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    "source_title": "Encyclopaedia Britannica (1926)",
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    "chunk_id": "1926:j e h4 tirol:ae2d1332e211",
    "title": "(J. E. H.4) TIROL",
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    "verified_text": "the question that arose in 1926 in this area is more properly that of the south tirol—.e., trentino and alto adige. the area of trentino is 2,454 sq. m.; that of alto adige (including ampezzo) 2,953 square miles. by the census fig- ures of 1910 there were in trentino 13,450 germans and 360,847 italians and ladins. in alto adige there were 215,796 germans and 22,500 italians and ladins. there can be no question that the arrangement made in 1866 was intended to give austria a strategic advantage against italy. the trentino projects into italy, and threatened the plains of lombardy and venetia. treaty of london and the peace setilement—the first italian demand was made, when italy was still neutral, in jan. rors. italy formulated her demands on april 8 rors. the line which she desired ran from monte cevedale to the northeast, including bozen (bolzano), and then followed an irregular line to cortina y srunico’ 4 aw pll, pa sressanone (8rixen} english miles 0 10 20 40 kilometres f adriatic — ee ——————————— | y territory acquired by ftaly ll new /talian goundaty eu”: ofd pea 6 a *” main railways of greenw. [3° (8) 12? long east ( d’ampezzo. the austrians replied by offering the trentino but excluding bozen and the alto adige. these terms were declined by italy, which signed the secret treaty of london with the entente on april 26 1915, and broke with austria openly on may tirol—tirpitz 3. by the treaty of london italy was promised much more than she had previously claimed. she demanded, and france, great britain and russia consented, that she should receive an area of an average depth of 30 km. to the north up to the brenner pass. it included many areas and districts inhabited by a purely german race, and 229,261 germans in all. italy claimed this region on purely strategic grounds. at the peace conference austria stood out strictly for the ethnical line, which would have given italy all the trentino and a part of the alto adige. the principal allied powers replied that they saw no reason for altering the proposed frontier, adding:— it results from the very clear declaration made by the president of the council of the italian ministers (signor tittoni) to the parlia- ment at kome that the italian govt. proposes to adopt a broadly liberal policy towards its new subjects of german race in what concerns their language, culture and economic interests. this was on sept. 2 1919. france and great britain were bound by the treaty of london, but president wilson was not. he seems to have been unaware of the ethnical facts at the time, and is known to have greatly regretted his decision subsequently. so early as nov. 12 1919 he took an opportunity of pointing out to italy that he had, out of his “‘ sincere sympathy for italy,” permitted her to annex in the tirol ‘‘a considerable region populated by alien inhabitants.” aminoritzes—the question of the protection of the racial culture of germans in what is now italian territory is difficult. during 1919 tittoni gave repeated pledges in public on the subject, and italy’s allies had publicly affirmed their belief in her sincerity. there was therefore a strong moral pledge given by italy, and an equally strong moral obligation on her allies to exhort her to keep it. but it cannot be contended that any question of legal obligation was involved. had that been so, italy would have been compelled to sign a minority treaty. italian rule began by being liberal, but soon became op- pressive. a small but singularly illuminating incident is that of the confiscation without compensation of the entire property of the austrian alpine clubs in the new italian territory. the protests of the tiroleans were vehement, and not always dis- creet, but the severity of italian rule increased as mussolini developed his power. a violent interchange of speeches took place between the austrian govt., herr stresemann speak- ing for germany, and mussolini in feb. 1926. it is not clear that stresemann’s intervention was in order, as austria is forbidden to unite with germany by art. 80 in the treaty of versailles (cf. article 88 of treaty of st. germain). mus- solint replied with warmth, and perhaps without adequate respect for the pledges of tittoni. it would have been open to great britain or france to bring the matter up in the assembly or the council of the league, under article 11 of the covenant. bibliograpihy.—jialian green book—diplomatic documents submitted to [talian parliament (may 20 1915); foreign office his- torical section, the trentino and alto adige, stationery office, london (1920); h. w. v. temperley, ziistory of peace conference, vol. 5, pp. 278-87 (1921). (h. w. v. t.) tirpitz, alfred von! (1849- —_—sc+)«, german admiral, was born on march 19 1849 at kiistrin, the son of a high prussian magistrate, and the descendant of a noble family impoverished by the thirty years war. his great grandmother came of a trench refugee family named de sainson. as a boy he was quick, daring and enterprising. he was very capable, but did badly at school. in later years he filled the gaps in his education by indus- trious private study in languages, history and economics, and by keen observation ‘during his foreign travels. he was an admirer of treitschke. in 1865 he entered the prussian navy, the train- ing for which followed the british modcl. in 1869 he became an officer, in 1888 postcaptain; in 1895 rear-admiral; in 1899 vice- admiral; in 1903 admiral; in 1911 admiral of the fleet. 1n 1897 he became secretary of state for naval affairs, and then, to his re- gret, had no further chance of practical service at sea. on march 15 1916, for political reasons, he resigned all his offices. this article like admiral scheer’s (vol it. p. 218) is published as written by admiral hollweg in accordance with the principle laid down in the footnote thereto. tirpitz whilst still a young officer his talents were recognised and suit- ably employed by the leaders of the german fleet, general von stosch and general von caprivi, and he received exceptional pro- motion. from his 29th year he was employed only in important positions of organisation or leadership. general von stosch taught him the need of increasing over-populated germany’s economic and industrial activity, the importance of trade and colonies, the necessity of protecting these interests and making the shipbuilding industry quite independent of foreign help. general von caprivi initiated him into the system of the duties of the general staff. his creative talents were first utilised: when torpedoes developed into an arm suitable for war, in building torpedo boats and in working out a tactical system for their mass employment. his work during this period proved of great value to him later when constructing a fleet of great battleships. here, and in constructing the fleet, he accomplished model work with a minimum of expense. after practical service at sea as cap- tain, he became chief of staff of the supreme naval command in 1892, and began the preliminary work for his plan of fleet construction by profound studies in the history and practice of naval warfare. the idea of the offensive use of arms was the guiding note of all tirpitz’s work. his memoranda, designed to educate the naval officers in modern ideas of their profession, fell into british hands and in this way influenced british tactical ideas also. he com- bined practical operations with model squadrons of useless ships with the elaboration of his tactical ideas. simultaneously with this went on the transformation of the modern ship of war, with its technical complications, into an apparatus which worked with mechanical perfection. he encouraged the education of crews to independent action-in all emergencies. his tactical memoran- dum, no. 9 (printed in nauticus, jahrbuch fiir deutschlands seeinteressen, 1926), which sums up everything of basic value in the art of naval warfare, afterwards served him to convince the reluctant reichstag of the necessity of forming a german fleet ac- cording to quite definite laws. tirpitz himself considered his tac- tical abilities to be his greatest gift and often regretted that he afterwards no longer exercised decisive influence on the further development of sea tactics. as a statesman, tirpitz pursued the political aim of securing the growing marine interests of the ger- man people, which had become a great exporting and importing industrial state. for this reason he felt the building of a ficet to be a necessity and no luxury, since it made germany a more ac- ceptable ally and helped to create a sort of balance of power at sea. the overwhelming power of great britain, the dependence on her and other superior naval powers into which germany had fal- len and which no longer corresponded with her greatness and her vital necessities, the aversion of the germans from the sea, made a deep impression on him even as a youth, and particularly on his | last foreign journey as admiral of the cruiser squadron, 1895-7. as early as 1871, he spoke of the necessity of a german fleet in a letter to his father. he considered that it was an economic and also a social necessity that the working german people should gain greater independence from all political eventualities. he further saw in germany the power of the future on which the smaller european powers might lean at sea. in view of the for- mation of great self-sufficient cconomic units in the world, he probably considered his ideas to be a consistent continuation of bismarck’s train of thought, and perhaps thought of a kind of economic pan-europa under a wise german leadership. tirpitz vigorously opposed the suggestion that germany might annex holland, one reason being that he was always anxious to spare the small norclic states. he would also have been prepared to make the danes concessions in schleswig in order to win their friendship, and was anxious for italy to have a considerable fleet. tirpitz never asked for war and always be- lieved that a war could only interrupt germany’s rise; but was in favour of a german rapprochement with russia as bismarck wished it, and of a german-russian-japanese understanding. he disapproved also of the german baghdad policy because it in- fringed simultaneously on the russian and british spheres of in- 785 fluence. he was against irritating america in any way and disap- proved both of the german intervention in manila and of the british german blockade of venezuela. moreover he saw clearly that in forming germany into a sea power he would have to reck- on with ‘the opposition of great britain. he believed firmly, however, that it must be possible, if germany proceeded ‘with caution, to pass through the danger zone of the time of fleet con- struction without war, and that, finally, an honest understanding between germany and great britain could only be advanced if germany was a real power on sea as on land. summing up brit- ish psychology and british love for everything straight and strong, he reckoned that germanic england, whose statesman- ship and power at sea he rated very highly, would in the end pre- fer a rapprochement with a strong germany to any other politi- cal combination. it was only unwillingly and with hesitation that he adopted “ the idea of risk ” aimed at great britain in his naval estimate of 1goo. even after the world war, and even when he had learnt the details of the british policy of encirclement, tirpitz did not change his opinion that, taking all in all, the rapprochement be- tween germany and britain was advanced rather than hindered by the construction of the fleet, and that only the outbreak of the war, which was most unwelcome to him, had prevented the last maturing of his political aims. his naval programme always aimed at leaving britain a sufficient superiority. he considered that the formula of the respective strengths of three to two sug- gested by lloyd george, which churchill later, although with res- ervations, altered to 16 to 10 or eight squadrons to five, gave britain sufficient protection against any aggressive intentions on the part of germany. when organising the construction of the german fleet, tirpitz went through the work very carefully and systematically, as his nature was. each step was thought out to its last consequences. he refused flatly to construct the greater cruiser fleet which the emperor was anxious to have when he was appointed secretary of state, in view of the experience of the past with cruiser war- fare and the lack of all foreign bases for germany. his aim was and remained the formation of a battle fleet. in view of early ex- perience with naval construction programmes in the reichstag, his naval estimates carefully avoided votes for new constructions of ships which depended on the momentary humour of the depu- ties. he aimed at securing legal authority for the number of ships of the fleet to be built, for their regular replacement and maintenance. inevitably a certain stiffness thus came into the naval programme, which was at times a little inconvenient dur- ing the critical years. tirpitz was always haunted by the fear that his successor would abandon important principles of his programme. he was convinced that the diplomats did not understand the real idea of his programme in the least. the squadron of eight ships as a tactical unit was the base of his naval programme. the first law of 1898 approved a double squadron of ships of the line with the necessary cruisers. the law of 1900 doubled the battle fleet. supplementary laws of 1904, 1906 and 1908 reduced the maxi- mum age of ships and thereby altered the plan of new construc- tion. the foreign cruiser fleet and the torpedo-boat forces were increased, and account was taken of the british dreadnought pro- gramme. the kiel canal was widened to take battleships. the supplementary bill which tirpitz introduced after agadir in 1912 only increased the number of ships to be constructed by a little, but increased the strength of the active fleet. the supplementary law of 1912 was to be the last bill of the naval programme. the fleet of 1920 was to consist of one flag ship of the fleet, five squad- rons of battleships of eight ships each, 12 cruisers for home serv- ice, eight large cruisers for foreign service and 40 small cruisers, including to for foreign service. three squadrons of ships of the line with the necessary cruisers were to be always ready as a bat- tle fleet. his construction programme was reduced after the ne- gotiations with haldane in 1912, and only provided for three new ships to be distributed over several years. taking 61 great battle- ships and a life of 20 years, three large ships would be launched regularly every year on this plan. 786 if britain had really recognised german sea power, tirpitz would probably have agreed to some arrangement on the lines of the later washington agreement of 1922, dealing with the pro- portionate strength of the two powers. tirpitz only became deeply interested in the construction of submarines after the diesel engines were perfected for service in 1908. the ultimate strength of submarines was then fixed at 72. there was never any idea of mercantile submarine warfare. tirpitz considered the battle fleet to be the best protection for the extensive ger- man coast line, and spent little money on its fortification. he only modernised heligoland, and expanded it into a fortified har- bour. parallel with the construction of the fleet, the state wharves were systematically expanded and grew to be industrial implements of the first order. tirpitz’s relations with the emperor were peculiar. the em- peror could not do without him to organise the expansion of the fleet, although not really liking his rather stiff but always consist- ent and never obsequious manner. tirpitz complied with the particular wishes of the emperor whenever possible but energeti- cally opposed fantastic plans ofnaval construction. he often was hampered by william ii.’s political ways, and whenever possible put on the brake. but so long as he controlled the construction of the fleet he held firmly to his real aim, in spite of varying politi- cal currents. tirpitz was a convinced monarchist and remained so after the war. tsingtao, whose acquisition he had proposed, and whose expansion he wished to control himself, was developed by him into a model colony on the most modern lines. he always considered this lease in china as a bond between german and chinese culture, never as a base to exploit the chinese economi- cally. up to the outbreak of the world war, tirpitz enjoyedasteadily increasing popularity in parliament and with the people. the feelings of german nationality and unity and manly pride in ger- man strength and deeds were encouraged by him. the circle of his real co-workers and colleagues was, however, always small. the number of those who were united to him in personal friend- ship was even smaller. he was a good judge of men and exploited the special talents of his subordinates ruthlessly. he himself al- ways retained his wide general view and never lost himself in de- tails. in the corps of naval officers his aims were not always fully understood. he probably never revealed his ultimate aims to any of his friends, and, like all great men, was often compelled to stand alone. he was careful to keep up relations with mem- bers of parliament and cultured men, and did much for the jour- nalistic profession. he recognised very early that a good idea needs publicity to be politically effectual. before the war he ex- ercised but little influence on the activities of the admiralty staff. yet he always kept under his own control, in spite of all opposi- tion, the construction of the ships which proved their worth so well in the war. the orders to the fleet and army at the outbreak of war were not known to him. before the war he purposely paid little attention to the mobilisation plans of the fleet, because he was against war on principle. in politics tirpitz seldom played an active part. he knew nothing of the british offer of an alliance at the close of the roth century. other details of foreign policy were also concealed from him; and although he offered his advice to the chancellor von bethmann hollweg he was not consulted when important politi- cal measures were taken; for example, when the cruiser was sent to agadir in rorr. at the end of 1911, he could have become chancellor ef the reich, but he never desired this office. during the critical time of lord haldane’s visit in 1912, tirpitz stated that he would have given up his supplementary naval estimate completely for a real neutrality agreement with britain. he did not entirely approve of the measures taken by the german govt. after the murder in sarajevo (1914) and was for avoid- ing the threatened war at all costs. tirpitz did not share the opinion that britain would stand out of the war, and foresaw that the sympathies of america would be on the side of britain. he was in favour of a short war, and for putting the german fleet to a decisive batile. he believed that the intervention of america would in any case prevent a complete victory, but tissue culture thought that if germany exercised all her forces, the german reich could remain a really great power, and at the worst ac- knowledge defeat whilst her forces were still unexhausted. he was also against any form of annexation but was only anxious lest the belgian coast should pass into the possession of britain. in general, he saw the war as the last struggle of freedom against the world capitalism of the anglo-saxons. the part assigned to tirpitz in the war was unworthy of his abilities. at the beginning he offered to take over the entire con- trol of the navy, including the military control, but this was re- fused. his position at general headquarters was unsatisfactory; his advice was hardly listened to by the politicians and hardly ever taken. the naval battle for which he wished was not fought. ife early recognised the importance of the new u-boats for the issue of the war, but was against employing u-boats too early in the commercial war, and named the spring of 1916 as the right moment. he disapproved of the attitude of the german govt. during the exchange of notes with america on the occasion of the sinking of the “ lusitania ” and the “ sussex,” regard- ing it as weak. tirpitz was not implicated in the declaration of u-boat warfare in 1917, and later stated that had he guessed russia’s coming collapse and known of president wilson’s efforts for peace, he would probably have used his influence against u-boat warfare in 1917. after leaving his post in 1916, tirpitz entered politics and helped to found the vaterlandspartei, which propagated the will to endure; and after the war had ruined his life’s work, he entered the reichstag in 1921 as german national deputy. he generally remained in the background in plenary sittings, but owing to his great experience he played an influential part behind the scenes. he spoke in favour of the dawes plan and against the pact of locarno. in small circles, at official sittings or in the budget commission of the reichstag, he spoke in a masterly and convinc- ing fashion. in the plenary sittings, he sometimes kept too closely to his preconceived ideas, but created a deep effect by the substance of his speeches. tirpitz was not a courtier and found recreation in saint blasien in the black forest, where he possessed a country house. four children, two sons and two daughters, were the fruit of his very happy and harmonious marriage with marie lipke, who was also his confidante and assistant in his work. his eldest son, a naval officer on the cruiser “ mainz ” was taken prisoner by the british on aug. 28 1914. after the war, tirpitz wrote his recollections, erinnerungen (1918), ancl was thus one of the first to bring out his memoirs. both the form and contents of this book makeit a very important contribution to contemporary history, although naturally its ac- count is given from the point of view of the author. in order to prevent erroneous conclusions from being drawn from the official german publications and documents which were edited by tir- pitz’s political opponents, he issued a second book in the autumn of 1924 politische dokumente; der aufbau der deutschen welt- macht. ‘the book is also a contribution from the german point of view to the question of responsibility forthe war. it intentionally gives the political opponents of the german naval policy space to state their case at length. the book, in which the author clings stoutly to the correctness of his political ideas, ends with the con- clusion that the german people has not shown itself suitable or ripe to rise to be a world power. see article in nov. 1925 issue of sud-deutsche monatshefte on attempts at a naval agreement with great britain, and ulrich von hassel admiral von tirpits. (c, ho.) tissue culture.—the object of tissue culture is the study of the physiology of higher organisms. within the body of a living animal the relations between tissues and humours cannot be investigated easily because they are too complex. but when tissue cells living in media of known composition are kept under observation like bacteria in pure culture, their fundamental characteristics become apparent. the reciprocal influence of the tissues and of the pericellular fluid can be studied and often ex- pressed quantitatively. in this manner, a new cytological science is being progressively built up. ‘tissue culture the method is founded on the possibility of maintaining tissue cells in a condition of active and permanent life outside of the organism. when cells are cultivated, in the proper sense of the word, they multiply, as do bacteria, and synthetise new protoplasm from the constituents of their medium. this condi- tion differs widely from that of survival, where the cells may live and multiply for some time without using the substances con- tained in the medium, the development of the method has con- sisted chiefly in the invention of procedures by which pure strains of cells could be isolated and kept in a state of true cultivation indefinitely. early work.—the method of cultivating tissues outside of the organism may be considered as the logical development of the investigations of many scientists, such as cohnheim, jolly, leo loeb and others who have studied with various techniques cells surviving within or without the organism. but it was directly inspired by the beautiful experiments of harrison, who in 1907 observed the growth of nerve fibres of the frog embryo in a drop of lymph. in roro and rors, other experimenters replaced the lymph with blood plasma, and fragments of adult and embryonic tissues and of tumours of birds and mammals were observed to survive in vilro for a few days. at this time it was thought that the cells multiplying in plasma were in a true condition of cultiva- tion. but lewis found that embryonic cells proliferate as well in saline solution as in plasma. even in plasma, the mass of the tissues does not increase. by this early technique the tissues were kept in a condition of survival but not of cultivation. it became obvious that no problem of cell physiology could be studied on fresh tissues surviving for a few days in a drop of plasma and subjected to complex influences, such as those of living and dead cells of their own and other types, and of a medium that deteriorated spontaneously within a short time. in 1912, carrel developed a technique for maintaining a pure strain of fibroblasts in a true state of cultivation. the cells not only survived but synthetised new protoplasm from the constituents of the medium, and the mass of the tissues increased in an un- limited manner. later, strains of macrophages (1922), of car- tilage (1922), of pavement epithelium (1922) and of thyroid (1924) were isolated and kept in pure cultures. technigues.—the techniques by which a strain of cells can be maintained in a state of true cultivation are far more delicate and difficult than the early procedures, and a thorough apprentice- ship is necessary to apply them successfully. the tissues are generally embedded in a coagulum of plasma diluted with tyrode solution and embryonic tissue juice. proliferation of embryonic tissues takes place as readily in saline solution as in blood serum or plasma. but epithelium and connective tissue do not manufacture new protoplasm when they are cultivated in plasma alone, and, although the cells multiply, the mass of the colonies does not increase. the dividing cells appear to use the substances set free by other cells. when embryonic juice is added to the medium, the building up of protoplasm from the constituents of the nutrient fluid begins immediately. as long as the cells are supplied with embryonic juice, under proper conditions, they synthetise protoplasm. monocytes behave differently. cultivated in embryonic tissue juices, they die in a short time. onthe contrary, if the medium is composed of diluted serum, they remain alive and spread over large areas. they build up protoplasm from some constituents of serum, while neither fibroblasts nor epithelial cells possess this property. serum not only fails to supply fibroblasts and epithelial cells with the substances necessary for multiplication, but it inhibits their proliferation and shortens their life iz witre. as a rule, the restraining action of serum becomes more pronounced after it has been shaken or heated. the agents that inactivate serum also render it more inhibiting for homologous fibroblasts. it appears that serum contains certain growth-promoting sub- stances, which are destroyed by shaking and heating, and oppose the inhibiting effect on fibroblasts of other substances that resist heat and shaking. there are in serum two antagonistic groups of substances, the growch-promoting ones always being weaker in their action than the growth-inhibiting. the growth-inhibi- 787 tion of serum is partly due to the presence of certain lipoids. the nature of the nitrogenous compounds present in embryonic juice and used by epithelial and connective tissue cells in the building up of protoplasm is still unknown. but some of their properties have been studied. embryonic tissue juice loses its growth- promoting effect after it has been shaken for several hours, or heated at a temperature of 65° c. for a few minutes. the sub- stances that promote cell multiplication are very sensitive to heat. they are partly destroyed at 56° c. in 30 min., and when left in an incubator at 38° c. for 48 hr. their action is greatly weakened. they are also sensitive to the action of radium and x-rays. these substances, used as food material by other cells, are called trephones, from tpepw, j feed. they are present in abundance in embryonic tissue, in certain glands of the adult animal and in leucocytes. use of plasma.—vhe plasma is obtained easily from the blood of adult animals such as rabbits, dogs, guinea pigs and chickens, and can be maintained in a fluid condition for a sufficient length of time. after it has been placed in the culture flasks together with the tissues, coagulation is brought about by adding some embryonic juice. the principal constituents of the culture media most generally used are plasma, serum, tyrode solution and embryonic tissue juice, at an hydrogen concentration vary- ing from pii 7-4 to 7:8. in a fluid containing all the substances necessary for cell multiplication, no growth occurs if the cells do not find the proper support on which to creep. a plasma coagulum, or the surface of a slide covered by a drop of lymph, serum or saline solution, may supply cells with the conditions required for their migration. the finest details of cells spreading on a cover-glass in a saline solution may be observed without difficulty, and this technique is excellent for certain cytological studies. but tissues grow incomparably better and* more regularly in a plasma coagulum than in any other medium. besides, the transfer of the tissues from medium to medium is possible without disturb- ing the cells embcdded in and protected by the fibrin. the cultures are prepared in such a manner that a continuous growth of the tissues becomes possible. the waste products must not be allowed to accumulate in the medium, and the nutrient substances that are unstable and easily destroyed at body temperature must be regularly supplied to the cultures. two procedures are gencrally used in order to keep the tissues indefinitely in a condition of constant activity. the first technique consists in removing the tissue fragment frequently from its medium, washing it in tyrode solution and transferring it to a fresh medium. the transfer of the tissue takes place every two days. as the nutrient substances contained in the medium do not undergo complete disintegration in 48 hr., and as the accumulation of waste products has but a very slight action on the growth of the tissues during that period of time, the cultures, when transferred from medium to medium, live under practically unchanged conclitions. a second technique has been developed by which the culture medium may be renewed frequently without mechanical disturb- ance of the tissues or denge. of bacterial contamination. special containers have been made consisting of flat, round flasks with oblique necks. they belong to different types, some being used for measuring the rate of growth of tissues, and the others when cytological examinations are required. the size of the flasks varies from five to eight cm. in diameter, which makes possible the use of large amounts of tissues and medium. by means of special instruments the tissues may be handled conveniently inside the flasks. the principle of the method is to use a medium composed of two parts, one solid and the other fluid, the latter being renewed as often as necessary. the solid medium is com- posed of coagulated plasma in which the tissues are embedded and which covers the bottom of the flask in a thin layer. the fluid medium, which bathes the solid medium continuously or not as desired, is composed of tyrode solution in which are dis- solved the substances to be investigated as to their action on the tissues. the fluid medium diffuses its nutrient principles in the coagulum and also receives the catabolic products of the 788 tissues. as it may be changed frequently, the tissues grow on the bottom of the flask without being disturbed, in a medium that varies but little in composition. with this technique, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, leucocytes and tumour cells may be observed in a condition of uninterrupted growth for long periods of time. rate of growth—the measurement of the rate of growth is made in the following manner. the slides are placed in a pro- jectoscope, and the outlines of the tissues are drawn immediately after the preparation of the cultures, and after 48 hours’ incuba- tion. the areas of the original fragment and of the new growth are measured with a planimeter, and the ratio of the area of the new growth to that of the original fragment is calculated. this relative increase of pure cultures of fibroblasts or epithelium in 48 hr. expresses the rate of growth. the rate of growth, the increase in mass of the tissues in a number of passages and the duration of life of the cultures indicate whether the medium is nutrient, non-nutnient or growth-stimulating without being nutrient. when the tissues are cultivated in large flasks, the in- crease is measured in the same way and, as the growth is unin- terrupted, it may be expressed graphically in a simple manner. the curve expressing the rate of growth of fibroblasts and epithelial cells in a nutrient medium is a parabola. if the medium is non-nutrient, the curve is s-shaped. modifications in the form of this curve indicate whether the medium contains sub- stances that activate or depress the rate of cell multiplication. the inherent growth energy of a tissue at a given instant is a function of several independent variables: its growth energy at the preceding instant, and the concentration in the pericellular fluid of the substances that increase or decrease cell activity. it could be ascertained by the activity displayed during an instant by the cells in a medium containing neither activating nor re- tarding substances, if such a measurement were possible but the residual energy, which was found to vary at the same time as the inherent energy, may be used as a measurement of the latter. the residual energy is expressed by the duration of life and the proliferative activity of the cells in tyrode solution. when a sufficient amount of tissue is placed in a flask, it be- comes possible to detect the presence of the secretions in the fluid medium. the growth-promoting effect of substances set free by the leucocytes was found in this manner. the morphology of the tissue cells growing i vitro is studied while they are still living. fragments of the coagulum containing cells are removed from the flasks and placed on ordinary slides. the living unstained cells may be photographed or cinemato- graphed. the use of neutral red, trypan blue, and janus green allows the study of the cytoplasm while the cells are active. the tissues may also be fixed and stained by the ordinary methods. isolation of pure strains.—the isolation and maintenance of pure strains of various types of tissues was an indispensable step in the adaptation of the method of tissue culture to physiological research. the first pure culture of fibroblasts originated over 14 years ago from a fragment of the heart of a chick embryo, and was cultivated in embryonic tissue juice, which was discovered at about the same time to have the property of giving to fibro- blasts an unlimited proliferating capacity. pure strains of fibro- blasts can be obtained readily from practically every tissue of fowls, dogs, etc., as connective tissue cells multiply more rapidly than the other cells, which spontaneously disappear within a few weeks. the fibroblasts grow as a dense tissue, which doubles its volume in about 48 hours. the cells are polygonal or spindle- shaped, with long, sharp processes, and with an oval nucleus containing generally two nucleoli. the pure strains of fibro- blasis are used especially as a physiological reagent for detecting in serum and other fluids the presence of substances promoting or inhibiting cell multiplication. strains of large mononuclears are obtained from cultures of white blood corpuscles. the polymorphonuclear leucocytes, endowed with greater activity, occupy the peripheral area of the culture. the inner zone is covered chiefly with lymphocytes and monocytes. after a few days, the polymorphonuclear leucocytes progressively disappear. they are generally taken up by the lymphocytes and digested. finally, the mononuclear cells alone tisza remain, multiply in the medium, and wander through it isolated or in columns, but never aggregate in a tissue. when they accumulate in large numbers, or are packed together by con- traction of the medium, they generally die or become trans- formed into fibroblasts. strains of epithelium may be isolated from the iris, the thy- roid, the skin and probably from several other tissues. when multiplying on the surface of a plasma clot in a thin layer of embryonic juice, the pavement epithelium derived from the iris assumes the appearance of a continuous membrane. its rate of growth is slower than that of fibroblasts, and the cultures double in size in about three days. the cells do not dedifferentiate. they grow as a thin mosaic at the surface of the medium and manufacture a large amount of black pigment, similar to that of the cells of the iris. they multiply for many months outsicle of the organism. strains of epithelial cells are easily obtained from the thyroid glands of a chick embryo. the cells from a four- or five-month-old strain grow equally well at the surface of the medium orin its depth. they readily digest the fibrin of the coag- ulum, but multiply at a more rapid rate and are more resistant than pavement epithelium. sometimes they form acini (grape like clusters) with colloidal material in the centre. generally they are more or less irregularly spread in the coa- gulum, and drops of colloid substances with their characteristic appearance may be seen within the cells or near them in the medium. when pure cultures of fibroblasts are added to thyroid tissue, the fibroblasts soon surround the thyroid epithelium, which organises in a small gland showing acini filled with colloid substance. the inclusion of a fragment of thyroid strain in a pure culture of fibroblasts accelerates the proliferation of the fibroblasts during a number of passages. pure cultures of fibro- blasts and of malignant macrophages are easily isolated from rous sarcoma. curtilage cells may be obtained from the pars cartilago sclerae of the eye of chick embryos and cultivated fora long time. the hyaline substance disappears and the small lymphocyte-like cells become transformed into large spindle- shaped cells, which form thin membranes. the rate of growth is slower than that of fibroblasts and epithelium. it ts probable that the cells of many other tissues will be obtained in pure cul- tures. the method of tissue culture is still in its infancy. but its rapid development and the results already obtained show that it will have an important beari::g upon our knowledge of funda- mental problems in physiology and pathology. see a. fischer, tissue culture (copenhagen, 1925); r. erdmann, pratikum der gewebepflege oder explantation besonders der gewebe- suchtung (berlin, 1922). (a. ca.*) tisza, stephen, count (1860-5918), hungarian states- man (see 26.1017).— tisza only returned to politics after count khuen-hedervary became prime minister (jan. 1910). in the hungarian parliament the coalition was still predominant, but it was splitting up and had no hold in the country. tisza now re- organised the old liberal party under the name of the national party of work with a programme of a return to the strict princi- ples of the compromise of 1867 elaborated by deak. in the elec- tions of june 1910 this party secured an overwhelming majority, due not so much to traditional governmental oppression and cor- ruption as to tisza’s personal suggestion and unceasing activity. but as the obstruction of the extreme left against the army legis- lation could not be stopped by the standing orders of the house, tisza, considering that the threat of complications in the bal- kans made it essential not to weaken the austro-hungarian army, took an energetic step. he had himself elected president of the lower house in 1912, introduced new standing orders, and forced the army bill through, ejecting the opposition from the h{ouse. a member fired three times at tisza, who remained calm in his chair. this scene made him very popular. he had to fight some duels with his adversaries, including one with count mi- chael karolyi, which left the two adversaries bitter enemies. on june 15 1913 tisza was for the second time nominated prime minister. this oflice gave him the right to control, together with the austrian premier, the activity of the common minister titanic, loss of the of foreign affairs. in his first memorandum, written after the second balkan war, he deplores the growth of serbia and the collapse of bulgaria, turkey and later greece. he further states that rumania, where public opinion was growing hostile to the dual monarchy, should be assured its territorial integrity, but if it abandoned its alliance, bulgaria should be brought to bear against it. war should be avoided. in home politics, tisza was willing to favour such of the non-hungarian nationalities as would support the state. he attempted to reach an understand- ing with the leaders of the transylvanian rumanians, but with- out success. after the murder of the heir to the throne at sarajevo (june 28 1914) berchtold proposed a sudden attack on serbia. tisza op- posed this project in a letter to francis joseph (july 1). a week later he again urged his view that diplomatic steps were necessary and a severe ultimatum should be sent, but its conditions should not be impossible to comply with. to avoid the interven- tion of the entente, tisza carried in the council of ministers (july 19) that the integrity of serbia’s territory should be respected even if war was to be declared. though the war against serbia was declared, he exerted himself for peace by accepting sir ed- ward grey’s last proposition (july 31). the russian general mo- bilisation marred his endeavours. from that moment he devoted all his energy to the service of his country. he was anxious to miss no opportunity of concluding peace. he was opposed to all german aspirations of territorial aggrandisement and to the in- troduction of unlimited submarine warfare. when italy was about to enter the war he offered the chiefs of the opposition seats in the cabinet to establish a government of concentration, but met with a refusal. apart from foreign politics he had difficulty with the supreme command over the extension of its powers to civil affairs; he ex- erted his influence against military excesses, committed against hungarian serbs, and was in frequent conilict with the austrian government. he was a true partisan of german alliance, but he admitted no interference with hungary’s sovereign rights and was strongly opposed to the german idea of an economic “‘ mit- tel europa.” of truly historic interest was the controversy between him and conrad von hetzendorf. in 1915 the armies of the central pow- ers were in a very favourable situation. the offensives of their enemies in italy, russia and round arras had been checked; their armics occupied all poland and serbia. conrad declared that austria’s war aims must be the annexation of poland as far as the bug, serbia, albania and part of italy. tisza protested (dec. 30) against any annexation, on the grounds that the monarchy al- ready possessed too many centrifugal tendencies; he also stated that belgium should be restored and serbia be granted lenient peace terms. the monarch adhered to tisza’s opinion. the background of this conflict is still more interesting. conrad and the greater part of his staff were partisans of archduke francis ferdinand’s magyarophobe policy. they wanted to replace the dualist system, under which hungary was one of two equal part-~ ners in the monarchy, by a federal system dividing the monarchy into five parts under a central government in vienna. it was the last struggle between old austrian tradition, inherited from the holy roman empire and the national kingdom of hungary. as long as francis joseph lived tisza’s prestige remained un- broken. king charles, however, was under the influence of tis- za’s austrian and hungarian enemies. their rancour was fos- tered by the participation of tisza, a calvinist, with the primate of hungary in the act of coronation. the pretext for tisza’s dis- missal in june 1917 was his refusal to grant the suffrage to sol- diers at the front and his opposition to the demand of the socialists. the new cabinet had but a minority in parliament. tisza, now chief of the opposition and in the majority, framed a resolu- tion in which he affirmed the necessity of the german alliance and pointed out the ambiguous behaviour of the czechs in the reichsrath. finding his position difficult, he went to the front. in the bukovina and in italy he commanded a regiment with dis- tinction. though suffering from dyspepsia, he contented himself with the privates’ food; though one-eyed, he was always on the 789 watch. during this time his only political action was his mission to croatia and bosnia (sept. 1918). returning to budapest, he declared (oct. 17) ‘‘ we have lost the war,” and thus gave the signal for the collapse. he wanted a peace with honour, not a treacherous one. [lis lust two weeks he spent in attempting to unite the different parties; he was even ready to accept karolyi’s leadership in order to save the country and to procure a good peace. too proud and too conscientious to allow the publication of his pacific endeavours, he was set as a mark for the defeatist soldiers and the mob. though warned of his grave danger, he remained in budapest, working until his last moment to unite the historical parties. he was killed by soldiers on oct. 31 1918, the first day of count karolyi’s revolution, probably by order of the soldiers’ council. ilis last words were, ‘‘ it had to be.” tisza evolved slowly. a party man in his first administration and in his struggle against obstruction, only the immense work and the responsibility put on him by the world war made him a statesman. he had much in common with bismarck, unlike whom, however, he was a true liberal, but he did not realise the rapid increase of social democracy due to war industry. even in politics his tragedy was to be more of a knight than of a diplo- matist. full of animal spirits, he could not always master his temperament. but he was, and, as his memory lives, he is, the finest representative of the old magyar spirit. see istvan tisza, ossres munke, 2 vol., 1925 (personal recollections, letters june to end of dec. 1914, pub. by the hungarian academy). (h. ma.) titanic, loss of the.—at 2:20 a.m. on april 1§ 1912, the white star liner “‘ titanic,” at that time the largest ship alloat, on her maiden voyage, went to the bottom of the atlantic in lat. 41° 46’ n., long. 50° 14’ w., about 2? h. after striking at full speed on an iceberg, with a loss of 1,513 souls out of 2,224 on board.! the full record of the disaster is contained in the reports of the inquiries held at once in amcrica by a committee of con- gress under senator smith, and later in london by a special com- mission presided over by lord mersey (report issued july 30). painful and difficult though it was to distribute blame in such a case, there could be little doubt that the loss of life—817 passen- gers out of 1,316, and 696 out of a crew of g08—was much greater than ought to have been possible. capt. e. j. smith (b. 1853), a highly experienced seaman, who had been for 38 years in the serv- ice of the white star co. and who now went down with his ship, seems to have been averse from taking steps at first which might cause a panic on board. a natural expectation of security had been engendered, alike among the owners, officers and passengers . of these magnificently appointed liners, which, until a crisis actually came, had made it almost unthinkable that it could come with such suddenness; but the fact remains that responsibility for the lives of passengers rests with those who control the ship. in this case, it was not the inadequacy of the physical means of escape that accounted for the large proportion of the lost who remained on board; it was the inadequate organisation for purposes of using them and inadequate information as to the necessity. apart from that, both great britain and america could mingle sorrow and pride over many fine incidents of the tragedy. the figures of the 711 saved by the “‘ carpathia ”’ (including about 60 who were picked up in the boats after the ship went down) speak for themselves: women: first class, 140 out of 144; second class, 80 out of 93; third class, 76 out of 165; crew, 20 out of 23. chil- dren: first class, 6 out of 6; second class, 24 out of 24; third class, 27 out of 79. men: first class, 57 out of 175; second class, 14 out of 168; third class, 75 out of 462; crew 192 out of 885. altogether the percentage of women saved was 74-35, of children 52-29, of men 20-27. the comparatively small proportion of third-class passengers saved was shown to be purely accidental and not due to any preference being deliberately given to others; they. were handicapped, however, by their quarters being remote from the boat deck, and by so many of them being unable to speak or understand english. see british parliamentary papers: no. 2253, shipping casualties (titanic), ror2 (ed. 6352). 1the exact figures remained doubtful, but those given are from lord mersey’s report. 790 tittoni, tommaso (1855- ), italian politician, was born in rome and educated at naples, oxford and liege. in 1886 he was elected deputy for civitavecchia and in 1902 was raised to the senate. he was foreign minister for the second giolitti cabi- net (1903), and in this capacity he aimed at improving relations with austria. on the resignation of giolitti in march 1905, tit- toni became interim premier for a few days and remained in the fortis cabinet as foreign minister. his proposed reduction of the duty on spanish wines in connection with an italo-spanish commercial treaty aroused much indignation and caused the fall of the cabinet on dec. 24 1905. in march 1906 he was appointed ambassador in london, but on the return of gioliiti to power in may, he returned to the consulta, and there continued the policy of improving relations with austria. in april 1910 he was ap- pointed ambassadorin paris. when the world war broke out, in spite of his triplicist policy, he openly expressed himself in fa- vour of italian neutrality. in nov. 1916 he resigned from the paris embassy. in june ro1g nitti chose tittonit as foreign minister and first delegate at the peace conference, but he was forced to resign owing to ill-health in november. he was chosen president of the senate in dec. and was later appointed italian delegate on the council and assembly of the league of nations, but ill-health again forced him to relinquish the latter appointment. on the advent to power of fascism he supported the new government, without joining the fascist party. tobacco (sce 26.1035).—during the period 1910-25 the world production of tobacco greatly increased. the production for the year 1923 was about 3,977 million lb. as against an an- nual average of about 3,o00 million ib. for the years 1909-13. the following table shows the area under tobacco and the pro- duction of the chief producing countries in 1909-13 (annual aver- age), 1914-8 (annual average) and 1924, according to the [ater- national year book of agricultural statistics:— area (hectares) production (quintals) | countr aver- | aver- aa re age age 1924 ae pl 192 | 1909-13, 1914-8 pee. ee germany | 15,709] 11,365] 16,252] 301,805] 257,625] 1142,525 bulgaria 8,094; 24,489! 46,955 2,856} 167,623] 436,975 oe 14,873] 10,458) 12,791] 205,354) 154,713) 244,301 ugo- slavia 2,411 ? 35,230] 16,960 3 356,851 greece 15,466} 33,756) 60,049] 127,103) 224,107) 494,151 italy 8,072 ,61e} 33,800] 100,699} 86,200] 413,250 hungary | 49,047] 45,579] 15,482] 665,091) 507,724) 172,573 russia in : europe | 55,836) 54,432] 3 930,851) 903,433 . united states | 495,017] 580,487) 696,067 |4,518,553:5,387,326|5,636,414 british india . |] 423,815] 434,896] 539,070] . 3 3 3 japan . | 29,301} 29,142] 37,686] 425,095] 463,256) 562,500 philippines} 62,167} 62,673} 72,000] 294,857) 473,315] 433,230 russia in asia 14,804] 20,261 : 140,338] 174,387 ; algeria . 10,170} i1,710] 20,572] 106,237] 129,385] 300,000 dutch east indies | 162,135] 166,543] 167,488] 635,666] 530,758] 7*448,400 cuba . ¢ 334,148] 285,807) 1181,000 brazil : 3 78.774 3 450,000] '595,5 1 1923. 2from cultivation by europeans only. * not given. the americas.—the united states retained its position during 1910-25 as the chief tobacco producing country in the world. the tobacco industry made considerable progress, and, although the output of cigars varied but little, the output of cigarettes in- creased tenfold to over 75 billion in 1925. exports of lcaf tobacco increased from 388,284,000 ib. for the annual average of 1910-4 to 546,257,000 ib. in 1924. tobacco is the second crop tn cuba and its cultivation is rapidly extending. the extra import duties imposed on cigars by the united kingdom had an adverse effect upon cuba’s export trade to that country and resulted in the united states replacing the united kingdom as the chief market for cuban cigars; the total value of tobacco consumed in and ex- tit toni—tobacco ported from cuba in 1924 was $82,289,686. the cigars of mexico are second only to those of cuba, and mexican tobacco culture is making rapid progress. in argentina during the post-war period, experiments were made with the cultivation of many varicties of tobacco, and favourable results were obtained. in santo-domin- go, porto rico and the central american republics the tobacco crop is of considerable importance. brazil is an important source of world supply, exporting over 70,000,000 lb. annually from 1921 to 1925. - british fm pire —spccial attention is being devoted in canada to the extension of tobacco cultivation. the area under tobacco greatly increased during the post-war period, exports of leaf to- bacco, mostly to the united kingdom, increasing from 200,153 ib. in 1921 to over 3,500,000 lb. in 1925. the west indies, nyasa- land protectorate, rhodesia, kenya, uganda, tanganyika, the union of south africa, north borneo, british india and pales- tine are paying particular attention to the development of their export trade, which is greatly helped by its preferential import duties granted to empire from tobacco by the united kingdom, which is one of the chief world markets for tobacco. exports from nyasaland increased from 14,000 lb. in 1902 to over 7,000,000 ib. in 1924. in southern rhodesia, tobacco production is a well- established industry, the average annual crop from 1920 was ap- proximately 3,000,000 lb. northern rhodesia produced 813,033 lb. of virginia and 8,152 1b. of turkish tobacco in 1922-3. south africa exports of tobacco increased from an annual average of 175,896 lb. for the period 1g1o-4 to 2,312,284 ib. in 1923. in india the area under tobacco increased by some 25% between rg10 and 1925. exports, principally to the united kingdom, bel- gium, germany and holland, increased greatly during the post- war period, rising from under 4,500,000 ib. in 1922-3 to over 14,500,000 ll. in 1924-5. export of cigars from jamaica in 1924 totalled 88,245 lb. production in british east africa and pales- tine is of growing importance. exrope.—climatic conditions in the south of the balkans are very favourable to the cultivation of tobacco. bulgaria became prominent as a tobacco producing country after 1913, when, by ihe treaty of bucharest, she obtained possession of tobacco- producing areas of xanthe, kirdjali, etc. her output rapidly in- creased and good markets were found during the world war in central europe. after the end of the war, in spite of the cession of the xanthe area to greece, progress was maintained and pro- duction steadily increased. greek production, stimulated by the great influx of refugees from asia minor after 1921, rapidly increased. hungary was very prominent as a european source of tobacco before and during the war, built the surrender of large areas after the war resulted in a great decrease in her output, and i. corresponding increase in the output of yugoslavia and ru- mania, who obtained. possession of the surrendered districts. considerable progress was made during and after the war in tobacco cultivation in italy, and her output more than doubled. between ro2r and 1924. after 1918 czechoslovakia joined the list of tobacco-producing countries: considerable assistance was given to the industry by the ministry of agriculture and experi- mental stations were established. the output of both germany and france fell during the war: in the case of germany the fall continued after 1918, owing to the loss of aljsace; but france, with the addition of the alsatian output, soon exceeded her pre- war production. french needs during the war resulted in the increase of cultivation in algeria, whose output increased three- fold between to10 and 1924. russian production in 1923 was only some 40% of the pre-war figure. other :treas—the loss of her european territory caused a serious decrease in the turkish output, but during the post-war period the anatolian crop increased from an annual average of some 50,000,000 ib. for 1919-22 to over 150,000,000 |b. in 1925: this great increase was partly due to the influx of turkish refugees from macedonia, but mainly to more stable political conditions. china, japan, the philippines and the dutch east indies re- tained their importance as tobacco producing areas: the japa- nese output showed a considerable increase between 1910 and 1924. logo— togo (sce 26.1046).—this german colony in west africa was conquered in the first month of the world war (aug. 1914) by a british force, from the gold coast under capt. (temp. lieut.- col.) f. c. poryant, aided by detachments sent by the french from dahomey. before surrendering, the germans blew up the powerful wireless station at atakpame, which had been completed a little earlier in the year. thereafter the western part, including lome, the chief port, was administered by the british and the eastern part by the french. in may r919 the supreme council gave the mandate for togo to great britain and france. the first division, made in an anglo-french agreement of july 10 1g19, gave dissatisfaction to french colonial circles, as it left lome to great britain, and by a convention of sept. 30 1920, in exchange for an enlarged british area in the interior, lome and the whole 25 kilometres oso 2) boundary in (9!4 ~—_—_, a3 boundary between ly brve. bleich jogo pes fsilways seaboard except 32 m. went to france. both spheres are governed under mandates approved by the council of the league of na- tions on july 20 1922, and, in each, citizens of the united states have obtained the right to equal treatment with nationals of the membcrs of the league. british sphere-—the british sphere, which adjoins the gold coast, has an area of 13,040 sq. m. and a pop. (1921 census) of 187,959, of these, 9,652 were christians and 5,678 moslems; in 1924 the european residents numbered 27. the sphere is divided into two sections, the northern being administered as if 1t formed part of the northern territories of the gold coast, the southern tokyo 791 as if it formed part of the gold coast colony. cocoa, cotton, kola nuts and maize are cultivated, and there are large herds of cattle in the north, but the chief exports are palm oil and palm kernels. the division of togo left the whole railway system in the french sphere and, although a motor ferry over the volta at senchi connects the southern british section with the road sys- tem of the gold coast, the railway from palime to lome, which runs close to the border of the british sphere, takes a large part of the trade. for the year ending march 31 1924 exports were valued at £113,000 (cocoa £99,510) and imports at £22,800. for the same period revenue was £20,000 and expenditure £49,000. deficits are made good by the gold coast. french sphere.—the french sphere—area 21,893 sq. m.; pop. (1923) 698,340, of whom 210 were whites—adjoins dahomey, but is administered as a separate entity, the chief official being styled commissioner. ile is aided by a council on which non-officials, including one native, have seats. lome, the capital (pop. 9,400) is the centre for trade. the chief products and exports are the same asin the british sphere. the area under cocoa and cotton is increasing. in 1922 the exports were valued at 17,197,000 francs, the imports at 10,107,000 francs; the budget for 1923 balanced at 8,123,000 francs. up to 1926 there had been no ad- dition to the railway system left by the germans in 1ogrq. see reports of the french govt. on togoland (annual); official reports on the british sphere in tegoland (annual, london): fogo- land handbook (h. m. stationery office, london 1920). draft. man- date for togoland (cmd. 1350 of 1921). (f. r. c.) tokugawa, yoshinobu, prince (1837-1913), japanese statesman, was born sept. 29 1837 at teky6. he was the last of the tokugawa govt. (see 26.1047), succeeding shogun the 14th shogun, iemochi, in 1866. realising after a year’s time that the proper government of the country was impossible on the lines of feudalism, which was a bar to all progress and a source of con- tinual internal strife, the shogun handed his resignation to the emperor on oct. 14 1867. this act of sacrifice was the prelude to the enlightened meiji era, which dates from the beginning of 1868. tokugawa, having renounced his shogunate rights, went into a strict retirement from which he never emerged. he even renounced the succession to his title for his direct heir in favour of a collateral branch of the family, the first to inherit the title being prince lyesato tokugawa, for many years president of the house of peers. the emperor meiji accepted the renuncia- tion, but he conferred on him another title of prince to be be- queathed to his son. he died nov. 21 1913 at tokyd. tokutomi, iichiro (1863- ), japanese journalist and author, was born at kumamoto in jan. 1863 and educated at the doshisha, kyoto. in 1887 he issued a monthly magazine, the friend of the nation, and in 18go0 started in tokyd, the daily kokumin shumbun (nation) ,of which hewas proprictor and editor. he also began to issue in the same year 7'he far east, an english monthly. tokutom!, who was appointed a crown member of the house of peers in 1911, published many important political and historical works including the future japan (1886) and lftstory of modcrn japan, not yet complete. in 1924 the imperial jap- unese academy awarded him the emperor’s medal in recogni- tion of the merit of his works on japanese history. tokyo, japan (see 26.1047), had in 1923 a population of 2,478,233, but in sept. of that year a disastrous earthquake and a fire which followed reduced the population by death and migration to 1,529,616. from being the fifth largest city in the world, toky6 fell to the roth place. the damage was enormous, though the destruction was not as complete as at yokohama; the railway station and the imperial hotel escaped. an area of nearly 25 sq. m. was burnt, and between 60,coo and 70,000 people killed, many of them in a big clothing factory. the © water pipes were broken, which made it impossible to check the conflagration which followed the shock, and 80° of the numerous bridges were destroyed. reconstruction was begun at once, and very large sums were given to relief funds. tents were first put up for the survivors and the unburnt portions of buildings rendered habitable, and later large barracks were erected, which housed great numbers, living on charity and government 792 relief, for many months. the streets were soon lined with tem- porary shops and huts. before the earthquake teky6 had many narrow alleys and slum areas, and after the disaster an elaborate plan was prepared, embodying wider roads, many open spaces, new thoroughfares and the consolidation of the city under a central authority. the work of clearing the ruins, of re-establishing communications, and of reconstruction proceeded with wonderful rapidity, and by june 1924 about 80% of the houses in the city before the earth- quake were replaced by temporary erections. the town plan, however, was largely ignored, since it involved the displacement of many thousands of these temporary homes, and the voluntary cession by a number of the inhabitants of a portion of their land for purposes of road widening. the approach to the imperial museum, however, has been nearly doubled in width, and the schools have been rebuilt with large playgrounds, which will serve as refuges in case of fire. the new buildings are either large concrete or small wooden erections. two big department stores have been built on the ginza. the shimbashi bridge was reopened in 1925 and the russian cathedral is being rebuilt. the new parliament buildings were destroyed by fire in sept. 1925, and a temporary building was erected for the winter session. the electric railway has been reconstructed as a cir- cular line; the line to yokohama was electrified and double- tracked in ro1s. no sewage system has been undertaken, and the large programme of port improvements, planned in 1920, had not been begun in 1924. in 1925 rockefeller gave £400,000 to the imperial university library, and many books have also been sent from great britain. an art gallery, planned before the earthquake, was begun in 1924.",
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