LACROSSE

lacrosse still has its stronghold in _ canada, where it is looked upon as the national game. the number of amateur clubs to-day in the dominion is approximately 1,465, as against 950 in pre-war days, but the professional game is practically dead, only three or four clubs having survived. ontario is perhaps the chief centre, but quebec, manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta and british columbia are all strong sup- porters. in the united states lacrosse is advancing more rapidly than in any other part of the world. the country has over one hundred teams, including many of the large universitics and col- leges, and the united states military and naval academies, whilst in california and elsewhere the game has taken a strong hold in the women’s colleges. in australia lacrosse is making headway, espe- cially round melbourne, sydney and perth. the game in england.—in england the game was increasing in popularity up to the outbreak of the world war, when all the clubs were depleted and disbanded. players in the north of england, chiefly grouped round manchester and yorkshire, have always been far more numerous and generally more expert than in the south, where the game is centred round london and bristol. it is also played at oxford and cambridge. in ireland there has been no serious attempt to revive the game, which once had a good following round belfast. in 1912 teams from man- chester and london played exhibition matches in brussels and ostend, and in 1913 similar teams visited paris and stockholm. preliminary plans were on foot for a visit of a representative english team to tour canada in 1914, but the world war put an end to the plan. lacrosse, as played by ladies, has made great strides since the war, and ladies’ clubs are numerous. it is largely played in girls’ schools all over the country. the laws have been modified to suit the requirements of ladies, and inter- county and territorial matches are annual events. (c. o. l.) ladd, george trumbull (1842-1921), american philos- opher (see 16.59), died at new haven, conn., aug. 8 1921. _ laermans, eugene (1864- ), belgian painter, was born at molenbeek st. jean (brabant) oct. 22 1864. deaf and lacrosse—la follette dumb from birth, but gifted with a keen intelligence, he devel- oped his talent in almost total isolation. he devoted himself to painting scenes of humble life, and might be considered a modern pierre brueghel the elder. he has adopted, in place of the pas- sive objectivity or dark humour of the old masters, a liberal sympathy similar to that found in the works of charles degroux or constantin meunier, but which laermans has interpreted in a different manner, with feeling and power inspired by the in- justice and inherent misery of an ill-organised social state. denied the usual channels of expression, he expresses, through the medium of form and colour, his pessimistic view of life. this pessimism is not only illustrated by his choice of subject but also by the design and colour schemes which lend individu- ality to his work. notwithstanding the rare harmonies of colour found in the work of m. laermans which show him to be a mas- ter of technique as well as a painter, the artistic value would appear subservient to its moral significance. this artist, already deaf and dumb, was further unfortunate in the loss of his sight. his works may be seen in the luxembourg, paris, and at venice, brussels, antwerp, ghent, liege and other places. (p:1;) la follette, robert marion (1855-1925), american politician, was born on a farm in primrose township, dane co., wis., june 14 1855. he graduated from the university of wis- consin in 1879, studied law there for one term, and was admitted to the bar in 1880. he began immediately to practise in madi- son and served as district attorney for dane co. for two terms (1880-4). from 1885 to 1891 he was a representative in con- gress, and, as a member of the ways and means committee, helped to draft the mckinley tariff bill. on being defeated for congress in 1891 he returned to practise in madison. in 18096 he was a delegate to the republican national convention. he was elected governor of wisconsin in rg01 and was re-elected in 1903 and 1905. it was largely due to him that state laws were passed for taxing railways according to valuation (1903), for nominating all candidates for public office by direct vote of the people (1904) and for regulating the railways in the state through a state commission (1905). he resigned the governor- ship in 1905 on being elected to the u. s. senate, and was reelected for three succeeding terms. mr. la follette was an unsuccessful candidate for the presi- dential nomination at the republican national convention in 1908. in 1915 he was sponsor in the senate for the scamen’s bill providing for better working conditions and increase of life- saving equipment on board ship. he favoured, in 1916, an embargo on the shipment of arms from america, but supported armed intervention in mexico. after america’s entrance into the world war he was a pronounced pacificist. the republican national convention held at cleveland, o., in june 1924 re- jected a platform presented on behalf of senator la follette by the wisconsin delegation, and he received only 34 votes on being placed in nomination for president. accordingly a con- vention for progressive political action was convened at cleve- land on july 4, at which, following a letter from la follette denouncing both the republican and democratic parties, he was endorsed as a presidential candidate. he selected the name “ progressive ” for his party, and his platform included advocacy of public ownership of water power and railways, strict public control of all national resources, a recognition of agriculture as the basic industry of the country and abrogation of the power of the supreme court to nullify legislation. during the election campaign the american federation of labour agreed to support him. in the ensuing election he was beaten by both republican and democratic candidates, his electoral vote being 34, as against 382 for coolidge and 136 for davis, the popular vote being 4,686,681 for la follette, 15,748,356 for coolidge and 8,617,454, for davis. his own state, wisconsin, was the only one to give him a majority. he died at washington, d.c., june 18 1925. his son robert m. la folttetrer, who was born in madison, wis., feb. 6 1895, was elected by a large plurality sept. 29 1925, to fill the unexpired term of his father’s senatorship. he stood as a supporter of his father’s platform of 1924. lagerlof—lanciani lagerlof, selma (1858— —_), swedish author, was born nov. 20 1858 at marbacke in vermland where she grew up ina province rich in local tradition, and became a teacher in lands- krona. in a literary competition in a weekly paper she won the highest prize for some chapters of her first work gesta ber- lings saga (eng. tr. 1898), which was published in two volumes in 1891 and attracted great attention. the book is a collection of stories of vermland life in the year 1830, related with vivid imagi- nation and lyric style. in 1894 she published osyuliga laenkar (in- visible links) and from 1895 onwards was able to devote herself entirely to writing. after visiting italy for the purpose of ex- tending her studies, she published in 1897 antikrists afirakler (eng. tr. 1898) depicting life in sicily. in 1899 appeared drott- ningar t kungahdlla (eng. tr. 1917), historical legends, as well as en herrgderdssdgen (eng. tr., the legend of the manor, 1922). after a journey to palestine and the east in 1900 she published jerusalem, 2 vol. (1901-2, eng. tr. 1903), describing a religious movement in the swedish province of dalarne, which led to an emigration to palestine. she also wrote kristusiegender (1904); nils holgerssons wnderbara resa, 2 vol. (1906-7, eng. tr. 1908), a book for children; liljecronas hern (1911, eng. tr. 1913); korkarlen (1912); dunungen (1914), a dramatised novel; kej- seren af portugalien (1914, eng. tr. 1916); troll ech manniskor (demons and men), 2 vol. (1915, 1921) and charlotte lefvens- keld (1925). in 1909 she won the nobel prize for literature, and in 1914 was elected the first woman member of the swedish academy. most of her books have been translated into english and many other languages. see j. mortensen, literary biography (1908); andre bellcsort, la suede (1910); also works with title sefma lagerief by o. i. lever- tin (1904); m. jepson (1913); m. kristensen (1917). lagos (sce 16.74), the principal port and capital of the british colony and protectorate of nigeria, west africa. the popula- tion, including iddo and apapa, is 99,690 natives and about 1,000 whites (1921). the town is built on an island in a large lagoon and is reached from the bight of benin over a shifting sand bar. moles protect the entrance to the harbour and vessels drawing 23 ft. can enter it. lagos is linked to [ddo island, on which the terminus of the railway to kano is situated, by carter bridge, and iddo in its turn is joined to the mainland by denton bridge. the customs wharf at lagos is 1,183 it. long and vessels of 22 ft. draught can lie alongside. at iddo is a wharf 860 it. long, draught 18 feet. at apapa, on the mainland, facing lagos town, a wharf 1,800 ft. long, under construction in 1924, was designed to take vessels drawing 26 ft., to which depth the bar was being dredged. there are several smaller wharfs and floating docks. by the drain- ing of swamps much has been done to improve sanitary condi- tions. the town has fine public and commercial buildings and ample water and electric light supplies. some 25% of the inhab- itants are christians and 53° moslems. lagos has been since 1919 the seat of an anglican bishopric. in april 1925 the prince of wales laid the foundation stone of the cathedral. the port takes all the trade of nigeria served by the railway to kano (over 700 m. long) and has a considerable canoe-borne trade with the neighbouring regions. the former colony of lagos is now part of nigeria. sce the nigerian handbook (lagos, 1925). laguerre, jean henri georges (1858-1912), french lawyer and politician (see 16.79), died june 17 1912. lahore, india (see 16.81), the capital of the punjab, india, and a centre for agricultural produce, is of little importance industrially, except for the works of the north-western railway. the population was 281,781 in 1921. the dyal singh college, undenominational and affiliated to calcutta university, was founded in toro, and the sanatan dharma college in 1o916. western towers were added to the cathedral church of the resurrection in 1913. an iron bridge over the ravi was opened in 1915. in 1824 the old fort was taken over by the police, and a new fort built by the military. laidoner, johan (1884- ), estonian soldier, was born in the viljandi district. he completed his military studies at the vilna military school and the nikolai military academy in 655 st. petersburg (leningrad). on the outbreak of the world war, he was a staff officer on the caucasian front, and in 1915 became divisional chief of the staff of the russian western front. in 1917 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel in command of the caucasian grenadier division and then chief of staff to the 62nd division. on the formation of the estonian national army he was appointed to command the first estonian division. during the period of german occupation (1918) he negotiated with soviet russia concerning the prevention of the annexation of i-stonia by germany. he also organised from st. petersburg the transport of the estonian army, via archangel and murmansk, to the allied front. at the beginning of the estonian war of in- dependence, (1918-9), laidoner was appointed commander-in- chief of the estonian army; at the same time he became by ar- rangement leader of the russian northern army until the latter reached russian territory, when yudenich took over the leader- ship. he conducted the operations with both military skill and political ability. on the conclusion of the war he left the army and entered politics, being elected representative of the agrarian party in the first and second riigikogu. he became president of the commission for foreign affairs and state defence of the riigi- kogu, and estonian delegate to the league of nations. in 1925 he presided over the league of nations commission appointed to inquire into the mosul frontier dispute between great britain and turkey. (sce eston.) laisant, charles anne (1841-1920), french politician (see 16.84), died at asnieres, near paris, may 5 1920. lammasch, heinrich (1853-1920), austrian jurist, was born at seitenstetten, lower austria, may 21 1853. he was appointed professor at the university of vienna in 1889, became eminent as a teacher of criminal and international law and his publications on these subjects deeply influenced their practice. four times a member of the international court of arbitration at the hague, being president three times, he helped to settle, among other cases, the dispute between great britain and ameri- ca on the fishery rights off the north coast of america in 1910. he was, perhaps, the most prominent austrian pacifist during the world war and, as such, while incurring bitter hostility in the austrian herrenhaus, to which he had belonged since 1899, he inspired confidence elsewhere, and was chosen to preside over the final ministry which liquidated the central administration of the older austria (oct. 26-nov. 13 1918). he published in 1919 der velkerbund and europas elfte stunde. lammasch died at salzburg jan. 6 1920. lamont, thomas william (1870- ), american banker, was born at claverack, n.y., sept. 30 1870. he was educated at phillips academy, exeter, n.ii., and at harvard where he graduated in 1892. he was for two years with the new york ?vibune, and then for some time actively engaged in business. from 1903 to 1909 he was with the bankers trust co. in new york, as secretary and treasurer and, after 1905, as vice-presi- dent. in 1909 he was elected vice-president of the first national bank of new york city, serving for two years. on jan. 1 1911 he entered the firm of j. p. morgan and co. he was active in raising additional endowment for the harvard school of business administration. he took part in floating the british, french and russian loans in america during the world war and from 1918-22 he was proprictor of the new york evening post. in 1919 he was financial and economic advisor of the american delegation to the peace conference in paris. he was u.s. delegate on the international consortium for assisting chinese industries and railways, and visited china as the representative of the american group. in 1921 he became chairman of the american committee for the china famine fund, and was chairman of the international committee of bankers which handled the question of the mexican foreign debt. lanciani, rodolfo amadeo (1846- ), italian archae- ologist, was born in rome jan. 1 1846. he was educated in that city and in 1872 became secretary of the archaeological commission. in 1878 he was appointed director of excavations and professor of ancient topography in the university of rome. lanciani devoted his life to the study of the antiquities of an- 656 cient rome, while by no means neglecting those of the middle ages; and in both fields he came to be recognised as a leading authority. he made important discoveries in the house of the vestals, the basilica julia, the imperial palace on the palatine, the baths of caracalla, the temple of jupiter capitolinus, ostia, trajan’s harbour at porto and hadrian’s villa below tivoli. he also worked with the minister, guido baccelli, to cre- ate the passeggiata archcologica, arranged the collections in the antiquarium and organised the classical side of the rome exhibition of ro911. in 1911 he was created a senator. he wrote a great number of works on archacological subjects in italian and english of which the most important are: ancient rome an the light of recent discoveries (1888); pagun and christian rome (1892); the ruins and iexcavations of ancient rome (1897); de- struction of anctent rome (1899); new tales of old rome (1901); storia degl. scavi e musei di roma (1902); wanderings in the cam- pagna (1909); ancient and modern rome (1925). land laws: sce property, law of. land tenure (sce 16.155).—there are in the course of recent history two outstanding and epoch-making events each of which was of great moment in bringing about far-reaching changes in existing cond‘tions of rural tenure: the french and the russian revolutions. the one has already receded into historic perspec- tive, the second is an actual fact of to-day. the former broke up the feudal land system and did away with the obligations at- taching to property in land, with the result that agricultural development became involved in a capitalist economy; the rus- sian revolution, while abolishing private property in land, swept away the capitalist agrarian conditions which had grown up dur- ing the roth century. the land was nationalised, and the state gave the full use of the land to all who were prepared to cultivate it with their own labour. just as the ideas of the french revolution influenced the whole of european agrarian legislation, so the influence of the russian revolution was felt throughout eastern europe—that is, in the countries on the borders of russia, all of which are agricultural countries in the fullest sense. thus agrarian reform was under- taken by a whole series of states; and, speaking generally, the more closely the states followed the russian agrarian revolution, the more radical were their reforms, both in principle and in practice. estonia and latvia came nearest in this respect, while the model was least closely followed by finland, austria and germany. between these two groups there lics a whole gamut of variously devised agrarian reforms. the objects of all reform schemes were: by means of a transformation of the existing con- ditions of land tenure to create a peasantry which is socially and economically sound; and to retain in the country the numbers of peasants who would otherwise emigrate, and thereby to identify them more and more closely with the homeland itself. in the realisation of these aims the war acted as an accelerating and rcleasing force. i. the juridical bases of land reforms the juridical bases for the accomplishment of the agrarian reforms are to be found in the agrarian laws of different states. if the land hunger of the population is to be satisfied—whether by the formation of new holdings, or by the apportionment of additional land to small peasant holdings already existing, or even by assignment of parcels of land to the land workers—a land fund of corresponding extent 1s obviously a first essential. this was usually achieved by devoting the state lands and the public land to the purpose, and, in varying degrees, by the expro- priation of the large estates. russia —a complete expropriation of rural land ownership in favour of the state, acting on behalf of the peasant, has been carried through only in russia. the first so-called land decree of nov. 8 1917 ordered the expropriation, without exception, of all the landed property of the large landowners, of all lands formerly the appanage of the crown, and of monastic and church lands. in the agrarian legislation of subsequent years this funda- mental principle was retained (see russta). some 40,000,000 desiatines in all (not including siberia) were thus transferred {from private large landowners to the peasantry as a whole. a land laws—land tenure similar solution by expropriation was originally enacted in estonia by the law of oct. 10 rg1g. on may 15 1925, however, the assembly amended this enactment by permitting 50 hec- tares of land to be restored in usufruct to the original owners. in all an area of 2,147,100 desiatines—g7 % of the area held in large estates—was expropriated in estonia. latvia and lithuania.—vartial expropriation was carried out in certain countries. in latvia, by the law of sept. 24 1920, the state land fund was formed of the state domains and forests, and to a limited extent by the expropriation of large estates. on an average 50 hectares of jand was restored to the original owners. after the expropriation the total state property in land amounted to 3,700,000 hectares. in lithuania the law of feb. 15 1922 en- acted that state lands be appropriated, and that landed property belonging to the former russian nobles’ and peasants’ agri- cultural banks, ecclesiastical lands and lands of private owners, in excess of 80 hectares in any case, be expropriated. owners of not more than 150 hectares farming their own lands were expropriated only after the division of the large estates. balkan countries —in rumania the law of dec. 14 1918, later somewhat modified for the newly acquired territories, contem- plated the entire expropriation of crown lands, the estates of charitable societies, of absentees and foreigners and the estab- lishment of a land fund of 2,000,000 hectares by partial expro- priation of the private large landowners of over 100 hectares, the size of the expropriation shares increasing as the areas to be expropriated became larger. in bulgaria, according to the law of may 10 1921, the state land fund is formed, ister alia, by expropriation of private cs- tates, leaving, however, 30 hectares to the owner when he works the land himself. in the case of non-cultivation by the owner four hectares only are restored to the owner, or ro hectares for the whole family; under the extending law of july 21 1924 a family with more than five members is allowed five hectares per member. in yugoslavia the decree of feb. 25 rorg orders that the en- tire landed property, including entails and estates with from 56 to 280 hectares of cultivable ground, be expropriated, providing about 1,100,000, hectares for distribution. in the autumn of 1925 a new legislative project was laid before the skupshtina, which was intended finally to settle the question of the expro- priation of the large estates. in greece the agrarian laws of 1920-2 provide for an expropriation of properties of over 100 hectares. according to a recommendation of the ministry of agriculture dated feb. 11 1925, land is to be restored, district by district, to the extent of from 300 to 500 hectares. cultiva- tion is compulsory on pain of fresh liability to expropriation. the process of obtaining land in austria may be ranked as ex- propriation rather on formal grounds than in actual fact, since the expropriation does not press at all harshly and is not to any perceptible extent prejudicial to the tenure of large property. the object of the resettlement laws of 1919 and r1o21 was the resumption of cultivation of farms which the large holders, more particularly the owners of forest land, had devoted to purposes of sport or juxury. in such cases land which had been farmed land at any period since 1870 may be expropriated on the demand of a qualified applicant. ceechoslovakia.—the agrarian legislation of czechoslovakia followed a middle course. in czechoslovakia, by a law of april 16 1919, the state land office is empowered in the first instance to impose certain restrictions on the property rights of large land-owners; by the law of april 8 1920 the state must give at least six months’ notice of expropriation to persons farming such land. any area is regarded as a large estate on which there are more than 150 hectares of agricultural land, or which itself exceeds 250 hectares. poland.—in ypoland, where the state merely regulates the conditions of tenure without forming a proper state land fund, the land reserve according to the seim decree of july ro 1919, and the agrarian law of july 15 1920, is made up of the fol- lowing categorics of land: the state lands, the property of the former ruling dynasties, of the former russian peasants’ bank land tenure and of the former prussian land settlement commission, mort- main lands, and also land acquired by forced sale of private prop- erties which are more than 180 hectares in extent. in the indus- trial and urban districts this limit may be reduced to 60 hectares, and in the west and east regions of poland may be extended to 400 hectares. under a law dated dec. 28 1925 these limits may be ex- ceeded, by agreement between the ministry of agrarian re- form and the ministry of agriculture, in the cases of large farms which have a special importance in the economy of the country, such as farms with sugar factories, distilleries, etc., or farms giving employment to many workers, on condition, however, that the aggregate area in the whole country of the farms to which this provision is applied shall not exceed 500,000 hectares. in any case, before a forced sale the owner is given 30 days in which to effect a voluntary sale of his parcel to the state. the area proposed for the land reserve is estimated at about 5,000,- 000 to 6,000,000 hectares. hungary.—in hungary the state has recourse to expropria- tion only when the required parcels of land are not to be ob- tained either by purchase in the open market or on the basis of a legal right of pre-emption by the state, at the time of the aliena- tion of parcels. however, there may be expropriated, infer alia, property to the extent of 100 cadastral jock (1 joch=o-575 hec- tare), which was bought during the war; such large estates as have changed hands in the way of sale since july 28 1864 and in particular so much of each estate as still to allow the remaining portion to be brought under systematic cultivation. the area coming under the reform schemes is estimated at over 7,000,000 hectares. for home colonisation in finland there are available in the first place, under the law of nov. 25 1922 (lex kallio), the state lands and the lands of public bodies, communities, churches, share companies, etc.; after these the property of private owners is purchased in the open market, and only when that docs not suffice, is the expropriation of estates of over 200 hectares (in the north of over 400 hectares) carried out. generally speaking the percentage taken of the large property corresponds to the number of complete hundreds of hectares included in it; thus in the case of 200 hectares at least 2% is expropriated, and as a maximum 50% in the case of 5,000 hec- tares and over. the lands illegally acquired by the timber com- panies were expropriated before any other lands. germany.—finally, in germany, under the national settle- ment law of aug. 11 1919, state lands, heath and waste land are already set aside for the provision of land for settlement and in addition land acquired by the state right of pre-emption on the occasion of large sales of private parcels of land. only after this is recourse had to the expropriation of a part of the large estates. the land supply unions (landlieferungsver- bande), the members of which are large landowners possessing over roo hectares, are obliged to assign for settlement purposes at least one-third of the total area of the large estates in the dis- trict, or to reduce the cultivable area of the large estates to 10% of the total agricultural area in the district. in this way over 2,000,000 hectares of large landed property are to be expro- priated in prussia in the coming years. the methods of acquiring land are thus very various—com- plete or partial expropriation with notice in advance, pre-emp- tion by the state on the occasion of alienation of property, pur- chase in the open market—and each method is in its turn signifi- cant of the spirit in which the land reforms were undertaken. compensation for expropriation—very striking differences are also found in assessing compensation for the expropriated estates, varying from the expropriation without compensation in russia to the payment of the full value of the land which ob- tains in germany. latvia, following the precedent of russia, decided not to give any compensation to the expropriated owners of large estates. in estonia the question was still under discus- sion in 1926. in lithuania compensation is reckoned on the basis of the average prices of the years rg1o-4. owners who possess not more than 2co hectares receive the average market prices at the time of the surrender of the land for areas under 057 150 hectares. pre-war prices are also paid in czechoslovakia with a corresponding reduction of the price in the case of estates of more than 1,000 hectares. in rumania 4o years’ rental is given for arable land and 20 years’ rental for meadow land on expropriation; in no case, however, may the sum paid in com- pensation exceed the selling price of the year 1913. compensa- tion in greece amounts to nearly 1-3 times the selling price. in poland, as also in bulgaria according to the law of 1924, half of the average local market price is fixed as the estimate of the compensation. in yugoslavia, pending the final settlement of the question of compensation, a rent is paid to the expropriated owners up to the amount of the former net return. payment of the average market price for the expropriated parcels has been established in hungary, finland and austria, as in germany. division of the land fund among the applicants.—in the dis- tribution of the expropriated lands the principle of priority for ex-service men and their families runs through the whole agra- rian legislation of the post-war period. in the states of western europe measures were also taken for encouraging the settlement of ex-soldiers on the land, and legislation was passed with this object. in particular in england, according to a report of the ministry of agriculture (‘‘ land settlement in england and wales, 1919 to 1924,’ london, 1925, p. 139) 16,461 ex-service men were, up to dec. 31 1924, settled permanently, of whom 14,061 occupied 213,343 ac. of land. much has been accomplished in this direction in france, italy, belgium and other countries. the size of the peasant holdings newly brought into being is either determined according to an economic principle, or is fixed numerically. the former is the case in russia, where the measure for land division is applied, sometimes in accordance with the farming system predominant in the different districts, some- times according to the “ work norm,” i.e., according to the sum of the work capacity of the family, or according to the “ re- ' quirement norm,” 7.e., according to the number of persons in the family. in estonia, bulgaria, yugoslavia and in finland, the size of the peasant holding is usually determined according to the “ work norm,” though sometimes also reaching the maxi- mum numerical limit. in germany the holdings must, according to the law, be of sufficient size to maintain a family. in the other states the average size of the holding is numerically fixed; thus in latvia it is 22 hectares, in lithuania from 8 to 20 hectares, in poland not more than 15 hectares, in czechoslovakia 6 to ro or 15 hectares, in rumania not more than 7 joch, in hungary, 1§ cadastral jock, and in greece an average of ro hectares. form of management of the farm undertakings.— [he most prevalent form of management of the new type of holdings in all the states is individual. in russia 3% of the total area of the expropriated land was reserved for collectivist enterprises, 11% for the soviet estates and 86% for individual holdings. the col- lectivist holdings have scarcely been able to maintain themselves, and since 1921 their number has fallen off. this seems the more remarkable, as a similar form of ownership was earlicr familiar to the russian peasant in the institution of the mir, although this juridical form was imposed on the peasants at the time of the freeing of the peasants in 1861 not on theoretical or socialistic grounds but rather for technical and fiscal reasons. vpeasant enterprises managed co-operatively in very various forms are instituted under the agrarian reforms in estonia, latvia, in czechoslovakia, rumania, hungary, bulgaria and greece. in the latter states the parcels expropriated by the government are handed over to co-operative societies, which in their turn undertake the distribution of land to their members. legal protection of new peasant holdings.—with a view to preventing any reversion, as the result of alienation, division, etc., to the former conditions of the apportionment of agricul- tural land, special measures have been included in the agrarian legislation of all countries, limiting the liberty of the peasants to dispose of the new holdings. in russia, for instance, the land can be neither sold nor mortgaged nor given in free gift. 1t may not even be divided among the members of a family, unless the division leaves economic units of production. in latvia a mini- muni limit of 10 hectares, and in lithuania of 8 hectares, is fixed 658 for the land parcels to be divided in the future. in poland no parcelling of the newly formed holdings may take place, so long as they are burdened with a mortgage in respect of the unpaid balance of the purchase price, and in no case before the lapse of 2s years from their formation. peasant holdings in rumania may only be sold, divided, etc., after the lapse of 5 years from the definite conveyance of ownership. according to the extending law of march 1925, the state has the right of pre-emption in the case of alienation of peasant holdings, etc. in retrospect it may be stated that in all the land reforms un- dertaken the endeavour is to modify the conditions of rural tenure within the limits of the existing land property rights. the principle of private property in the land as such is, as perhaps is clear from the expropriation legislation, not merely protected, but even placed upon a much wider basis and riveted more firmly into the general consciousness. in russia alone not only are the conditions of land tenure reformed, but land tenure itself is sub- jected to a reform in the socialistic sense by a breaking down of the existing land rights. in the agrarian legislation of estonia and latvia some echoes of the theories of henry george may be noted, and the land reforms in finland, austria and germany rather bear the character of home colonisation. ii. the results of land reform if the war, as has been said, acted as an accelerating force in the initiation of agrarian reforms, the period of their execution was very unfavourable from the economic standpoint. in the confusion prevailing in the whole after-war economy, the ab- sence of capital and the depreciation of the currencies, and in view of the special interstate trade relations of the central euro- pean countries, which tend towards an extreme protectionist policy and prevent any speedy re-establishment of the national economic policy in each case, the progress of the land reforms has been beset with difficulties. the distance in time from the introduction of the reforms is still too small to make it possible to pass a final judgment on the economic results of these impor- tant changes in land tenure. the results achieved cannot of course be looked upon exclusively as the consequence of the land reforms—post hoc, ergo propter hoc—but rather are regarded as the outcome of the whole development of acriculture in the separate countries. but the parallelism in the course of the two phenomena may be noted—the transformation of the con- ditions of tenure of agricultural land and the simultaneous in- crease in agricultural production. russia.—virtually the whole of the large landed property was divided into nearly 20,000,000 peasant holdings. the first years of the revolution, during the period of militant communism, wit- nessed the gradual shrinkage of the area in cereal cultivation. since the introduction of the new economic policy in 1921, and the publica- cation of the agrarian code in 1922, cereal production has steadily increased, and, according to the data published by the international institute of agriculture at rome in dec. 1925, reached in 1925 the total of 180,000,000 quintals, as compared with an average of 205,- 000,000 quintals for the years 1909-13. the cereal export has also increased since 1922, and according to the original estimates of the russian central statistical office, in the commercial season 1925-6 to nearly 600,000,000 poods, t.e., the equivalent of the pre-war annual grain export. in reality, the exports have been considerably lower than was anticipated, owing, amongst other reasons, to the deficiency in the country of industrial products serving either for the farms or for the household consumption of the peasants. the result of this deficiency is that the peasant withholds his grain from the market, and it cannot, therefore, be exported. however, as was remarked in the issue of jan. 1926 of the bulletin de renseignement de office conimercial pour la russie et les pays limitrophes, published by the french ministry of commerce and industry, “ all the evidence confirms that the peasants had their barns well filled.” baltic states fstonia.—in [estonia the process of land reform is nearly ac- complished. of the 1,060,400 desiatines of land under cultivation belonging to the large landowners, 431,900 desiatines were already previously rented to small holders. the agricultural land thus avail- able for the purpose of the land reform was 628,500 desiatines. according to official data 30,766 new farms have been established in the years 1919-24, and bover a total extent of 598,837 desiatines.! gaas ss re a ra rk an en eke 1estonie rigi statistika reskburo: asumaa majapidamised eestis ror9-24 (tallinn, 1924). land tenure the number of families who have profited by the land reform is of course, highcr than the number of newly established farms, as a larger parcel of land was often assigned to two or more families. under the new conditions of the distribution of land the production of flax for seed rose from 78,971 quintals in 1921 to 131,700 quintals in 1925 (as compared with 164,126 in 1909-13), and the production of flax as fibre from 67,202 to 148,100 (as compared with 169,171 in 1909-13). the export of linseed was 12,768 quintals in 1921 and 28,240 in 1924, and of flax fibre 52,280 and 104,328 quintals in the corresponding years. in both cases in the course of three years there isthusa 100 %rise. the export of butter has also advanced, amount- ing to ‘a ‘value of about 2,000,000 marks in 1925 (or over 20% of the total exports), as compared with 1,000,000 marks in the pre- vious year.” latvia.—in latvia before the land reforms the estates of the nobles in livonia embraced 463,449 hectares (32°3% of privately owned rural land), and in courland, 533,689 hectares (30%). in 1924 more than half, viz., 61 % of the agricultural and forest land, had passed under state control, and approximately 50,000 new holdings had been established on such land.*? the area cultivated in flax in latvia showed an even more rapid increase than in estonia: from 30,499 hectares in 1921 it rose to nearly 78,100 hectares in 1925, as compared with an averaze of 69,619 hectares in the years 1909-13. in absolute figures, the export of flax, as seed, rose from 48,547 quintals in 1921 to 176,122 quintals in 1924, and the export of flax as fibre rose in the same period from 62,758 quintals to 204,458 re in both cases accordingly the export has more than trebled. lithuania.—in lithuania 36° of the agricultural area belonged before the war to the large landowners, almost all of whom possessed more than 2,000 hectares. there were 110,000 small holdings, be- longing to 28% of the agricultural population, which contained on an average less than three hectares. half a million persons, or from 15 to 20% of the agricultural population, were landless.* in the course of the land reform about 1,360,000 hectares, including 400,000 hectares of agricultural land and 960,000 hectares of forest, passed into the land reserve for the formation of small holdings. in this connection also a rapid increase in the production per area is to be noted. the flax growing area increased from 51,200 hectares in 1922 to about 81,000 hectares in 1925, as compare! with the average area under cultivation of 55,167 hectares in the years 1909 to we 3 and the productisn rose in the same period from 281,500 quintals of linseed to nearly 486,600 quintals and from 205,000 to 421,500 quintals of fibre a fair export trade is developing and amounts to nearly half the total production in flax. finland.—in finland, where in 19to out of the total area of 2,997,217 hectares not iess than 91:4°% was forest, moorland, etc., while the cultivated land only accounted for 5-7 %, and the meadow land for only 2-9°%, the forest wealth is naturally the determining element for the national economy. of the total rural population of 2,820,000 persons (84-2 % of the whole population of finland), only 40-6% are owners or tenant farmers and 59-4% are agricultural workers of different kinds, who draw no assured subsistence from the land.’ a systematic scheme of land settlement has been in progress since the beginning of the century. up to sept. 30 1925, by means of grants from the land colonisation fund, 437,319 hectares were scttled, 11,845 new farms established, 4,078 small holdings enlarged and 6,000 sites for farm workers’ dwellings granted.6 the object of post-war icgislation has been to facilitate the transition of the tenan- cies into free ownership, as also the wider employment of land for settlement purposes; 43,343 small holdings were established between oct. 25 1918, and march i 1925. the wheat production of finland has risen from 157,538 quintals in 1921 to 202,900 quintals in 1925, and the export of butter from 64,652 quintals in 1921 to 131,910 in 1925; in 1913, 126,400. central european states poland.—out of 1,000,400 peasant families in galicia there were 813,000 who dil not make an adequate living out of the land, while 1,220,000 peasant inhabitants of russian poland owned no land at all. upto jan. 1 1923, 271,197 hectares of land were available for land reform purposes, and 18,018 new farms were established, 27,256 were enlarged, 3,199 workers’ homesteads were erected and 360 special farms instituted.?, an agrarian reform bill was passed in dec. 1925, which provided for the distribution of 20,000 hectares a year among peasant farmers over a period of ten years, the maximum areas tenable being 60 hectares in industrial areas, 300 acres in the border provinces, and 175 in other areas. compensation to the owners was at the present value, from 25 to 50 per cent being paid in cash, and the remainder in bonds. 2 revaler bate, no. 290, dec. 19 1925. 3 bokalders, in neue freie presse (vienna, jan. 31 1925). * board of trade jour., no, 1211 (london, feb. 12 1920). 6’ dr. oesten elfving, “ die bodenfrage in finnland,” archive fiir innere kolontsation, parts 9-11 (berlin, june—aug. 1921). 6 revue sociale, published by the ministry of social affairs of finland, no. 12, p. 889 (helsingfors, 1925). 7 ludkiewicz zdzislav, ‘‘ la question agraire en pologne,” revue d’ economie politique (paris, dec. 1923). land tenure czechoslovaktia.—in czechoslovakia the land reform was practi- cally complete in 1926. before the war the great estates of over 500 hectares in extent absorbed altogether one-third of the total agri- cultural land. the land available for agrarian reform has been 1,229,688 hectares of arable and meadow land. of this one-third remains in the hands of the large landowners, 80,000 hectares is left with the former tenants under the form of tenancy, and 820,000 hectares are being apportioned into smail and very small holdings. the number of farms of 2-5 hectares in extent has doubled, and that of farms of from 5 to 10 hectares has quadrupled, and the number of peasant farms of over 10 hectares has increased to a remarkable extent.! the production of sugar-beet advanced from 40,716,551 quintals in f921 to 84,083,300 quintals in 1925. the export of sugar returned in 1921 as 376,328 metric tons, amounted in 1924 to i,015,- 155 tons. the republic holds the first place among european sugar- exporting countries and the third on the international sugar market.? hungary.—in hungary before the land reform large estates of over 1,000 joch amounted to 35-88% of the agricultural area, the medium-sized estates of 100—-1,000 jock to 16-62%, and the small holdings under 100 jock to 47-5%.* the very small holdings up to 3 hectares formed 53:6% of the total number of holdings and only 5:8% of the agricultural area; holdings larger than 575 hectares formed 0-2 % of the total number of holdings, but nearly one-third of the entire agricultural area. before jan. 1925, 597,094 jock had been assigned to the peasants, and 127,471 sites allotted for houses. the production of wheat has risen from 8,052,950 quintals in 1921 to 18,385,000 quintals in 1925. the wheat exports have also increased very considerably, having in fact advanced from 176,949 quintals in 1921 to 1,803,918 quintals in 1924. a great impetus has been given to the cultivation of vines, but owing to tariff difficulties the export of wine is at present very much reduced. austria —in austria only 156 peasant holdings, covering 2,824 hectares, had been settled up to june 30 1924, in accordance with the resettlement law.‘ | germany.—in germany 1,468,915 hectares of large landed prop- erty in prussia ought, according to the land settlement law, to have been made available for home colonisation in the years 1919-22, whereas the area actually so available was only 95,576 hectares. what form will be taken, under stable economic conditions, by this home colonisation, as it was envisaged by the originator of the scheme, prof. max sering, and how far the cry of the land-hungry population is really stilled,® only the future can determine. balkan states rumania.—in rumania nearly half of the total agricultural area belonged before the war to the large landowners, though their number was scarcely more than 14% of the total num- ber of all the agriculturists. at the beginning of 1925, 5,713,598 hectares of land, or 30% of the whole agricultural area, were expro- riated under the land reform and assigned to the applicants for and. in consequence of this the small holdings now amount in old rumania to 80:94 % of the cultivable area and in transylvania to 49:34%.5 the production of wheat had fallen off in rumania, as compared with the pre-war production, but it again shows a very marked upward tendency. the area under wheat increased from 2,488,335 hectares in 1921 to 3,300,900 hectares in 1925, and the roduction from 21,381,484 quintals to 28,946,700 in the correspond- ing years. the wheat export has also recovered to some extent: it rose from 756,903 quintals in 1921 to 1,216,150 in 1924, and the wheat flour export ge 194,223 to 1,165,270 quintals. expansion of the cereals export was, however, made impossible on account of the increased duty, partly imposed on political and financial grounds, partly with a view to ensuring low prices for bread in rumania, but this duty was eventually reduced. quite apart from this, it has been necessary to import a considerable volume of cereals into transyl- vania from the parts of rumania where the supply was abundant. yugoslavia.—in yugoslavia the conditions of rural land tenure varied very much according to the provinces. generally speaking, every peasant in old serbia had his piece of land, and there was little scope for jand reform. in those provinces, however, which were previously under turkish rule, mediaeval feudal conditions still pre- vailed in the country districts: in bosnia and hercegovina, the kmet regime, in macedonia and a part of montenegro the tchiftchius system. the agrarian reform completely did away with this regime, and the former kmets became small proprietors. in the former austrian provinces such as croatia, slavonia, etc., more than half of the agricultural land was in the hands of the large landowners. up to the end of 1923 in the whole of yugoslavia 501,966 jock of cultivable fand were divided among 185,905 families.? wheat 1venkop, no. 214 (prague, dept. 13, 1925). 2 gazette de prague, no. 86 (oct. 28 1925). 8gustave gratz, la situation economigue de la hongrie, p. 9 (budapest, 1925). | 4 der oesterreichische volkswirt (vienna, april 4 1925). 5 deutsche landwirtschaftliche presse, no. 15 (berlin, april 11 1925). 75 eee mititu, l’evolution de la propriete rurale et la reforme agraire en roumanie (bucharest, 1925). 7 revue economique et financiere de belgrade (dec. 1923). 659 growing has made satisfactory progress, the yield rising from 14,100,300 quintals in ig2i to 22,403,100 in 1925, while the wheat export advanced from 470,729 quintals in 1921 to 1,772,764 in 1924, bulgaria.—in bulgaria it is hardly possible to speak of a pre- dominance of large ownership, the principal object of the land re- form was to secure a better distribution of land between the medium sized and small farms, and up to the end of 1923, 1,885 hectares of land had been assigned to 780 persons. the cultivation of tobacco, which takes an important place in the agriculture of bulgaria, has shown remarkable progress. in 1924 the production amounted to 436,975 quintals as compared with 129,848 quintals in i914. in 1924 there was an export of 31,735,000 kg. of tobacco of the value of 1,828,109,000 ieva.2 in 1925 for various reasons the production of tobacco fell off to a perceptible extent. greece.—in greece 832 large estates were expropriated up to 1923, and 7,500 small farmers were presented on an average with 13:5 hectares each. the peasants grow for the most part com- mercial crops, such as currants and wine-grapes, the export of which has noticeably increased. western european countries in western europe even less than in germany or austria is it possible to speak of agrarian reform in the sense in which it has oc- curred in the countries of eastern europe. the conditions of tenure of agricultural land have undergone slow though continuous modi- fication without any remarkable alteration having come about in the traditional agrarian system of the separate countries. in england, the classic instance of a country of large estates and large and medium sized tenancies, the number of occupying owners has almost doubled. in 1ig10 there were 55,433 such owners, holding 3,329,015 ac., while the total number had in 1924 become 94,236 holding 6,574,074 ac., or nearly one-quarter of the total area of england and wales, 29,739,000 acres.2 thus there has come about in this country what the hon. edward wood (lord irwin) called (dec. 9 1924) ‘'a silent revolution.” indeed, in view of the fact that the rdle of the large landowner as the provider of credit for agriculture is disappearing, while at the same time this function devolves more and more upon the state, he added"... and so you may well find yourselves in the course of the next 30 or 40 years within measurable distance of something like nationalisa- tion by a side wind.’? this would imply the virtual realisation of the land reform programme as proposed by lloyd george—the taking over of the land by the state, which then assigns it to tenants in hereditary usufruct. italy.—in italy there were in 1912 4,931,000 agricultural holdings, including 3,275,000 of less than one hectare each, 614,000 of from one to two hectares, and 450,000 of two to four hectares. at the same time in some provinces the extent of the latifundia was very con- silerable for example, in caltanisetta, out of the whole area of 22,865 hectares, 134,807 were latifundia, or 41-7 %; in the province of palermo the percentage was 35-0, and in the provinces of sicily taken as a whole nearly one-third.” a bill of the transformation of the latifundia for purposes of home colonisation was passed by the chamber of deputies on aug. ig 1922, but was thrown out by the senate at the end of the same year. denmark.—the agrarian policy is directed increasingly towards the promotion of rural small ownership. the object of the so-called old small holdings act of 1899 was mainly the settlement of land workers. the land was procured for this purpose on the open market with the help of state loans. from 1900 to 1924, 11,451 small hold- ings were formed in this way, the state assistance amounting to about 100,000,000 crowns! (see denmark: agriculture). the intention of the framers of the new small holdings act of oct. 1919 was to establish peasant holdings as economically inde- pendent units, the govt. supplying land on favourable terms to applicants by purchase of church lands, of entailed lands, etc. the average size of the holdings is now fixed at 7} hectares, as com- pared with 33 before the war. in accordance with this law in the years 1920-24, 2,251 new holdings were formed covering 15,874 hectares, and 3,040 hectares were allotted for 1,258 very small holdings. in all 14,960 peasant holdings have been formed since 1900. at the present time the question is being asked whether the obtaining of land for small holdings would not be greatly facilitated by expropriation of land in the case of property which exceeds a given extent. ii. conclusion the changed conditions of tenure of agricultural land are to be traced back almost entirely to social causes, and land reform is thus rather a problem of the more equal division of property 8 la bulgarie, no, 718 (sofia, nov. 25 1925). 9orwin and peel, the tenure of agricultural land, pp. 20-22 (cambridge, 1925). 10 (7, lorenzoni, ' latifundia in sicily and their possible trans- eit a international review of agricultural economics, no. 3 1923). 1.“ conservation and formation of small holdings in denmark,” international renew of agricultural economics, no. 1 (1926), 660 than one of increase of production from landed property. none the less the land reforms are already of proved economic value, although the peasant holdings that are their outcome are still in the first stage of adaptation to the new conditions. the ad- vance of agricultural production is determined, not merely by the greater or less area of the peasant farms, but in a marked degree also by the psychological attitude of the peasant to his land, his joy in production and will to work. it is this impon- derable factor, defying measurement, but, when multiplied a million fold, yielding in due time great results, that is the true achievement of the agrarian reforms. the lessons of the war come to this, that a sound distribution of ownership, together with a large peasant class, tends to conditions of agricultural progress and forms the essential presupposition of social peace. (see also farm organisation.) bibliograpity.—the principal agrarian laws of the different countries are reproduced in the international year-book of agricitl- tural legislation (1919-25). the bibliography of russian agra- rian legislation is given in ‘‘ agrarian policy in sovict russia,” by m. tcherkinsky, in the international review of agricultural economics, no. 4 (oct.-dec. 1924). the data on agricultural production and export, where no special reports are quoted, have been taken from the international vear-book of agricultural statistics for 1924-5 and the international crop report and agricultural statistics (rome). see also prof. sering, “‘ die umwialzung der osteuropdischen agrarverfassung,”’ in archiv fiir innere kolonisation, parts 3 and 4 (berlin, 1920-1); walther schiff, ‘' die agrargesctz rebung der europiischen staaten vor und nach dem kkriege,” in archiv fiir sosialwissenschaft und sozialpolitik, parts 2 and 3 (tiibingen, 1925); ifor l. evans, ‘ agra- rian revolution in new baltic states’ in slavonic review, vol. 3, no. 9 (london, march 1925); alex. v. tobien, die a grarrevolution in estland (berlin, 1923); g. a. luiga and a. warep, die neue a grar- verfassung in eesti (dorpat, 1924); hamilcar, baron foelkersahm, die entwickelung der agrarverfassung livlands und kurlands und die umwdleung der agrarverhdltnisse in der republik letilands (greifswald, 1923); prof. metzger, die landfrage in finniand, berichte tiber landwirtschaft; issued by reichsministerium fiir er- nahrung und landwirtschaft, part 1 (berlin, 1923); daszynska- galinska, la reforme agraire en pologne (warsaw, 1921); dr. rose adam, reformy rolne en europie (warsaw, 1925); macek, “ land reform in czechoslovakia,” in slavonic review (london, june 1922); edouard vondruska, la reforme agraire en tchecoslovaquie (prague, 1924); l. e. textor, landreform in czechoslovakia (london, 1923); prof. hollmann, ‘' die bodenreform in der tschechoslowakei,”’ in berichte tiber landwirtschaft, part 2 (berlin, 1923); felix mandl, die neue siedlungsgesetsgebung in ungarn verglichen mit der an deutschland (budapest, 1924); hainisch, die landflucht (jena, 1924); hans ponfick, sied/ung in stichwertern (berlin, 1925); c.c. bosiano, la politique paysanne en roumanie depuis la guerre (paris, 1922); zdenko picha, bodenreform in rumdnien (prague, 1920); ifor l, evans, the agrarian revolution in roumania (cam- bridge, 1924); srebreno-dolinski, la reforme agraire en yougo- slavie (paris, 1921); spis-sarevski, the agrarian movement in bul- garia (sofia, 1923); pavlos giannelia, ‘die bodenreform in gricchen- land "’ in jahrbuch der bodenreform, part 2 (berlin, 1924); a. serpieri, la politica agraria in italia (piacenza, 1925); p. caziot, la terre a la famille paysanne (paris, 1919); victor boret, pour et par la terre (paris, 1921); dr. hans bernhard, schweizerische siediungspolttik (ziirich, t919); l. th. arnskov, small holdings in denmark (copen- hagen, 1924). (men. t.) lane, franklin knight (1864-1921), american public official, was born near charlottetown, p.e.i., canada, july 15 1864. he graduated from the university of california in 1886. he began his career as a newspaper reporter, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1889. he practised in san francisco, drafted a charter for that city and soon afterwards, in 1897, was elected city attorney, to which office he was twice re-elected. in 19¢2 he was the unsuccessful democratic candidate for gov- ernor of california, and the following year failed in his election for the u.s. senate. in 1905 he was appointed by president roosevelt a member of the interstate commerce commission and was retained by president taft, serving for eight years, part of the time as chairman. in 1913 he entered the cabinet of president wilson as secretary of the interior. during his term of office the wealth of alaska was made more accessible by the construction of a government railway. dams were built in several western states for conserving the water supply in dry regions. to the indians he gave special attention, maintaining that perpetual tutelage was wrong. he advocated development of national resources without waste as being reasonable con- lane, franklin k.—languages servation. he was an earnest advocate of reclamation of land. in 1916 he was a member of the american-mexican joint high commission, and the following year became a member of the council of national defense. in 1920 he resigned his post as secretary of the interior. he was treasurer of the european relief council. he died at rochester, minn., may 18 1921. he was the author of the american spirit addresses delivered in war time (1918). see also a. w. lane and l. h. wall, the letters of franklin k. lane, personal and political (1923). lane, sir hugh percy (1875-1015), irish art collector, was born in co. cork nov. 9 1875, the son of the rev. j. w. lane. ife entered the firm of colnaghi & co. in 1893 and rapidly made a name as a connoisseur of extraordinary perception. in 1898 he began dealing on his own account. he took a prominent part in the revival of an interest in art in ireland, especially in establishing a gallery of modern art in dublin. a fine collection was ultimately made, and housed in harcourt street, dublin, where it was opened in 1906. he was knighted in 1909. lane offered a number of old masters to the city of dublin but, owing to the attitude of the dublin corporation, his gift did not take effect. he acted as adviser on the formation of the johannesburg municipal gallery of modern art (1909), and brought together the cape town national gallery collection of 17th century dutch pictures (1912). he was in 1914 appointed director of the national gallery of ireland. he was drowned in the sinking of the ‘‘ lusitania,’”? may 7 rors. see lady gregory, hugh lane’s life and achievements: with some account of the dublin galleries (1920). lanessan, jean marie antoine de (1843-1910), french statesman and naturalist (see 16.169), retired from politics in to14. among his latest works were la crise de la republique (1914); and l’histoire de pentente cordiale anglo-frangaise (1916). he died at ecouen, seine-et-oise, nov. 81919. | lang, andrew (1844-1912), british writer (see 16.171), died at banchory, aberdeenshire, july 20 1912. lang, cosmo gordon (1864~ ), anglican divine, was born in aberdeen oct. 31 1864, the son of john marshall lang, sometime moderator of the church of scotland. educated at glasgow university and balliol college, oxford, he graduated in 1886 and two years later was elected a fellow of all souls. in 1890 he was ordained and was appointed curate of the parish church of leeds. from 1893 to 1896 he was fellow and dean of divinity of magdalen college, oxford, and from 1894-96 vicar of the university church of st. mary’s. in 1896 he became vicar of portsea, and in 1901 suffragan bishop of stepney, london, and canon of st. paul’s cathedral. in 1908 he was appointed archbishop of york. his eloquence and clear common sense made him an influential member of the house of lords, and in 1909 he was appointed a member of the royal commission on divorce. his published works include the miracles of jesus as marks of the way of life (1901); thoughts on some of the parables of jesus (1906); the opportunity of the church of england (1905). langlois, hippolyte (1839-1912), french general (see 16.177), died in paris feb. 12 1912. langmuir, irving (1881- ), american chemist, was born in brooklyn, n.y., jan. 311881. hestudiedat the columbia school of mines, proceeding in 1903 to the university of gottingen. he was instructor in chemistry at stevens institute, ho- boken, n.j., from 1906 to 1909, since which time he has engaged in physico-chemical research for the general electric co., schenectady, new york. he inventeti the gas-filled tungsten lamp and the condensation pump for producing high vacua; his inventions in the field of electric discharges are largely respon- sible for the modern vacuum tube used in radio. in 1911 he dis- covered the atomic form of elementary hydrogen, and subse-. quently developed a process for welding mctals by flames of atomic hydrogen. in 1917-8 he was engaged at the naval experimental station, nahant, mass., developing devices for submarine detection. for his work in the field of molecular physics he received in 1918 the hughes medal of the royal society, london. languages: sce foreign languages; phonetics. lankester—lansdowne lankester, sir edwin ray (1847- }, british biologist, was born in london may 15 1847, and was educated at st. paul’s school, downing college, cambridge, and christ church, oxford. in 1872 he was elected to a fellowship at exeter col- lege, oxford. during 1874-90 he was professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at university college, london, and from 1891-8 linacre professor of comparative anatomy at oxforcl. from 1808 to 1907 he was director of the natural history clepart- ment of the british museum, and from 1898-1900 he held the fullerian professorship of physiology and comparative anatomy at the royal institution, london. he did valuable research work on the comparative structure of animals, both living and extinct. to the general public he became known owing to his successful presentation of scientific subjects in a popular form. he was elected f.r.s. in 1875, and was awarded the royal medal in 1885 anc the copley medal in 1913. in 1884 he founded the marine biological association, becoming its president in 1892. he was awarded k.c.b. in 1907. his numerous publica- tions include comparative longevity (1871); degeneration (1880); and the several editions of science from an easy chair (1908, ro10, 1912); diversions of a naturalist (1915); science and education (1919); secrets of earth and sea (1920); and great and small things (1923). he was for many years editor of the quarterly journal of microscopical science. lanrezac, charles louis (1852-1025), french soldier, was born at pointe-d-pitre, guadeloupe, july 31 1852. while at the ecole de guerre, the new french doctrine of strategy and tactics was being established under the influence of maillard, langlois and bonnal. to this doctrine lanrezac himself con- tributed in his studv la manocuvre de liitzen. ile became colonel in 1902, general of brigade in 1906, and general of division in 1911. in 1912 he commanded the xi. corps, and on april 10 1914 succeeded gallieni as a member of the conseil superieur de la guerre and commander-designate of the v. army. his theories as summarised in the article strafegie of the dictionnaire milt- taire were not in accordance with the modern theory of an inces- sant and universal offensive, of which plan 17 was an example. this plan assumed that the v. army would attack east of the meuse towards neufchateau. lanrezac pointed out in his report of july 31 1914 that if the extreme german right crossed the meuse north of givet the v. army at neufchiteau would be turned, neither he nor joffre anticipated the magnitude of the german attack, though he feared an enemy attack between namur and givet aimed at chimay and the sources of the oise and the direct road to paris. he therefore sought and obtained permission on aug. 12 to place the i. corps (left) in the dinant region, andto make preliminary arrangements for moving the rest of his army towards the northwest. on aug. 15 the germans hav- ing endeavoured to cross the meuse at dinant, general jofire ordered the transfer of the army on the left bank. on aug. 21 lanrezac asked joffre whether he should attack the following day, but was then violently attacked by von biilow’s army, and the battle of charleroi began. the arrival of the iii. german army forced the i. french corps to fall back on the meuse, while the iii. corps had to yield. on the evening of the 23rd lanrezac was obliged to order a retreat, which lasted from aug. 24 to sept. 5. on aug. 27 orders were given to renew the offensive at saint-quentin in order to assist the british. ‘this order provoked a violent disagreement between joffre and lan- rezac. nevertheless lanrezac renewed his offensive on the zgth and at the battle of guise, won a brilliant tactical success. but the retreat continued, and on sept. 3 gen. lanrezac was relieved of his command. in 1917 he was offered the post of major general of the armies by m. painleve, but he refused and suggested gen. petain. “he is one of my own children,” he said, “and i can answer for him.”” on july 3 1917 he was made grand officer of the legion of honour and on aug, 29 1924 he was given the grand cross of the same order. he diced on jan, 18 1925. see lanrezac, le plan de campagne francats et le premier mots dela guerre (1920); jules isaac, joffre ef lanreszac (1022); f. engerand, lanrezac (1926). . (h. br.”) 661 lansbury, george (18s0- ), british politician, was born on feb. 21 1859 in suffolk. working in a timber business, in london, he became a member and trustee of the national union of general workers. he abandoned his early liberalism 1o found the church socialist league and to join the independ- ent labour party. in 1909, as a member of the royal com- mission on the poor laws, he signed the minority report, and started an active campaign for its adoption. elected m.p. for bow in 1910, he supported the militants in the women’s suffrage movement, and in 1912 resigned his seat to test opinion on the subject, but was defeated; he recaptured it, however, in 1922. in 1913 he became editor of the daily herald, which he carried on as a weekly during the war period. from 1920, on its revival as a daily, he was again editor, becoming general manager in 1922. in 1925 he resigned this post and founded lansbury’s weekly, a journal friendly to communism. he visited india and russia, publishing his book, what j saw in russia, in 1920. he was clected a borough councillor in rg0r and was mayor of poplar from 1919-20 but he refused a post in the labour govt. (1924) and criticised its policy in many respects. lansdowne, henry charles keith petty fitzmau- rice, str marquess of (1845- }, british statesman (see 16.184), had, during his tenure of office as foreign secretary (1900-5), definitely set his mark on british foreign policy ata critical period of history. in 1900 great britain felt all the disadvantages of isolation. lord salisbury’s system of a general reliance on germany and the triple alliance (germany, austria and italy) had become no longer possible, in view of the open expression of german ill-will during the boer war, and of the german resolve to build a fleet sufficiently large to constitute a serious challenge to the british navy. on the other hand, great britain had nearly come to blows with france over fasho- da (kodok), and her historical friction with russia continued. her isolation was especially marked in the far east. germany, russia and france had forced japan, after her chinese war, to relinquish her conquest of the liaotung peninsula. england had refused to join theother european powers in their action, but had simply stood on one side. subsequently russia had over-run manchuria and seized port arthur; france had effected a favourable revision of her frontier in the mekong valley, and germany had seized kiaochow. it is lord lansdowne’s main title to fame that he rescued great britain from this position of peril, procured her an ally in the rising maritime power of the pacific, japan, and in europe established her on terms of friend- ship and mutual understanding with france, by clearing away all the sources of bickering between paris and london. when the duke of devonshire resigned from mr. balfour’s government in 1903, lord lansdowne became the conservative leader in the [louse of lords, and though the fall of the ministry in nov. 1905 transferred him to the opposition bench he re- mained the leader of the majority of that house till dec. 1916. his polished and courteous manner, his thorough acquaintance, both with his work and with the idiosyncrasies of the peers, his cool temper and the sweet reasonableness of his expositions of policy speedily rendered his leadership most acceptable to his followers, in spite of the drawback, from the point of view of the tory majority among them, that he was himself an old whig. he rendered consistently patriotic support to the development by sir edward grey of the foreign policy for which he himself had been responsible. in domestic politics he endeavoured, as far as possible, to limit points of difference with the commons; but the measures of the liberal ministry almost inevitably brought about a conflict, which came to a head over mr. lloyd george’s budget of 1909. in advising the lords to reject it— as they did—he claimed that it was not an ordinary budget, but emphatically one which ought to be referred to the electorate to decide. next year, however, he accepted the result of the general election of jan. 1910, as making it obligatory on the peers to pass the finance bill. after the second general election of 1910 on the point of the lords’ veto, lord lansdowne brought forward in 1911, as an alternative to the parliament bill, a scheme for reconstructing 662 the upper house, which however was dropped after a second reading. when the parliament bill itself came up to the house of lords, he moved and carried, by 253 to 40, an amendment providing for a submission to a popular vote of bills affecting the constitution or otherwise of great gravity. from that amend- ment he and his friends would not, he said, recede so long 2s they were ‘free agents.” ministers immediately announced that they would not accept the amendment, and that the king had consented to create, if necessary, sufficient peers to ensure the passage of the bill in its original form. lord lansdowne held that, after this threat of coercion, the peers had ceased to be free agents, and he therefore advised them to desist from further re- sistance. in this advice he was supported by mr. balfour; but a vehement opposition developed in the conservative party, headed by the ex-lord chancellor, lord halsbury, and these “diehards ” were supported by such a large body of opinion that the bill was only carried eventually by 17 votes. this episode gave a shock to lord lansdowne’s authority both in the house and in the conservative party, but he remained leader and co-operated cordially with mr. bonar law after mr. balfour’s resignation. he fought the irish home rule b'll and the welsh disestablishment bill strenuously on their successive appearances in the house of lords, and procured their rejection by large majorities. but he was always ready for an agreement by consent over the irish question, to avoid the “ irremediable misfortune,” the ‘ overwhelming catastrophe,” of civil war. the world war reduced all these issues to minor significance, and lord lansdowne associated himself with mr. bonar law in tendering at once the support of the opposition to the govern- ment in rallying to the assistince of trance and russia. in 1913 he joined mr. asquith’s coalition ministry without port- folio; and took the lead in pressing the military service bills on the house of lords. at the close of that ministry he retired from office, the leadership of the house and of the conservative majority passing to lord curzon. in his retirement he got somewhat out of touch with public opinion, and published in the daily telegraph, in nov. 1917, a letter in which, to the gen- eral surprise, he advocated a negotiated peace instead of the policy of thorough, on which the ministry and the empire were set. his ideas received hardly any support save from the small pacifist section. in subsequent years he suffered much from ill- health, and so took little or no active part in politics. lord lansdowne’s great and various services to his country were rewarded with the k.g., g.c.s.i., g.c.m.g. and g.c.le. he was a trustee of the national gallery and chairman of the british royal red cross society 1915-20; he received honorary degrees from oxford, cambridge, mcgill and leeds. his elder son, lieut.-col. the earl of kerry, d.s.o., married elizabeth caroline, only daughter of sir e. s$. ilope. ilis younger son, lord charles mercer nairne, was killed in action in france in 1914. of his two daughters the elder married the oth duke of devonshire and the younger the 6th marquess of waterford end, after his death, lord osborne de vere beauclerk. (g. e. b.) lansing, robert (1864- ), american diplomatist, was born at watertown, n.y., oct. 17 1864. he graduated from amherst in 1886, was admitted to the bar in 1889, and for the next 18 years practised at watertown. in 1892 he was associate counsel for the united states on the bering sea commission, and later was american counsel or agent before several impor- tant arbitral tribunals or mixed commissions, including the alaskan boundary tribunal (1903), the hague tribunal for the arbitration of the north atlantic fisheries (1910) and the anglo-american commission (191r) for settling outstanding claims between great britain and the united states. in 1914 he was appointed counsellor of the department of state. when w. j. bryan resigned (june 8 1915), mr. lansing was appointed secretary of state ad interim. he was definitely appointed secretary of state on june 23 1915. in his attempts to uphold american rights he was called upon to direct notes to all the countries at war. in reply to a note addressed by england to neutrals, asking that all belligerent submarines be excluded from neutral waters, he said that the nature of each submarine must lansing—lascelles govern the decision. he thus drew an important distinction between the ‘‘ deutschland,” which had peacefully brought a cargo to america, and the us3, which had raided several ships off the new england coast, oct. 7 1916. in 1917 he notifhed president carranza, of mexico, that the united states would not adopt his proposed pan-american plan of stopping the shipment of food and munitions to all the european belligerents. in nov. 1917 he signed an agreement with japan (the lansing- [shii agreement) which, while recognising japan’s special inter- ests in china, provided for a continuance of the “ open door ” policy for commerce. lansing was a member of the american commission to nego- tiate peace at paris, 1918-9, and, together with viscount cecil and col. house, prepared a draft of the league of nations in jan. 1919. on feb. 13 1920 he resigned as secretary of state on being reprimanded by the president for having called to- gether the heads of the executive departments of the govern- ment. such meetings of the cabinet had, however, frequently been called before during the president’s illness, naturally by the secretrary of state as ranking member. in aug. 1920 he opened a law office in washington. he was the author of the peace negotiations (1921); and the big four and others (1921). lapworth, charles (1842-10920), british geologist (see 16.208), died at birmingham march 13 1920. lardner, ring w. (1885- ), american author and humorist, was born at niles, mich., march 6 1885. he received his education at the niles high school and the armour institute of technology, chicago. he was a reporter on the south bend (ind.) times, 1905-7, after which he spent four years in chicago, contributing to the sporting columns of various newspapers there. he was editor of the sporting news, st. louis, 1g10—1, and sport- ing writer for the chicago tribune 1913-9, after which date he was connected with the bell syndicate. i:is humour is based in part on its racy use of vernacular and the language of illiteracy. ile wrote a number of bool:s, among which are bib ballads (tors); you know me, al (1916); gullible’s travels (1917); treat ’em rough (1918); the real dope (1019); how to write short storics (1924); and the love nest (1926). larmor, sir joseph (1857- ), british mathematician, was born at magheragall in ireland on july rr 1857, and was educated at the royal belfast academical institution, queen’s college, belfast, and st. john’s college, cambridge. from 1889-5 he held the post of professor of mathematics in the queen’s university, ireland, and from 1885~1903 he was lec- turer in mathematics in the university of cambridge, subse- quently becoming lucasian professor there. he carried out much valuable research work in mathematics and mathematical physics, displaying a particular interest in the problems of elec- trodynamics and thermodynamics, and in the electrical proper- ties of ether and matter. he was intimately connected for many years with the royal society, of which he became a fellow in 1892, serving on the council and acting as secretary from 1901- 12. he received the royal medal in 1915, and the copley medal in 1921. in addition to these he was the recipient of many british and foreign honours and awards, including in 1914 the de morgan medal of the london mathematical society of which he was at that time president. he was knighted in rgor, and from 1911-22 was unionist member of parliament for cam- bridge university. his writings include ether and matter (1900), and numerous memoirs on mathematics and physics. lascelles, henry george charles, viscount (1882- ), eldest son of henry ulick lascelles, 5th earl of harewood, was born sept. 9 1882. he was educated at eton and entered the army as a lieutenant in the grenadier guards. for a time he exchanged military for diplomatic service, becoming an hon- orary attache to the embassy in rome 1905-7, and a.d.c. to the governor-general of canada (earl grey) 1907-11. he served in france during the world war, being three times wounded, and winning the d.s.o. with bar, as well as the croix de guerre. in 1922 (feb. 28) he married princess mary, only daughter of king george v., and he was the same year created a knight of the garter. through his grandmother, elizabeth joanna, latin literature daughter of the rst marquess of clanricarde, he inherited the property, though not the titles, of his great-uncle, the second and last marquess, who died april 12 1916.