{ "system": "GoGuides Verified Text", "api_version": "verified-text-v1", "status": "ok", "response_type": "verified_text_record", "source_key": "britannica_1926", "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)", "license_code": "public_domain", "attribution": null, "license_url": null, "chunk_id": "1926:johannesburg:6073a9027aef", "title": "JOHANNESBURG", "section": null, "hash_alg": "sha256", "hash_sha256": "e108eabc27f120b2f97439e7ba16726e93b892615951427899fb87018eea1a66", "normalizer": { "name": "ggnorm", "version": "1.0" }, "verified_text": "in 1921 the population of the municipal area was 282,921, and of the suburbs 5,210. of the inhabitants 151,836 were whites and 6,229 asiatics. in 1911 the population was 237,104, compared with 155,642in r904. its prosperity is bound up with the gold mines of the witwatersrand, and it is the centre for the other municipalities on the rand. between 1910 and 1925 the town council acquired and worked all public utility services and the live-stock and produce markets. law courts, a town hall and a municipal art gallery were com- pleted by 1915. in 1922 the university of the witwatersrand was constituted; it had grown out of the south african school of mines and technology. new buildings for it were erected in mil- . ner park, the site being given by the town council. in 1922 the 610 anglican diocese of johannesburg was created. a cathedral in the romanesque style was designed, the lady chapel being first built. on the other hand, the asiatic and native locations at vrededorp, within a mile of the centre of the city, remained in an insanitary and shocking condition. the south african asiatic inquiry commission wrote of the location in 1920: “‘ it is difficult to conceive 2 worse slum existing in any part of the world.” certain reforms followed, and in 1924 the union government took powers to enforce throughout the union decent conditions in native locations. johannesburg was the scene of riots in 1913-4 arising out of strikes by white miners and railwaymen, and in 1915, when, fol- lowing the sinking of the ‘“‘ lusitania,”” german property valued at fully £500,000 was destroyed. in 1917 the first south africa trade union congress was held in the city. in 1919 there were strikes and disturbances among the native workers in the mines. early in 1922 the white miners on the rand went on strike; the movement was captured by communists and developed into an armed revolt, with street fighting extending to the centre of the city. prompt action crushed the revolt by the end of march. john, augustus edwin (1879- ), british painter, was born at tenby, wales, jan. 4 1879. he received his art education at the slade school, london, and afterwards worked in paris, later spending some time in provence. he became a regular exhibitor at the new english art club, and in r901—2 was teacher of art at university college, liverpool, returning to london in 1902. his earlier work includes ‘“‘ the way down to the sea ” (1906), ‘‘ the kitchen garden,” “‘the smiling woman ” (rgto) and ‘‘ the mumpers ” (1912). for the arts and crafts exhibition at burlington house, london, 1916, he executed a mural decoration illustrating “‘ peasant industry.”” during the world war he held a commission as official artist in the canadian corps, and exhibited at the canadian war memorial exhibition, i9rg, a cartoon for a large decoration, ‘‘ canadians opposite lens.’? he was later commissioned to paint the chief characters of the peace conference. he also painted portraits of mr. lloyd george (1916), mr. bernard shaw (1916), lord fisher (1917), lord sumner (1918-9) and the marchesa casati (1918-9). his etchings form an important part of his work, the majority being produced between rgo1-1o. ie is represented in the tate gallery by several pictures, including ‘‘ the smiling woman,” “peasant industry,” “ robin,” (1917-8), and “ rachael,” and in the print room of the british museum. his early work, with its definite contour enclosing areas of colour, relates him to the guattrocento italian painters. distortion for personal emphasis and decorative effect is another marked characteristic. in 1921 he was elected a.r.a. the alpine galleries exhibition held in london (1923) showed john’s versatility and energy in astonish- ing degree, interest being especially roused by his portrait of mme. suggia, the large imaginative composition entitled “ symphonie espagnole ’’—in the vein of el greco—and the studies of ‘‘ gitanas.” johns hopkins university (sce 15.460).—the period from 1910 to 1925 was one of marked expansion. the pro- ductive endowment rose from some $4,500,000 to more than $21,000,000. the faculty grew from 189 to 394, with 67 addi- tional instructors in the afternoon, evening and summer courses; students from 752 to 4,260 (2,601 not being candidates for de- grees); the library from 148,242 to 273,652 bound volumes. frank johnson goodnow, of columbia university, constitu- tional adviser to the republic of china, succeeded ira remsen as (third) president in oct. 1914. upon an initial state ap- propriation of $600,000, continued by annual grants of $50,000, a school of enginecring was opened in 1913, with instruction in civil, electrical and mechanical branches, extended in 1924 to include gas engineering, through gifts of the southern gas assn. for five years. for this school two laboratories and a power- house have been erected. in 1916 the move from the old site to homewood was com- pleted except for chemistry, which occupied its new laboratory in 1924. the tract is expertly developed, the arrangement of buildings a latin cross, the style colonial. a war memorial john—johns hopkins university dormitory was opened in 1923 in the name of the alumni. an ingeniously equipped laboratory in plant physiology, botanical garden and arboretum, athletic fields and concrete grand-stand complete the development to 1925. in 1909 the university, in co-operatoin with goucher college, initiated college courses for teachers (now the college for teachers); in 1911, summer courses; in 1916, evening courses, without degrees, for technical workers and in business economics. extension to other state centres was authorised in 1917. a school of business economics, providing academic training for business careers, and conferring the degree of bachelor of science in economics, was opened in 1922. teaching in medicine-—medical development was _pro- nounced in this period. the university received from 1913 to the present, gifts and grants to about $20,000,000. ‘the clinical departments of medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstet- rics, psychiatry and ophthalmology were placed on a full- time basis. the gencral education board led with several large grants in all these cases, besides two laboratories— the new hunterian (to15) and the pathological (1923)—and $3,000,000 for expansion now in process, including central heating plant (1925). capt. joseph r. delamar, who died in 1918, left bequests amounting to over $3,700,000 to date. in 1923, $2,000,000 was voted by the carnegie corp. for a new dispensary, and a similar amount was raised to endow the university dept. of psychiatry and the phipps psychiatric clinic at the johns hopkins hospital, one-half coming from the founders, mr. and mrs. henry phipps. in 1925, the wilmer ophthalmological institute, named after the first director, dr. william holland wilmer, with endowment of the university dept. of ophthalmology, was established at the hospital on a fund of $3,000,000 raised. advanced ophthalmo- logical training in america is thus for the first time possible. the university has also profited from the establishment of the three other clinical institutes at the hospital, harriet lane home for pediatrics (1912), brady urological institute (1914) and the woman’s clinic for obstetrics (1923), all teaching hospitals staffed from the school. in 1918, under the direction of dr. william h. welch, assisted by dr. wilham h. howell, former dean of the school of medi- cine, a school of hygiene and public health was opened, with an annual grant from the rockefeller foundation, which in 1922 became an endowment of $5,000,000, with another million for a building, which was completed and occupied in 1925. this is the only institution of its kind in the united states, and, placed alongside the hospital and the school of medicine, it creates one of the strongest medical centres in the americas. the main objects of this school are to train for public health work, promote investigation and disseminate sound hygienic knowledge. the degrees granted are doctor of public health, doctor of science in hygiene and certificate in public health. of the 150 students enrolled in 1924-5, 42 came from foreign countries. in 1925 the institute of biological research was established on a five-years’ grant from the rockefeller founda- tion, and in the same year announcement was made of the walter hines page school of international relations, a pioneer memorial to a former fellow. a minimum endowment of $1,000,- ooo was being sought in 1925, and it was announced that the school was expected to open in 1927. scientific isxpeditions.—the university dispatched four scien- tific expeditions abroad during this period, two botanical to jamaica in 1910 and rgtg, and two geological to south america, for the first detail cross-section of the andes, in 1919 and 1924, while a fiith, to the near east for archaeological exploration and excavation (1924), was under the conduct of a faculty mem- ber. publication was very active, a current report recording some 600 printed contributions a year. war services —the institution’s service in the world war was prompt, notably its staffing of base iilospital no. 18, which crossed with the first contingent and provided the a.e.f. with its chief consultants in medicine, surgery, genito-urinary dis- eases and medicine to the air service. an ambulance unit was johnson—jouvenel organised. schools of navigation and marine engineering, under the shipping board, were operated. the laboratories were turned over to experimentation, while large numbers of the faculty and students scattered to a great variety of service, field and civilian. twenty-four, who made the supreme sacrifice, are memorialised on marble in gilman hall. (m. l. r.) johnson, hiram warren (1866- ), american politi- cian, was born at sacramento, cal., sept. 2 1866. ile entered the university of california, but did net finish his course. he became a reporter, at the same time studying law in his father’s office; was admitted to the bar 1888, and practised with his father and his brother in sacramento. in 1902 he opened an office in san francisco, where he became widely known in 1906-7 for the vigour and success with which, as prosecuting attorney, he proceeded against dishonest public officials and corporations. he was elected governor of california for the term of r911-5; and in 1912 was an unsuccessful candidate for vice-president (on the ticket with theodore roosevelt), as nominee of the na- tional progressive party, which he had helped to organise. as governor he signed in 1913 the webb anti-alien bill, designed to prohibit the ownership of land in california by japanese, al- though the president had asked for delay. he was re-elected governor 1915-9, but resigned in 1917, having been elected a u.s. senator. he opposed many of the policies of president wil- son’s administration and declared that a league of nations would involve the united states in european wars. at the republican national convention in 1920 he had considerable support as presidential candidate, especially from those opposed to the league of nations and the treaty of peace as submitted to the senate. he was re-elected u.s. senator for the term 1923-9. johore: see malay states. joints and sinews: see manipulative surgery. jones, robert edmond (1887- ), american theatrical designer, was born at milton, n.h., dec. 12 1887. he graduated from harvard university in 1910 and began designing scenery for the theatre in new york city the following year. he at- tracted attention by the boldness and originality of his concep- tions and exerted a marked influence in american theatrical art. among the plays for which he designed the stage settings were the afan who married a dumb wife, for granville barker (1915); the jest (1919), richard iii (1920) and macbeth (1921), for arthur hopkins; zhe birthday of the infanta for the chicago opera assocjation (1920); and beyond and desire under the elms for the provincetown playhouse (1924). he published with k. macgowan continental stagecraft (1922) and drawings for the theatre (1925). a jones, thomas rupert (1819~—r1o011), british geologist (see 15.500), died at chesham, bucks. april 14 rgrt. jonescu, take (1858~1922), rumanian statesman, was born at ploesci oct. 26 1858, and after studying law in paris was in 1884 elected a deputy. he was minister of public instruction and finance in various conservative cabinets until 1908 when he founded the conservative-democratic party. in 1912 his group formed a coalition cabinet under matorescu, in which jonescu was minister of the interior. he represented rumania at the peace conference of bucharest in 1913, and in 1914 he negotiated at athens the peace between greece and turkey. when the world war broke out, jonescu was, from the first, in favour of intervention on the side of the allies. in 1918 he went to paris, and as head of the rumanian national committee he contributed greatly to the re-integration of rumania in her _ rights as an ally when germany was finally defeated. jonescu was appointed foreign minister in april 1920, in the averescu govt. and, together with dr. benes and nintie, the czecho- slovak and yugoslav foreign ministers, he laid the foundation of the little entente (¢.v.). in dec. 1921 he was entrusted by the king with the formation of a new cabinet on the under- standing that he should endeavour to govern with the same chambers. this proved to be impossible and on jan. 18 1922 he resigned. he died in rome june 21 1922. jordan, david starr (1851- ) (see 16.406), american educationalist and naturalist, was born at gainesville, n.¥., jan. o1! 19 1851. he studied at cornell university and at the indiana medical college. he was instructor in botany at cornell 1871-2, and professor of natural history at lombard university, iil, 1872-3. he taught in the indianapolis high schools 1874-5, in which latter year he was appointed professor of biology at butler university, indianapolis. in 1879 he became professor of zoology at indiana university, of which institution he was made presi- dent in 1885. in 1891 he was appointed president of leland stanford jr. university, becoming its chancellor in 1913 and retiring in 1916. he was a member of the u.s. fish commission, 1877-91, 1894-1909; u.s. commissioner in charge of fur, seal and salmon investigations for alaska; and international commis- sioner of fisheries for canada and the united states, 1908-10. he was active in promoting the cause of international peace, being chief director of the world peace foundation, 1910-4, president of the world’s peace congress, 1915, and vice-president of the american peace society. i he was the author of a large number of books, among which are fishes of north and middle america (with b. w. evermann, 4 vol., 1896): evolution and animal life (with v. l. kellogg, 1907); world peace and the college man (1914); classification of fishes (1922), and days of a aan (autobiography in two vol., 1922). jorga, nicolas (1871- ), rumanian historian and statesman, was born at botosani june 17 1871. at the age of 13 he was already writing articles on foreign politics in the romenul, a provincial newspaper. at 19 he finished his universi- ty studies in jassy and went to paris, berlin and leipzig. in 1894 he was appointed professor of universal history at the university of bucharest. a man of great culture, jorga made extensive re- searches in libraries and archives abroad and collected notes re- ferring to the history of the rumanian nation. asa result of his researches, he published over 20,000 documents in the awnals of the rumanian academy, of which he became one of the most prominent members. jorga produced numerous biographical and historical works, as well as many volumes on rumanian art, towns, monasteries and historical monuments. he wrote several plays (historical dramas and comedies) which form part of the repertory of the rumanian national theatres. he became also the director of neamul romdnesc, the official organ of the national rumanian party. jorga was for many years the chief of the nationalist party, which fused with the national party of transylvania and the followers of take jonescu under the name of the national rumanian party. among his best known works are: geschichte des rumdnischen volkes (1905); geschichte des osmanischen reiches, 5 vol. (1908, etc.) ; the byzantine empire (lengli. trans. by a. h. powles, 1907), and ttistotre des etats balcaniques jusqu'd 1024 (1925). he also wrote numerous historical works in french, italian and swedish. journalism: see newspapers. jouvenel, henri de (1876- ), french politician, was born in paris april 2 1876. having secured his degree in philos- ophy, he adopted a political career. secretary of the committee of democratic conferences in 1900, he was made chef de cabinet in the ministry of justice in 1902, and directeur de cabinct in the ministry of commerce in 1905. he entered journalism shortly afterwards as chief correspondent on le afatin. in jan. 1921 m. de jouvenel was elected senator for the correze. as member of the foreign affairs commission, he played an important part in the debates of the senate, and attracted much attention by his ardour and outspokenness. he was chosen by m. poincare in 1922 to represent france on the assembly of the league of nations where he was instrumental in admitting abyssinia to the league, and took an active part in the work of the commis- sion of intellectual co-operation. he again represented his coun- try in the league in 1924, and also became minister of public instruction in the second poincare cabinet in the same year. in 1925 he was appointed french high commissioner in syria in succession to general sarrail, whose administration had been signalised by serious disturbances. de jouvenel at once set him- self to the task of pacification, but realising the need of amicable relations with neighbouring countries he went to angora early 612 in 1926 and prepared a treaty with turkey to be ratified by the french government. jowett, john henry (1864-1923), british divine, was born near halifax, yorkshire, aug. 25 1864. he was trained for the congregational ministry at airedale college, bradford, the university of edinburgh and mansfield college, oxford. in 1889 he was elected minister of a congregational church at newcastle-upon-tyne, which pastorate he held until 1895 when he was chosen to succeed dr. r. w. dale at carr's lane chapel, birmingham. during the 15 years of his ministry there his reputation as a preacher grew steadily, and his name became known, not only throughout great britain, but also in america. in ro11 he went to the united states to become pastor of fifth avenue presbyterian church, new york. after the signing of the armistice in 1918, he returned to london as minister at westminster chapel, buckingham gate, london. in 1920 his health began to fail, and two years later he was obliged to retire. he died dec. 19 1923. in the course of his career he was chairman of the congregational union and president of the free church council. jowett published a number of books of a devotional character, including the izigh calling (1909); our blessed dead (1909); the whole armour of god (1916); the friend on the road (1921); life an the heights (1924). see a. porritt, john henry jowett (1924). joyce, james (188 2- ), irish author, was born in dublin feb. 2 1882, and was educated at clongowes wood college, belvedere college, and at university college, dublin. his first published work was a small volume of lyrics, chamber afuste (1907). dubliners, a set of tales and studies of dublin personali- ties, followed in 1914, a novel, a portrait of the artistus a young afun, in 1916, and exiles, a play.in 1918. meanwhile joyce had left ireland, and lived abroad, in rome, zurich, trieste and paris. in 1922 appeared the fruit of his work between 1914 and 1921, ulysses, published in paris. this book, conceived and executed on a very ambitious scale, attracted much attention among critics and men of letters, in france as well as in england and america, as a portent of certain modern tendencies in the develop- ment of the novel; but its legally restricted sale, apart from its grammatical, verbal and moral difficulty, has left it little known to the general public. joynson-hicks, sir william (1865- ), british politi- cian, eldest son of henry hicks, of bexhill, was born on june 23 1865. the additional name of joynson was assumed on his mar- riage in 1895 to grace, daughter of richard ilampson joynson, of chaseficld, bowdon. from 1888 he practised as a solicitor in london. he contested n. manchester (1900) and n. w. man- chester (1906) as a conservative, both unsuccessfully, but in 1908 he won the latter seat from mr. winston churchill, who had sought re-election on his appointment as president of the board of trade. at the first general election of rg10, however, he was defeated. he returned to parliament in 1911 as member for the brentford division of middlesex, and from 1918 represented the twickenham division. during the latter days of mr. lloyd george’s administration sir william—he had been created a baronet in 1919—was prominent among those who favoured the withdrawal of the conservatives from the coalition, and in the conservative govt. which was formed by mr. bonar law in 1922 he was successively parliamentary secretary to the overseas trade department, postmaster-general and paymaster-general and financial secretary to the treasury (with a seat in the cabinet). when mr. baldwin succeeded mr. bonar law as prime minister (1923), he became minister of health and, in mr. baldwin’s second administration (1924) he was appointed home secretary. sir william took an active part in the affairs of the church of england and was recognised as one of the lay leaders of the evangelical party. he did valuable work in connection with the development of automobilism in great britain—notably as chairman of the motor legislation committce of the house of commons—and is theauthor of the law of heavy and light mechanic traction on the highways (1906). ~ jubaland, east africa, formerly a province of kenya colony. on june 29 1925 the sovereignty over some 36,000 jowett—judaism sq. m., the greater part of the province, and including the port of kismayu, was transferred from great britain to italy. trans-juba (oltre giuba) the ceded territory, which adjoins italian somaliland, was placed under a high commissioner, directly dependent on the cclonial office in rome. before the transfer the river juba (see 15.531) formed the frontier. the valley of the juba is fertile, the rest of the area is semi-arid. the inhabitants (some 150,000} are somalis whose chief wealth ig in cattle and camels. (see kenya; south africa: history.) the british white paper treaty series no. 29 (1925) gives the text of the anglo-italian treaty and a map. scealso r. cani, il giubaland’ (naples, 1921). judaism: toro-25 (see 13.186).—it is no exaggeration to say that the 15 years under review have been to israel a period of woe and disaster, as well as of consolation and hope, such as no similar period since the dispersion. russia.—the darkest part of the picture is russia, the foun- tain in modern times of the old jewish life and, before the war, the home of one-half of the world’s jewish population. when the period opened, mendel beilis, and with him judaism as a religion and the whole jewish people, stood arraigned in the courts of the tsar at kieff to answer the hideous charge of ritual murder. in vain the friends of humanity in england, france and germany protested that this accusation of religious canni- balism was an utterly baseless libel on judaism, an insult to western culture, and a dishonour to those who formulate it. the russian bureaucracy recoiled from no means that would insure the conviction of beilis, as it would have furnished a con- venient apologia for pogroms, past and future. however, in nov. 1913, an all-russian jury acquitted beilis. one other instance to show the atmosphere in which russian judaism had to live during the last years of the romanoffs. in the same year, at the international congress for the suppression of the white slave traffic held in london, hertz called the atten- tion of the world to the infamy of the tsarist “‘ yellow ticket,” by which any jewish woman, if she was willing to be registered as a prostitute, was permitted free and unrestricted residence throughout the empire; whereas all other jews and jewesses were confined to the pale of settlement, which was one of the fiercest battlegrounds of the world war. the jewish cities were taken and retaken by the rival armies, with attendant bombardments, burnings and pillagings. added to these were the summary expulsions and calculated inhumani- ties which the russian military authorities perpetrated against the jewish population. as a result, scores of important com- munities were ruined, and their religious institutions, their rabbinical academies, together with every form of jewish cul- tural activity, destroyed to their foundations. of the surviving communities, hundreds were later annthilated during the mas- sdcres of the jewish population in the ukraine during the years 1919-21, massacres that for thoroughness and extent are sur- passed by those in armenia alone. the russian revolution completed this break-up of russian jewry and its religious life. at first constitutional, the revolu- tion brought full religious emancipation to all, but in the unique persecution of all religion that began soon after the bolshevists came into power, judaism had to suffer most. jewish com- munists have, from the first, taken a sinister delight in the proscription of all jewish religious teaching—whether in the rabbinical colleges, in the elementary religious schools or even in homes. synagogues were confiscated and converted into work- men’s clubs (as late as sept. 14 1925), and even into stables. during 1925 the bitter fight against religion seemed to have relaxed somewhat, and christian and mahommedan bodies are now allowed to give religious instruction to small ‘ groups ”’ of their children after school hours. in the case of jews, however, two children have been declared to constitute a school, and sub- ject to the dire penalties for teaching religion or bible to chil- dren at a school. religious instruction is therefore given clan- destinely, underground or in lofts and at midnight, as in the days of the inquisition. in dec. 1925 two teachers were sen- tenced at kiet to six months imprisonment with hard labour judaism for this offence; and 200 children were imprisoned at vinnitza, podolia, for refusing to betray the name and whereabouts of their religious teachers. zionists were pursued with a 7tsar-like ferocity, hundreds of them having been banished to siberia. the use of hebrew as a bourgeois language is suppressed. these persecutions called forth among the faithful remnant a new fervour and a deeper self-sacrifice for their faith; but jewish institutional religion became paralysed in soviet russia, and the religious outlook for the growing generation is dark indeed. before the war, the intense religious and intellectual life of russian jewry was duly reflected in the works of a whole galaxy of rabbinical, hebrew and yiddish writers. with the outbreak of hostilities all hebrew and yiddish publications of any kind were forbidden. after the revolution there was a brief literary revival, which was soon strangled by the bolshevists. poland, baltic and balkan states —jewish religious life has in the main resumed its pre-war aspect in poland, the baltic and the balkan countries, despite the economic ruin of a large por- tion of the jewries wrought by racial hatred and social unrest in those politically immature states. in poland a widely rami- fied net of hebrew-speaking schools, both clementary and second- ary, has been founded by the turbuth organisation, and is recog- nised by the government. in greece, the only large, and auton- omous jewish community of salonika is declining in conse- quence of the failure of the greek govt. to keep the solemn pledges it gave to respect the jewish sabbath. its important rabbinate is unfilled. in turkey, the status of all religions has undergone violent transformation under the secularising kemal- ist regime. the activities of the chief rabbinate, which hither- to had practically the same powers as the patriarchates of other denominations, were limited to ecclesiastical matters, and the congregations were organised on autonomous lines. the chief rabbi, chacham bashi bijerano, introduced far-reaching reforms in the jewish law of divorce. these have, however, not found recognition with the rabbinic oer of other lands. france and central euro, jaism in france has been strengthened by the ie of the important religiously con- servative congregations of alsace-lorraine; as well as by the moroccan communities now under french control. in 1924, the grand rabbi of france, m. israel levi, annealed to the leaders of east eurcpean orthodoxy to consider the enactment, in accordance with rabbinic law, of modifications in certain aspects of the jewish marriage and divorce law (: \\gunah). italian jewry found itself threatened by the new education law, with its compulsory catholic instruction. even a graver danger is its dearth of native rabbis. in geneva jewish questions of great relisious consequence are often dis- cussed. in feb. 1925 a proposal was submitted to the league of nations commission of inquiry into the reform of the calen- dar to introduce“ blank days” (i.e., the last day or days of the year to be considered outside the calendar). as one result of this -would be a constantly backward moving day of rest, the proposal was strongly and successfully opposed by the representatives of the jewries of the east and of the west. in germany, czecho- slovakia, austria and hungary, the war and the dire conci- tions that followed it are responsible for the impoverishment of the jewish schools of learning and the thinning of the ranks of the scholars and students. among the noteworthy productions in the study of judaism written during this period by central european scholars are the works of the neo-kantian philosopher hermann cohen, die religion der vernunft aus den quellen des judcen- tums (1910), the magnum opus of immanucl loew, flora der juden, of simon m. dubnow, wreltgeschichte des jiidischen volkes (world history of the jewish people) in 10 vol. appearing in german and hebrew (1925, etc.), of ismar elbogen, der jiidische goitesdienst, on the jewish liturgy (10913), of s. krauss, yalmudische archdologie, 3 vol., on jewish life in talmudic times, and the monumenta talimudica (1914, etc.). the following savants died in the period under review: wilhelm bacher, abraham berliner, david hoffmann, d. h. miiller, a. harkavy, a. epstein, hermann cohen and jakob guttmann. 613 british empire—in england dr. hermann adler, the chief rabbi of british jewry, died in 1911, and was succeeded by dr. j. h. hertz. in 1913 a yeshivah—an institution devoted exclusively to talmudic instruction—was for the first time opened in london. after the cessation of hostilities a compre- hensive educational scheme was launched as a jewish war memorial; and in 1920 the chief rabbi started on the first pastoral tour ever undertaken to the jewish communities of the british overseas dominions. the liberal jewish movement, in- augurated at the beginning of the century, finally established itself by the erection of a synagogue in 1925. an attempt to attach a liberal wing to jews’ college—the theological seminary of the orthodox congregations—met with strong opposition. in anglo-jewish scholarship there are principal biichler’s learned monographs; israel abrahams’ studies in pharisaism and the gospels (1917, etc.); jacob mann’s jews in egvpt (1920-2); and m. gaster’s exentpla of the rabbis (1924).. the pharisees (1924) —by r. t. herford, a christian scholar—is a remarkable achievement. israel zangwill has produced a translation of ibn gabirol’s poems, selecicd religious poems (1923); nina salaman, of yehudah tlalevy; and dr. a. cohen, of berakhoth, tse babylonian talmud (1921). among popular works, there are c. g. montefiore’s books liberal judaism (1903-24) and the chief rabbi's anthology, .1 book of jewtsh thoughts (1917 and 1920). the united statcs —the 3,600,000 jews of america have now their own english version of the bible, the result of many yea labour on thie part of a group of scholars, among them lon schechter and joseph jacobs. america has acquired great jewish libraries, that of the new york jewish theological sem- inary (neluding the elkan adler collection) being the largest in the world. the older rabbinical colleges are workshops of jewish icarning. to these have been added the yitzchak elchanan yeshivah and the jewish institute of religion, repre- senting the two religious poles in american judaism. of schol- arly works, there appeared schechter’s studies in judaism, third series (1924), h. malter’s suadia gaon (1921), j. jacobs’ jewish contributions to civtlisation (191g) and israel davidson’s thesaurus of mediaeval hebrew poetry, vol. i. (1924). the new dtaspora—eastern european jewish emigrants, fleeing from racial hatred and economic ruin, find the doors of the united states atl but barred and bolted to them. in con- scans they are scattered and dispersed to distant linds where grave dangers await their jewishness and judaism. outside the argentine republic, the fresh arrivals find in most latin- american countries little organised jewish fe and, too often, total abandonment of judaism on the part of the earher settlers, the jewish coiontsation assn. of paris appointed i. raffalovich as grand rabbin cf brazil to lay the religious foundations of the new jewish centres in the youngest diaspora. mention must also be made of the praiseworthy efforts of dr. j. faitlovich to bring the forgotten jewish tribes of abyssinia—the falashas— into touch with the general body and religious currents of european jewry. palestt jewish horizon through- out this period is palestine. the beginnings of the jewish re- vival in the holy land date from long before the balfour declara- tion, when eliezer ben yehucah began his gigantic undertaking to make hebrew the language of everyday speech, as well as of instruction in schools. one half of his monumental dict ionary of the hebrew language, anctent, mediaeval and modern, was published in his life-time. palestine became the home of ahad ha‘am—the philosopher of zionism—and of ch. n. bialik, the great neo-iebrew poet. a rabbinate for the whole of palestine was called into existence, with a. i. kook (ashkenazi) and jacob meir (sephardi) as joint chief rabbis. a communities’ ordinance will, it is hoped, be promulgated, providing a demo- cratic religious organisation for the jewish population of the holy land. the zenith of the spiritual revival was reached when the hebrew university was opened by the earl of balfour on april 1 1925. it may be some time before the jerusalem university fulfils the hope of being the sanctuary of the jewish genius; 614 but a land focuses a people and calls forth, as nothing else can, its spiritual potentialities. it is the ardent faith of the architects of the new palestine that the resurrection of the jewish people on its own soil will reopen its sacred fountains of creative energy. as of old, only a remnant will return to the land of their fathers. but it is the national rejuvenation of that remnant that may open a new chapter in the annals of the human spirit. see jews. bibliography.—reports, for the years 1911-25, of the london jewish board of deputies, anglo-jewish assn., and the american jewish committee. the surveys of the year in the 4 merican jewtsh year book in jahrbuch fiir judische geschichte und literatur, and in the jewish chronicle at the end of the jewish year. general sum- maries of the jewish situation covering longer periods are presented in the opening addresses at zionist congresses and in those of the chief rabbi at the conferences of anglo-jewish preachers. see j. h. hertz, decade of woe and hope (1923). gs a ae judd, charles hubbard (1873- ), american psy- chologist, was born at bareilly, india, feb. 20 1873. he came to the united states in 1879, and graduated from wesleyan uni- versity, continuing his studies at the university of leipzig (ph.d., 1896). he taught philosophy and psychology at wesleyan uni- versity, new york university and the university of cincinnati, 1896-1902. from 1902 to 1909 he was a member of the faculty of yale university, becoming professor of psychology and direc- tor of the psychological laboratory. in 1909 he was appointed professor and head of the department of education and director of the school of education at the university of chicago, where he served also for a period as chairman of the department of psychology. he took part in educational surveys of cleveland, denver, st. louis, the states of texas and utah and the new york state rural survey. his published works include psychology, general introduction (1907); psychology laboratory course (1907); psychology of iitgh school subjects (1915); introduction to the scientific study of educa- tion (1918); and psychology of social institutions (1926). judicial reform.—by judicial reform is here meant changes in municipal law which have for their object the classi- fication and simplification of law or improvement in the ad- ministration of justice. it includes, therefore, the more orderly expression of the law as well as changes in the training and qualifications required of members of the bar in the organi- sation of courts and in judicial procedure. on the other hand, the term does not include those changes in municipal law induced by changes in political, social or economic conditions. the article deals only with the united states, as changes in this direction in other countries from 1910 to 1926 have not been very serious. characteristics cf the bar in the united states—since the close of the civil war (1865) judicial reform in the united states, though encouraged and in a sense started by general pu)lic criti- cism of existing conditions, has been carried out only as the result of the efforts of the legal profession. a member of the bar in the united states is one who has a right to practise in one or more courts of record. the bar in the united states or in any state is not a legally organised body. while each member of the bar of a court has, as such, rights and duties, the members as a group are not a corporation and do not as a body have any privileges or duties. they have not the right to exclude others from being admitted to practice, or even to determine the standards which must be complied with by those secking the right to practice. they have not the right to estab- lish rules for the regulation of the fees to be charged clients nor to prescribe the conduct to be followed by members of the bar in the practice of law, and they cannot disbar any member of the bar for unethical conduct. sources of judicial reform.—judicial reform in the united states, therefore, has come, nut through an officially organised bar with definite legal powers, but rather as the result of the action of voluntary associations of members of the legal profes- sion—judges, practitioners and law teachers. these voluntary law associations are of two kinds—selective and scientific. there are over 4oo selective bar associations. these choose their members from the lawyers within a definite territory rather than from the practitioners at a particular court, judd—judicial reform though, practically, they never admit a person who is not a mem- ber of the bar cf some court. thus, there is a national bar asso- ciation known as the american bar assn. founded in 1878, and a state bar association in each of the states, as well as local bar associations in all the large cities and in many of the counties. there has been no integration of these associations. a lawyer may be a member of the american bar assn., his state associa- tion and his local county or city association. as the name under which they are here classified indicates, these associations are all organised on the selective principle. the fact that a person is a member of the bar of a particular court, as for instance, the bar of the highest court of his state, while it may be a prerequi- site for admission, does not entitle him to membership in a bar association. before admission to a particular bar association his application must be passed upon by a committee of the asso- ciation, the thoroughness of the scrutiny varying with different associations and in the same asscciation at different times. with the exception of a few local associations which date from the first part of the 19th century nearly all the local, as well as all the state bar associations, and also the american bar assn. have come into existence since the close of the civil war. the several scientific legal societies are the american institute of criminal law and criminology, the american society of inter- national law, the american judicature society and the ameri- can law institute. all are of comparatively recent origin. they are all nation-wide in membership and each has been founded to carry on investigation and promote improvement in law, either generally or with reference to particular subjects. besides these associations the assn. of american law schools, composed of some 60 schools conforming to certain standards of admission, organisation and conduct, has done much to promote improve- ment in legal education. i the american bar assn. and practically all the state and nearly all the local bar associations have committees which from time to time submit to their respective associations drafts of proposed legislation relating to the organisation of the courts or to procedure and other matters pertaining to judicial reform. if the association approves the draft, the committee will be authorised to submit it to the legislature of the state and urge its adoption. rules of court, as well as legislative changes in pro- cedure and cognate matters, usually have their origin in the action of these bar associations. classification of recent judicial reforms—in recent years such judicial reforms as have taken place in the united states may be classified as follows:— 1. those designed to elevate the character and improve the effi- ciency of the members of the bar. 2. those designed to improve court organisation. 3. those designed to unify, clarify or simplify existing flaw. 4. those designed to improve procedure. reforms designed to improve the efficiency and elevate the character of members of the bar —the existing requirements for- admission to the bar are usually a general education equivalent to graduation from a high school (the school in which students prepare for college or university), followed by three years of legal study either in a law school, or in a lawyer’s office. two states require at least a year in a lawyer’s office irrespective of the amount of law school training received, and in some of the southern states the required period of legal study is still only two years. comparing the present requirements with those of the lust quarter of the rgth century a decided elevation of standards and improvements in the methods of examination is observed. this has been due in the main to two factors: the development of good law schools in the majority of the states, especially the schools connected with the great state universities where the tuition is practically free, and the activities of the selective bar associations. nearly all of these associations have committees on legal education and admission to the bar and in many states these committees have been active in urging on courts and leg- islatures the necessity for more stringent requirements. in this movement for the elevation of educational standards the ameri- can bar assn. has taken the lead. judicial reform the legal training of the would-be practitioner being now, especially in the larger centres of population, left almost exclu- sively to the law schools, the selective law associations are taking a constantly increasing interest in the ethics of members of the bar. a code of legal ethics has been formally adopted by the american bar association. in some of the larger cities committees appointed by the local judges at the instances of the bar associa- tion make an exhaustive examination of the history of each applicant for admission with the view to determining his char- acter. there is in most of the counties and in the larger cities a committee of censors either appointed by the judges or by the local bar association. these committees receive complaints against attorneys, and where they believe the complaints well founded and the matter serious, institute in the courts proceed- ings for disbarment. reform in the organisation of state courts —the unit of state court organisation in the united states was, and largely still is, the county or a unit called the judicial district composed of one or more counties. the principal trial court of each county or district is independent of similar courts in other counties or districts of the state. from each of these county or district courts there is an appeal on questions of law to an appellate court of state-wide jurisdiction. in some states there are two appellate courts, one for cases involving comparatively small amounts, and in some other states a system of intermediate appellate courts, the case on appeal going from the trial court first to the intermediate appellate and finally to the highest court. as legal business in the larger states increased the first tend- ency was to create two or more county courts with co-ordinate jurisdiction in the counties in which a city was situated. thus, in the city of philadelphia, which is territorially co-terminus with the county of the same name, there are five separate courts each having identical civil jurisdiction. the striking feature of the state court organisation in the united states is the absence of any co-ordination of the various state courts for the efficient carrying on of judicial business. some progress has been made toward better co-ordination. in many states, as in new york, the state has been divided into judicial districts, each district including several coun- ties, though the extent to which the courts in each district have been welded into a single and simple organisation varies. again, in some states power has been given to the highest appellate court, or to the chief justice of such court to transfer temporarily a judge sitting in one county or district which has little judicial business to a county or district where the judges need assistance. there still remains, however, though in varying degree in the several states, much to be desired in the way of greater unification of court organisation. though little definite progress toward this goal has been made in the last 25 years, there now exists a general recognition of its importance. perhaps on account of the difficulties involved, the initial steps toward better court organisation have come, not so much through the selective bar associations as through a single scientific legal association—the american judicature society. this society was organised in ro13. it has drafted acts estab- lishing a unified system of courts for a large municipality and for a state as a whole. the reforms embodied in these acts usu- ally involve changes in state constitutions as such constitutions invariably contain at least the general framework and often the detailed organisation of the state courts. the more recent state conventions called to draft new state constitutions have embodied in part at least the suggestions of the society, but the constitu- tions themselves have failed of adoption, though the failure cannot be ascribed to the embodiment of the reforms suggested but rather to a general reaction on the part of the electorate against any constitutional changes. in louisiana a partial adop- tion of the suggestions of the society has been effected, and one city—detroit—has adopted a unified criminal court, the only one in the country. though the record of the attempts to adjust court organisa- tion to the needs of modern america is significantly small, there is every sign that the next decade will witness considerable prog- 615 ress, and this because there has already been adopted in several important states acts which create judicial councils with power to collect data concerning judicial administration and the opera- tion of the rules of procedure. reform in the organisation of the federal courts.—the federal courts, other than the supreme court of the united states, were re-organised by the act of congress of march 3 ro1t. prior to the act, while continental america was nominally divided into nine judicial circuits, the real division for all prac- tical purposes was the district, a much smaller unit. in cach district there was a district court and a circuit court, the district court having federal criminal jurisdiction and jurisdiction in a few classes of civil cases. the circuit courts were the principal federal civil courts of first instance. there was an appeal directly from the district and circuit courts to the supreme court of the united states. the act referred to abolished the circuit courts, made the district court a court of first instance in prac- tically all federal civil and criminal matters and divided the united states into nine circuits, with a circuit court of appeal in each circuit to act as an intermediate appellate court on ques- tions of law. the re-organisation of the lower federal courts has proved of very considerable practical advantage while the estab- lishment of the circuit courts of appeal has greatly relieved the supreme court. had such relief not been given, the great in- crease in the number of federal cases, owing partly to the natural growth of the country and more especially to the adoption of prohibition and its enforcement by federal statute, would have created a congestion of cases in the supreme court which would have indefinitely delayed all appeals. reforms tending to unify existing law—the existence of 48 separate state jurisdictions naturally leads in practice to a wide diversity in legislation. again, while all the states, except louisiana, have the english common law as modified to meet local conditions, there is no federal supreme tribunal to recon- cile conflicting interpretations of the common law by the highest courts of the several states, and therefore, there exists a very considerable diversity in the law. the fact that land law, or the law of inheritance, or even the criminal law varies from state to state causes little or no inconvenience. the united states, how- ever, has attained a remarkable degree of uniformity in economic and social conditions. economically and socially it is one nation. diversity in commercial law, therefore, or the law of personal property, or the law of marriage and divorce is a fruitful source of much inconvenience and considerable injustice. one of the objects of the formation of the american bar assn. was to pro- mote uniformity of legislation and of judicial decision through- out the united states. the group, who in 1878 founded this association, as early as 1881, began to take steps to effectuate this purpose. | the principal outcome of their efforts was the establish- ment in 1892 of the national conference of commissioners on uniform state laws. this conference is composed of delegates appointed by the governors of the several states, usually under state acts authorising the appointment. as its name indicates, its object is to draft statutes which it recommends to the state legislatures for adoption. in 1925 the conference had drafted during the 33 years of its existence 34 acts. many of these acts which deal with commercial subjects have been widely adopted not only by the states but by alaska and the island possessions of the united states—the negotiable instruments act by 54 jurisdictions; the warehouse receipt act by 48; the bills of lading act by 26. the experience of the conference would seem to show that it takes from 20 10 25 years from the adoption of a uniform commercial act by the conference before it is generally adopted in all the more important states. the conference is not confining its activities to the preparation of commercial acts. its desertion and non-support act has been adopted in 21 states. on the other hand, its draft act relative to judicial pro- cedure in divorce and its draft acts dealing with social legislation have met with little acceptation, though many of the provisions of such an act as the child labor act have been incorporated into subsequently adopted stale statutes on the subject. 616 the clarification and simplification of the common law— work of the american law institute—dperhaps the most im- portant of the legal institutions which the united states owes to england is the common law system of expressing and developing law. the fundamental feature of the system is the general judicial recognition that a decision of a court in one case has a degree of binding force when later a case arises which presents similar or analogous facts. the common law is the law developed and expressed by judicial decisions. as a whole the decisions of the english and american courts form one of the two great systems of law in force in the world to-day, the roman law, the ulti- mate principal source of the codes of continental europe and central and south america, being the other. the characteristic difference between a principle of law foun- ded on decisions of the courts anda principle expressed ina statute is that the former, or common law principle, is never absolutely binding on a court. the power that makes can always modity if the strict application of the prior rule to the instant case woul, in the opinion of the court, produce injustice. the common law, therefore, has a flexibility which the law of statutes and codes does not possess. this flexibility often prevents injustice. sys- tems of law, however, as human beings, have the defects of their qualities. there is an element of uncertainty in the common law from which law expressed in properly drawn statutes 1s free. this uncertainty has not often proved a serious defect when the law is expressed and developed by one court or group of courts or- ganised in a unified system. but in the united states with 48 separate state jurislictions and a large number of lederal courts distinct from the state courts, the conflict between the decisions in different states and betsveen the states and the feclera!l courts, as well as the uncertainty as to the law in any one state, produces the most unfortunate consequences. when law is uncertain persons with just claims hesitate to assert their righis while opportunity is given to the party with an unjust claim or defence to begin or prolong litigation. besides all this the common law system tends to accumulate a bewildering mass of precedent. the multiplication of decisions regarded as precedent is a grow- ing evil even where the precedents are confined to the decisions of a single jurisdiction. but in the united states there are 18 separate state jurisdictions, each with its separate system of courts, as well as the entirely separate system of federal courts. the reported decisions in the united states already number (1926) approximately 700,000 cases recorded in about 11,000 volumes, and to this mass there is being added annually some 153,000 printed pages. to this accumulation cf american precedent must be added the decisions of the english courts and the courts of other parts of the british empire in puri materia, any one of which may be cited as persuasive authority in an appropriate case. it has become manifest that the whole common-law system threatens to fall through the accumulation of an undigestible amount of authority. the conditions described have given rise to an attempt on the part of the american legal profession to preserve the common- law system by producing an orderly expression of the common law, which, though it will not have the binding force of statute law, will at least be regarded as having an authority far superior to that accorded any existing legal treatise. the organisation undertaking the execution of this work is the american law institute, founded in 1923. the institute is a voluntary organisation with two classes of members—llie members and official members. the number of life members is limited to 750, the membership being confined to the leading judges and lawyers in the several states. the official members are the members of the supreme court of the united states, the chief judge of the court of last resort in each state, the senior judge of each of the nine circuit courts of appeal, the deans of the law schools belonging to the assn. of american law schools, the president and principal officials of the american bar assn., the presidents of the state bar associations and the presidents of the principal scientific legal societies. the orderly expression of the common law on which the institute is engaged 1s called the restatement of the law. judicial reform the work on this restatement has been (1926) under way for three years. already tentative drafts of parts of the law of con- tracts, the law of torts, the law of agency and the law of con- flict of laws have been printed and distributed to the members and to the proiession generally for criticism and suggestion with a view to improvement. the plan of work adopted is to have the preliminary drafts prepared by a reporter for the consideration of a small group of persons especially cognisant of the subject of the draft. when the smaller group of experts has, by conference and discussion, preduced a draft satisfactory to it, the draft is sent to the council of the institute, a body of some 33 judges and lawyers of national reputation, and later, as amended by the council, the draft is distributed as a tentative draft to the mem- bers of the institute. the object of this elaborate machinery is not only to insure that the final draft when officially published shall be well done, but that the legal profession as a whole, espe- cially the leading members thereof, shall have such a part in its preparation that they will feel responsible for the work and give to it on final publication that authority which it is essential it should possess if it is to counteract the existing tendency toward uncertainty and confusion as to what the law is. whether regarded from the poirt of view of expenditure of money, time or skilled professional labour, no work of equal im- portance or magnitude has ever been undertaken by the mem- bers of any legal profession. indeed, the only work to which it can be compared is the work on the code, the digcst and the institutes of the roman law by tribonian and his associate undertaken at the direction of the emperor justinian, ‘that work, however, as well as the modern code napoleon and the more recent codes of the nations of continental europe and south america have had behind them the sanction of the state. the analugous work on the common law on the other hand, is being undertaken by the lawyers of america as a voluntary enterprise, though they have turned to one of the great public foundations— the carnegie corp.—for the necessary financial assistance. (w. d. l.) tue reroxm of procedure inheriting from the colonies, which in turn had copied and adapted it from familiar english sources, the early courts of the several sovereign states followed the system of procedure in lawsuits krown as -melish common-law pleading, a system based upon writs or forms of action, through which certain tights could be enforced in formal manner. the rapid ter- ritorial extension of jurisdiction and the growth of cities, with corresponding complexities in the nature of rights to be as- serted and wrongs remedied, soon began to cause gradual modi- fication in each state by statutes passed frem time to time, as shortcomings in the simple legal machinery of formerly rural communities were apprehended. there was no uniformity in these e‘forts, but generally speaking, such legislative alterations were limited in scope, probably because usually inspired by dit- ficulties arising in specific cases, and the principal cuthnes of common-law pleading remained intact. during the first half of the 19th century, the chief result of these improvements was to permit some fusion of the forms of equity with common law. however, in 1848, new york adopted a code of civil pro- cedure introducing a system of procedure and pleading which was rapidly copied by other, and adopted by new, states until to-day it is in use in well over half of all. ‘this was the culmination of an agitation and effort for procedural reform largely led by david dudley field, based upon earlier writings of jeremy bentham in england, edward livingston in louisiana, and napoleon’s code of civil procedure. the objects of the new york code whose provisions can be found almost verbatim in most other american procedural codes, were to consolidate all forms, writs and causes of action into one simple universally applicable form, to remove all distinctions between law and equity, to permit free joinder of parties and causes of action, and to substitute for the previously highly technical and formal language used in the written state- ments required of parties, a simple, cogent and natural style of expression more in accord with the practice of daily life. jumping—jutland, battle of with regard to all but the last of these objects, the code has been successful. its benefits were felt even in england, where its example was persuasive in forwarding the reforms introduced by the common law procedure acts of 1852 and 1860, and later the great judicature acts of 1873 and 1875. these, in turn, influ- enced the american codes, which, since their first enactment, have not remained static but have, just as has the procedure in the so-called common-law states, been frequently amended and, in some cases, improved, by legislative act. in many non-code states most of the procedural reforms of the codes have been adopted without wholly abandoning distinctions and formulas traditionally dear to practitioners trained to revere them. while the federal courts in each state are required by the conformity act to follow the procedure of the state in actions at law, they are free of such restriction in proceedings in equity, and on that side their practice is uniform throughout the country. the federal equity rules of 1912, promulgated by the supreme court in that year, are another landmark in the struggle for reform of procedure, simplifying and modernising, as they did, a technical but important class of litigations, not only locally but in every state in the union. since the great period of commercial expansion which culmi- nated in the spanish-american war, the best minds at the ameri- can bar have more and more had forced upon them an apprecia- tion of the inadequacy of the courts to dispose efficiently of the volume of work being brought into them. inspired by the delays and uncertainties which marred the work of the regular courts of law, two strong movements away from the courts have mani- fested themselves. first is the tendency to create administrative quasi-judicial tribunals, manned presumably by experts and un- hampered by the traditions and rules of evidence and procedure which strike the average layman and legislator as being responsi- ble for the clumsiness of the courts. in federal matters instances are the interstate commerce commission, the federal trade commission, the appeal boards for taxes and customs, and num- erous minor bodies in government departments; in the individual states the workmen’s compensation boards and the public utility commissions show a similar drift. insofar as such bodies relieve the courts of difficult and technical questions of fact, they are an unmixed blessing; at the same time it is unavoidable that they are creating, each in its peculiar field, bodies of precedent and law which are making ever more difficult and multifarious the science of jurisprudence. the second tendency away from the courts is the reaction of the business man rather than the legislator, impatient of the ignorance of juries and the stump specches of eloquent counsel. this induces the growth of arbitration of commercial disputes by trade bodies or organisations on behalf of their members. large classes of commercial differences are thus kept out of the courts and, as knowledge of the benefits to be gained by this method, and confidence in it, spreads, it will be more and more resorted to. in another direction it has been sought to improve procedure by creating special courts such as courts for administration of estates of decedents, municipal courts with strictly urban juris- 4 diction, juvenile courts, domestic relations courts, conciliation courts and similar divisions. in these cases, the procedure pre- scribed is generally less elaborate and more expeditious and ad hominem than in the courts of general jurisdiction. to suppose, however, that there is satisfaction with the results so far ac- complished is an error, for many influences are at work to negative the value of the real improvements which have been attempted. to-day, the greatest promise for reform in methods of pro- cedure lies in the spread of admiration in the u.s.a. for the suc- cess achieved by the english courts in simplifying procedure, under the system introduced in the judicature acts, by which procedure is regulated not by statutory enactment but by flexible rules made by the courts themselves. a strong movement has developed for the adoption of this system both in the federal courts and in the state courts in the u.s.a., forwarded by the writings and utterances of chief justice william h. taft and mr. elihu root among public men, dean roscoe pound of o17 harvard, dean john h. wigmore of northwestern and prof. edson r. sunderland of michigan among scholars, thomas w. shelton of virginia, moorfield story of massachusetts and others among practising lawyers, and most of all, by the ameri- can judicature society and its secretary, herbert harley, under the munificent endowment of charles f. ruggles of michigan. the success of the nation-wide improvement in federal equity practice under the rules of 1912 has demonstrated the efficacy of this line of approach. bibliography.—roscoe pound has prepared a complete bibliog- raphy of procedural reform which he has brought down to 1920 in the form in which it is printed in 5 mass. lew quarterly, 332. see also hepburn: development of code pleading (cincinnati, 1897); rosenbaum: the rule-making authority in the english supreme court (boston, 1917); bulletins of american judicature society; and annual reports of american bar association. (s. r.) jugoslavia: see yugoslavia. jumping: see athletics. jutland, battle of.—called by the germans the battle of the skagerrak, this battle was fought in the north sea between the british grand fleet, under adm. sir j. r. jellicoe, and the german high seas fleet, under adm. reinhard scheer, on may 31 1916. the scene of the main action was about 75 m. from the dutch coast in the neighbourhood of lat. 57° n. long. 6° e. the encounter is memorable as being the only occasion throughout the world war on which the rival battle fleets met, also for the fact that it left the british fleet undisputed master of the ger- man one up to the day of the latter’s surrender. as a test of modern naval material it was prolific in lessons for both sides. i. introductory the movements of the fleets and squadrons were necessarily governed to a large extent by highly technical considerations, and the battle is not an easy one for the layman to follow with- out 2 painstaking study of its successive phases and the motives which produced them. moreover, in order to obtain a true per- spective of events it is necessary to keep in mind the following fundamental facts:— (a) the allied cause rested absolutely on the retention by britain of that sea supremacy of which the grand fleet was the fulcrum. (b) by the date of jutland germany’s surface navy had already been rendered largely immobile and her mercantile marine had been swept off the scas. (c) it was the definite policy of the british naval command to bring the german main fleet to action and annihilate it if possible, but there was no intention to gamble with the allicd fortunes by secking an engagement in waters where mines, submarines and shore defences would give the enemy a definite advantage, nor under con- ditions where the outcome would be largely dependent on chance, such as a fleet action at night. (d) it was the definite policy of the german high command not to risk a decisive action until, by a process of attrition, the british forces might have become so weakened as to give good prospects of success. 7 (e) it was to pursue this policy of attrition that scheer set out prior to jutland, his object being to lure the british fleet out in the hope of falling on a section of it before it could be supported; but the last thing he intended or desired was to meet a united grand ileet. the order of events can be conveniently summarised as follows:— i. the german plan to entice the british fleet to sea while sub- marines were lying in wait for it, and in the hope of concentrating the high seas leet on a detached part of it. 2. the sailing of the rival forces, neither realising the full sig- nificance of the coming impact. 3. the first contact and battle-cruiser action on the run south to the high seas flect. ae beatty's run north leading the high seas fleet up to the grand ‘lect: 5. jellicoe’s main engagement with his combined grand fleet against the combined high seas fleet. 6. the german tleet’s break-through the british destroyer flotillas at night, and the failure to send intelligence to jellicoe which resulted in the escape of the enemy next day. situation before the battle—adm. jellicoe! has summarised the causes which led up to jutland as follows:— 1earl jellicoe’s personal narrative of the battle of jutland in these eventful years, p. 327. 618 jutland, battle of table i, scapa flow nit ships fleet flagship and attached ships . ; : : iron duke 1 destroyer 1 flotilla leader 1 light cruiser first battle squadron 6th division sth division attached fourth battle squadron 4th division 3rd division , third battle cruiser squad- ron, attached : second cruiser squadron also attached 1 light cruiser 2 light cruisers fourth light cruiser squad- § light cruisers 2 flotilla leaders and 17 destroyers 1 light cruiser and 4 destroyers 2 flotilla leaders and 14 destroyers ron. fourth flotilla eleventh flotilla (part) twelfth flotilla . marlborough, revenge, hercules, agincourt colossus, collingwood, neptune, st. vincent benbow, bellerophon, temeraire, vanguard royal oak, superb, canada and fleet flagship (iron duke) invincible, indomitable, inflexible minotaur, hampshire, cochrane, shannon commander admiral sir john jellicoe. vice-admiral sir c. burney. rear-admiral gaunt. vice-:admiral sir d. sturdee. rear-admiral a. l. duff rear-admiral hood. rear-admiral heath. commodore le mesuricr. captain c. j. wintour. commodore hawksley. captain stirling invergordon second battle squadron ist division 2nd division attached 1 light cruiser first cruiser squadron eleventh flotilla (part) 1 flotilla leader and 10 destroyers king george v., ajax, centurion, erin orion, monarch, conqueror, thunderer defence, warrior, duke of edinburgh, black prince vice-admiral sir m. jerram. rear-admiral leveson. rear-admiral sir r. arbuthnot. commander sullivan. roosyth battle-cruiser fleet ship : fifth battle squadron first battle cruiser squad- flag- : : lion ron. : ; second battle cruiser squadron . ‘ : : new zealand, indefatigable first light cruiser squad- ron ; : 4 light cruisers second light cruiser squad- ron, . : 4 light cruisers third light cruiser squad- ron... ; first flotilla (part) thirteenth flotilla 4 light cruisers i light cruiser and 9g destroyers 1 light cruiser and 10 destroyers 4 destroyers 4 destroyers engadine, seaplane carrier ninth flotilla (part) . tenth flotilla (part) . attached , 1. the pressure of the british blockade had led to insistent calls for action by the german fleet. 2. scheer, who had assumed command of the high seas fleet in jan. 1916, was chafing under his enforced inactivity. 3. a strong protest from president wilson had caused the with- drawal of german submarines from the trade routes and thereby rendered them available for enterprises of a military character. 4. scheer may have been led to believe that the steps an- nounced in england to prevent a recurrence of such episodes as the lowestoft raid, indicated that some division of the grand fleet was intended. while scheer was planning a new attack on the east coast of england, certain changes had, in fact, been made in the distri- bution of the british forces. jellicoe, with the main part of the grand fleet, was still at scapa flow awaiting the completion of the outer defences of the firth of forth before transferring his base to the more southerly harbour, but he had detached the 5th barham, valiant, warspite, malaya princess royal, queen mary, tiger vice-admiral sir d. beatty. rear-admiral evan-thomas. rear-admiral de brock. rear-admiral pakenham. commodore alexander-sinclair commodore goodenough. rear-admiral napier. captain roper. captain farie. commander goldsmith. commander ilodgson. lieut.-commander robinson. battle squadron of four fast ‘ queen elizabeths’”’! to replace the 3rd battle-cruiser squadron of three ‘‘ invincibles,’? which were at scapa for gunnery practice, and sent them to reinforce beatty’s battle-cruiser fleet at rosyth. a third force, consist- ing of the 2nd battle squadron, 1st cruiser squadron and a destroyer flotilla, was based on invergordon. the forces engaged the grand fieet—immediately prior to the battle of jutland the following was the distribution and composition of the brit- ish forces which took part in the action:— at harwich were five light cruisers and about 20 torpedo craft under commodore tyrwhitt, and at sheerness was the 3rd !“barham,” “ valiant,” “‘warspite’’ and ‘ malaya.’ the *“* queen elizabeth ’’ herself was in dock. jutland, battle of battle squadron consisting of the “ king edward ” and the ‘‘ dreadnought ”’ flying the flag of adm. bradford. these two commands, however, took no part in the battle. the high seas fleet.—the main german forces, in preparation for adm. scheer’s project, had been concentrated in the jade basin. they were organised as follows:— 619 in preparation for the execution of this scheme the u boats had already set out in order to bein their appointed stations by may 23, while some six or eight flanders submarines had gone north to reconnoitre between norway and the firth of forth. from that date to june 1 was the period during which it was intended to bring off the bombardment. but the weather con- table ii. german high seas fleet unit fleet flagship. ; first battle squadron ist division 2nd division ships friedrich der grosse ostfriesland, thiiringen, helgoland, oldenburg posen, rheinland, nassau, westfalen second battle squadron ard division 4th division third battle squadron 5th division 6th division destroycr flotillas —. deutschland, hessen, pommern iiannover, schlesien, schleswig-holstein kgnig, grosser kurfiirst, kronprinz, markgraf kaiser, kaiserin, prinzregent luitpold 3rd, 5th, 7th and half rst flotillas scouting forrcces first scouting group flag- ship : z battle cruisers liitzow seydlitz, moltke, derfflinger, von der tann commander vice-admiral scheer. vice-admiral schmidt. rear-admiral engelhardt. rear-admiral mauve. rear-admiral f. von d. zu lichtenfels. rear-admiral behncke. rear-admiral nordmann, commodore michelsen. vice-admiral hipper. 6 light cruisers 5 light cruisers 2nd, 6th and goth flotillas second scouting group fourth scouting group destroyer flotillas attached to the high seas fleet were sixteen u boats and ten “ l ” class airships, but these took no part in the action. the following is a summary of the principal armaments of the capital ships of the rival fleets:— rear-admiral boedcicker. commodore von reuter. commodore ieinrich. tinued to be unfavourable for airship reconnaissance. scheer would not risk an advance on the english coast without ample warning of the approach of the british fleet, meanwhile the limit of endurance of his submarines was nearly spent. table iii. comparison of british and german capital ships at jutland and their main armaments british total turret guns no. of each class i4 in. revenge . : : 16 barham . : ; : 32 ~ canada _. 2 : : a 10 o. erin . ‘ ; ; a - 10 agincourt iron duke ‘ king george v. : os a orion ; : re ms 40 colossus , : ir aa ae neptune st. vincent bellerophon is eno go ep fo 00 28 battleships tiger lion . : indefatigable invincible dw lw nd = battle-cruisers german total turret guns no. of each class ss et ———— rrr — fo \"fe\" | 8 j 37. capital ships . i2 in i2 in it in i. 4 konig 40 ia 4 j. 2.0. oe, oo en ee. se ‘> rag) yo. ee 20 3.0. ‘say, ’ 30 8 5s. . \\ ie 55 6° longitude east 7° of greenwich 8° fic. 4.—course of the main action and escape of german flect. (6:15 p.m. to 3:00 a.m.) jutland, battle of 625 @ cth hs) . b.s. 718 em, ge. turned to avoid torpedo 61h dive® attack at 7.21.pm. . .\" 726 3 , = ep : 7/8 {3s br ry 4.18 es @ ononhivn 2h \"dy “2 ye € nod iv\" 2 he ee ee hy, coney a o-& -” ae o) rm 0 ny ooty le ay ee (4)s 718 > ne q mis . the “ litzow ” was limping along to the northward sinking deeper and deeper by the bows. at 2 a.m. she had to be abandoned and was afterwards sunk with a torpedo. jutland, battle of on her forecastle. she was badly damaged but had done good execution with her small gun armament, putting out the big ship’s searchlights and causing a number of casualties. the shock of this conflict again caused the german fleet to waver and the leading battleships turned away nearly eight points to the westward, but scheer was adamant in his deter- mination to break through at all costs while darkness gave hope of escape. he forced his van back, and by 11:34 the “ west- falen ’’ was again leading the line to the south-eastward. in another encounter a few moments later the “ broke’s ” steering gear was disabled and she and the “ contest’ rammed the “sparrowhawk,” and the latter had to be sunk the next day. between midnight and 12:30 a.m. the “ fortune ” and “ ardent ” were sunk and the “ porpoise”’ disabled by gunfire, and the “ turbulent ” was rammed and sunk with all hands. again and again the british light craft attacked, but from now on- wards the enemy held his course; and the tragedy of that night was that no accurate information of the german battle fleet was vouchsafed to adm. jellicoe. admiralty alessages.—two reports, based on intercepted wire- less messages, were sent to jellicoe by the admiralty. one, despatched at 9:58, received in the “iron duke” about 10:23, but not decyphered and read until 11, gave an obviously wrong position of the rear ships of the enemy battle flect at gp.m. a second message, despatched at 10:41, received at 11:05, and read about 11:30, stated that the german battle fleet had been ordered home at 9:14, battle cruisers in rear, course s.s.e. se., 16 knots. this latter was a summary of several intercepted signals but most unfortunately it omitted the fact that scheer, at 9:06, had made an urgent call for airship reconnaissance off horn reefs at daylight, clearly indicating his intended line of retreat. the second admiralty message referred to the enemy’s movements at 9:14, but at 11:38 goodenough’s report was re- ceived! saying: “ have engaged enemy cruisers at 10:15 bearing w.s.w.,” and about the same time the “ birmingham ”’ also reported from astern: “ battle cruisers probably hostile in sight northeast course south” (11:30). these reports came from ships which had actually sighted the enemy long after the time referred to in the admiralty messages. they indicated that he had not yet turned home. the “ birmingham,” unfortunately, sighted the german heavy ships at a moment when they had turned away from our torpedo attacks, his report therefore was misleading, but other ships might have saved the situ- ation. at 11:35 the “ valiant,” last ship but one of the sth battle squadron, noted what appeared to be “‘ two german cruisers with at least two funnels and a crane amidships, apparently steering to the eastward at a high speed.”’? these details make it certain that the ships were battleships and should have been recognised as such. the ‘‘ malaya,” the last ship of the squad- ron, had a clearer view and noted at 11:40 “‘ enemy big ships, three points abaft the starboard beam, steering the same way as ours.” by the flash of an explosion the leading ship was seen to have “ two masts, two funnels and a conspicuous crane (appar- ently “‘ westfalen ” class).”3 it was obvious that the enemy’s main fleet had closed in from the westward and was edging its way across the wake of the 5th battle squadron, yet for some inconceivable reason these two ships neglected to report what they had seen. had they done so it would have greatly increased the chances of an overwhelming victory next day. the courage and self-sacrifices of the british destroyers did not provide the one thing lacking, i.e., information. before the curtain of darkness had lifted, scheer had hacked his way through the light forces and passe! to the eastward. scheer was not yet out of the wood, however. about igen yust as a faint grey light was heralding the approaching dawn, capt. stirling, in the “ faulkner ” with his fine 34 knot 12th flotilla, sighted large ships on his starboard bow, steering a ‘the delay was due to “ southampton’s \" wireless gear having been shot away. 2\" valiant’s ” report in jutland despatches, p. 211. ’“ malaya’s ” report in jutland despatches, p, 220. 627 southeasterly course. even as he manoeuvred to attack he thought to send a wireless report to his commander-in-chief. the attack, carried out with the greatest dash and gallantry, resulted in the battleship ‘‘ pommern ” being sunk without a trace. again capt. stirling made his wireless message, but neither of his reports reached the ‘‘ iron duke.” about 2:25 in the grow- ing light, the “ champion ”’ with three destroyers sighted the enemy. one of the latter, the ‘‘ moresby,” broke off at once and made a plucky attack which sank the german destroyer “ v4,” but the “ champion ” turned to the eastward and made no report. at 2:39 a.m. jellicoe turned north. he had been left with the impression that the enemy had been following him south and now, with daylight rapidly returning, he was anxious to get in touch with a view to renewing the engagement. it had been his intention to close horn reefs at dawn, but the night fighting had scattered his flotillas and he deemed it imprudent, to thrust into enemy waters until he could collect a destroyer screen. a signal from the admiralty, despatched at 1:48 a.m. but not received in the “ iron duke ” until 2:40 informed the commander-in-chief that enemy submarines were apparently coming out from german ports. the battle fleet formed single line on the northerly course so as to be ready for emergency in the early morning haze, and so, retracing his path, jellicoe expected momentarily to fall in with his destroyer flotillas and possibly the damaged “ liitzow.” tyrwhitt’s harwich force had, at last, been ordered to sea, and by 3:50 a.m. he was under way, much too late to be of service. from 3:15 a.m. zeppelins began to be sighted and at 3:42 a.m. the battle fleet had turned expectantly towards the sound of guns, but found that it was only some british cruisers engaging one of the enemy airships. it was obvious, however, that by now the position of the british fleet must be known to the german command. the hope of meeting the enemy which had been growing fainter was finally shattered by an admiralty message received at 4:15 a.m. saying that at 2:30 a.m. the high seas fleet was only 16 m. from horn reefs steering s.e.b.s, at 16 knots. . beatty was still clinging to the idea that the enemy was to the south-westward, and asked permission to sweep in that direction; but at 4:30a.m., having re-formed into cruising formation, jellicoe regretfully made the signal “ enemy fleet has returned to har- bour.” scheer reached horn reefs light vessel about 3 a.m. there he lingered for a short space receiving reports from his airships and taking stock of the condition of his fleet. at 3:30 a.m. he was informed that the “ liitzow ” had had to be sunk. the rest of the 1st scouting group was in no condition for serious action, the battleships which had been in the van had also suf- fered considerably, and he had only three light cruisers service- able; moreover the visibility was such that he could not rely on airship reconnaissance. indeed many of the reports which he received from this source have since been proved to be very inaccurate. a policy of discretion was obviously dictated, and he gave the order for the whole fleet to return to harbour. on the way in, the battleship ‘ ostfriesland ” struck a mine laid in the channel by the british destroyer ‘“ abdiel ’’ but got home. the losses may be summarised as follows:— ships british german battleships . battle cruisers . cruisers light cruisers torpedo craft personnel ommcers (killed) . men (killed) officers (prisoners) men (prisoners) 628 on the face of them these figures would appear to leave the bal- ance of jutland in favour of germany, so far as destruction of men and ships is concerned, but the value of the battle must be measured in its after effects and not in its momentary losses. there britain was the gainer. resulis.—the broad effects of jutland are a matter of history, but they may be summarised as follows:— i. the high seas fleet after ‘‘ consistently refusing action and manoeuvring with the sole object of returning safely to its hase,” as jellicoe has put it, left the grand fleet in undisputed possession of the arena. 2. although the german jligh command must have realised that the grand fleet asa “ fleet in being ’’ was the fulcrum of the whole allied cause, the high seas fleet only once left the heligoland bight after jutland; this was on aug. 19 of the same year. on this occasion scheer was warned by airship reconnaissance that the british battle fleet was advancing to mect him, whereupon he returned to his base. juvenile courts 3. in nov. 1918 scheer ordered the high seas fleet to sea “ to break the blockade.’’ it was to have been a final bid for victory, but inaction had only served to crystallise the memories of jutland; the crews refused to weigh anchor. this mutinous outbreak at wil- helmshaven widened the fissure which shortly afterwards engulfed the whole german cause. . 4. the full fruits of jellicoe’s domination of the german flcet at jutland were yielded on nov. 21 1918, when beatty received the surrender of the greater part of the high seas fleet. brblrograpiy.—j. buchan, the battle of jutland (1916); m.w.l. foss, seeschiacht vor dem skagerrak (1916); h. e. schliiter, see- schlacht vor dem skagerrak (1916); viscount jellicoe, the grand fleet, to1g—-16 (1919); the admiralty, official documents and dispatches, baitle of jutland (1920); c. bellairs, the battle of jutland (1920); r. scheer, germany’s high seas fleet in the world war (1920); g. von hase, kiel and jutland (trans. 1920); j.s. corbett, history of the great war (naval operations) (1921). (ik. a.*) juvenile courts: see children’s courts. kaiser—-kansas aiser, georg (1878- =), german dramatist, was born at magdeburg nov. 25 1878, the son of a merchant. ed- ucated in his native city, he became a merchant and joined the staff of the deutsch-ueberseeischen elektrizi- tits-gesellschaft, buenos aires. after three years he was forced to return to germany owing to ill-health. he lived for some time at magdeburg and at the seeheim (mariners’ home) in berlin. in 1903 he published his first drama and from that time onwards wrote numerous farces, and plays dealing with social and ethical problems. in 1920 he was prosecuted for embezzle- ment and sentenced to a term of imprisonment. his work attracted considerable attention both in his own country and abroad. his play von morgen bis mitternachis was produced in english as from morn to midnight at the regent theatre, london, in 1926. his works include: die jiidische witte (1911); kentg hahnret (1913); die birger von calats (1914); von morgen bis mitternachts (1916); die sorina (1917); die versuchung (1917); gas (1918 and 1920); die koralle (1918); die flucht nach venedig (1923); kolpor- tuge (1924).", "source_url": "https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-britannica-encyclopaedia-britannica.-3-encyclopaedia-britannica-inc.-1926", "observed_at": "2026-05-17 12:14:12", "integrity": { "hash_check": "match", "hash_scope": "full_normalized_text", "computed_sha256": "e108eabc27f120b2f97439e7ba16726e93b892615951427899fb87018eea1a66" }, "machine_use": { "read": true, "cite": true, "decision": "verified_public_domain_text" }, "goguides_data_license": "https://www.goguides.com/data-license", "goguides_data_license_version": "2.0", "documentation": { "white_paper_url": "https://www.goguides.com/white-paper.php", "pdf_url": "https://www.goguides.com/whitepapers/goguides-ai-source-clearance-white-paper.pdf" } }