the same time to sign an imperialistic peace. this led to a renewed attack by the germans. after heated debates in the central committee at the sitting of feb. 18 lenin won a majority for his proposal that negotiations should be reopened forthwith, and that the german terms which were now still more unfavourable should be signed. the soviet govt. on lenin’s initiative transferred itself to moscow. peace having been attained, lenin now brought before the party and the country the whole question of its economic and cultural organisation. 1smoliny, originally an institute for the daughters of noblemen, was the headquarters of the bolsheviks during the revolution. 700 the greatest trials, however, were still to come. a counter- revolutionary movement was approaching from the borders. by the end of the summer of 1918 central russia found itself sur- rounded by a ring of fire. hand in hand with the russian coun- ter-revolution there came the rising of the czechoslovaks on the volga; on the north and south came the british intervention (in archangel on aug. 2, in baku on aug. 14). food supplies were cut off. in these conditions of unexampled difficulty, when things seemed hopeless, lenin never even for so much as an hour ceased to direct his party and the government. he estimated the extent of each new danger and showed the way to safety. he carried on propaganda work in meetings and in the press, roused ever new forces from among the masses, organised the sending of the workers into the country to get corn, directed the creation of new war divisions, followed the enemy’s movements on the map; he was in direct telegraphic communication with the young divisions of the red army and looked after their equipment and supplies from the centre. he followed the international situation, finding his bearings by the dissensions in the camps of the impe- rialists. at the same time he found time for attentive inter- views, both with the first foreign revolutionaries who appeared on soviet soil and with sovict engineers about plans for electri- fication or for new methods of utilising peat or of developing a system of radio stations, and so on and so on. on aug. 30 the socialist-revolutionary kaplan aimed two shots at lenin when on his way to a workers’ meeting. this attack intensified the civil war. lenin’s strong constitution quickly recovered from the effect of his wounds. during his convalescence he wrote a pamphlet, tue proletarian revolution and the renegade kautsky, directed against the most prominent theorist of the second international. by oct. 22 he was again speaking in public. the war on the home fronts remained as before his chief occupation. economic and administrative problems had nec- essarily to take a subordinate place. the civil war fed from abroad was at its height. it was only thanks to lenin’s titanic energy, clear vision and unshaken will that the struggle ended (at the beginning of 1921) with the utter defeat of the counter- revolution. the government grew in strength. the main instru- ment of the struggle as also of the further constructive work always was and still remains the party organised by lenin—the party which received a thorough apprenticeship during its period of work “ underground.” the hard school of the civil war produced seasoned main cadres of organisers. lenin always considered the oct. revolution from the stand- point of the european and world revolution. the fact that the war had not led immediately to a proletarian revolution in europe had enormously increased the difficulties of socialist reconstruction. the roots of these difficulties lay in the inter- relation between the town and the village. this roused lenin at the beginning of 1921 once again to consider the problems of the internal economic regime. ‘the socialist reconstruction of society was impossible without agreement between the proletariat and the peasantry. it was therefore essential to change radically the regime of “ war communism ” produced by the civil war. the system of requisitioning superfluities from the peasants must be replaced by a tax correctly assessed. private interchange of commodities must be allowed. these measures, introduced by lenin with the full concurrence of his party, began a new phase in the development of the oct. (nov.) revolution, that known as the “ new economic policy.” lenin pointed out subsequently that such a policy—with of course the necessary modifications— would be an inevitable phase in the socialist reconstruction of every country. in his policy within the soviet federation lenin paid the greatest attention to the position of the nationalities which had been oppressed under tsarism, and he tried in every way to create for them the conditions of free national development. lenin made unsparing war against all imperialist tendencies within the state organisation, and especially within the party itself—the purity of whose ideas he guarded with the utmost jealousy. the charges of oppressing nationalities made against lenin lenin and his party with reference to georgia, etc., were by no means the product of any national struggle, but of the sharp class warfare within the nation. the principles of national self-determination, which in the western european working class movements extend only to the national minorities of the so-called civilised countries, lenin insisted on applying in full to the colonial peoples, and he cham- pioned their right to separate themselves completely from their mother country. [lis doctrine was that the western european proletariat should refrain from mere declarations of sy mpathy with oppressed nationalities, and instead should join them 1 in the struggle against imperialism. at the eighth congress of soviets (1920) lenin nile a report on the work carried out on his initiative for the drafting of a plan for the electrification of the country. the gradual effort towards a high degree of technical development is the mark of the success- ful transformation from the system of small scale peasant economy, with its lack of co-ordination, to the system of large scale socialist production based on a single, comprehensive plan. ‘* socialism is a soviet govt. plus electrification.” the exhaustion brought on by excessive hard work over a number of years ruined lenin’s health. sclerosis attacked his cerebral arteries. at the beginning of 1922 his doctors forbade him daily work. from june to aug. the disease made rapid progress, and for the first time he began to lose, although transiently, the power of speech. at the beginning of oct. his health had so much improved that he once again returned to work, but not for long. his last public utterance ends with the expression of his conviction that ‘from russia under n.e.p. will come socialist russia.” on dec. 16 he became paralysed in the right arm and leg. ifowever, during jan. and feb. he still dictated a number of articles of great importance for the policy of the party on the struggle against bureaucracy in the soviet and party organisa- tion; on the importance of co-operation in gradually bringing the peasants into the socialist organisation; on the struggle against illiteracy; and finally on the policy in regard to nationalities oppressed under tsarism. the disease progressed and he lost completely the power of speech. his work for the party came to an end, and very soon his life also. lenin died on jan. 21 1924, at 6:30 p.m., at gorky, near moscow. his funeral was the occasion for an unexampled manifestation of love and grief on the part of millions. the main work of lenin’s life was the organisation of a party capable of carrying through the oct. revolution and of directing the construction of socialism. the theory of the proletarian revolution—the methods and tactics to be pursued—constitutes the fundamental content of leninism which as an international system forms the culminating point of marxism. lenin’s single aim filled his life from his school days onwards. he never knew hesitation in the fight against those he considered the enemies of the working class. in his passionate struggle there was never any personal element. he fulfilled what he considered to be the demands of an inevitable historical process. lenin combined the ability to use the materialistic dialectic as a method of scientific orientation in social developments with the deep intuition of the true leader. lenin’s outward appearance was distinguished by simplicity and strength. he was of middle or rather below the middle height, with the plebeian features of the slavonic type of face, brightened, however, by piercing eyes; and his powerful fore- head and his still more powerful head gave him a marked distinction. he was tireless in work to an unparalleled degree. his thoughts were equally concentrated whether in his siberian exile, the british museum or at a sitting of the people’s com- missaries. tie put the same exemplary conscdentiousness mito reading lectures in a small workmen’s club in zurich and in organising the first socialist state in the world. he appreciated and loved to the full science, art and culture, but he never forgot that as yet these things are the property of a small minority. the simplicity of his literary and oratorical style expressed the extreme concentration of his spiritual forces bent on a single aim. leningrad—leverhulme in personal intercourse lenin was even-tempered, courteous and attentive, especially to the weak and oppressed and to children. his way of life in the kremlin was little different from his life as an emigre abroad. the simplicity of his daily habits, his asceti- cism in regard to food, drink, clothes and the ‘‘good things ” of life in general in his case did not spring from so called moral principles, but came about because intellectual work and intense struggle not only absorbed his interests and passions but also gave him such intense satisfaction as to leave no room for sub- sidiary enjoyments. his thoughts never ceased to labour at the task of freeing the workers till the moment of its final extinction. his works include: ekonomicheskoye soderzhanive narodntich- esivat krittka evo v knige g. struve, 1895 (yhe economic content of the popular party and mr. struve’s criticism of it. the reflection of marxism on bourgeois literature); k kharakteristike ekonontiches- kove romantisma (1897) (the characteristics of economic romanti- cism), sismondi and our sismondists; rasvitiye kaprtalisma v rossie, 1899 (the development of capitalism in russia). the process of making a home market for large scale industry; chio d yelat, 1902. (what is to be done? french trans. que fatre? the most urgent question of our movement; dre fakt:ki sotsial—demokrati v demokraticheskoi revolyuisit, 1905 (two tactics of the social democ- racy in the democratic revolution); agrarnaya programma sotstal demokratiiv pervot russkot revol yutsiz 1905-1907 (1907), (the agrarian programme of the social-democrats in the first russian revolution 1905-7); za 72 let., 1908 (during 12 years), two tendencies in russian marxism and russian social democracy); afaterialism 1 empiriokrititsism, 1909 (materialism and empiriocriticism). critical observations on a reactionary philosophy; arakkh it, internatsionala, 1915 (collapse of the second international. eng. trans., 1919; sotstalism 12 voina, 1915 (socialism and war. jn collaboration with zinoviev. german trans., 1915); imperialism, kak noveishi1 etap. kapitalisma, ror7 (imperialism, the final stage of capitalism); french trans., 1923; pisma o taktike, 1917 (letters about tactics); uvokt revolyutsit, 1917 (lessons of the revolution. eng. trans., 1918; german trans., 1921); gosudarsivo 1 revolyutsiya, 1917 (vhe state and revolution. engl. trans., 1919). the marxist doctrine about the state and the tasks of the proletariat in a revolution. french. trans., 1919; german trans., 1918; grozyashchaya katas- trofa 1 kak ¢ net boroisya, 1917 (the catastrophe which threatens us and how to struggle with it. french trans., la catastraphe imminente et les mesures de la conjurer, 1918). german trans., 1918; udershat li bolsheviki goeydarst vennuyu viast? 1917 (will the bolsheviks main- tain power? german trans., 1921); proletarskaya revolutsiya i renegat kautskit, 1918. (the proletarian revolution and kautsky the renegade. eng. trans., 1920); french trans., 1919; german trans., 1918; vybory v uchredttelnove sobraniye 1 diktatura proletariata, 1919. (the dictatorship of the proletariat and elections to the con- stituent assembly. eng. trans., 1920); german trans., 1920; detskaya bolezsn “‘levisny” v kommunisme, 1920 (“ left wing communism, an infantile disorder.’’ eng. trans., 1921; french trans., 1921; german trans., 1921); krizis v partii, 1921 (the crisis in the party); o prodnaloge, 1921 (on the tax in kind. german trans.); stranichki iz dnevnika, 1923 (pages from my diary); o kooperatsit, 1923 (on co-opcration. french trans. sur la cooperation, 1924); luchshe menshe, da luchsche, 1923 (better little but good) sobrantye sochineni t.t. 1-19, 1921-4 (collected works in 19 vol.). there are two german editions of lenin’s collected works— ausgewdhlteg werke sammelband, 1925, and auswahl aus seinen werken. (l. t3} leningrad: see petrograd. ~ leoncavallo, ruggiero (1858-19109), italian composer (see 16.455), died at montecatini aug. 9 1910.