{
    "system": "GoGuides Verified Text",
    "api_version": "verified-text-v1",
    "status": "ok",
    "response_type": "verified_text_record",
    "source_key": "britannica_1926",
    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
    "license_code": "public_domain",
    "attribution": null,
    "license_url": null,
    "chunk_id": "1926:latin literature:6afca29c5a73",
    "title": "LATIN LITERATURE",
    "section": null,
    "hash_alg": "sha256",
    "hash_sha256": "a50252a9e1ed3b8744bb03a64f6dc12039b202033ccaf8aaffde2b27592c233d",
    "normalizer": {
        "name": "ggnorm",
        "version": "1.0"
    },
    "verified_text": "during the period from 1911 to 1926 the progress of latin scholarship ran on well- marked lines. the closing decades of the roth century witnessed a great revival of classical study, parallel, if not due, to the great discoveries in natural science. it was realised that the doc- trines which were current, in almost every branch of the study of antiquity, needed to be re-examined; and that the evidence available was far more extensive than previous generations of scholars had been willing or able to contemplate. hence came a great addition to the original sources of infor- mation accessible. newly discovered inscriptions, papyri, monuments of stone and bronze and ancient remains of every kind; manuscripts and the products of ancient and medieval scholarship were newly read or newly analysed, and so made available for wholly new study, often in monumental publica- tions like the corpus inscriptionum latinarum, which, despite its 15 volumes, is still not yet complete. this new stream of research, strictly scientific in character, still continues with hardly any diminution; and students of latin literature have learnt to give heed to the methods and the fruits of these studies. study of the great writers—but the special feature of the years since rg1o has been a reassertion of the older and larger objects of classical study, namely, the interpretation and appre- ciation of the greatest authors, not in a spirit of opposition to the new research, but in alliance with it, and on the strength of its results. thus, for example, in 1896 theodor mommsen was content to determine the date of an inscription, then newly dis- covered on the island of philae in the nile, and to show that it was probably one of the monuments set up or permitted to be set up in his own honour by cornelius gallus during his governor- ship of egypt in 26 b.c.; and hence that it was one of the causes of the anger of augustus and of the fall and suicide of gallus— all good history, but, so far as mommsen took it, with no par- ticular literary bearing. but mommsen’s results have since! been combined with what we have now learnt about the poct-soldier gallus from a deeper study of virgil’s eclogues, and with what the ancient commen- tators record about the curious ending—or want of ending—of book lv. of the georgics, so as to make clear how it was that virgil came to mutilate what was probably the most perfect poem he ever wrote; and to suggest also how innocent his bosom- friend gallus, despite his gascon vanity, had been of the graver charges laid against him. in this way a fact of virgil’s expe- rience, which must have contributed profoundly to shape his general outlook, appears in clearer light, and the standing riddle of the aristaeus - proteus - orpheus - digression has found its final solution; the whole patchwork is nothing but a half-hearted attempt to replace the praise of gallus (and of egypt) by piecing together three epyllia, of the poct’s own earlier work, short narrative poems in the alexandrine style. of similar interest is the discovery by prof. g. e. k. braun- holtz, in the course of studies of the ancient place-names of north italy and of the family-names of the same area recorded on inscriptions, of new evidence which places virgil’s farm near calvisano, 30 roman m. northwest of mantua, not at the tradi- tional site two m. to the southeast in the marshes of pictole. this has elucidated the story of his expulsion from his farm in 41 b.c., and thrown much light on all the eclegues whose scene is laid in north italy—that is, as has been now pointed out, all those with odd numbers. new and more searching methods of manuscript study have also added much to our knowledge of latin authors. the oxford series of texts with critical notes, though they vary a good deal in the fullness of their record, have at least made it difficult for an editor of any ancient book to frame his text or comment without regard to the evidence of the different manu- scripts and the judgment of competent scholars upon their worth; just as no future editor of juvenal can dispense with 1 see below under d (new studies of a great inheritance, c. v.). 663 prof. a. e. housman’s text (1905), or of the culex (now attrib- uted to virgil by a clear and marked preponderance of expert opinion) without the same scholar’s appurutus criticus; or of the metamorphoses of ovid without the critical edition by h. magnus. dr. j. p. postgate’s tibullus and phaedrus, and profs. r. s. conway and c. f. walters’ livy i-v. and vi.-x., prof. hi. w. garrod’s statius (thebuid and aceilletd)—all five vol- umes in the oxford series—have offered similar service towards the better understanding of these authors. further, the more profound analysis of the history of manu- scripts due to such scholars as l. traube, a.c. clark and e. k. rand, besides the editors just mentioned, has revealed the fre- quency, not to say regularity, of certain causes of corruption— especially the loss of whole lines, or groups of lines, in uncial codices, and has thus imposed a certain check on haphazard emendation, and given new guidance for our procedure (or non- procedure) in difficult cases. one result is that the formula with which the most brilliant critical scholar of the 19th cen- tury, j. n. madvig, was wont to cut the worst knots—“ livius scribere debuit ” (so and so)—has disappeared from the work of self-respecting scholars. we have learnt so much more of the possibilities of error in tradition that we are humbler in framing judgments on the writings of great authors in the form in which the centuries have left them. these illustrations will suffice to show the way in which new knowledge in epigraphy, in the study of place names and in textual criticism has deepened the study of ancient literature. it would be easy to increase their number by others drawn from comparative grammar, comparative religion, glossography and the many recent developments of archaeology. a typical exam- ple of the application of several different lines of inquiry to a literary purpose is w. warde fowler’s exposition ? of the carmen saeculare of horace and its performance on june 3 17 b.c., which combines the results of his own studies of roman ritual with the evidence of recent excavation on the palatine and of the inscrip- tion of augustus (discovered in 1890) recording the celebration and containing the words carmen composutt qo. horatins flaccus. to such indications of growing knowledge perhaps it may be serviceable, so far as the judgment of an individual scholar may be trusted in such a matter, to suggest a few parts of the field of latin study which seem to have been comparatively neglected in the period under review. chief among these is certainly the text of fforace, where the number of mss. is very large, and our knowledge of them, both in quantity and quality, lament- ably small. next, the metre and language of plautus; for, despite the work recorded below, no commentator seems yet to have realised the far-reaching effects of the sonnenschein- wallstedt * discovery of the lawfulness of a spondee, even one whose first syllable bears the word-accent, in the fourth foot of an lambic senarius, provided that accent and ictus coincide in the fifth and sixth feet; ¢.g., in trinummus, 410, “quam si tu obicias formicis papaverem,” the fourth foot micis is a spondee with the first syllable accented, but is legalised by the coincidence of word-accent and verse- ictus in the quadrisyllable (papdverem); a similar solution applies to the corresponding difficulty in trochaics. catullus, tibullus and statius, though frequently edited in whole or part, have not yet been adequately handled in the light of our present knowledge, though on statius much valuable work has been recently done. for a commentary on the nat#- rat itistory of pliny, that discursive encyclopaedia of ancient learning, the student is often obliged to go far back into the roth century, or farther still, for even the most obvious kind of help. besides actual commentaries, this period has produced a wealth of critical studies, directed to determining as precisely as possible, in the light of all the evidence yet available, what were the actual thoughts and motives of the greatest authors viewed in relation to the history of their times, rather than to 2 see below, roman essays and interpretations, p. 3. — 3 emil wallstedt, studia plautina, lund univ. arskrift, 1909. afd. 1 (esp. p. 89 ff.). e.a. sonnenschein, accent and quality in plauiine verse, class. rev. 20, p. 156 (1906). 664 appraising their merit in the abstract—a vain ambition, respon- sible for much writing of a type fashionable in the roth century, which now seems superficial. contrast, for example, coning- ton’s introduction to his edition of virgil with that of 8.g. owen to ovid’s tristia (book 2); or with the series of volumes initiated by warde fowler, devoted at first to the interpretation of the aeneid, book by book, and later to other virgilian topics; such a series could hardly have been projected or published in any earlier epoch of scholarship. linked with this interpretative effort has been a desire, mani- fest alike in britain, amcrica, france, italy, germany, holland and scandinavia, to arrive at a clearer conception of the per- sonality of the different authors, a desire more manifest than in any period since the new learning of the 16th century. indeed, in this and other ways the enterprising spirit of scholar- ship in the last quarter of a century has proved itself akin to that of the times of thomas more, spenser and ben jonson. another is the multitude of translations of latin authors begun in this period and still being poured out in many different scries, affording no less clear evidence of quickened popular interest in classical study than did, in their own great way, the famous renderings of the blizabechan era, north’s plutarch and wol- land’s livy, to name no others; and in yet another feature, the abundance of what may be called propagandist literature which has grown up around latin studies, the work of the 2oth cen- tury shows a striking tendency to parallel, if not to imitate, the warm-hearted pleading of roger ascham or sir philip sidney. it is well to add that one of the features of the period has been the new organisation of the classical periodicals published in great britain; others have been newly established in the united states, italy, germany and sweden. the classical quarterly had been separated, as an organ of research, from the classical review in 1906; but in 1910 both became the property of the classical assn., a body whose influence has done much to evoke and to guide the active work just described. in 1910 also a con- cordat was made between that association and the society for promoting hellenic studies and the then newly formed socicty for promoting roman studies respectively, by which the prov- ince of the classical quarterly was declared to be greek and latin language and literature (including texts, manuscripts and indo-european philology) approached by all methods save those mainly dependent on architectural remains or other archaeo- logical evidence; whereas all study largely concerned with these was reserved for the journal of hellenic studies and the journal of roman studies in their proper spheres. this agreement has been happily carried out. further, when tie journal of philology, long maintained by the support of the cambridge philological society, was allowed to lapse (in 1920), that support was transferred to the classical quarterly. the review and the quarterly, with the year's work in classical studies, established by the classical assn. in 1906, are managed for it by the classical journals board, on which the philological societies of oxford and cambridge are repre- sented. all the classical periodicals of great britain are there- fore now conducted on a definite scheme which precludes overlapping. in america, beside the old-established american journal of philology and classical philology (a quarterly estab- lished in 1907), the classical journal (appearing in nine months of the year), which was founded in 1905, had by 1916 become the organ of the three powerful associations which now repre- sent classical studies in nearly the whole area of the united states. in italy the rivista indo-greco-italica began in 1916; in germany gloita (zeitschrift fiir griech. u. lat. sprache) at gottingen in 1911; die antike (at berlin) in 1923; and gnomon at berlin in 1924. in sweden there was founded in 1925 litieris, an international critical review of ithe humanities, edited by scandinavian scholars with associates in germany, denmark, england and france. to this brief survey of the general tendencies of latin scholar- ship may be added for practical purposes a brief list of the chief contributions to its different branches which have appeared in latin literature the period under review. the list is necessarily incomplete, but care has been taken to make it as representative as possible. it is largely based on surveys by prof. j. f. dobson and mr. a. d. nock in the year’s work, where fuller information will be found. the following list excludes (a) all publications dealing with a portion only of some large work, and (0) all new editions of books published before 1911, save a few in either class of excep- tional importance. a. crivical texts of latin authors; and textual studies. 1. five excellent series, two begun in this period, all continue: (a) in the oxford bibliotheca classica, livy 1-5 (1914) and 6-70 (1919); r. s. conway and c. f. walters jointly (27-25 in the press); ovid, tristia, halientica, fragmenta, 5. g. owen (1915); phacdrus, a ee postgate (gig); statius, suvae (2nd ec., 1918), ie s. philli- more; thebaid and achilleid (1911), ih. w. garrod; lrpullas: °j.2, postgate (1914). (6) in teac s texts'(many re-edited): e.g., a picius, c. giarra- tano and f. volimer (1922); cate (1923), g. goetz: livy 41-45 and fragments (1912); w. llcraeus: aartianus capella, a. dick (1925). (c) in the corpus paravianum (turin): e.g., caesar, bellam civile (1916), d. bassi; cainlius (1916) and cicero, de republica (1916), both by c. pascal: justin (1921), m. galdi. (d) in the collection bude (paris): e.g., lucrefins, a. ernout; ovd, ars amatoria, h. bornecque; seneca, ae r. waltz. (ec) in hans lictzmann’s kleine texte (bonn): ‘cicero pro milone, with asconius and the schol. bobiensia gor is p, wessner; vitae virgilranae (1911), e. dichl. 2. single works: ovid, afetamorphoses (berlin, 1914), if. magnus. see also under b. 3. textual studies: a puleits, d. s. robertson, class. quarterly (18), 1924. bis, a. e. housman, journal of philology, 35 (1920), p.. 287. livy: kr. s. conway,-c: f. walters, j. f. dobson, a. kyd, florence whitehead, class. quarterly, 4-2 (1910- ss welk anderson, in class. quarteriy, from 5 (1911) to ii (1917). martial and persius; a. e. housman, class. quarterly, 13 (1919) and 7 (1913); thebaid; ix. h1. alton, class. ouarterly, 17 (1923), p. 175. thebaid 2: w.b anderson, class. quarterly, 18 (1924), p. 203. vargrtl: culex, e. hi. alton, hermathena, i4 (1920), p. 68 (based on a. e. ifousman's = apparatus criticus to the culex,” camb. phil. soc. trans., 7, 1908). b. epimtions with commentary: prose authors: caesar, beil. gallicum (oxf., 1914), t. rice holmes; cicero, de divinatione (illinois, 1923), a. s. pease; disput. tus- culanae (berlin, 1918), m. pohlenz; ad qo. fratrem (leipzig, 1911), hi. sjigren; de finibus zr, 2 (camb., 1925), j. s. reid; of the great commentary on the whole correspondence (dublin, 7 vol.), r. y. tyrrell and l. c. purser, the second edition as far as vol. 5 was completed by l. c. purser in 1915; livy 6-8, o. rossbach (1925); ammianus afarcellinus, c. u. clark (1910 onwards); ascontus (rome, 1920), c. giarratano; apuleius, aaa (citta di castello, 1914), g. marchesi, also (oxf, 1915), h. e. butler and a. s. owen; quintilian, book 1 (camb., 1924), f, i ‘colson; minucius felix (utrecht, 1923), j. van wageningen; st. augustine, de crvitate det (london, 1924}, j. e. c. welldon. poets: ennius (cambridge, 1925), ethel m. steuart; lucretius 1 and 2 (paris, 1925), ernout; and posthumously (berlin, 1923), h. diels; horace, odes and nee (cambridge, 1921), h. darnley naylor, also (bertin, 1917), r. heinze; satrres (paris, 1912), : plessis and p. lejay jointly; virgil, culex (paris, 1912), c. plesent, bucolics (paris, ee), plessis; georgics (paris, 1915), ip. lejay; grattius (oxford, 1918), p. [i enk: manilius 1-q (london, vol. 4, 1921), a. e. housman, also completely (amsterdam, 1921), j. van wageningen; ovid, tristia 2, (oxf., 1925), 5. g. owen. c. translations, i. series: a) oxford translations, e.g., catullus (in english verse, 1924), sir w. s. marris. (b) loeb series: e.g., caesar’s gallic var (1914), hf. j. oe cicero’s letters to atticus (1914), e. o. win- stedt; velleius (1914), f. w. shipley; apuleius’ metamorphoses (1914), s. gaselee. (c) bell’s classics; varro on farming (london, 1912), lloyd storr-best. 2. singly: lucretius on the nature of things (london, 1918), sir r. allinson. d. literary studies and surveys. i. sfudies: (a). of the poets: the original element in plautus (cg ae 1917), k. m. westaway; plautinisches in plautus (berlin, 1922), fe. frankel; ennius und vergilins (leipzig, 1915), e. nee new light on lucretius, john rylands, £76. bulletin, 1926), postgate; the carmen saeculare (ci. quarterly, 4, p. 145), ww aa fowler; horace and his age (london, 1917), j. f. alton; orazio lirico (florence, 1920), g. pasquale; izerace, a new interpretation (london, 1924), a. y. campbell. of virgil: in blackwell’s series (oxford; continuing) vergii’s gathering of the clans (1916), aeneas at the site of rome (1917), the death of turnus (1919), all by w. warde fowler; beasts, birds and bees in the georgics (1914), t. f. royds; culex (1926), d. l. drew. latvia other studies: the culex, s. elizab. jackson, cl. quarterly, v. (1911); ‘‘ the nationality of vergil,’”’ class. review (1915), g. le. k. braun- holtz; ‘‘ copa eclogue 5’”’ and ‘‘ georg. 3, 1-48,\" ciass. quarterly (1922-5), d. l. drew; die geburt des kindes, eclogue 4 (leipzig, 1924), e. norden; where was vergil's farm? (eclogues 1 and 9; john rylands, libr. bulictin, 1923), r. s. conway; der bukoliker vergil (stuttgart, 1922), k. witte: vergil’s biographia litteraria (oxf., 1920), n. dewitt; virgil and izis meaning to the world of to-day (boston, 1924), j. w. mackail. of horace, virgil and others: collected studies in greek and latin scholarship (camb., 1913), a. w. verrall; roman essays and in- terpretations (oxf., 1920), \\w. warde fowler; new siudies of a great inheritance (ciccro, horace, virgil and livy; london, 1921), r.s. conway; les sources de lucain (paris, 1912), r. pichon; studi di letteratura e filologia latina (turin, 1917), e. stampini; late poetry (london, 1922), e. e. sikes. (b) of prose authors: cicere of arpinum (yale, 1914), e.g. sihler; cicero, a biography (univ. of california, 1920), t. petersson; les procedes d'art de tacite dans les iistoires (paris, 1918), e. courbaud; studies in fronte (camb., 1912), m. dorothy brock; studia amniia- nea (upsala, 1921), 11. hagendahl. 2. surveys: the love of nature among the romans (london, 1912), sir archibald geikie; agricola (ancient italian agriculture; camb., 1912), w. e. heitland; the silver age of latin literature (london, 1920), walter c. summers; geschichte d. lat. litteratur (vol. 1 down to roo b.c., berlin, 1913), f. leo; storta della letteratura romana (2 vol., naples, 1912, 1916), a. g, amatucci; the legacy of rome (oxf., 1923), edited by c. bailey; the writers of rome (london, 1923), t; oe duff; kleine schriften von fr. skutsch, ed. by w. kroh 1914). e. lexica and indices. the vast thesaurus lingnae latinae (berlin) is being resumed with e. norden in place of f. vollmer as editor-in-chief: in 1909 the letter c was completed in vol. 4; in 1913 appeared vol. 3 of the onomasticon (now separate), with proper names beginning with c. index catul- lianus (new haven, 1912), n. m. wetmore. index lucretianits (gothenburg, 1911), j. paulson. h. merguet’s vergil-lexicon (com- pleted, leipzig, 1912), h. frisch. index to suetonius (1922), a. a. howard and c. n. jackson. f. merrical theory. metrique (vol. 7 of manuel des eiudes grecques et lat., ed. 2, paris, 1919), l. laurand; early latin verse (oxf., 1922), w. m. lindsay; prosodia latina (oxf., 1923), j. p. postgate; rhythm in prose: der constructive rhythmus in ciceros reden, m. zielinski (1914). g. historicaal and comparative grammar. report of the joint committee (of eight educational associations) on grammatical terminology (london, 1911), e. a. sonnenschein and others. handbuch d. lat. laut- u. formenlehre (ed. 2, heidelberg, 1914), f. sommer; the making of latin (london, 1923), r.s. conway. the second edition of karl brugmann’s grundriss der vergleichenden grammatik was completed by the publication of vol. 2, part 2, in iqii. h. new sources and other arps. i. manuscripts and papyri: the vi. century fragment of pliny's leiters (washington, 1922), e. kk. rand and e. a. lowe; jews and christians in egypt (london, 1924), h. 1. bell, contains a letter of the emperor claudius; vorlesungen und abhandlungen von l. traube, edited by f. boll (1909-20) which, though written in greek, should be mentioned here. 2. glossography: ancient lore in mediaeval latin glossaries (oxf., 1922), w. m. lindsay and ii. j. thomson; jsidore and festus (oxf., 1912), both w. m. lindsay; corpus glossariorum lat., vol. 1 (leipzig, 1923), g. goetz. 3. palaeography: introduction to greek and lat, palaeography (oxf., 1912), sir e. maunde thompson; contpanton to classical texts (oxf., 1913), f. w. hall; storia e critica dt testi latini (catania, 1914), r. sabbadini; notae latinae (camb., 1915), w. m. lindsay; the descent of manuscripts (oxf., 1918), a. c. clark. chronology: the chronicle of s. jerome (2 vol., london, 1923), j. k. fotheringham, (ks...) latvia.—a baltic state and a member of the league of na- tions. the republic of latvia, lying east and south of the gulf of riga, was proclaimed on nov. 18 1918. it embraces the provinces of vidzeme, kurzeme, zemgale and latgale, covering an area of 24,400 sq. m., with a population of approximately 2,000,000 inhabitants, mostly lutherans, divided, according to the census of 1925, in the following proportions: letts 75-93%, russians 10:28%, jews 4-5%, germans 3°4%, poles 2-5% and other nationalities 3-39%. the principal towns with their popu- lations are riga, 337,609; libau (liepaja), 60,762; dvinsk (daugavpils), 40,640; mitau (telgava), 28,325; and windau (ventspils), 16,384. 665 i. constitution the constitution law, passed on feb. 15 1922, came into force on nov. 7, on the election of the first latvian parliament (saci- ma) composed of one chamber. the supreme executive power is vested in the electorate, which is composed of authenticated citizens of either sex who have attained the age of 21 years. latvia english miles _ 22 80 eee kilometres oom oe fe. ae .o . 40 ao ar sohena ba tweed main railways =e volk oy rg”. provincial boundaries (a) 22° (b)langitude east(c)of greenwich (d) 28\" (e) no lists are made of the electors, and consequently the voters are not bound to wards. the elections are effected by general, equal, direct voting, on the basis of proportional representation. the elec- torate is entitled (a) to elect 100 members of parliament (saeima); (6) at the instance of the president of the republic to decide, by means of a referendum, upon the dissolution of the saeima, and thus indirectly on the president's resignation; (c) to submit to the saeima amendments of the constitution or other proposed legislation on the demand of not less than one-tenth of the electorate; and finally, to demand a referendum for the adoption or rejection of bills ard legislative resolutions. this right may be exercised in three ways? (1) by the obligatory referendum for proposed amendments to the constitution; (2) by the permissive cn series in case on his own initiative or on the motion of at least one-third of the members of the saeima, the president postpones for two months the promulga- tion of a law passed by the sacima, and if not less than one-tenth of the clectorate demand a referendum; (3) a legislative proposal brought forward by the nation is also put to the public vote if not accepted by the saeima without alterations in the text. the sacima is elected for a term of three years, and its authority expires on the convocation of the new saeima. the elections take place on the first saturday and sunday in oct., and the new house assembles on the first tuesday in november. the minority of the sacima (not less than one-third) may demand the establishment of an inquiry commission and the shelving of a law passed by the sacima for two months pending a referendum. the president of the republic is elected by the sacima for a term of three years, with the possibility of being returned for a further period of three years, but his tenure must not exceed six consecutive years. the president has the power of initiating legislation, of granting amnesty rights, he is the chicf of the armed forces of the state, and is vested with a suspensive veto right, though he may dissolve the saeima only after a referendum. ile may not be under 40 years of age. the cabinet of ministers is the executive organ. the responsibility of the ministers to the saeima is formulated in article 59 of the constitution. the prime minister and the members of his cabinet require the confidence of and are responsible to the saeima for the:r official actions. the whole cabinet must resign if the sacima passes a vote of censure against the prime minister. lf a vote of no con- fidence is passed on one of the ministers, he must resign, and the prime minister appoints another person in his stead. by the cabinet law of april 1 1925, a vote of confidence of the saeima is required before the cabinet or a new minister may take up office. the cabinet has the right in certain cases to proclaim martial law, and to issue emergency regulations. resort was had to these powers on different occasions in the early days of the republic. the con- stitution secures freedom of action for the courts of law. the state control law of aug. 2 1923, based on paragraph 88 of the constitution provides latvia with a completely independent and active state control department. the constitution of the latvian republic does not contain the usual legal guarantees for the citizens, but the right of assembly and the freedom of the press are guaranteed by special laws which were passed by the first latvian parliament. the cultural autonomy of the national minorities has been legalised by the national council. | ii. political history latvia’s geographical location contributes to its political importance. this constant factor has always influenced the 666 historical development of the country. thus an important part is played by latvia in connection with the problem of the domint- um maris baltict in the history of north-eastern europe. the solution of this problem one way or the other has always affected the political position of the peoples on the baltic seacoast. in the gth century the vikings crossed the baltic to russia, in the 12th the germans proceeded from bremen and liibeck to col- onise the baltic coast, establishing a staple market at wisby (gothland). by then, the already politically organised latvian tribes (kurs, semgallians, seli, talavians, latgalians), moving seawards, had reached the mouth of the river dvina and the seacoast, and assimilated the inhabitants of the coast, the livs (of finnish origin). the latvian tribes, however, had not yet crystallised into an organised united state, and, while the scan- dinavians were distracted by internal disturbances, the germans gained a footing in livonia. after fighting until about 1450, an episcopal state was founded in conjunction with the livonian order, as the precursor of the federal state of livonia founded about the middle of the rs5th century, and embracing estonia and latvia of to-day. the problem of the baltic sea was again acute towards the middle of the 16th century, when moscow turned to the baltic coast after having destroyed the trade of novgorod (a hanseatic creation) and annexed the ruthenian duchies bordering on latvia. then it was that the hanseatic structure of all the baltic began to fall, while germany was in the throes of the reformation movement and sweden evinced a desire to establish itself beyond the baltic sea. having made a union with lithuania, poland too, showed a tendency to expand in the same direction. these conflicting efforts led to a partition of livonia, and so estonia became swedish, livonia polish, pilten in north courland and the isle of oesel danish, while courland was converted into a duchy under polish suzerainty, and later became an important state under duke jacob, a godson of james i. of england. simultaneously with the expansion of sweden’s power, livonia and riga were occupied at the beginning of the 18th century, whereby the swedes contributed largely to the cultural progress of these parts by founding schools, establishing legal and clerical order, protecting the peasantry and translating the bible. lat- galia alone was left under polish rule. by then an united latvian people had evolved out of the separate tribes, though the estate owners were not latvians. this continued until the beginning of the 18th century, when, in alliance with poland, russia under- mined sweden’s power and under the treaty of nystad, 1721, occupied south finland, estonia and livonia, afterwards turning on poland and destroying her. the whole of latvian territory was united under russian rule after the partitions of poland (1772-95). the reforms intro- duced by the swedes were rescinded, and the estates which were formerly held in fee became the hereditary possession of the nobility. the position of the peasants grew worse, and repeated revolts ensued. only in 1807 a law was passed in st. petersburg giving the peasants hereditary possession of the land cultivated by them on their own behalf. but after napoleon’s downfall, this law was modified to the effect that the landlords retained possession of the land, which the peasants could acquire by purchase only. the landed proprietors, mostly german balts, also recovered all their feudal privileges, as game and fishirg rights, and patrimonial rights. they also enjoyed the sole right to establish industrial enterprises. this state of affairs lasted till the beginning of the 2oth cen- tury, and only shortly before the world war was the idea of a limited self-government with the participation of the more important small landowners conceived. during the 19th century the co-operative movement, loan-banks, etc., enabled the growth of a larger and more independent class of latvian small farmers; the landless proletariat went to the towns and evolved in a revolutionary direction. a latvian educated class came into being; a latvian daily press and theatre were founded. a nationalist and revolutionary movement began to grow. the national leaders, a. kronvalds, k. valdemars, j. kalnins, f. grosvalds and others, received much valuable assistance from latvia some liberal german clergymen. in the latvian revolution of 1904-5, the first declaration of latvian independence was made. russia had to reinstate herself by armed force. she put the revolution down with much bloodshed. there was practically no improvement in the position of the peasants, as not even the russian conception of self-government (the zemstvo) was ex- tended to this region (see also lithuanians and letts, 16.789). the war period.—at the outbreak of the world war, the full force of the attack fell on latvia and the other frontier regions. in the year 1915 tsar nicholas ii. permitted the organisation of a national latvian army, which subsequently proved to be the foundation of latvia’s political independence. nevertheless the latvian nation was subjected to great suffering in conse- quence of compulsory evacuation to russia. after the russian revolution in 1917 the latvian refugees committee developed into a poweriul organisation, and deputed its representatives j. chakste and z. a. meterovics to stockholm and from thence to paris, where they took part in the peace negotiations. on nov. 30 1917, shortly after the bolshevist revolution, the latvian national council, under the leadership of v. zamuels, was formed in walk, riga having been under german occupation since september. the national council issued an exhortation to the people to make practical use of the right of self-determination proclaimed by president wilson. the delegations sent to paris and london were vested with full powers by the national council in walk. the brest-litovsk treaty of 1918 was most emphatically rejected by the latvian national council. solemn protest was raised against the dis- memberment of the latvian nation by the then leaders of ger- many’s eastern policy, which purported to create a duchy of courland in personal union with the kingdom of prussia, and to make of livland, estonia and the adjacent islands a baltic state under german suzerainty. latgale was to be ceded to russia in order to lend another direction to polish irredentism. germanv’s baltic policy was really introduced by the agrarian regulation of ficld-marshal hindenburg of july 17 1918 for the colonisation of courland. a colonisation union, after the german pattern, was formed in courland, at the disposal of which one- third of the landed property of the baltic nobilty was volun- tarily placed. the hindenburg agrarian order nullified baltic private rights in respect of land agreements for a period of 30 years, but made no provision for latvian peasants. the allied victory in the autumn of 1918 frustrated these plans. the democratic bloc led by k. ulmanis was formed in riga, and pursued the aims of the national council in walk. after the collapse of german power in the baltic, the demo- cratic bloc gained a firmer footing and by nov. 18 1918 the members of the refugees’ committee in letrograd and those of the walk national council had arrived in riga. the all-latvian national council was composed of representatives of the peas- antry, of the workmen, making together two-thirds, while the last third was made up of the representatives of latvian mer- chants and manufacturers, house-owners and national minori- ties, of whom the representatives of the hberal balts were particularly active. independence—the de facio recognition of the latvian na- tional council by great britain on nov. 11, and shortly after- wards by other powers, led to the solemn proclamation of the latvian republic on nov. 18 1918. a provisional government was formed under k. ulmanis pending the convocation of a constituent assembly. j. chakste, a barrister and former lat-. vian deputy in the russian duma, was elected president of the national council, then president of the constituent assembly and eventually by the parliaments of 1922 and 1925, president of the republic. the provisional govt. was practically penniless, and lacked military power. the latvian regular troops, left in the lurch by the russians, had retreated before the advancing germans from the dvina front to russia, where thcir sense of discipline was exploited by successive governments. only after the con- clusion of the latvo-russian peace treatv in 1920 were they able to return home. the work of national organisation was latvia interrupted by bolshevist invasion until may 22 1919. the provisional govt. and the national council retired, under bol- shevist pressure, to libau, where they held their ground with the help of troops mobilised in courland. a latvian army was formed, commanded first by col. kolpaks, and after his death by col. (general) balodis. the german-baltic landeswehr also joined the anti-bolshevist front. libau was then the seat of the german occupation administration under gen. von der goltz. the social democrat winnig functioned as representative of the german government. amidst these chaotic conditions the ger- man ‘“ putsch ”’ of april 16 1919 was foiled in the attempt to overthrow the cabinet of k. ulmanis. the loyal forces, with the baltic landeswehr, advanced against the bolsheviks, liberated riga on may 22 191g and pursued the enemy to‘the russian frontier. similar operations were conducted in north livland by the north latvian army under col. semitan, with whom the estonians sided against the bolsheviks. after the failure of the second adventure of the german balts near wenden, the provisional govt. headed by k. ulmanis returned to the capital on july 7 1919 and resumed the work of organising the state, despite the obstacles presented by a continuous state of war. the complete repulse of the bol- shevists would have been effected much sooner had riga not been attacked on oct. 8 1919 by the “ bermondt-avalov ” troops, composed of russians and germans in disguise, insti- _ gated by the baltic nobility. this invasion from the direction of lithuania and courland was liquidated by the end of nov. 191g with the help of british and french naval artillery. latgale was liberated from the bolshevists in jan. 1920 by combined polish-latvian action; all latvian territory was now free. with germany, which had assumed the protection of the bermondt troops, an agreement was made on july 15 1920 for the resump- tion of normal relations. peace was concluded with russia on aug. if 1920. | meanwhile the latvian constituent assembly had met on may 1 1920 and elected mr. j. chakste to the presidency. the constituent assembly, summoned by general vote, passed the agrarian law of sept. 16 1920, which liquidated the system of big landed properties, and placed the expropriated land at the disposal of a special land fund. the landlords were left in pos- session of a certain portion of their estates, not larger than 50 hectares, with live stock and inventory. the law limits the area of the new farms to 22 hectares. in this way the number of small farms was increased to over 200,000 and the state was placed on a firm social basis (see financial and economic hts- tory, below). many other important laws were passed, e.g., the free port law of may 20 1920. | political parties —the first latvian parliament, which met on nov. 7 1922, consisted of 62 non-socialist and 38 socialist members. in the second parliament, elected in oct. 1925, there were 63 non- socialists, and only 37 social democrats, four of whom belong to the revisionist branch. communism is weak in latvia, and is legally banned. the non-socialist deputies are divided among several parties. many non-socialists are returned by the peasantry. in the second parliament, for instance, the farmers bloc, including representatives of the so-called young farmers, was 27 strong. the townspeople elected representatives of the middle classes, besides the social democrat deputies. there is also a conservative repre- sentation originating from the parishes, the number of parties is partly due to the system of proportional a seen one which en- titles every 100 electors to add to the list of candidates. moreover the minorities form national groups in parliament. in the second parliament there were 5 germans, 5 russians, 2 poles, 4 jews. the social democrats adhere to the second international, and stand for the promotion of industry, protective labour legislation, and the international neutralisation of latvia. the farmers’ union stand for development of agriculture, for protective duties, ameliora- tion credits, restoration of the devastated regions, in general for intensifying agriculture, and for efficient means of defence, civil order, property rights and, politically, for a union of the baltic states. the democratic centre share radical democratic views based however, on the sovereignty of the state. the groups of the right, for example, the national christians, are strongly clerical. another section represents trade and industry. the different latgallian parties present a variety of local demands, though they side with the corresponding lettish parties in questions of general state policy. in ecclesiastical matters certain groups of the left demand the separation of the church from the state and the cessation of the 667 state subsidy to the church. the racial minorities make special demands, the jews asking for extensive modifications in the law regarding citizenship, while others watch the interests of the land- owners dispossessed under the agrarian reform laws. foreign relattons.—in the sphere of foreign policy the idea of a baltic states union is predominant. the so-called ‘‘ small ”’ programme seeks a union with estonia and lithuania—a lesser group advocating a baltic union embracing finland and poland. towards proposals for a four-state-union excluding poland, fin- land maintains an attitude of reserve. in accordance with the latvo-estonian treaty of nov. 1 1923 negotiations were under- taken for a customs union between these two states. latvia also entered into a defensive alliance with estonia. no passports or visas are required for nationals crossing the latvo-estonian frontier. negotiations with poland led only to the conclusion of a consular convention. with finland, as with the scandinavian states, a treaty of commerce has been concluded, together with an arbitration agreement which was signed by the represent- atives of latvia, estonia, finland and poland at the conference of the baltic states in helsingfors in 1924. latvia has also entered into a number of trade agreements and legal protection treaties with the european powers, in particular a treaty of commerce and navigation with great britain on july 22 1923, a trade convention with france on oct. 29 1924, as well as trade agree- ments with switzerland, czechoslovakia, turkey, hungary, austria, japan, belgium, italy and the united states. in its trade agreements latvia makes provision for the so-called baltic and russian clause, reserving the possibility of closer economic contact with the baltic states and the development of transit traffic with russia, which was facilitated by the technical agreements concluded in aug. 1924. relations with russia are good and becoming more and more normal. latvia joined the permanent court of international justice at the hague, and couples the conclusion of trade agreements with the signature of legal protection and arbitration conven- tions. negotiations for an economic treaty were begun with lithuania on may 19 1924. with germany an agreement was reached in principle regarding an arbitration convention and mutual settlement of claims. as latvia was recognised de jure by the great powers on jan. 26 1921, and admitted to the league of nations on sept. 22 of the same year, diplomatic relations are maintained with the corresponding states. a concordat was signed with the holy see on may 30 1922. ii. administration, education, etc. there are some 6,000 state officials. teachers, judges, foresters, railwaymen, the agents and employees of government enterprises and monopolies are paid by the state. the latvian army 1s directed by experienced staff officers and graduates of the riga officers’ school, who complete their military education in france and in poland. apart from the regular army there is a territorial voluntary defence force, divided into regiments and companies after the model of the finnish defence corps. the latvian defence corps include cavalry and cyclist companies. military games and rifle clubs are also popular. the young people receive military training, and the boy scout movement is well developed in latvia. the whole country is divided into 19 administrative districts and 3 prefectures: riga, libau, daugavpils. extensive autonomy is granted to the towns and parishes. the smallest units of rural self- government are the rural communes, of which there are about 510 in all. markets are held in 80 towns and villages, 37 of these having town councils. justice.—the administration of justice is entrusted to the justices of the peace, four district courts, the court of appeals and the senate. the judges cannot be dismissed from office. the old local baltic provincial law is still in force; and in latgale the russian law in part, pending codification. as the constitution provides only for a single legislative chamber, the sacima, the functions of a second chamber are to some extent fulfilled by various committees in the different departments, as, for example, the financial council attached to the ministry of finance, the agricultural council to the ministry of agriculture, special committe¢s for music, theatres, etc., attached to the ministry of education, and so forth, civil interests are pro- tected by numerous recognised associations, as chambers of com- merce, guilds, ete. vital statistics —the bulk of the population of latvia are en- gaged in agriculture, only 35°% of the population being urban. 41,172 births and 28,399 deaths were registered in 1924. 663 co-operation.—the co-operative system is widespread and both consumers’ and agricultural societies are largely developed. the system of social clubs and unions is extensively adopted in rural districts, and is generously supported by the so-called culture fund created by levying a 3% tax on railway tickets. it has thus been possible to establish public libraries, co-operative houses, etc., in the country. education is further promoted by an itinerant theatre, several provincial theatres, and an opera house in libau ranking second to the national opera house in riga. education and culture ——school attendance is compulsory in latvia. in addition to the public elementary schools there are secondary schools, commercial colleges, several language institutes, and other advanced and specialised educational institutions, ililit- erates form only 8-5 °% of the population, and for every 100,000 of the population there are 300 university students. the study of german or english is compulsory in the middle schools, german holding the first place; french and russian are optional. due encouragement is also given to the elementary and middle schools of the national minorities in the form of state grants to german, russian, jewish and polish schools. bistrograpiy.—l. arbusov, geschichte liv-, est- und kurlands (riga, 1918); dr. m. valters, letiland (rome, 1922); j. skujeniek, latvija, zeme un tedzivotaj: (riga, 1924); j. dombrovski, lateju maksla (riga, 1925); a. bihlmans, le lettenie d’aujourd hui (riga, 1925); a. svabe, latvijas kulturas vesture (riga, 1923); a. zalts, die politischen parteien lettlands (riga, 1926). (a. b. iv. financial and economic history latvia lost nearly 40% of her population in the world war, mainly by emigration in consequence of the german invasion. hardly 300,000 have returned out of the refugee population of 1915-7. the greater part of the missing, near 650,000, perished. almost all the industries and the industrial population were evacuated to russia; 10,000 farms were utterly destroyed. machinery and equipment of industries employing over 100,000 factory hands were sent to russia in 20,000 railway trucks. of these the bolshevists have restored barely 200 trucks under the peace treaty of aug. 13 1920. in courland the population and cultivated areas at the time of the german occupation, 191g to 1918, had diminished to one-third. over half of the farms were destroyed or stood empty. production—cultivated areas, 1909-13 1920 1924 hectares hectares hectares rye, ? 351,000 196,000 266,000 wheat ; 33,000 16,000 43,000 barley 191,000 124,000 179,000 oats e 306,000 216,000 334,000 mixed grain £6 46,000 77,000 peas 23,000 20,000 39,000 potatoes 80,000 49,000 75,000 flax 70,000 20,000 60,000 the total cultivated area was thus in 1924, except for mixed grain, 996,000 hectares, 7.e., 5°2 % less than in 1909-13. the harvests were: — 1920 metric tons 1924 metric tons metric tons rye. wheat barley oats mixed grain peas aaa bre f lax \\ seed the grain harvest, apart from mixed grain, reached 833,000 metric tons in 1909-13, in 1920 only 322,000, in 1924 only 710,000. only the potato harvest reached its pre-war figure, the linseed crop was the same, the flax fibre one-sixth less. four-fifths of the flax fibre harvest is exported. finances.—when the latvian republic was formed on nov. 18 1918, the country was greatly impoverished owing to the requisition- ing of corn, cattle, horses, etc., by the german armies of occupation, though part of the supplies which could not be carried away were sold back to the peasants on the evacuation of the troops. in april igiq, a new paper currency, the latvian rouble, was issued by the govt., which continued for a considerable period to finance its requirements by this means, with the result that the exchange in terms of sterling rose from 215:5 roubles on jan. i 1920, to 2,000- 325,000 38,000 173,000 279,000 119,000 11,000 66,000 113,000 29,000 13,000 375,000 10,000 10,000 199,000 43,000 162,000 271,000 76,000 35,000 676,000 25,000 26,000 18,000 639,000 30,000 25,000 latvia 2,400 roubles in may 1921. after the demobilisation of the army in the autumn of 1920, the fresh issues of currency were mainly for production purposes, and flax, hides and linseed were purchased by this means frum the peasants. the sale of the stocks thus acquired brought in 2,000,000,000 paper roubles to the state and enabled the finance minister in office in march 1921, ringold kalning, to raise the value of the rouble to 1,140 to the pound sterling, at which point it was stabilised. the currency was backed by gold to the value of 15,000,000 gold francs and by foreign balances amounting to 7,730,- ooo gold francs. the lat (=gold franc) was fixed at a value of 50 paper roubles, and the 2,270,000,000 paper roubles in circulation were thus covered to the extent of about 50°. in gold. in 1923 the bank of latvia was founded and provided by the state with a capital of 10,000,000 lats. the total foreign debt amounted to 39,360,000 lats in the middle of 1922, of which one-third had been paid off by the middle of 1925. at the end of 1925 there remains a debt of 5,500,000 dollars to the united states for famine relief in the summer of 1919, and of about £1,350,000 newly regulated debt to england for war deliveries. the finances in the last three years have been very soundly handled; not only has the foreign debt been considerably reduced, but loans to the value of 30,000,000 lats were made from current revenue. the budget of 1925-6 provides for further loans amounting to 35,000,- ooo flats from current revenue for agricultural purposes and for the construction of railways. the actual revenue for 1924-5 amounted to 215,680,000 lats and expenditure to 214,000,000. the budget for 1925-6 balances at 160,000,000 lats (excluding railway receipts and the expenses of the spirits monopoly), trade.—latvia's trade balance has been adverse since 1920. the official figures showed the following results:— imports exports calendar year (in millions of (in millions of gold lats) gold lats) 1920 97-0 62:3 192 73°4 28-9 1922 107-4 102-0 1923 211-9 162:0 1924 256-4 170°6 but an inquiry undertaken by the latvian ‘“ ekonomists”’ in 1925 no. 22 showed that the import figures were 10% too high. taking into consideration the circumstance that the 221,000 refu- gees who had returned since the middle of 1920 had brought back at icast 33,000,000 lats, that moreover the letts who had emigrated to america had remitted at least 33,000,000 to latvia, that goods in transit to soviet russia brought in 18,000,000, that unregistered exports amounted to about 40,000,000, etc., the ‘‘ ekonomists \" reckoned that the balance of payments to jan. i 1925, in reality showed a surplus of 3,000,000 lats in favour of latvia. the present writer considers, after comparing the figures of the latvian exports and those of english statistics of imports, that the latvian export figures are about 10°% too low, so that in reality a surplus of about 55,000,000 lats would result in the latvian balance sheet from 1920 to jan. 1 1925. in the year 1925, the imports, according to official statistics, amounted to 280,000,000, the exports to 179,600,000 lats. by reducing the import figure by 10%, and raising the export figure by 10%, the adverse balance is reduced from 70,000,000 to 41,000,000 lats. but unsold imported goods valued at 70,000,000 are said to be in latvian warehouses. meanwhile the adverse balance has created such anxiety, that parliament decided in 1926 to increase the existing high customs duties of 20%, to 100%. latvia'schief exports are timber amounting to about 60,000,000 jats, about four-fifths of which goes to england, and flax export amounting to about 20,000 tons, valued at 50,000,000 lats. in the calendar year (1925) the butter export was estimated to be 7,150,000 kilo- grammes, valued at 30,300,000 lats. the chief imports are textiles, 50,000,000 lats, machines 24,000,000, foodstuffs 70,000,000. in 1924 110,000 tons of rye and wheat were imported, 20,000 tons of sugar, 4,000,000 lats worth of tobacco, the imports of tea and coffee are small, also of fruits, on account of the high customs duties. agrarian refornt.—under the agrarian laws, 499 private estates were appropriated in courland with an area of 1,124,000 hectares; in livonia 1,300,000 hectares; in latgale about 750,000 hectares. but from this area must be deducted the old peasant properties, also forest and uncultivable land. in reality there remained for division among the newly established peasant properties in livonia and cour- land only an area of 832,000 hectares of agricultural land, 2.¢., arable, meadow and grazing land, in latgale rather more than 250,000 hectares. up to june 15 1925, 82,761 new farms were established, enclosing 100,000 hectares of forest land. the newly founded peasant properties consisted of 15 to 17 hectares, the largest to 22 hectares. but included in the above-mentioned 82,761 new farms are about one-third garden and artisans’ holdings with an area of about 2 to 3 hectares. a further 20,000 small holdings are to be established. “phe state has retained about 1,500,000 hectares of forest and about 500,000 hectares of uncultivable land, chietly peat moor; the former landowning nobility have only retained 50 hectares of land each. laue, von—lausanne, conference of bibliography.—a nnuaire statistique (1920-5); prof. k. ballod, ml le rab ae tele (philadelphia, 1920); zhe latvian economist, publication of the latvian ministry of finance (1g20-5); prof. kk. ballod, la latvie, acta universitatis latviensis, 3 vol. (1922); report of the bank of latta for 1924 (riga, state printing office) ; p. meyer, latvia's economie life (riga, 1925); dr. b. siew, leif- lands volks- und staatswirtschaft (riga, 1925). (x. b.) laue, max von (1870- ), german physicist, was born oct. 9 1879 at plaffendorf near coblenz. he attended the uni- versities of strasbourg, g6ttingen and munich, and became an assistant in the university of berlin, and later in munich, being subsequently called to the university of ztirich as professor. from here he went to the newly formed university of frankfurt (on the main), finally proceeding to berlin university as a director of the institute for theoretical physics.. he specialised in theoretical physics, and 1s regarded as one of the most zealous champions of modern theories, and especially of ein- stein’s theory of relativity. he also devoted his attention to the quantum theory, to the compton-effect (alteration of the frequency of roentgen rays), to bohr’s atomic model, to the ‘“ einstein-bohr equation ”’ and the disintegration of atoms. in 1914 he was awarded the nobel prize for physics. besides his work for scientific publications, he also writes for the daily press. since 1910 he has published the following books: ueber e. versuch z. optik d. bewegien kerper (1911); die beugungserscheinungen an vielen unregeimdssig verteilten tetichen (1915); ueber d. moglichkeit nener versuche an gliihelektroden (1919); die relativitdtstheorie (1919); ueber d. auffindung d. rontgen-strahlinterferensen (1920); das physikalische weltbild (1921); die bedeutung d. nuilkegels in d. aligemeinen relativitetstheorie (1922); die losungen d. feldgleichungen ad. schwere vu. schwarzschild (1923); zur theorie d.v. glihenden metal- len ausgesandten positiven ionen und elektronen (1924); and with dr. w. gordon, ein verfahren 2. bestimmung d. warmeleitfakigkert bet ghihtemperaturen (1922). laundry work (sce 16.282)—modern laundry work in its commercial aspect requires an elaborate mechanical plant very different from the crude appliances which were the first out- growth of domestic processes of treading, pounding or rubbing. its success owes much also to chemistry, by which suitable soaps, bleaches and solvents have been evolved. machinery.—the washing-machine consists of a horizontal outer drum in which revolves the inner cylindrical cage which holds the clothes. this cage is divided into compartments of various sizes, thereby offering a chance for sorting the clothes and so reducing, or almost eliminating, the need of marking garments. within each compartment, wash bags, “nets,” are frequently used to hold fabrics of the same kind, thereby safe- guarding delicate garments. the machine is equipped with hot and cold water and high-pressure steam, the latter serving as a heating as well as a sterilising medium. with the rotation of the cage, which is reversed by automatic gearing every few revolu- tions, the clothes are rubbed or pounded, producing a displacc- ment of dirt through the soap and water which are forced through the fabric. the operations of soaking, washing, bleaching (when needed), sterilising, rinsing, blucing and even starching, are done in the machine without removal of the garments and often without inspection during the process. sterilising was formerly accomplished through boiling (212° f.), a process which, due to its tendency to weaken the fabric, has been replaced by keeping the garments at about 180° f. for a time sufficient to effect the result. stains insoluble by soap and water require special chem- ical cleansing (see dry cleaning). the process of drying, formerly accomplished by twisting by hand or pressing between hard rubber revolving wringers, 1s effected industrially by machines which in recent years, have been adapted for use in the home (see household appliances). the extractor consists of a metal basket revolving in a closed outer drum. there are two types, the ‘ under-driven ”’ and the “ over-driven.”’ the latter is used for the heavy-type work like the wet-wash or bundle work. the basket makes 1,000 to 1,400 revolutions a minute, the water being expelled by centrifugal force until the desired degree of dryness is attained. the drying is completed by means of box dryers, which, in their more improved form, consist of a heated revolving cage, called a 669 tumbler, within which hot air is agitated by means of suction fans and blowers. this device prevents the yellowing and scorching of fabrics through excessive heat and eliminates the adherence of lint to the clothes. a softer finish also is im- parted by this means to woollen garments and the time required for finishing is greatly reduced. troning.—uaving been washed, starched and dried, the gar- ments are then transferred to the ironer. the carlier form of ironer was the box mangle, by which clothes were calendered as in paper or textile manufacturing. this mangle, sometimes known as the “ flat-work ironer,” has been replaced in more up-to-date laundries by gas and steam-heated revolving rolls, which press against concave beds of polished metal or over- felted rolis, as a ilat iron is used on a padded ironing table. ironers may be operated by hand, gas, gasolene, electricity or steam. while it was formerly customary for laundries to charge for work by the piece, a “‘ rough dry ” service has been widely offered, in which the cost is based on weight, none of the work being ironed. another service is ‘ float iron,’ in which every- thing is pressed by the “ flat-work ironer,” the cost being con- siderably less than for work finished by hand. statistics —the annual volume of business done by laundries in the united states in 1923-5 was between $300,000,000 and $500,000,000. the production of laundry machinery in 1923 was valued at $19,000,000, an increase of 46% over the corre- sponding figure for 1921. in the same period the output of home washing-machines increased 690%, standing at $57,000,000 in 1923. these increases reflect several economic and social factors, the more important being an increase in wealth and the scarcity of domestic help, both of which have operated to transfer laun- dering from the home to central plants. the same factors have led to the installation of numerous electric washers and ironers in the home. the popularity of light, delicate fabrics in women’s garments together with the lavish use of colour have placed an added burden on laundries, making necessary the services of textile experts. the interests of the industry are furthered by laboratories, research bureaux and professional schools financed by the trade. trade papers, courses in technical schools, co- operation among operators, and other factors have done much to improve the status and efficiency of the industry. bibliography.—l. ray balderston, laundering (1918); pauline beery, chemistry applied to home and community; laundry owners national assn., the conservation of textiles; practice for the power laundry washroom; the siarchroom laundry journal; and laundry a ge. (lr. bl) laurier, sir wilfrid (1841-1919), canadian statesman (see 16.286), was defeated at the general election in rg11, but remained leader of the opposition until his death. previous to the dissolution of parliament in rg1t, he had begun negotiations for reciprocity with the united states which was vigorously op- posed in the dominion house of commons, and was, ina manner, responsible for the fall of his party. the banking act introduced by the conservative party was much on the same lines as that outlined by sir wilfrid during the last years of his admuinistra- tion. in the prolonged naval debate in 1913 sir wilfrid urged the maintenance of a purely canadian navy. at the outbreak of the world war in 1914 he eloquently defended great britain’s cause and supported the urgent measures that were adopted for the maintenance of the canadian troops. he was however slrong- ly opposed to conscription on the ground that it was a departure from the enactments of the military service act, and a still wider departure from the principles of constitutional government. when sir robert borden was invited to attend continuous meet- ings of the war cabinet in london, sir wilfrid expressed his desire to facilitate public business in canada in order to make the ab- sence of the premier possible. he declined, however, to enter the cabinet in the coalition government. in 1918 sir wilfrid took part in the debate on hereditary titles and honours in canada and was pronounced in his utterances against them. ye died in ottawa feb. 17 19109. lausanne, conference of:—the conference of lausanne, between the turkish govt. established at angora, and the gov- 670 ernments of the four principal allied powers (great britain, france, italy, japan), greece, bulgaria and yugoslavia, with the united states represented by an observer, lasted, with a break in the middle, from nov. 20 1922 to july 24 1923, and re- sulted in the signatures of no less than 17 diplomatic instruments. the most important of these were:— 1. the treaty of peace itself (july 24 1923). 2. convention respecting the regime of the straits (july 24 1923). 3. convention respecting the thracian frontiers (july 24 1923), under which neutralised and demilitarised zones were established. 4. convention respecting conditions of residence and business and jurisdiction in turkey (july 24 1923), to replace the capitulations, 5. commercial convention chale 24 1923). 6. convention respecting the exchange of greck and turkish populations and protocol (jan. 30 1923). _7.. greco-turkish agreement on the restitution of interned civilians and the exchange of prisoners of war (jan. 30 1923). 8. declaration relating to the administration of justice (july 24 1923) to replace the capitulations (no. i1). g. a protocol relating to the evacuation of the turkish territory occupied by the british, french and italian forces, and declaration (july 24 1923) (no. 14). 10. protocol relating to the karagach territory, and to the islands imhros and tenedos (july 24 1923) (no. 15). 11. protocol relating to treaties regarding the protection of minorities in greece, and regarding thrace, which had been con- cluded on aug. 10 1920 between greece and the principal allied powers (july 24 1923) (no. 16). (see dardanelles; dedeagaach; mosul; turkey. conditions before the conference-—the lausanne conference took place under conditions quite different from those which had prevailed during the peace conference of paris, and the resulting diplomatic instruments therefore bore a different stamp from the four european peace treaties and the instruments sub- sidiary to them. at the time of the paris conference the powers just defeated in the war of 1914-8 had been temporarily impo- tent, and the victorious powers had agreed among themselves as to what the terms of peace should be. the draft treaties em- bodying inter-allied agreements had simply been submitted to the defeated powers for their observations, which the victors had then accepted or rejected at their discretion, after which the vanquished parties had been compelled to sign the instru- ments by force majeure. at the conference of san remo (q.2.) a peace treaty between the allies and turkey had been drawn up by the same procedure, and after the representatives of the ottoman govt. of constantinople had submitted their obser- vations, and these observations had been rejected, they were compelled, at sevres, on aug. 10 1920, to sign the terms presented to them. by this time, however, the constantinople govt. had ceased to exercise anv authority in turkey outside the narrow areas under the military occupation of the principal allied powers. the greater part of the country was under the effective control of a new national government seated at angora; and this govt. was carrying on a war against the greeks (who had landed at smyrna on may 16 1919, at the invitation of great britain, france and the united states). the angora govt. repudiated the treaty of sevres, and con- tinued to. fight for the terms laid down in the turkish national pact of jan. 28 1920. in sept. 1922 the greco-turkish war in anatolia was brought to a decision by the complete victory of the turkish nationalist forces, who drove the greeks into the sea, and came into direct contact with the british forces in the zone of the straits. on sept. 23 1922 the principal allied powers invited the angora govt. to a peace conference on two bases: (1) the restoration of turkish sovereignty over constantinople and thrace up to the line of the river maritsa; (2) the exclusion, pending the final settlement of turkish military forces from thrace, and respect by the turks for certain zones adjoining the straits which the allied authorities had declared neutral during the greco-turkish conflict. on sept. 23 the angora govt. accepted this invitation, and proposed a preliminary armistice conference, which met at mudania on oct. 3 and resulted in the signature of an armistice convention on the rrth. results of the conference.—thus the turkish delegates came to lausanne as victors in their recent local war with the greeks, and on an equal footing with the principal allied powers. by lausanne, conference of—laveran whom they had been defeated four years earlier in the war of 1914-8. indeed, during the whole period of the lausanne con- ference, the turks were less unwilling to resume hostilities than were the principal allied powers, who had long ago demobilised the greater part of their forces in the east under pressure from their taxpayers, and who could now no longer call upon the greeks to fight their battles for them. this complete reversal of the situation reflected itself in the contrast between the terms of the treaty of lausanne and the treaty of sevres, as well as in the method by which the lausanne conference was conducted. this conference was noteworthy as the first mecting between ex-allies and ex-enemies in the world war, in which peace was negotiated and not dictated. in this respect it anticipated the london reparations conference of 1924 and the locarno secunty conference of 1925. the turkish gains.—in brief, the turks secured at lausanne practically everything which they had demanded in their national pact. in respect of territorial boundaries, the former arab provinces of asiatic turkey, which had been detached from turkey as a result of the world war and had been mandated to france and britain under the supervision of the league of nations, were not restored, but otherwise turkey recovered everything which she had possessed in 1914, particularly smyrna, constantinople and eastern thrace. even as regarded the arab territories, she obtained some concessions, since the lausanne treaty confirmed the rectification of the northern frontier of syria in turkey’s favour, which had been made by the so-called “ franklin-bouillon ”’ agreement of oct. 20 1921, while the destiny of the mosul province was referred, by agreement be- tween turkey and great britain, to the league of nations. in regard to the dardanelles and the bosporus, the settlement made at lausanne has been described elsewhere (see darda- nelles). the special spheres of influence in anatolia which had been assigned to france and italy by a tripartite agreement of aug. ro 1920, between these two powers and great britain, were tacitly dropped, and there was no further question of giving autonomy to northern kurdistan or of ceding turkish territory to the armenian republic of erivan, which had now been included in the dominions of turkey’s ally, the union of socialist soviet republics. again, no restrictions were imposed on the turkish naval and military forces, and no control was asserted by the allies over turkish finance, though certain financial questions, such as the rate of exchange at which the pre-war creditors of turkey were to receive payments, remained contentious. the capitulations under which foreign residents in turkey had lived since the 16th century were swept away, and the only special safeguard left to foreigners was the institution of legal councillors, without execu- tive power, who were to be nationals of ex-neutral states. as for such minorities as remained in turkey after the great exodus of christians from anatolia and eastern thrace which accom- panied the greek debacle of 1922, it was settled at lausanne that they should receive all, and only, the guarantees which had been secured to minorities in europe in the special minority treaties or minority clauses in the peace treaties signed after the world war. meanwhile, on jan. 30 1923, the greek and turkish delegations had signed a separate convention providing for the compulsory interchange of minorities left on the wrong side of the new frontier, with a special exemption in favour of christians domiciled in the city of constantinople, and of mos- lems domiciled in western thrace. bibliography.—lausanne conference on near eastern affairs, 1922-3; proceedings and draft terms of peace (cmd. 1814 of 1923). meetings of the first commission on the 4th, 6th, 8th, 18th, 19th and 20th (dec. 1922), and 1st feb. (1923); h. w. v. temperley, ifistory of the peace conference at paris, vol. 6. pp. a : ony 1924). pe deeks) laveran, charles louis alphonse (1845-1922), french physician, was born in paris june 18 1845 and was educated at the strasbourg faculty of medicine. in 1874 he joined the staff of the val-de-grace military school of medicine, and four years later was sent to algeria. he remained there until 1883 and in law, andrew bonar 1884 was appointed professor of military hygiene and clinical medicine at val-de-grace. in 1894 he relinquished these posts and took up work at lille and nantes. he was in 1895 elected a member of the french academy of science. his chief contribu- tion to medical science was his discovery of the #ematozoaire, a parasite that causes malarial fever. he was the author of im- portant studies of sleeping sickness and of the rele played by mosquitoes in epidemics. laveran, who retired from active practice in 1897 and received the nobel prize for medicine in 1907, died in paris may 18 1922. his works include traite des maladies et des epidemies des armees (1875); du paludisme et son hematozoaire (1891); la prophylaxie du paludisme (1903); with felix mesnil, trypanosomes et trypanoso- miases {1912). law, andrew bonar (1858-1923), british statesman, was born in new brunswick, canada, sept: 16 1858, the son of a presbyterian minister, the rev. james law, by his marriage with eliza, daughter of william kidston of glasgow. a scot on both sides, he came to scotland when still a boy and finished his education at glasgow high school. he entered at once into commercial life in glasgow, and became a member of a kins- man’s firm, william kidston and sons, iron merchants, subse- quently joining william jacks & co., also iron merchants. after acquiring a sufficient competence in business, he went into parliament in 1900 as conservative member for the blackfriars division of glasgow. his commercial experience had ied him to the conclusion that free trade, in the cobdenite sense, was no longer beneficial for great britain. a speech which he made on april 22 1902, in favour of hicks-beach’s corn duty, having favourably impressed the house, he was promptly appointed parliamentary secretary to the board of trade in the conservative government. when mr. chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, he found a warm supporter in mr. law, who wished to see more taw material imported and fewer manufactured goods, who resented “‘ dumping,” and who held the true field of commercial expansion to be within the empire and therefore advocated pret- erential duties. mr. law shared in the general rout of the conservatives in jan. 1906, and had another electoral mishap in dec. 1910; but in each case came back to the house shortly at a by-election, and took his full share in the opposition attack on mr. lloyd george’s 1909 budget and on the parliament bill. he kept aloof from the ‘“ die-hard’ movement, and warmly defended his leader, mr. balfour, from the reproaches cast upon him. this loyal attitude, no doubt, was one of the reasons, and his strong tariff reform programme was another, which rec- ommended him to his party as mr. balfour’s successor in the leadership when the claims of mr. (afterwards sir) austen chamberlain and mr. (afterwards lord) long appeared to divide the conservatives pretty evenly. both the rivals stood aside, and on nov. 13 rorzr mr. law was unanimously elected leader in the commons, lord lansdowne continuing to lead the party in the lords. as opposition leader, mr. law was very trenchant in his criticism of the government, and put up a strong fight against the ministerial bills introduced to take advantage of the par- liament act, his principal concern being the home rule bill, and the situation created in ireland by its introduction. at easter 1912 he went to belfast, and, at a great demonstration presided over by sir e. carson, encouraged the ulstermen to trust to themselves; and at a large unionist gathering at blen- heim on july 27 he said that the ulster people would submit to no ascendancy, and that he could imagine no lengths of resistance to which they might go in which he would not be ready to support them, and in which they would not be supported by the over- whelming majority of the british people. meanwhile, he had to deal with differences inside his own party as to the extent to which the tariff reform policy should be carried. a con- siderable section, especially strong in lancashire, were definitely against any duties on food; and the assurances which mr. law gave in a speech at ashton-under-lyne on dec 16 1912 did not convince them that there was no possibility of food taxes being 671 imposed without reference to the people. as the party dreaded a split, mr. law and lord lansdowne, in response to a general appeal, gave on jan 14 1913 a formal promise ‘that food duties should not be imposed without the approval of the electors at a subsequent general election. the imminent danger of the ulster problem, on which mr. law had insisted for two years, brought ministers in 1914 to express a readiness for compromise; but no settlement, satisfactory to the opposition, had been formed when the world war supervened. directly the crisis became acute mr. law wrote, on sunday aug. 2, on behalf of lord lansdowne and their colleagues, tendering to mr. asquith the unhesitating support of the opposition in any measures necessary to support france and russia; and when hostilities began he aided the national cause and promoted recruiting by speeches at the guildhall, london, and in belfast and elsewhere. even when criticism of the man- agement of the war began legitimately to spring up in the early months of 1915, he used hisinfluence to repress or moderate its expression in parliament. he promptly accepted mr. asquith’s proposal in 1915 to assist in forming a coalition govt. and brought seven of his colleagues into the cabinet, accepting himself the colonial secretaryship. he took charge in the house of commons of the first military service bill in jan. 1916 and got it through all its stages with little difficulty. he promoted the economic conference in paris in june 1916 and, as principal representative of his country, was largely influential in carrying through the co-operative and protective resolutions then adopted. he was a member of the war committee of the cabinet, but, like mr. lloyd george, he was far from satisfied with its organisation and powers. it was natural therefore that he should be one of the four persons, besides mr. lloyd george, to whom that statesman, forcing the issue on dec 1 1916, asked mr. asquith to confide the absolute conduct of the war. in the confused crisis which followed, the premiership was offered to mr. law; but he recognised that mr. lloyd george was the prime minister whom the nation demanded, and to a ministry formed under him, the conservative leader brought the full cooperation of his party. in this second coalition, mr. law, whose followers supplied the main body of the ministerial supporters, was partner rather than second-in-command of his chief. besides chancellor of the exchequer and member of the war cabinet, he became leader of the house of commons, so as to enable the prime minister to devote the whole of his energies to the prosecution of the war. the house was at first disposed to resent this arrangement; but before long its respect and indeed affection were won by its new leader’s business habits, his courtesy, his readiness to yield in - non-essentials coupled with firmness in essentials, his exceptional clearness of head and of expression, and his extraordinary capacity for impromptu reply, without taking a note, at the close of a long debate on an intricate subject involving perhaps com- plicated figures. it was his duty, as chancellor of the exchequer, to find the money to meet the gigantic cost of the war, and this was done principally by means of two great loans and by numerous in- creases of taxation. the first loan was launched in jan. 1917, and its basis was the issue of a 5% government stock at 95, while there was also a 4% tax-compounded loan issued at par. this brought in f1,000,312,950 from 5,289,000 subscribers. the second loan, launched in oct. of the same year, was in form of national war bonds, combining the advantages of short-term securities such as exchequer bonds, and three sorts of longer-dated securities for 7 and 10 years, interest being, as before, 5% or 4% tax-compounded. the amount was unlimited; all the securities were for continuous sale till further notice, so that there might be a steady and persistent flow of money loaned to the state. this novel device was most successful. down to jan. 11 1919, £1,446,625,613 of these bonds had been sold, and nearly {50,000,000 small post-office bonds in addition. mr. law’s first budget, that of 1917, only raised the excess profits tax from 60 to 80%, and increased the taxes on enter- tainments, tobacco and dogs. but in his second budget, in 1918, 672 he imposed additional taxation calculated to bring in £114,000,- coo. income tax was raised from 5s. to 6s.; farmers’ tax was doubled; supertax was increased; the stamp on cheques became 2d.; beer and spirit duties were doubled and tobacco and match and sugar duties raised; letters were to be 13d. and postcards 1d. it must have been with peculiar gratification that mr. law announced in april to17 that the imperial war cabinet had accepted the principle of imperial preference. throughout the war he opposed a firm front both to pacifists and to pessimists, and never doubted that there could be no peace “until the germans are beaten and know that they are beaten.” as the general election of 1918 approached he responded heartily to mr. lloyd george’s proposal that the coalition should be continued to forward after-war reconstruction, and he joined with him in issuing the letters, or certificates, nicknamed “coupons,” accepting coalition candidates. the coalition obtained an immense majority, and among the coalitionists mr. law’s special followers, the unionists, had a considerable predominance. when the ministry was reconstituted in jan. 1919 the arrangement by which mr. law led the house was continued, as the prime minister would be much away at the peace conference; but he was relieved of the exchequer, and took the sinecure office of privy seal. he was one of the british peace plenipotentiaries, though his duties at westminster seldom permitted him to go to paris; and he appended his signature to the treaty of versailles. during 1919 and 1920 he hada strenuous time, dealing with after-war disorders and projects, and in particular with the passing of the home rule act of 1920, constituting twosubordinate governments and parliaments in ireland. mr. law’s incessant labours during and after the war under- mined his health, which suddenly broke down in march 1921; and, on the advice of his medical advisers, he resigned office at once, and went away to rest in the south of france. his retire- ment was felt in parliament as a personal loss, and there was corresponding satisfaction when he returned in the autumn greatly (but not, as it turned out, permanently) restored, and took part in recommending the irish treaty to the house of commons. during the first half, and more, of 1922 he only spoke occasionally, but he watched carefully the increasing reluctance of the conservative party tosupport mr. lloyd george and the coalition; a reluctance which had indeed resulted in the formation of a large group of independent ‘‘ die-hards ” under lord salisbury’s leadership. when the question was brought to an issue at the carlton club meeting on oct. 19, the decisive factor was mr. law’s declaration that the only method of pre- serving the unity of the party was to come out of the coalition and to appeal to the country as an independent body. mr. lloyd george at once resigned, and mr. law, after being unanimously elected to his old post of party leader, formed a purely conservative government, which did not include the most prominent conservative coalitionists. his action was endorsed by the country at the general election in nov., when the conserva- tives returned 344 strong, a majority of 74 over all other parties put together. he at once reduced the inflated cabinet secretariat, and restored the foreign office to its former position in the official hierarchy; and he carried through parliament the bill to establish the irish free state constitution. though he proclaimed the policy of his government to be one of tranquillity and stability, he found himself in the winter deeply involved in political troubles. unemployment was rampant, with labour unrest and housing problems threatening; a european conference at lausanne proved impotent in face of the obstinacy of nationalist turkey; and m. poincare, the french premier, insisted, in spite of mr. law’s personal in- tervention at paris, on despatching a french military expedition to the ruhr to exact reparations from germany. mr. baldwin, his chancellor of the exchequer, did indeed succeed in con- cluding in january at washington an arrangement to fund the british war debt to the united states; but the terms were so severe that the prime minister was at first reluctant to accept them. after such an anxious winter it is not surprising that in lawn tennis the spring his health once more gave way, and he resigned office on whitsunday, may 20, after a ministry which only lasted 209 days. he survived for five months, dying on oct. 30 1923. he was buried in westminster abbey, with every sign of general and genuine mourning, the pallbearers including the prince of wales, and past, present and future holders of the office of prime minister. he married in 1891 annie pitcairn, daughter of harrington robley, of glasgow, by whom he had a family; but he was left a widower in 1909. ‘two sons perished in the world war. (g.e.b.) lawn tennis (sce 16.300).—the recent history of lawn tennis may conveniently be dated from the year 1911. in that year the late anthony wilding (killed on the menin road during the world war) was defending his title to the world champion- ship he had won in r1gtoe, and one of the wimbledon champion- ships was won by france for the first time when max decugis and andre gobert beat wilding and ritchie in the challenge round of the men’s doubles. in that year, also, mrs. lambert chambers defeated her challenger, miss boothby, herself an ex-champion, by 6-0, 6-0. france might have advanced still further in 1912, but andre gobert always seemed to be fated to break down at wimbledon. in those days the champion (in this case still a. f. wilding) had to stand out while the rest of the players fought for the honour of meeting him. gobert met a. w. gore, and looked a certain winner until the english player managed to pass him {wo or three times at the net and broke up his brilliant attack. gore, however, failed to beat wilding, who was at this time approaching the zenith of his powers. wilding and mcloughlin —the year 1913 can fairly be described as the first big “‘ boom ” yearin lawn tennis, the reason being the presence of a great personality. this was a 24-year- old boy named maurice mcloughlin, who had won the champion- ship of amcrica the year before. he was called the ‘ american comet ” and, with his merry eyes and his mop of red hair he instantly took the fancy of the great international crowd at wimbledon. his service was tremendously fast, but swerved and broke as well, and like tilden’s and patterson’s of a fater day, it frequently beat his opponent outright—a feat rarely accomplished in first-class tennis today. it swept him straight through the competition, past j. c. parke and s. n. doust, then at their best, with only one check when roper barrett took the match to five sets by sheer finesse. but wilding to the surprise of everyone, instcad of standing back to mclough- lin’s service, stood up to it, and after a few failures, seemed to send it back harder the harder it came at him. it was a great battle, possibly one of the greatest wilding ever fought. roper barrett and c. p. dixon beat the crack german players rahe and kleinschroth for the men’s doubles, while mrs. lambert chambers, returning after a year’s absence, once more won the ladies’ singles quite easily. the prestige of british tennis was retrieved. the year 1914 has been very rightly called “ brookes’ year.”’ brookes had not been at wimbledon since 1907 when he won his second championship, and there was a good deal of speculation as to whether in view of the improved standard of play he would be able to hold his own. on this occasion the international element was jess prominent as the american champion, r. n. williams, was not competing, but in any case, judging by form, it is doubtful if he could have beaten brookes. the english players were largely what were coming to be termed “the old guard.’ their skill was waning, and it was left toa german, fritzhein, to give brookes the most stubborn contest. it was touch and go all the way through the fifth and deciding set, but the old champion’s steadiness and generalship pulled him through. wilding won the doubles in company with brookes, and, once again, mrs. lambert chambers proved that she had no really dangerous rival among the women. g. l. patterson.—the years of the world war saw little championship lawn tennis, even in those countries which were not directly involved. in america r. n. wilhams, w. m. johnston and maurice mcloughlin shared the highest honours, lawn tennis but, even there, in 1917, there was no competition. but as soon as the war was over there was a vigorous revival and a real beginning of a world-wide competition. the year 1919 saw many newcomers with many new styles, but perhaps the most notable was the australian, g. l. patterson, one of the most forceful players ever seen on a tennis court. his style was not unlike that of maurice mcloughlin, and his fastest service was almost untakable. he depended on it very largely, but, as was shown in the following season, he had weak points of which advantage could be taken once the fierceness of his first on- slaught was checked. in the final he beat a. r. f. kingscote, the english international. in 191g mlle. lenglen beat mrs. lambert chambers. tilden and the ‘all court”? game—in 1920 william t. tilden, probably the greatest player the world has ever known, made his first appearance in this country, and defeated patterson, the holder of the championship. he was the first american champion. there was a notable feature about tilden’s victory, and indeed about the play of all the amcricans. for some time lawn tennis, although increasing in speed, had, in the opinion of many of the best judges, been declining in skill and finesse. there had for some time been a reign of the serving and volleying specialists, but tilden and his compatriots brought back to england what is known as the all-court game. this tradition, which demands that a player shall be master of evcry shot, was first laid down by renshaw, and pim, baddeley, the dohertys and wilding strengthened it. the ascendancy of the all-court game was completed by the victory of williams and garland in the men’s doubles. in rg21 lawn tennis became still more a cosmopolitan game and there was a large increase in the entrics for the world championship from european countries. the meeting was memorable for the contest between tilden and a young south african, b. i. c. norton. the brilliant promise which the latter had shown was naturally gratifying to british spectators, for there had been no british singles champions since 1909, only one british finalist inthe all-comers since 1912, and no british lady champion since rg14. it was true that lycett and that 673 remarkably versatile sportsman max woosnam had won the doubles championship, but this was the only honour which the empire held, save lycett’s further participation in the mixed doubles honour with miss ryan. tilden, although ill, insisted on playing, and almost paid the penalty. the first set opened rather tamely, with tilden leading, but suddenly norton blazed out and took the set 6-4. tle followed this up by winning the next set 6-2, and the defeat of the champion scemed inevitable. then there came an inexplicable collapse. norton lost the next two sets 6-1, 6-love. nevertheless even then he was able to keep the issue in doubt to the last, and twice was within a stroke of vic- tory and the work! championship before he lost the final set, 7-5. the new wimbledon—the new wimbledon was opened in the following year (1922). the title “ world’s championships” was dropped, the meeting being now designated simply “ the championships.” the fact that there were no american entries in 1922 was erroneously attributed to this change. but if there were no americans there were worthy challengers from australia. patterson, the ex-champion, j. o. anderson and p. o’hara wood were a trio of australia’s best and figured in everything until the finish. patterson, who had seen the wisdom of playing an all-round game, beat lycett in the championship, but lycett had his revenge when, in one of the greatest men’s doubles matches ever fought, he and anderson, after looking hopelessly beaten, snatched a glorious victory from anderson’s compatriots patterson and p. o’hara wood. miss ryan and mile. lenglen won the doubles, for the fourth year in succes- sion. the latter won the ladies’ singles, her opponent in the final round being mrs. mallory. an american year—america was supreme in 1923. not only did she win the davis cup again, with comparative ease, but also, sending her players over to wimbledon without the assistance of tilden, won the championship with w. m. john- ston, while another american, f. t. hunter, was johnston’s opponent in the final. there was also in europe in 1923 an american player, vincent richards, barcly 20 years of age, who certainly had all the promise of becoming as great a champion as his tutor, tilden. winners of the championships at wimbledon, 1911-26 oer gentlemen’s ladies’ gentlemen’s mixed ladies’ singles singles doubles doubles doubles iqii a. f, wilding lambert chambers m,. decugis and a. h. gobert hf. roper rarrett and cp (dixon iqi2 a. f. wilding larcombe 1913 a. f. wilding i.ambert chambers iqi4 n. e. brookes lambert chambers 1915-8 no competitions 1919 g. l. patterson s. lenglen 1920 w. t. tilden s. lenglen 1921 w. t. tilden s. lenglen 1922 g. l. patterson s. lenglen 1923 w. m. johnston 5s. lenglen 1924 j. borotra kk, mckane r, lacoste s. lenglen j. borotra mrs. l. a. godfree h. roper barrett and c. p. dixon . n. e. brookes and a. f. wilding r. v. thomas and p. o'hara wood r, n. williams and c. s. garland r. lycett and m. woosnam r. lycett and j. o. anderson r. lycett and l. a. godfree v. richards and f. t. hunter r. lacoste and j. borotra hl. cochet and z. brugnon hope crisp and mcnair and boothby mrs. tuckey j. c. parke and ryan and mrs. larcombe a, m. morton r. lycett and lenglen and ryan miss ryan g. l. patterson and mile. lenglen r. lycett and miss ryan p, o'hara wood and mile. lenglen lenglen and ryan lenglen and ryan lenglen and ryan r. lycett and miss ryan j. b. gilbert and miss mckane lenglen and ryan wightman and hi, wills j. borotra and mile. lenglen l. a. godfree and mrs. godfree lenglen and ryan 674 borotra and lacoste.-—the fact that the olympic games were taking place in paris a fortnight after wimbledon, contributed to make the international entry of 1924 one of the greatest in the history of the championship. for the first time the device of “ seeding the draw, ”’ as it is called, was adopted. under the old system it was quite possible that, if, say, america’s four best players had entered for the championship, their names might come out of the hat one after the other, in which case two would disappear in the first round and one more in the second. this luck of the draw imposed great hardships on players who might have travelled some 6,000 miles to try their luck, and it was decided, internationally, that overseas associa- tions might nominate not more than four players in singles, or four pairs in doubles, as representative players, and that these players should be drawn in four separate quarters of the draw. smaller numbers were treated proportionately and the result proved excellent. of course it was still possible that the two best players of two different countrics might meet in the first round but that in fact did not occur. washer, the hard-hitting belgian international, disposed of brookes in the fourth round, and then, in “ the last eight ” were left lacoste (france), washer (belgium), williams (america), kingscote (england), borotra (france), richards (america), raymond (south africa) and washbourn (africa). for the first time two frenchmen, jean borotra and rene lacoste, appeared in the final. borotra’s brilliance, on this occa- sion, triumphed over lacoste’s steadiness, although in the remarkable repetition of that final, for borotra and lacoste were to meet again for the title in 1925, the result was reversed in unmistakable fashion. america shared a similar honour in the men’s doubles, vincent richards and f. t. hunter winning over their fellow countrymen r. williams and w. washburn. owing to illness, mlle. lenglen, who should have met the english champion, miss k. mckane, in the semi-final, was obliged to retire. miss mckane met miss helen wills, the young player from america of whom much had been heard. after looking almost hopelessly beaten at one time, the english player pulled the game out of the fire and scored a brilliant victory. on the other hand, with the aid of mrs. wightman, miss wills carried off the ladies’ doubles, beating mrs. covell and miss mckane. miss mckane finally held a doubles championship, for, with the english international j. b. gilbert, she won the mixed doubles. the year 1925 may be claimed as french. lacoste met and beat borotra, the champion, in the final, while borotra and mille. suzanne lenglen won the mixed from de morpurgo and miss ryan. mlle. lenglen and miss ryan got back the title of doubles champions which they had held together for so long. french players also did well in 1926, although mlle. lenglen was obliged to withdraw. “svl:) lawrence, david herbert (1885- ), british novelist, was born at eastwood, nottinghamshire, sept. 11 1885, and edu- cated at nottingham high school and university college, not- tingham. with his first books, the white peacock (1911), the trespasser (1912) and sons and lovers (1913), 11 became evident that a writer of great force and originality was rising in the younger generation. a police prosecution of the rainbow (1915) seemed for a time to check lawrence’s fertility, but he issued amores, poems, and travel impressions, twilight in italy, in 1916, further poems, look! we have come through! in 1917, and another novel, the lost girl, 1920. hereafter lawrence’s outlook and style were being deeply influenced by a study of psychoanalytical doctrine and by travel in italy, sardinia, new mexico and australia: a new note is evident in jv omen in love (1921), aaron’s rod (1922), kangaroo (1923), the ladybird (1923), england, my england! (1924), st. mawr (1925) and the plumed serpent (1926). mis- cellaneous writings include sea and sardinia (1921), psycho- analysis and the unconscious (1921), fantasia of the unconscious (1922), studies in classic american literature (1923), two plays, the widowing of mrs. holroyd (1914) and touch and go (1920). he wrote also a historical study, movements in european history, which was issued as by ‘‘ lawrence ij. davison ” in 1921, and under his real name in 1925. lawrence, d. h.—lawrence, t. ee. lawrence, thomas edward (1888— ), british explorer and scholar, was born in wales aug. 15 1888, of a leicestershire family one branch of which had moved to the neighbourhood of dublin and thence to oxford. the second of five brothers, he was educated at the oxford high school and at jesus college, oxford, where, in 1910, he took a first class in modern history. in order to study crusading architecture he made in that year a tour through syria on foot; and the colloquial arabic, which he then picked up, and his interest in and knowledge of archaeology, commended him to id. g. hogarth, who was about to lead an expedition to jerablus on the euphrates and excavate the site of carchemish for the british museum. thither lawrence went in rott, helped by a postgraduate endowment at magdalen college; and at carchemish he worked on and off till 1914, taking several opportunities to explore syria and mesopotamia in native com- pany, and accepting for a few weeks an appointment under the palestine exploration fund, which attached him to the survey of north sinai carried out by col. newcombe, r.e., for the war office in the winter of 1913-4. though naturally inclined to scholarship and letters, he showed singular practical ability and capacity for leadership, and a remarkable power of inspiring confidence in arabs. on the outbreak of the world war, lawrence, being below standard height, obtained at first no more active service than a post in the geographical section of the war office. but soon after turkey had joined the central powers he was sent by lord kitchener to egypt and attached to a rudimentary military intelligence section. he was a moving spirit in the negotiations leading to an arab revolt and in the organisation of the arab bureau which, as finally constituted early in 1916, acted as staff and intelligence oflice for the arab campaigns. in the autumn lawrence, feeling that stalemate would ensue if closer liaison between ourselves and the arabs were not contrived, asked leave to go down to jidda; and once there, was transferred definitely from military control to the arab bureau which was under the foreign office. hearing good accounts of the emir faisal, he persuaded sharif hussain to let him go inland and visit the force which had been driven back from medina. he soon won the confidence of faisal, and induced him to reorganise his army and move north so as to threaten the communications of medina by attacking the hejaz railway. when his chief was established at wejh, and the army of another brother, ‘abdulla, had been brought to wadi ais to co-operate, lawrence rode off into the interior to raise the northern tribes, and so extend the area to be held and defended by the turks. he pushed right up to and beyond ba‘albek, i.e., far behind the enemy lines in syria, and on his return, having picked up a huweitat force under the famous raider, auda abu tayyi, he routed a turkish battalion near ma‘an, and forced a passage to ‘aqaba which was occupied for faisal in aug. 1917. for this exploit he was promoted to field rank and given decorations, british and french, which, however, he would not accept. lawrence, now cordially helped by general allenby, prompted the successive forward moves made by faisal’s force, after “aqaba had become its base, and himself organised and led a battle in wadi el-hesa, near esh shobek, in which the enemy suffered his worst defeat in the open. he turned his attention in particular to train-wrecking and had such success that medina became virtually isolated, and a large reward was advertised for the capture of “‘ el-orens, destroyer of engines.” early in 1918 he made a desperate attempt to cut the turkish palestine army’s railway communication with damascus, and failed only by a hair’s breadth. in that summer, in concert with allenby, he induced faisal to move up to qasr azraq and organise a new force to advance on damascus. this duly moved up in the autumn side by side with allenby’s thrust and after breaking up the enemy’s trans-jordan army, entered damascus some hours ahead of the british. lawrence took charge of the city till allenby could reach it, and‘suppressed attempts at reaction. called to the peace conference, lawrence became one of its outstanding figures during the spring of ro1rg. his legendary fame as organiser and inspirer of guerilla tactics was enhanced by lawson—lead the forcible part that he played when faisal, whom he had accompanied on a british tour, came to daris. but fight as lawrence might against french plans for syria, he could not prevail in that milicu, and at last, retiring to his tent, he sat down to write the narrative of his adventures. the first manuscript was subsequently lost; but he began again, and, after many recensions, it was announced that the book, under the title the seven pillars of wisdom, would be issued in 1926. he was elected a research fellow of all souls, oxford, in 1919, and resided there for a year, but without much share in the college life. in 1921 mr. winston churchill called him to the colonial office as adviser on arab affairs, in which capacity he had a large share in making faisal king of ‘iraq. but, disgusted with the failure of the alles to fulfil adequately what he considered their moral obligations to the arabs, and remorseful for the part he himself had played in leading them on, lawrence abruptly left government service in 1922 and, abjuring all official rank and decorations and even his surname, enlisted as a mechanic in the royal air force. thence in 1923 unwelcome publicity drove him to hide tn the tank corps, but, in 1925, he was re-trans- ferred to the r.a.f., still as a mechanic, this being the only grade that he would accept. (d. g. it.) lawson, victor fremont (1850-10925), american editor and philanthropist, was born at chicago, iil., sept. 9 1850, the son of iver h. lawson, a norwegian immigrant, and educated at phillips academy, andover, massachusetts. he took charge of his father’s interest in the daily skandinavian, and in july 1876 bought an interest in the chicago daily news, which had been organised six months before by melville e. stone as the first one-cent newspaper in the west. it was a four-page five- column daily. in 1881 lawson and stone started a morning edition called the chicago record, since discontinued. in 1888 lawson bought stone’s interest, and remained sole proprietor until his death, aug. 19 1925. ijlis principal achievement was the development of the chicago daily news as a powerful news- paper with cultural influence; to this end he divorced politics and news; supported non-partisan organisations for investigating political candidates; maintained free public lectures; developed a wide-spread foreign news service, and established the daily news fresh-air fund sanatorium for sick babies. elis advocacy of a postal savings bank caused him to be called the father of the law establishing such a bank. lawson supported stone in his development of the associated press, of which he was president from 1894 to 1900, and a direc- tor until his death. in 1923 the university of michigan, and in 1924 columbia university, gave him the degree of doctor of laws. he aided numerous colleges, hospitals, churches and schools; by the terms of his will his estate benefited, among many others, the chicago congregational missionary and ex- tension society, the young men’s christian association of chicago, the chicago theological seminary (congregational), the international committee of the young men’s christian association of new york city, northland college, berea col- lege and the northfield, conn., schools. clie fl*) lazarev, petr petrovich (1878- ), russian physi- cist, was born in moscow april 1 1878. a doctor of medicine of moscow university, he did research work in science at stras- bourg and in 1907 was appointed privatdozent in physics and assistant to prof. p. n. lebedev at the university of moscow. in 1912 he became professor at the technical college in moscow, and in 1917 member of the russian academy of sciences and director of the research institute of physics and biophysics in moscow. lazarev’s early investigations were in photochemistry; he showed by experiment that the velocity of photochemical reactions is proportional to the absorbed energy and does not depend on the wave length of light. another series of his investi- gations is in molecular physics. his main work is on the funda- mental problem of biophysics—the stimulation of living matter. his ionic theory of stimulation explains the process of senses and of muscular contraction and forms the basis of his theory for the functions of the central nervous sytem. in 1918 lazarev became head of the geophysical survey of the kursk magnetic and 675 gravimetric anomaly. some of his papers have been published in french (comptes rendus de l’academie, 1923-4) and in english (science, lancaster, pa.); jour. of general physiology (baltimore, 1924). leacock, stephen butler (1869- _—+), canadian au- thor and economist, was born at swanmoor, hants., dec. 30 1869 and went to canada at the age of six. he graduated at the uni- versity of toronto and became a master of modern languages at upper canada college, where he remained 1891-9. the next four years he spent in the graduate school of the university of chicago, where he took the degree of ph.d. in 1903 he was ap- pointed to the staff of mcgill university, montreal, becoming professor of political economy in 1908, and subsequently head of his department. in 1907-8 he made a tour of the british em- pire, lecturing on imperial organisation under the auspices of the cecil rhodes trust. his serious work includes biographies of r. baldwin and la fontaine in the “ makers of canada ”’ series; llements of political science (1906); and the unsolved riddle of social justice (1920). it was as the author of a number of de- lightful short stories, parodies and skits, however, that prof. lea- cock became most widely known to the general public. his hu- mourous works include literary lapses (1910); nonsense novels (1911); sunshine sketches of a little town (1912); behind the beyond (1913); arcadian adventures with the idle rich (1914); afoonbeams from the larger lunacy (1915); further foolishness (1916); frenzicd fiction (1918); winsome winnie (1920); my discovery of england (1922); and the garden of folly (1924).",
    "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926",
    "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:12",
    "integrity": {
        "hash_check": "match",
        "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text",
        "computed_sha256": "a50252a9e1ed3b8744bb03a64f6dc12039b202033ccaf8aaffde2b27592c233d"
    },
    "machine_use": {
        "read": true,
        "cite": true,
        "decision": "verified_public_domain_text"
    },
    "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license",
    "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0",
    "documentation": {
        "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php",
        "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf"
    }
}