KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY

the following changes have taken place among the orders of knighthood and chivalry since 1910. while many orders have disappeared, several have been instituted since that date. austria-hungary.—the world war, closed the history of the orders belonging to the dual empire. british lim pire.—as was inevitable, the huge number of people engaged in the world war made it necessary that appointments to all the british orders should be made on a greatly increased scale, while two additional orders were instituted. a change in the method of wearing the badge of the third class (companion) of some british orders was made. where it used to be worn medal-fashion on the left breast, it is now hung round the neck. order of the british iempire—this was instituted in june 1917, to reward war services in all capacities, military and civil. in 1918 a military division of the order was created. the essential features of the latest statute of the order, published on dec. 29 1922, are as follows:— there are five classes of the order, which (like the order of the bath) is divided into military and civil divisions. each class can be conferred upon men and women equally. gre class—knights grand cross and dames grand cross second class—knights commander and dames commander (k.b.e. and d.b.e.). third class—commanders (c.b.e.). fourth class—otficers (o.b.e.). fifth class—members (m.b.e.). the two highest classes of the order wear a star, which is of silver, of two designs. in the centre is a golden medallion showing a repre- sentation of britannia seated, surrounded by a circlet of crimson enamel bearing the motto of the order, ‘‘ for god and the empire.” the members of the first class wear the larger star on the left breast, and the badge of the order (see below) is also worn on the sash, which, in the case of men, is 3} in. wide, in the case of women, 2\ in. wide, and crosses the breast from the right shoulder to the left hip, the badge resting on the hip. a collar has been instituted for this class. . the members of the second class wear the smaller star on the left breast, with the badge suspended, in the case of men, by a ribbon 12 in. wide passing round the neck, and in the case of women, from a bow of ribbon of the same width, placed on the left side, above the star. the third class wear the badge, in the case of men, from a ribbon of the same width as the second class round the neck, and, in the case of women, from a bow on the left side. the fourth and fifth classes wear the badge on the left breast, from a ribbon 13 in. wide, medal-fashion in the case of men, from a bow in the case of women. the badge is a cross patonce, bearing in the centre the medallion and circlet as in the star. an imperial crown in gold surmounts the cross. for the first three classes the cross is enamelled in pearl grey, bordered with gold, while the circlet is of red enamel with the motto in gold. the commander’s badge is smaller than that for the other two classes. the badge of the fourth class is entirely silver gilt, while that of the lowest class is entirely silver. the ribbon of the order is purple for the civil division, and purple with a narrow red central stripe for the military division. there are also two medals belonging to the order: the gallantry medal, which is rare, and is only awarded for conspicuous bravery, where the recipient knew, when he performed the deed of gallantry, that his life was in danger, and the meritorious service medal, given for meritorious service. companion of ffonour —this order was instituted in june 1917, at the same time as the order of the british empire. it may be conferred upon either men or women who have rendered con- spicuous national service, and for whom the distinction is deemed the most appropriate form of recognition, constituting, as it does, an honour dissociated either from acceptance of title or classi- fication of merit, for it confers no title or precedence, simply the initials ‘‘ c.h.” after the recipient’s name. it consists of the sovereign and 50 members, and there is only one class. | the insignia consists of a badge, worn by men suspended from the ribbon of the order which is passed round the neck, and by women suspended from a bow of ribbon placed upon the left shoulder. 641 _ the badge is oval, and consists of a blue circlet ensigned with the imperial crown in enamelled colours and bearing in letters of gold the motto of the order, ‘‘ ja action faithful and in honour clear.” in the centre is an oblong plaque, with thereon, on the dexter a repre- sentation of a mounted knight in armour, and on the sinister an oak tree, from the boughs of which hangs a shield charged with the royal arms. the ribbon is 13 in. wide, of carmine silk with an inter- laced border of golil wire. the order ranks next to, and immediately after, the first class of the order of the british [:mpire. estonia —this country has established the liberty cress. finland.—tthe chief finnish order is the white rose of fin- land. | germany.—officially, the old orders of the german empire have ceased to exist, but they are still worn in many cases. greece.—in addition to the order of the redeemer (see 15.865), the order of george i. was instituted in t912, and has six classes— collar, grand cross, grand commander, officer, knight and com- panion. there are also two medals of the order, silver and bronze. the ribbon is red. owing to the establishment of the greek republic, it is possible that some changes may be made with regard to these two orders. latvia.—latvia has instituted the order of the three stars. persia.—it is not improbable that the new shah may alter the present chief persian order, the timsal-i-humayun (the shah’s portrait), but the lion and the sun may still be continued. poland.—since the restitution of poland’s freedom, the old polish order of the white eagle has been re-instituted. this is the premier polish order, only awarded for most excep- tional services. there is only one class. the ribbon is light blue. the origin of the order of polonia restituta needs no explana- tion. there are five classes—grand cordon, grand officer, com- mander, officer and chevalier. the insignia is worn after the fashion of that of the french legion of honour. the badge 3s a white cross with the eagle of poland thereon, and the ribbon is of the polish national colours, red, with white edges. russia.—all the russian orders of chivalry have been dis- continued, though they still continue to be worn by adherents of the monarchy who have refused to acknowledge the present regime. egypi.—in the days before the world war, services rendered to the egyptian govt. were recognised by the award of the turkish orders of the osmaniech and medyjidieh (see 15.867), but the change in the administration of the country made it inevitable that these would disappear, and that the king of egypt would institute new orders. there are now six of these:— order of mohammed ali, instituted in 1915 in memory of the founder of the present dynasty. the premier egyptian order and rare. three classes—collar, grand cordon and commander. star and badge similar in design, consisting of a sun of which the rays are alternately gold and silver; upon this is a six-pointed green star, each point terminating in a golden lotus flower. in the centre is a green enamelled disc, with the arabic inscription “ mohammed ali’ surrounded with an inscription to the effect that “ clemency, justice and generosity are the strength of a reign.” the ribbon is of watered green silk with a white line close to each edge. two medals, gold and silver, belong to the order. they bear on the ob- verse the arabic inscription, ‘‘ honour to bravery.” order of ismail, instituted 1922 in memory of the father of king fuad. second egyptian order. for eminent services rendered to egypt. !four classes grand cordon, grand officer, commander and officer. the badge is a five-pointed azure-blue enamelled star, having in the centre a round plaque with the arabic inscription “ ismail ” surmounted by a wreath of laurel with red knots. star 1s similar, but has silver rays between the angles. the ribbon is dark blue with a stripe of red towards each edge. order of the nile, instituted in 1915, for useful service rendered to egypt. five classes—grand cordon, grand officer, commander, officer and chevalier. the badge and star are of practically the same design, and consist of a star of 10 rays, alternately gold and silver, thereon a white enamel five-pointed star surmounted by the crown of egypt. in its centre is a golden disc with an arabic inscription in blue, ‘‘ what benefits does egypt owe to the nile, the source of her prosperity and happiness.” the crown in the badge is placed between the two top rays. the ribbon is of watered blue silk, with a golden- yellow stripe at each edge. the officer has a rosette on his ribbon. order of al kamal, instituted in 1915, is for ladies only. four classes—" decoration of al kamal,” first, second and third classes. the decoration is in brilliants, and is reserved for the queen of egypt and princesses of royal blood. the insignia is a star enriched 642 with precious stones, worn on the left breast, and a cordon of light blue watered silk with golden edges, which, passing over the right shoulder, suspends a jewelled badge resting on the left side. the insignia of the first class (grand cordon) is similar in appearance and is worn after the same fashion, but it is not jewelled. the second and third classes wear a badge on the left breast, attached to the ribbon of the order which is tied on in a bow, the second class having a rosette thereon. the star is gold, charged with ten ornamental flowers, and bearing in the centre the inscription “‘ al kamal,” sur- rounded by the words ‘‘ charity,” “* duty,” ‘* devotion,” ‘‘ nobil- ity,"’ and “ pity.” the badge is a star, of which the 10 rays are formed by the same flowers as on the star, surmounted by the crown, and bearing the inscription ‘‘ al kamal ” in the middle. order of agriculture, established 1915, is a reward for services rendered to agriculture. there are two classes—commander and chevalier. the insignia of the commander is a badge, attached to the ribbon of the order, worn round the neck, while that of the chevalier is a similar badge worn medal-wise on the left breast. the badge is a five-rayed star, enamelled white, with leaves and pods of the cotton plant enamelled in colour, in the centre in green arabic characters is the inscription, ‘‘ decoration of agriculture,” and above this, between the top rays a cartouche inscribed in arabic, ‘‘ he who sows, reaps.”’ above all is the royal crown in gold. theribbon is watered silk, striped with green and golden-yellow. order of the military star of king fuad.—this dates from 1919, and is conferred on natives and foreign officers of the egyptian army. it is a white enamel five-pointed star, suspended from a bar. the obverse is bordered with gold, each arm having a golden fillet in the centre. the centre is enamelled in red and blue (the colours of the royal house of egypt), and bears a garland of laurel surmounted by the royal crown which surrounds two crossed sabres of oriental type. the reverse bears the inscription in arabic, ‘‘ the military star of king fuad.” the ribbon has five equal stripes of blue, chamois, black, chamois and blue. bars may be awarded for addi- tional services. (a. v. w.-h.) knowledge, theory of.—theory of knowledge is a prod- uct of doubt. when we have asked ourselves seriously whether we really know anything at all, we are naturally led into an ex- amination of knowing, in the hope of being able to distinguish trustworthy beliefs from such as are untrustworthy. thus kant, the founder of modern theory of knowledge, represents a natural reaction against hume’s scepticism. few philosophers nowa- days would assign to this subject quite such a fundamental im- portance as it had in kant’s “ critical ’ system; nevertheless it remains an essential part of philosophy. it is perhaps unwise to begin with a definition of the subject, since, as elsewhere in philosophical discussions, definitions are controversial, and will necessarily differ for different schools; but we may at least say that the subject is concerned with the general conditions of knowledge, in so far as they throw light upon truth and false- hood. it will be convenient to divide our discussion into three stages, concerning respectively (1) the definition of knowledge, (2) data, (3) methods of inference. it should be said, however, that in distinguishing between data and inferences we are already taking sides on a debatable question, since some philosophers hold that this distinction is illusory, all knowledge being (according to them) partly immediate and partly derivative. i. the definition of knowledge the question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of the three with which we shall deal. this may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. the trouble is that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of agreement between them would make a belief true. let us begin with belief. belief.—traditionally, a “‘ belief ”’ is a state of mind of a cer- tain sort. but the behaviourists deny that there are states of mind, or at least that they can be known; they therefore avoid the word “ belief,” and, if they used it, would mean by it a char- acteristic of bodily behaviour. there are cases in which this usage would be quite in accordance with common sense. suppose you set out to visit a friend whom you have often visited before, but on arriving at your destination you find that he has moved, you would say “i thought he was still living at his old house.” yet it is highly probable that you did not think about it at all, knowledge, theory of but merely pursued the usual route from habit. a “ thought ” or “ belief ” may, therefore, in the view of common sense, be shown by behaviour, without any corresponding ‘ mental ” occurrence. and even if you use a form of words such as is sup- posed to express belief, you are still engaged in bodily behaviour, provided you pronounce the words out loud or to yourself. shall we say, in such cases, that you have a belief? or is something further required? it must be admitted that behaviour is practically the same whether you have an explicit belief or not. people who are out of doors when a shower of rain comes on put up their umbrellas, if they have them; some say to themselves “it has begun to rain,” others act without explicit thought, but the result is exactly the same in both cases. in very hot weather, both hu- man beings and animals go out of the sun into the shade, if they can; human beings may have an explicit “‘ belief ” that the shade is pleasanter, but animals equally seek the shade. it would seem, therefore, that belief, if it is not a mere characteristic of behaviour, is causally unimportant. and the distinction of truth and error exists where there is behaviour without explicit belief, just as much as where explicit belief is present; this is shown by the illustration of going to where your friend used to live. therefore, if theory of knowledge is to be concerned with distinguishing truth from error, we shall have to include the cases in which there is no explicit belief, and say that a belief may be merely implicit in behaviour. when old mother hubbard went to the cupboard, she “ believed ” that there was a bone there, even if she had no state of mind which could be called cognitive in the sense of introspective psychology. words.—in order to bring this view into harmony with the facts of human behaviour, it is of course necessary to take ac- count of the influence of words. the beast that desires shade on a hot day is attracted by the sight of darkness; the man can pronounce the word “ shade,” and ask where it is to be found. according to the behaviourists, it is the use of words and their efficacy in producing conditional responses that constitutes “thinking.”' it is unnecessary for our purposes to inquire whether this view gives the whole truth about the matter. what it is important to realise is that verbal behaviour has the char- acteristics which lead us to regard it as pre-eminently a mark of “ belief,’”? even when the words are repeated as a mere bodily habit. just as the habit of going to a certain house when you wish to see your friend may be said to show that you “ believe ” he lives in that house, so the habit of saying “‘ two and two are four,’ even when merely verbal, must be held to constitute “ belief” in this arithmetical proposition. verbal habits are, of course, not infallible evidences of belief. we may say every sunday that we are miserable sinners, while really thinking very well of ourselves. nevertheless, speaking broadly, verbal habits crystallise our beliefs, and afford the most convenient way of making them explicit. to say more for words is to fall into that superstitious reverence for them which has been the bane of philosophy throughout its history. belief and behaviour.—we are thus driven to the view that, if a belief is to be something causally important, it must be de- fined as a characteristic of behaviour. this view is also forced upon us by the consideration of truth and falsehood, for behav- iour may be mistaken in just the way attributable to a false belief, even when no explicit belief is present—for example, when a man continues to hold up his umbrella after the rain has stopped without definitely entertaining the opinion that it is still rain- ing. belief in this wider sense may be attributed to animals— for example, to a dog who runs to the dining-room when he hears the gong. and when an animal behaves to a reflection in a look- ing-glass as if it were “ reaj,”” we should naturally say that@he * believes ” there is another animat there; this form of words is permitted by our definition. it remains, however, to say what characteristics of behaviour can be described as beliefs. both human beings and animals act so as to achieve certain results, e.g., getting food. sometimes they succeed, sometimes they fail; when they succeed, their 1see j. b. watson, behaviorism (1925). knowledge, theory of relevant beliefs are “‘ true,” but when they fail, at least one is false. there will usually be several beliefs involved in a given piece of behaviour, and variations of environment will be neces- sary to disentangle the causal characteristics which constitute the various beliefs. this analysis is effected by language, but would be very difficult if applied to dumb animals. a sentence may be taken as a law of behaviour in any environment contain- ing certain characteristics; it will be “ true” if the behaviour leads to results satisfactory to the person concerned, and other- wise it will be “ false.”’ such, at least, is the pragmatist defini- tion of truth and falsehood. truthin logic.—there is also, however, a more logical method of discussing this question. in logic, we take for granted that a word has a “ meaning’; what we signify by this can, i think, only be explained in behaviouristic terms, but when once we have acquired a vocabulary of words which have ‘“ meaning,” we can proceed in a formal manner without needing to remember what ‘“‘ meaning ” is. given the laws of syntax in the language we are using, we can construct propositions by putting together the words of the language, and these propositions have meanings which result from those of the separate words and are no longer arbitrary. if we know that certain of these propositions are true, we can infer that certain others are true, and that yet others are false; sometimes this can be inferred with certainty, some- times with greater or less probability. in all this logical manip- ulation, it is unnecessary to remember what constitutes meaning and what constitutes truth or falsehood. it is in this formal region that most philosophy has lived; and within this region a great deal can be said that is both true and important, without the need of any fundamental doctrine about meaning. it even seems possible to define “‘ truth’ in terms of “ meaning ”’ and “‘ fact,” as opposed to the pragmatic definition which we gave a moment ago. if so, there will be two valid definitions of “ truth,” though of course both will apply to the same propositions. the purely formal definition of ‘‘ truth” may be illustrated by a simple case. the word “ plato’ means a certain man; the word “ socrates ’? means a certain other man; the word ‘ love ”’ means a certain relation. this being given, the meaning of the complex symbol “ plato loves socrates ” is fixed; we say that this complex symbol is “ true” if there ts a certain fact in the world, namely, the fact that plato loves socrates, and in the contrary case the complex symbol is false. i do not think this account is false, but, like everything purely formal, it does not probe very deep. uncertainty and vaguneness.—in defining knowledge, there are two further matters to be taken into consideration, namely, the degree of certainty and the degree of precision. all knowledge is more or less uncertain and more or less vague. these are, in a sense, opposing characters: vague knowledge has more likeli- hood of truth than precise knowledge, but is less useful. one of the aims of science is to increase precision without diminishing certainty. but we cannot confine the word “ knowledge” to what has the highest degree of both these qualities; we must include some propositions that are rather vague and some that are only rather probable. it is important, however, to indicate vagueness and uncertainty where they are present, and, if possi- ble, to estimate their degree. where this can be done precisely, it becomes ‘ probable error”? and “ probability.” but in most cases precision in this respect is impossible. il. the data in advanced scientific knowledge, the distinction between what is a datum and what is inferred is clear in fact, though sometimes difficult in theory. in astronomy, for instance, the data are mainly certain black and white patterns on photo- graphic plates. these are called photographs of this or that part of the heavens, but of course much inference is involved in using them to give knowledge about stars or planets. broadly speak- ing, quite different methods and a quite different type of skill are required for the observations which provide the data in a quantitative science, and for the deductions by which the data are shown to support this or that theory. there would be na 643 reason to expect einstein to be particularly good at photo- graphing the stars near the sun during an eclipse. but although the distinction is practically obvious in such cases, it is far less so when we come to less exact knowledge. it may be said that the separation into data and inferences belongs to a well-devel- oped stage of knowledge, and is absent in its beginnings. animal inference.—but just as we found it necessary to admit that knowledge may be only a characteristic of behaviour, so we shall have to say about inference. what a logician recog- nises as inference is a refined operation, belonging to a high degree of intellectual development; but there is another kind of inference which is practised even by animals. we must con- sider this primitive form of inference before we can become clear as to what we mean by “‘ data.” when a dog hears the gong and immediately goes into the dining-room, he is obviously, in a sense, practising inference. that is to say, his response is appropriate, not to the noise of the gong in itself, but to that of which the noise is a sign: his reaction is essentially similar to our reactiors to words. an animal has the characteristic that, when two stimuli have been experienced together, one tends to call out the response which only the other could formerly call out. if the stimuli (or one of them) are emotionally powerful, one joint experience may be enough; if not, many joint experiences may be required. this characteristic is totally absent in machines. suppose, for in- stance, that you went every day for a year to a certain auto- matic machine, and-lit a match in front of it at the same mo- ment at which you inserted a penny; it would not, at the end, have any tendency to give up its chocolate on the mere sight of a burning match. that is to say, machines do not display in- ference even in the form in which it is a mere characteristic of behaviour. explicit inference, such as human beings practise, is a rationalising of the behaviour which we share with the animals. jilaving experienced a and b together frequently, we now react to a as we originally reacted to b. to make this seem rational, we say that a is a “ sign ” of b, and that b must really be present though out of sight. this is the principle of induction, upon which almost all science is based. and a great deal of philosophy is an attempt to make the principle seem reasonable. whenever, owing to past experience, we react to a in the manner in which we originally reacted to b, we may say that a is a “datum” and b is “ inferred.” in this sense, animals practise inference. it is clear, also, that much inference of this sort is fallacious: the conjunction of a and b in past experience may have been accidental. what is less clear is that there is any way of refining this type of inference which will make it valid. that, however, is a question which we shall consider later. what i want to consider now is the nature of those elements in our experiences which, to a reflective analysis, appear as ‘‘ data ” in the above-defined sense. mental and physical data.—traditionally, there are two sorts of data, one physical, derived from the senses, the other mental, © derived from introspection. it seems highly questionable whether this distinction can be validly made among data; it seems rather to belong to what is inferred from them. suppose, for the sake of definitencss, that you are looking at a white triangle drawn on a black-board. you can make the two judg- ments: ‘‘ there is a triangle there,’’ and “i see a triangle.” these are different propositions, but neither expresses a bare datum; the bare datum seems to be the same in both proposi- tions. to illustrate the difference of the propositions: you might say “ there is a triangle there,” if you had seen it a moment ago but now had your eyes shut, and in this case you would not say “ i sce a triangle’’; on the other hand, you might see a black dot which you knew to be due to indigestion or fatigue, and in this case you would not say “ there is a black dot there.”” in the first of these cases, you have a clear case of inference, not of a datum. in the second case, you refuse to infer a public object, open to the observation of others. this shows that “ i see a triangle ” comes nearer to being a datum than “there is a triangle there.” but the words “‘i”’ and “see” both involve inferences, and 644 cannot be included in any form of words which aims at express- ing a bare datum. the word ‘‘ 1” derives its meaning, partly, from memory and expectation, since i do not exist only at one moment. and the word ‘ see” is a causal word, suggesting dependence upon the eyes; this involves experience, since a new-born baby does not know that what it sees depends upon its eyes. however, we can eliminate this dependence upon expe- rience, since obviously all scen objects have a common quality, not belonging to auditory or tactual or any other objects. let us call this quality that of being “ visual.’’ then we can say: * there is a visual triangle.”’ this is about as near as we can get in words to the datum for bot propositions: ‘“‘ there is a tri- angle there,” and “‘ i see a triangle.”” the difference between the propositions results from different inferences: in the first, to the public world of physics, involving perceptions of others; in the second, to the whole of my experience, in which the visual tri- angle is an element. the difference between the physical and the mental, therefore, would seem to belong to inferences and constructions, not to data. it would thus seem that data, in the sense in which we are using the word, consist of bricf events, rousing in us various reactions, some of which may be called “ inferences,”’ or may at least be said to show the presence of inference. the two-fold organisation of these events, on the one hand as constituents of the public world of physics, on the other hand as parts of a per- sonal experience, belongs to what is inferred, not to what is given. for theory of knowledge, the question of the validity of inference is vital. unfortunately, nothing very satisfactory can be said about it, and the most careful discussions have been the most sceptical. however, let us examine the matter without prejudice. ill. methods of inference it is customary to clistinguish two kinds of inference, deduc- tion and induction. deduction is obviously of great practical importance, since it embraces the whole of mathematics, but it may be questioned whether it is, in any strict sense, a form of inference at all. a pure deduction consists merely of saying the same thing in another way. application to a particular case may have importance, because we bring in the experience that there is such a case—for example, when we infer that socrates 1s mortal because all men are mortal. but in this case we have brought in a new piece of experience, not involved in the abstract deductive schema. in pure deduction, we deal with x and y, not with empirically given objects such as socrates and plato. however this may be, pure deduction does not raise the prob- lems which are of most importance for theory of knowledge, and we may therefore pass it by. induction.—the important forms of inference for theory of knowledge are those in which we infer the existence of something having certain characteristics from the existence of something ‘having certain other characteristics. for example: you read in the newspaper that a certain eminent man is dead, and you infer that he is dead. sometimes, of course, the inference 1s mistaken. i have read accounts of my own death in newspapers, but i abstained from inferring that i wasa ghost. in general, however, such inferences are essential to the conduct of life. imagine the life of a sceptic who doubted the accuracy of the telephone book, or, when he received a letter, considered seriously the possibility that the black marks might have been made accidentally by an inky fly crawling over the paper. we have to accept merely probable knowledge in daily life, and theory of knowledge must help us to decide when it really is probable, and not mere animal prejudice. probability.—far the most adequate discussion of the type of inference we are considering is obtained in j. m. keynes’s treatise on probability (1921). so superior is his work to that of his predecessors that it renders consideration of them un- necessary. mr. keynes considers induction and analogy together, and regards the latter as the basis of the former. the bare essence of an inference by analogy is as follows: we have found a number of instances in which two characteristics are combined, knowledge, theory of and no instances in which they are not combined; we find a new instance in which we know that one of the characteristics is present, but do not know whether the other is present or absent; we argue by analogy that probably the other characteristic is also present. the degree of probability which we infer will vary according to various circumstances. it is undeniable that we do make such inferences, and that neither science nor daily life would be possible without them. the question for the logician is as to their validity. are they valid always, never or some- times? and in the last case, can we decide when they are valid? limitation of variety—mr. keynes considers that mere in- crease in the number of instances in which two qualities are found together does not do much to strengthen the probability of their being found together in other instances. the important point, according to him, is that in the known cases the instances should have as few other qualities in common as possible. but even then a further assumption is required, which is called the principle of limitation of variety. this assumption is stated as follows (p. 256): ‘ that the objects in the field, over which our generalisations extend, do not have an infinite number of in- dependent qualities; that, in other words, their characteristics, however numerous, cohere together in groups of invariable con- nection, which are finite in number.” it is not necessary to regard this assumption as certain; it is enough if there is some finite probability in its favour.! it is not easy to find any arguments for or against ana priort finite probability in favour of the limitation of variety. it should be observed, however, that a “ finite’ probability, in mr. keynes’s terminology, means a probability greater than some numerically measurable probability, e.g., the probability of a penny coming ‘heads’ a million times running. when this is realised, the assumption certainly seems plausible. the strong- est argument on the side of scepticism is that both men and animals are constantly led to beliefs (in the behaviouristic sense), which are caused by what may be called invalid induc- tions; this happens whenever some accidental collocation has produced an association not in accordance with any objective law. dr. watson caused an infant to be terrified of white rats by beating a gong behind its head at the moment of showing it a white rat (behaviorism, p. 126). on the whole, however, acci- dental collocations will usually tend to be different for different people, and therefore the inductions in which men are agreed have a good chance of being valid. scientific inductive or ana- logical inferences may, in the best cases, be assumed to have a high degree of probability, if the above principle of limitation of variety is true or finitely probable. this result is not so definite as we could wish, but it is at least preferable to hume’s complete scepticism. and it is not obtained, like kant’s answer to hume, by a philosophy ad hoc; it proceeds on the ordinary lines of scientific method. grades of certainty—theory of knowledge, as we have seen, is a subject which is partly logical, partly psychological; the connection between these parts is not very close. the logical part may, perhaps, come to be mainly an organisation of what passes for knowledge according to differing grades of certainty: some portions of our belicfs involve more dubious assumptions than are involved in other parts. logic and mathematics on the one hand, and the facts of perception on the other, have the highest grade of certainty; where memory comes in, the certainty is lessened; where unobserved matter comes in, the cer- tainty is further lessened; beyond all these stages comes what a cautious man of science would admit to be doubtful. the attempt to increase scientific certainty by means of some special phi- losophy seems hopeless, since, in view of the disagreement of philosophers, philosophical propositions must count as among the most doubtful of those to which serious students give an unqualified assent. for this reason, we have confined ourselves 1 the argument which leads to this conclusion is long and techni- cal. it has been criticised by jean nicod, le probleme logique de i'induction (paris, 1924), whose contentions are rebutted by mr. r. b. braithwaite in mind (oct. 1925). the outcome is to justify mr. keynes in the main, though not in every detail. knox—kolchak to discussions which do not assume any definite position on philosophical as opposed to scientific questions. bibliography.—ernst mach, die analyse der empfindungen, 5th ed. (1906); william james, essays in radical empiricism (1912); f. h. bradley, essays on truth and reality (1914); l. t. hobhouse, the theory of knowledge, 3rd ed. (1921); b. a. w. russell, the analysts of mind (1921); g. shaun, the evolution of knowledge (1922); c. k. ogden and i. a. richards, the meaning of meaning (1923); a. k. rogers, what is truth? (1923); c. a. strong, 4 theory of knowledge (1923). (b. a. w. r.) knox, philander chase (1853-1021) (see 15.8821), amer- ican politician, was born at brownsville, pa., may 6 1853. he graduated from mount union college, alliance, o., in 1872 and was admitted to the bar in 1875. the following year he was appointed assistant u.s. attorney for the western district of pennsylvania. in 1877 he opened an office in pittsburgh and soon developed a lucrative practice. in 1901 he was appointed attorney-general by president mckinley and was retained by president roosevelt. while he was attorney-general many im- portant suits were instituted, notably those against the “ beef trust ” and the northern securities company. he resigned in 1904, having been appointed to fill the unexpired term of mat- thew s. quay, deceased, as senator for pennsylvania, and was re-elected to serve 1905-11. in 1909 he resigned to enter the cabinet of president taft as secretary of state, holding that office for four years. he was again returned to the senate for 1917-23. in 1920 he offered a resolution declaring that war with germany was at an end, which was adopted by both senate and house, but was vetoed by president wilson. a similar joint resolution of congress was approved by president harding july 2 1921, and a formal treaty of peace with germany signed aug. 25. he died in washington, d.c., oct. 12 1921. knutsford, sydney george holland, 2nd viscount (1855- }, eldest son of the first viscount knutsford, was born on march 19 1855. he was educated at wellington and at trinity hall, cambridge, where he secured honours in law and distinguished himself in athletics. he was called to the bar in 1879, and in 1883 married lady mary ashburnham, daughter of the 4th earl of ashburnham. ile succeeded to the title on the death of his father in 1914. he became a director of the under- ground electric railways co. and other important companies, and was associated with a number of philanthropic enterprises. he was appointed chairman of the london hospital, and his proposal that certain city churches should be demolished in order to provide funds for the sustentation of hospitals, though it attracted several supporters, embroiled him in controversy. kobe, japan, with a population of 714,976 in 1921 (including 4,727 foreigners, largely chincse), has increased in importance as a port as a result of the earthquake of 1923. a considerable part of the trade of yokohama was diverted to it,and part of this transference will probably be permanent, owing to the excellent railway facilities of kobe. the foreign population has also in- creased. large sums have been spent on port improvement and land reclamation, and work is still in progress. in 1922 there were four quays, with berths for 19 vessels, and 19 more berths were projected for the completion of the extension scheme. a large shipbuilding yard, the fourth, was opened in 1917. in 1910 the bed of the minatogawa river was reclaimed; the upper part has been made into a park, with a city hall and large market. the tramways have been extended to hyogo, which is now ad- ministratively a part of kobe. the city stretches five miles be- tween the hills and the river, and is extending rapidly towards osaka, with which it is connected by electric railway; the hill of rokko-zan behind the city has becomea favourite summer resort. many japanese have erected oflice buildings in the settlement, which ts well laid out. the water supply, previously very inade- quate, has been extended. although the south and southwest parts of japan are supposed to be immune from serious earth- quakes, a shock in the neighbourhood of kobe caused consicer- able damage and some loss of life in may 1925. kodaly, zoltan (1882- ), hungarian composer, was born at kecskemet, hungary, dec. 16 1882. he studied under hans koessler at the budapest academy of music, where he 645 became professor of composition in 1907. a leading exponent of the ultra-modern tendency in hungarian music, he devoted himself enthusiastically to the collection and arrangement of hungarian and slovak folk-songs and his pioneer work in this connection was of great importance; for he and bartek dis- covered a certain type of hungarian national music, of a much greater purity and originality than the popular gipsy-music. this had a remarkable effect in transforming modern hungarian music, and in opening up a new perspective. in his arrangement of folk-songs, kodaly successfully penetrated their inner mean- ing, and preserved their poetic spirit. his musical criticisms have appeared in hungarian, american, french and italian papers. his works include johannes itary, a musical comedy; psalm lv., for chorus and orchestra; two string quartets; a trio for strings; sonatas, piano solos, songs, etc. kokoschka, oskar (1886- ), german poet and painter, was born at pochlarn, austria, march 1 1886. he was an ex- pressionist, and produced a number of semi-dramatic works, written in whimsical vein, in which the problems of life were treated in a somewhat loose and vague manner. a erder, hoffnung der frauen (1907), der brennende dornbusch (1911), f1t0b (1917) and orpheus und eurydike (1918) were first published in the sturm and afterwards appeared in collected form under the title of vier dramen (1919). merder, hoffnung der frauen and hiob were performed for the first time in dresden in rgrto and der brennende dornbusch was produced in berlin under kokosch- ka’s direction by the “‘ junge deutschland.” in his staging of this piece kokoschka revealed much original talent. his verse is, for the most part, complementary to the accompanying pictures. his poetical works include die trdumenden kunaben (vienna, 1908; leipzig, 1917); der wetsse tierteter (1920); der gcfesselte kolumbus (1921); and among his more notable pictures and drawings are “ auswanderer ” and “ der irrende ritter.” sce paul westheim, o. kokoschka (1919). kolagek, frantisek (1851-1913), czech physicist, studied in prague under e. mach and in vienna under stefan. in 1882 he was appointed lecturer at the brno (briinn) polytechnic, and in 1891 became professor of mathematical physics at the charles university in prague. his numerous publications (mostly in czech and german) dealing with electromagnetic and optical theory and hydrodynamics include: ‘ dispersionserklaerung nach der elektromagnetischen lichttheorie ” (amn. der physik 1887, 1888), which gives the first explanation of dispersion on the basis of maxwell’s electromagnetic theory; “‘ ‘theorie der doppel- brechung”’ (ibid., 1892); theorie des kerr’schen reflexion phae- nomens (prague, 1895); ‘‘ ueber magnetostriktion”” (phys. zeitschr., vol. 6, p. 143, 1905), and “ zur vheorie der elektro- magnetischen gleichungen in bewegten medien” (ann. der physik., vol. 23, p. 698, 1907), which derives electromagnetic equations for moving media independently of the electron theory, and arrives at lorentz equations which are related toa system of co-ordinates connected with the observer, thus satisfy- inz the relativity criterion; also the excellent textbooks iydro- dynamika (prague, 1899), and elekt¥ina a alagnetism (prague, tgo1}. kol&ieek died in dec. cota. kolchak, alexander vasilievich (1875-1920), russian admiral, was born in 1875 and entered the russian navy in 1888. he served in the russo-japanese war of 1904-5 and at the be- ginning of the world war was in command of a destroyer in the baltic. in the summer of 1916 kolchak was appointed com- mander of the black sea fleet, with the rank of rear-admiral. after the revolution in 1917 he took an active part in the fighting against the bolshevists in siberia. on nov. 18 1918, by a decision of the russian govt. at omsk, admiral kolchak assumed the title of supreme ruler of russia. during the first half of ro19 the anti-bolshevist army under his command met with considerable success but in the summer the army disintegrated, there were risings in the rear, and omsk, the capital of the siberian govt., was captured on nov. 15 1919. the government was then transferred to irkutsk, but after the creation of a new socialist administration at irkutsk, kolchak was asked to resign, and on jan. 4 1920 he signed a ukase transferring his powers to gen, 646 denikin. later he fell into the hands of the bolshevists and was shot at irkutsk on feb. 7 1920. komura, jutaro, margueess (1855-1911), japanese diplo- mat and statesman (see 15.892), was foreign minister in the second katsura administration (1908-11) and died at hayama nov. 24 rorr. koort, jan (1883- ), estonian sculptor, was born nov. 4 1883 in the tartu (dorpat) district. he received his artistic training in the baron stieglitz art school at st. petersburg (leningrad) and from 1905-8 studied at the ecole des beaux- arts in paris under prof. mercier. for the purpose of completing his training he worked in the private studios in paris of adler, r. collin and lucas. he was represented in the exhibitions of the paris spring and autumn salons in 1908 and in the tartue exhibition, 1909. after a short stay in his own country, koort again went to paris in 1910 where he remained until 1915. in 1910 he exhibited in the helsingfors art exhibition. in 1915 he went to moscow, where his best work was produced, and in 1915 and 1916 took part in the exhibitions known under the name of ** mir iskusstwa.”’ the tretjakow gallery in moscow acquired his granite ‘‘ frauenkopf ”’ and the portrait of his wife executed in black granite is in the moscow gallery. koort, who worked in granite, marble and wood, produced various decorative works in memory of those who fell in the estonian war of independ- ence. his preat talents are most forcibly revealed in a number of finely executed character heads. koran: sce arabic literature. korber, ernst von (1850-19109), austrian statesman, was born at trieste nov. 6 1850. he began his career as an official in the austrian state service, and when the emperor francis joseph was compelled to rely on cabinets of officials in view of the obstruction in parliament, koerber became minister of trade under gautsch in 1897, of the interior under clary in 1899 and prime minister in r900. he was the first man other than an aristocrat to hold this post since schmerling. koerber attempted to solve the nationalist question by honest negotiation and compromise, but his efforts first to bring germany and the czechs in bohemia to an agreement, and later to solve the language problem by dividing bohemia into a german, a czech and a mixed district, broke down. he succeeded in restoring confidence between the germans and the crown, but the czechs renewed their obstruction and kerber was forced to rule, as his predecessors had done, with the help of para. 14 of the austrian constitution (which allowed a government to pass any measure on its joint responsibility, with “ provisional validity,” should it prove impossible to pass the measure through parlia- ment in the ordinary way). kerber employed this expedient on no fewer than 33 occasions. he evolved the great austrian canal scheme, the only example of constructive legislation on a large scale in austria of modern times, which was voted but never carried into action. he was also able to introduce a better spirit into industrial disputes, winning the confidence of masters and men alike. kerber resigned ofhce in dec. 1904, when the obstruction of the hungarian party of independence made it impossible to carry through the periodical compromise with hungary. he returned to politics as common finance minister in feb. 1915 and became prime minister for the second time in oct. 1916 after the murder of count stiirgkh. his old confidence, however, was gone. he resigned in dec. 1916 after a fresh dispute concerning the hungarian compromise and died in baden, disregarded and embittered, march 5 19109. korea or chosen.—on aug. 22 1910 korea (see 15.908) became an integral part of the japanese empire, under its ancient name of chosen. formerly in use for over five centuries and now officially restored. with this event a new era dawned for what was formerly the ‘‘ hermit kingdom.” the ordered and systematic progress, already inaugurated by japan in 1906, advanced steadily. the peninsula of chosen, with its outlying islands, has an area of 86,000 square miles. it is thus about as large as the mainland of japan, or about two-thirds of the size of the british isles. the population on oct. 1 1920 was 17,264,119, including about 337,- komura—korea ooo japanese and about 23,000 foreigners. the density was only about 208 per sq. m., compared with 376 in japan and about 374 in great britain. on oct. 1 1924 the population was estimated at 18,677,800. the climate is dry and bracing, without intense variations of cold and heat, and, in contrast to japan, there is an absence of hurricanes and practically no visitation of earth- quakes. the country is mountainous, especially in the north, but there are extensive plains, well watered with good rivers, on the south and west, where are situated the excellent harbours of fusan, mokpo, chemulpho and chinnampo. the mineral wealth of the country is concentrated in the north, while agricul- ture is the predominant characteristic of the level and fertile southwest. chosen’s geographical position affords her easy access to the markets of china, manchuria and siberia, and a railway jine now connects her with northern asia and thus to the heart of europe. i. political history subsequently to the annexation, the functions of the japanese residency-general and of the korean govt. were merged in those of a governor-general, the first to be appointed being gen. ter- auchi, with mr. i. yamagata, son of prince yamagata, as admin- istrative superintendent. in oct. 1916 gen. terauchi vacated his post to become premier of japan, and was succeeded by gen. count hasegawa, mr. yamagata continuing in office. an impor- tant reform effected in this period was the unification of the police and the gendarmerie service, by which a better control of the outlying districts was obtained where hitherto the peace and security of the inhabitants had been frequently disturbed by bands of robbers and marauders. but widespread disturbances took place in march 1919. the koreans desired to achieve at one step that measure of “ self- determination ” which president wilson’s utterances appeared to them to justify. the disturbances, however, were quickly subdued, and the japanese govt. hastened forward reform measures which had already been contemplated. the heads of the administration resigned, and baron (later viscount) makoto saito was appointed governor-general and dr. r. midzuno ad- ministrative superintendent. the reforms introduced were: (1) the extension to civil officials of eligibility to the post of gov- ernor-general, hitherto only open to a military officer of the rank of general; (2) the governor-general, formerly only directly responsible to the throne, to be amenable to the prime minister of japan; (3) the governor-general to be relieved, even when a military officer, of the right to the military command, which should be exercised only by the commander of the army; (4) the substitution of a police force for the mixed system of gendarmerie and police. the premier, mr. hara, also issued a statement that the government were desirous of further eliminating, as time went on, all differences between japan proper and chosen in matters of education, industry and the civil services. a system of provincial and municipal administration, similar to that in japan, would also gradually be evolved. | peace was thus established, although various agitators and malcontents who had fled either to shanghai or to manchuria from time to time made abortive attempts to stir up discontent. episodes which occurred in the autumn of 1920 in the chientao district, when a japanese consulate was burned and attacks were made on peaceful japanese and other civilians, were subsequently found to have been engineered by korean agitators. , i], financial and economic history finance.—after the russo-japanese war, 1904-5, japan turned her attention more actively to the reform of chosen fiscal affairs, detailed regulations regarding revenue and expenditure were pro- mulgated in june 1906, the system of public tenders was introduced, and a bureau of audit was established. the scoul branch of a japa- nese joint-stock bank was authorised to act as the central treasury of the chosen govt., and the post-offices were also entrusted with treasury business. in sept. 1906 regulations with regard to the collection of taxes were issucd and assessors appointed, all being made directly responsible to the minister of finance. a law of1gor, not then put into force, by which the coinage system was to be made analogous to that of japan, became operative in june 1905, and it was further provided that the standard money of korea japan, or bank notes, should become the standard money of chosen. thus chosen became a gold country. in consequence of the steady expansion of financial and economic affairs, the bank of korea (renamed the bank of chosen in ig1tr) was established as a central bank in oct. 1909, and took over the duties previously attended to by the first bank, ltd. the bank of chosen, which has an authorised capital of 40,000,000 yen and a paid- up capital of 25,000,000 yen, acts as cashier to the treasury and handles loan business, and, in addition, is authorised to issue bank notes and to engage in ordinary banking and trust business, such as the discounting of drafts and other commercial papers. also, sub- ject to the approval of the governor-general of chosen, it may make advances to public corporations without security and represent other banks. being the principal medium of exchange in chosen, the volume of the note issue has steadily expanded with the develop- ment of economic affairs in the peninsula. since dec. 1917 the notes have been allowed unlimited circulation in the kwantung territory and the south manchuria railway co.’s leased districts. at the same time the notes were made to replace the gold notes formerly issued in manchuria by the yokohama specie bank, this further oweline the volume of circulation bank notes issued by the korean anks, in march 1906, during the protectorate regime of japan, the agricultural and industrial bank regulation was enacted with the object of giving relief to the straitened money markct in the prov- inces by the creation of a number of agricu!tural and industrial banks. the government extended them help, such as by subscrib- ing to the capital, making loans free of interest and so forth. by the end of 1917 six head offices and 41 branches had been established in various parts of the peninsula. in time they were adjudged inade- quate for the rapilly growing industrial and economic requirements, and this resulted in the promulgation in june 1918 of the chosen industrial bank law, in virtue of which a central bank bearing this title was established in oct. of the same year by amalgamating the agricultural and industrial banks then existing. at the end of 1923 there existed in chosen 18 banks with 58 branches or agencies in addition to their head offices, 17 branch offices and agencies of banks which had their head offices in japan proper, and at the end of june 1924 as many as 499 local credit associations with a total membership of 357,000 persons. the country’s ordinary revenue rose from 44,764,559 yen in 1916-7 to 102,383,844 in 1924-5; while the extraordinary revenue rose from 23,437,548 yen in 1916-7 to 38,439,857 yen in 1924-5. the total expenditure, which in 1916-7 was 57,562,710 yen, was 140,823,701 yen in 1924-5. foreign irade—the external trade of chosen rapidly increased with the development of her agriculture and industry. exports, valued at 5,616,608 yen in 1912 (in addition to exports to japan itself of 15,369,009 yen), increased to 20,403,305 yen in 1923 (with 241,262,427 yen to japan); and imports, 26,359,434 yen in 1912 (plus 40,756,013 yen from japan), rose to 98,338,377 yen in 1923 (plus 167,452,350 yen from japan). during the same period the ratio of trade with japan to that with foreign countries may be seen from the following table:— trade with jap (including taiwan and karafuto) “" trade with for- eign countries in 1924 the trade with foreign countries amounted to: imports, 97,882,000 yen, exports 22,495,000 yen. government enter prises.—in 1908 a special government office was established to control and foster the cultivation of the medicinal plant ginseng. the area under cultivation increased to 1,724 ac., the annual value of the medicinal ginseng raised being 2,000,000 yen. in 1907 the government commenced operations for the natural evaporation of salt, a product hitherto obtained by the artificial boil- ing process, and the manufacture was developed as a government enterprise. by i918 saltpans covering an area of 2,528 ac. were in operation, but, as the quantity of salt produced was still insufficient for home consumption, in 1920 the government began laying out an additional 6,370 ac., the work to be completed in seven years. the * salt produced in 1923 amounted to 67,000,000 kin (88,600,000 ib.). the production and manufacture of tobacco has been greatly fostered by the government. the area under cultivation increased from 33,261 ac. in 915 to 42,525 ac. in i919, the total value having risen from 4,878,127 yen to 14,501,169 yen in the same period. in 1923, however, the area had decreased to 19,885 ac., and the total value for the year was 22,217,642 yen. 647 agriculture and industry—rice is the staple agricultural product, followed by barley, italian millet, soy beans, wheat and ted beans, in addition to which there are also such special prod- ucts as cotton, tobacco, hemp and ginseng. the cultivation of fruit-trees has produced very good results, and the area of their cultivation is gradually extending, fruit-farming having received considerable impetus through the establishment of model agri- cultural farms. the government undertook the reorganisation of sericulture in 1906, and the industry is now being carried on everywhere. both fruit-farming and sericulture are engaged in as subsidiary industries by the agricultural class. the breeding of cattle, horses, goats and pigs is carried on nearly everywhere in the peninsula, though not as an independent enterprise. the cattle are well known for their great size and good quality, and a large number of them are exported annually to japan proper and asiatic russia. at the time of annexation a large part of the forests and plains of chosen was in a state of utter desolation, but since the year 1907 afforestation has progressed uninterruptedly, with gov- ernment assistance, many private forestry enterprises having also sprung up in various localities. the total area of the forests of chosen is believed to be about 13,500,000 acres. the principal native industrial products are: textile fabrics, paper, pottery, metal ware, manufactured tobacco, brewed drinks and leather, but as these works are mostly carried on as subsidiary house industries, the production is insufficient to meet the demand, and even common articles of daily use have in many cases to be imported. with the steady development of manufacturing industries and the rapid strides with which agri- culture, mining and other primary industries have grown, chosen has begun to attract wide attention as a promising field of enter- prise, especially in spinning, filature, the manufacture of pulp, cement, beet-sugar, matches, milling and iron founding. in 1922 there were 53 agricultural companies with a total paid-up capital of 23,988,000 yen, 178 industrial with 27,390,000 yen, 261 commercial with 22,994,000 yen, 79 transportation with 27,694,000 yen and 188 others with 116,883,000 yen, making a total of 759 companies with a capital of 218,950,000 yen. mining—a mining law enacted after the annexation, and made operative on april 1 1916, prohibited foreigners from acquiring mining rights in chosen unless as a legal japanese cor- poration, although the rights existing and already granted to foreigners by the former korean govt. were strictly respected. the principal mineral products, in addition to gold, are silver, zinc, copper, lead, iron, tungsten ore, graphite, coal (especially anthracite), quartz sand and kaolin. a number of japanese mine-owners have recently commenced operations in the pen- insula, and mining enterprise shows a steady expansion. the total annual yield of all the mines in the country was as follows:— 6,067,952 yen 6,815,121 yen 30,838,074 yen 24,204,688 yen 1920 i9i4 8,522,418 yen 14,503,781 yen 1916 14,078,188 yen 17,326,894 yen fisheries.—the advance in the fisheries was mainly due to the provisions of the fishery law of rg11 under which new fishing associations have been formed, havens for the fishing fleet pro- vided, and proper investigations conducted into the suitability of gear and the movements and location of fish. as a result, the fishing population increased from 93,400 with 16,709 boats in 1910, to 346,349 with 53,118 boats in 1918, the total value of the catch having risen from 7,871,910 yen to 32,863,402 yen in the same period. the total catch in 1923 reached the value of 51,- 700,000 yen. communications —some 3,850 m. of road construction and repair were undertaken at government expense, and the cost of another 1,000 m. was shared between the government and the jocal authorities, the total outlay being about 25,000,000 yen. the first railway line in chosen, between seoul and chemulpho, was completed by a japanese syndicate in 1900 and opened to traffic in oct. of that year, whilst the same syndicate undertook the construction of the seoul-fusan railway (274 m.), which was 648 completed and opened to traffic in jan. rgo5. the trunk line seoul-wiju (309 m.), which traverses the peninsula lengthwise, was built by the japanese army and completed in 1906. branch lines were added from time to time, so that by the time chosen became part of the empire some 759 m. of railway were in opera- tion. by 1923~4 this figure had been increased to 1,189 miles. posts, eic.—since tg1o-11 the expansion of the postal, tele- graph and telephone services in chosen has been normal, the number of post-offices having increased from 447 in rgro-1 to 618 in 1922-3, the postal packets from 100,265,041 to 347,770,584 and the parcels from 1,589,722 to 4,565,571. the length of tele- graph lines increased in the same period from 3,389 m. to 5,087 m.; the length of wires from 7,740 m. to 19,635 m.; and the number of messages irom 7,127,235 to 9,850,157. the length of tele- phone lines increased from 314 m. to 4,447 m.; the wires from 10,121 m. to 45,704 m.; and the messages from 21,260,918 to 72,328,480. a great increase both in the number of depositors and the amount of their savings was a feature of the post-office savings bank in chosen;in 1911-2 there were 223,599 depositors (4,365,- 996 yen), and in 1922-3 there were 1,590,470 depositors (19,- 875,093 yen). bibliography.—a, j. brown, mastery of the far east (london, 1919); h. chung, korean treaties (treaties and conventions between korea and other powers), p. 226 (new york, 1919); and the case of korea. a collection of evidence on the japanese domination of korea, etc. (london, 1922); ‘‘ outline of administrative reforms in chosen.” reprinted from the seoul press, p. 47 (seoul, 1920); j. o. p. bland, china, japan and the korea ru, korea: treaties and agreements (carnegie endowment for international peace: division of international law, pamphlet 43, washington, 1921); la nouvelle administration de la coree. d'apres la brochure publiee en juillet 1921 par le gouvernement general (1922). (h.sa.; k. m.) kornilov, lavr georgievich (1870-10918), russian soldier was born july 18 1870 in ust-kamenogorodsk, siberia, his father being a cossack officer. he entered the army, and was in 1892 commissioned and posted to the turkistan artillery bri- gade. he devoted himself to service in turkistan, whence he undertook journeys into afghanistan, chinese turkistan, persia and baluchistan. he saw service as a staff officer in the russo- japanese war of 1904-5, and subsequently spent four years (r907-11) as russian military attache in peking. in galicia, kornilov commanded an infantry division. he himself was captured and sent to the fortress of laka, in hungary, but he managed to escape, reaching russia in the autumn of 1916. he was at once appointed commander of the xx. army corps. at the beginning of march 1917, with the outbreak of the russian revolution, kornilov was appointed to command the troops of the military district of petrograd. he found the troops, in such a demoralised state that he asked to be relieved and sent to the front, and at the be- ginning of may he was made commander of the viii. army. appointed by kerensky supreme commander-in-chief, kornilov presented his programme enforcing discipline in thearmy. the programme was, however, rejected, and this was the beginning of a split between kerensky and kornilov and the struggle be- tween them ending in the outbreak of sept. 8-12; kerensky gained an apparent victory, and kornilov was interned in bikhov. on his release after the november revolution, kornilov assisted gen. alexeyev in forming the volunteer army in which he took a command. on march 31 1918 he was killed in the caucasus by the bursting of a shell. kossuth, francis (1841-1914), hungarian statesman (sce 15.916), died in budapest may 25 1914. - kovesligethy, rado de (1862- __), hungarian astrono- mer, was born at verona, italy, sept. 1 1862. educated at pozsony and the university of vienna, he became assistant to h. c. vogel at potsdam observatory and later astronomer at the o-gyalla observatory. while still a student he evolved from greenwich observations of velocities in the line of sight a first approximation of solar velocity. he constructed further for the kis kartal observatory a handy and powerful spectro- photometer based on the principle of extinction by polarisation. kornilov—kraus after a year’s collaboration at the central institute of meteor- ology and terrestrial magnetism at budapest he became assist- ant to baron eetves. in 1897 he was appointed extraordinary, and in rgo4 ordinary professor of cosmography and geophysics at the university of budapest. in 1905 he became gencral secretary of the international seismological association, a posi- tion he held till the dissolution of the association in 1916. in 1905 he founded the seismological institute of budapest. after the great earthquake of messina he investigated the conditions under which a rational prevision of earthquakes would be possi- ble (sur phystlerists sismigue, 1902). kovno or kaunas (see 15.921), with a population of 92,- 416 in 1923, became the capital of lithuania in place of vilna (wilno) when that town was included in poland. kovno has changed greatly since the world war. previously a quiet, somewhat poor town, with no water supply, gas or modern drainage, it has now electricity and other services and a number of new buildings, including large shops and theatres. its im- provement is largely due to the fact that the taxes of lithuania are now spent in the country, since it gained its independence. a lithuanian university, called the gedimine university in honour of a medieval prince, was opened in 1922. kovno is the industrial centre of the country, nearly one-fifth of the industrial establish- ments in existence in 1921 being in the city. kovno was thought to be a first-class fortress, but was reduced in a few days by german forces during the world war. two churches were wrecked, mills razed and much damage done. great efforts to germanise the town were made during the occupation. the independence of lithuania was ratified by the constituent as- sembly at kovno in may 1920. krassin, leonid broissodich (1870- ), russian poli- tician, was born in kurgan, tobolsk, the son of a civil servant. he was expelled from the st. petersburg technical institute in 1891 for taking part in a political demonstration on the occasion of the funeral of shelgunov. he was arrested in 1894, 1907 and 1908 and banished for three years to nijni novgorod. he com- bined continuous revolutionary activity with great success in the engineering profession, taking important part in many large works in russia and holding eventuajly a responsible post in the company of siemens and schuckert. after the nov. revolution, 1917, he organised the supply of munitions to the red army during the civil war and became people’s commissar for trade and industry. in 1920 he was president of the soviet delegation that concluded the trade agreement with england. in 1922 he was a member of the soviet delegation to genoa. in london he concluded an agreement with mr. urquhart concerning conces- sions in siberia, but this agreement was not ratified in russia, owing to the personal intervention of lenin. when the com- missariats of internal and foreign trade were united, krassin became assistant commissar. he was for some time soviet diplomatic representative in paris and was appointed to london at the end of 1925. kraus, karl (1874- ), austrian critic and poct, was born april 28 1874 at jicin, czechoslovakia. he attended the university of vienna and attracted notice by two brochures, die demolicrie literatur and eine kron fiir zion, and by his periodical, die fackel. this review, of which he became editor in 1899, was at first largely, and later entirely, written by him. it began its career by violent attacks upon abuses in lhterary, theatrical, social and political circles in vienna, and especially upon the newspaper press. gradually it became the mouthpiece of a pitiless and scathing critic and, though the satirist’s point of view changed in the course of time, the middle classes and the liberal press always remained the chief objects of kraus’s attack. his satire was most acute in his collected essays, sittlichkeit und kriminalitadt (1902) and his volume of anti-war poetry die letzen tage der menschheit (1918) was compared * with that of juvenal and swift. kraus has great pathos at his command, but his lyrical talent, as shown in werte in versen (1918), is cramped by his mordant wit. nevertheless his influ- ence upon the younger generation in austria and germany was very considerable. as a lecturer upon his own and upon foreign krehbiel—ku klux klan works, he achieved great success both in his own country and abroad. he must also be reckoned, with lichtenberg, novalis and nietzsche, among the german masters of aphorism. kraus’s other works include spriiche und widerspriiche (1909); pro domo et mundo (1912); nachts (1910). see l. liegler, kari kraus und sein werk (1920); b. viertel, karl krais (1921). krehbiel, henry edward (1854-1923), american writer and critic, was born at ann arbor, mich., march ro 1854. le studied law at cincinnati 1872-4, but drifted into journalism, devoting himself more particularly to musical criticism. he was on the staff of the cincinnati gazette, 1874-80, then editor of the new york musical review, and finally musical critic for the new york tribune till his death, which occurred in new york city, march 20 1923. he was one of the most influential musical critics of his time, and in addition to lecturing on musical topics, wrote a number of popular books. among these are siudtes in wagnerian drama (1891); how to listen to music (1896); music and manners in the classical period (1898); the pianoforte and its music (1911); afro-american folk songs (1914); also works explaining grand opera plots, motives and music. he was the american editor of the 2nd ed. of grove’s dictionary of afusic and musicians (1904-10), edited thayer’s life of ludwig van beethoven, 3 vol. (1921) and translated a number of foreign musical works. kreisler, fritz (1875- ), austrian violinist, was born at vienna feb. 2 1875. at the age of seven he was admitted to the vienna conservatoire and in 1887 won the grand prix on graduation from the paris conservatoire, where he studied under massenet and delibes. in 1889 he made a successful tour of the united states, but then abandoned music for some years, study- ing medicine and serving in the austrian army as an officer in a uhlan regiment. his reappearance on the concert stage in berlin, march 1899, was followed by a wonderful tour of the united states and great britain in 1900-1, and he later visited the chief musical centres of the world. on the outbreak of the world war in 1914 he rejoined his former regiment, but was wounded and discharged from service, thereafter resuming his musical career. he published his war experiences, four weeks in the trenches, in 1915. he has also written numerous arrange- ments of music for the violin and piano, and his operetta, a pple blossoms, was produced in new york in roro. kriloff, alexei nikolaievich (1863- ), russian mathematician and naval architect, was born aug. 3 1863 in alatyr, simbirsk province, and educated in the naval school and naval academy at st. petersburg (leningrad). in 1881 he joined the navy. in 1896 and 1898 he read before the institution of naval architects in london two remarkable papers on the oscillation of a ship on waves and was awarded the gold medal of the institution. from 1906 to 1908 he was superintendent of the experimental tank at st. petersburg; and from 1908 to 1910 director of naval construction. in 18090 he became professor at the naval academy and in 1916 member of the russian academy of sciences. he devised for the russian navy a series of special high-grade optical instruments, and published many scientific papers and textbooks, among which the most original are: on approximative calculations (1906) and on differential equations of mathematical physics (1912). he was also interested in theoretical astronomy and translated into russian isaac newton’s principia with a valuable commentary, published by the naval academy in 1016. krogh, schack august steenberg (1874- ), danish physiologist, was born at grenaa and took his doctor’s degree in 1903 by a thesis on the respiration of frogs. in 1916 he became professor of animal physiology at the university of copenhagen. krogh made important discoveries by his experiments in connec- tion with respiration, and in 1906 was awarded a prize by the vienna academy of science for the investigations which he carried out and described in a treatise, mechanism of gas exchange in lungs. in 1920 he was awarded the nobel prize for medicine for his discovery of the capillary regulation of the con- veyance of blood to the muscles. he afterwards continued his 649 investigations of the capillaries and the blood, in which he dis- covered an element which influences the contraction of the capillaries. (see puysiolocy.) | among his publications are: the respiratory exchange tn ant mals and man (1916) and the anatomy and physiology of c reer (1922); and articles in the journal of physiology. krohg, christian (1852-1025), norwegian painter and author, was born at christiania (oslo) aug. 13 1852. after graduating in law, he went to germany to study painting. during the following 30 odd years he lived alternately at christiania and in paris, until in r909 he was appointed projessor and director at the newly founded academy of painters and sculptors, christiania. krohg was the pioneer of the art of open- air painting in norway which had its heyday in the first half of the ’eighties. he specialised in depicting the sea and the life of the pilots, which he rendered with a wondertul vigour and originality of incident and colouring. his deep interest in the social problems of his age is shown in his “ struggle for existence”’ (1890) in the oslo national gallery. krohg, besides being an excellent portrait painter, also possessed literary and journalistic talent. a selection of his literary works in four volumes appeared in 1920-1. he died on oct. 16 1928. kropotkin, peter alexeivich, prince (1842-10921), russian author (see 15.928), returned to russia in june 1917, and died near moscow, after a long illness, feb. 8 1921.