IVORY COAST

a french colony on the gulf of guinea. the area is 122,000 sq. m.; the population in 1925 was estimated at 1,400,000, of whom 1,100 were europeans. from the lagoon port of abijan a railway, 193 m. long, was opened to bwake in 1913. thence a motor road connects with the upper volta colony. besides palm-oil and -kernels, fine woods, including mahogany and ebony, are exported. forests cover two-thirds of the colony. see west africa, french. iwasaki, koyata, 2nd baron (1879- ), japanese philan- thropist, was born in 1879, and succeeded to the barony in 1900. educated at the imperial university of tokyo and at cam- bridge, england, he became president of the banking department of the mitsubishi company. his vast wealth was largely ex- pended in experiments and benefactions. he instituted a research farm in the north of japan for stock raising. his visit to eng- land convinced him of the educational value of public libraries, and when the library of dr. g. e. morrison, for many years the times (london) correspondent in peking, came into the market, baron iwasaki bought it for the students of japan. ile added to it the bulk of his own collection and in addition to buying a site and erecting a building to contain it, he allotted a sum of money annually to the institution for the purpose of keeping it up to date by the purchase of new books. the library is called the t7746 bunko (oriental library) and is situated in kamifujimae cho in hongo, tokyo. izvolsky, alexander petrovich (1856-1919), russian statesman, was born at moscow march 17 1856, of an ancient polish family which had been settled in russia for generations. he graduated at the imperial lyceum of st. petersburg (lenin- grad) with the highest honours attainable, whereupon he became attache to the chancellery of prince gorchakoy. in 1879 he was appointed first secretary of the russian legation at bucharest. after a spell of service in washington he was charged with the resumption of relations between the tsar’s govt. and the holy see, a task which he fulfilled with great tact to the entire satisfaction of his chief, and incidentally won golden opinions of cardinal rampolla and leo xiii. and received the post of minister-resident at the vatican. about this time he married countess toll, a friend of the dowager empress maria feodorovna, to whose influence [zvolsky owed much of his professional success. ilis next posts, as min- ister plenipotentiary, were in belgrade, munich and tokio. irom the japanese capital he warned lamsdorff who was his chief of what was brewing for russia in the far east, but his reports on the warlike preparations were shelved as impertinent and ridiculed as absurd. he was next instrumental in having the marquis ito sent to europe (1902) to settle differences with russia, but the court camarilla in st. petersburg thwarted all efforts towards an understanding. two years later izvolsky obtained from japan moderate proposals for a friendly accord, which however were also rejected by the tsar. before hostilities broke out izvolsky returned to europe and through the dowager empress’ influence became minister plenipotentiary at copen- hagen (1903). in the year 1906 he succeeded count lamsdorff as minister of foreign affairs, moulding russia’s external rela- tions and influencing the course of her domestic policy, as a liberal, until the year rgro. from roto to 1917 izvolsky was russian ambassador in france and after the revolution he fell ill and died in paris aug. 16 1919. izvolsky was endowed with more than average talents, con- siderable powers of observation, refined artistic tastes and a high sense of honour and duty. an omnivorous reader, he could talk interestingly about literature, art and history. but these and other accomplishments were neutralised by his consequential airs, his oracular pronouncements and his disdainful attitude. he carried self-respect to the point of self-worship and preferred stateliness to the close intercourse of friendship, and as he lacked the magnetic personal current which might have covered these defects, hosts of enemies confronted him at every stage of his career, countering his exertions and embittering his life. few men have been more bitterly attacked than jzvolsky, whose main crime consists in his having practised the code of public morality that obtained in the school of diplomacy in which he graduated. as the trustee of the russian empire in its external relations izvolsky has no claim to high statesmanship nor indeed to genial gifts of any kind. he was a clever diplomatist—according to king edward vii., the cleverest in russia—with a very definite and circumscribed aim which he pursued with unflagging energy, an endless variety of means and untiring perseverance. when he became forcign secretary, france and russia were but nominally allies, each one speculating on the intentions of the other; and the cardinal principle of his policy was to convert that alliance into an efficacious reality. this he did with oc- cidental thoroughness. fence he strove to draw britain, italy, turkey, bulgaria and rumania into the entente. accepting as an axiom the inevitability of a great european war, the prin- cipal belligerents being france and germany in the west, and russia and austria in the east, he came to the conclusion that between those future enemies there might be episodic arrange- ments and temporary makeshifts, but that there could be no complete settlement of differences except by the fortune of war. izvolsky izvolsky’s first success was the liquidation of the war with japan, which he accomplished with remarkable foresight, breadth of view, thoroughness and moral courage. his next task was more arduous; the displacement once and for all of the causes of the rivalry between russia and britain. and it was largely to izvolsky’s personal efforts that the realisation of this plan was due. he began by coming to an arrangement with britain about persia, afghanistan and tibet (1907). this reconciliation defh- nitely baffled aehrenthal’s scheme which the tsaritza of russia favoured—of a renewal of the three-kaiser alliance. soon after this izvolsky sounded vienna unofficially as to how austria would view an attempt by russia to obtain the frecdom of the straits. aehrenthal, then minister of foreign affairs, who was still on relatively friendly terms with izvolskv, since his residence as ambassador in st. petersburg, replied unofficially that no objection would be raised if russia on her side agreed to the annexation of bosnia and hercegovina. this question and answer were, however, followed by a marked coolness in the mutual relations of the two empires, and the matter dropped. the two states came together again when charged by europe to draft and execute a scheme for the reform of justice in macedonia. but austria secretly obtained from turkey, whose conduct she was supposed to be vigilantly super- vising, a railway concession in the sandjak of novi bazar. in st. petersburg, london and belgrade the news aroused intense indignation. but after king edward’s visit to reval (june 1908), izvolsky wrote a letter to aehrenthal announcing that russia | had no objection to the sandjak railway if austria would assent to an adria railway for serbia. at the same time he proposed that the tsardom should obtain the freedom of the straits and austria promulgate the annexation of bosnia and hercegovina. izvolsky and aehrenthal then met at buchlau, the moravian 579 residence of count berchtold (sept. 15 1908), and agreed to this arrangement. izvolsky held that he made the proviso that the | two points be referred to a european conference, while aehren- thal asserted that he announced the annexation as impending. both were probably right. a few days later aehrenthal acting in good faith annexed the two provinces without more ado, whereas russia was kept out of her quid pro quo owing to the refusal of england and france to open the straits question at that inopportune moment. after this the relations of the two ministers became person- ally estranged and the intercourse between their respective coun- tries grew almost hostile. indeed war was in sight for a while and was seriously discussed in st. petersburg, but russia being unprepared, it was staved off. izvolsky sought compensation for his diplomatic defeat in bringing about a meeting between the tsar and the king of italy at racconigi (oct. 23-5 1909) and making the first serious effort to draw italy into the orbit of the allies. in spite of this russia and germany scemed for a brief while to become friends again and during the tsar's two months sojourn in germany izvolsky was relieved of his office and sent to paris as ambassador. in this capacity he continued to sway the policy of his country over the head of his nominal chief in virtue of his knowledge, tact and energy. izvolsky's strength lay in his resourcefulness in adjusting means to ends and above all in his rare tenacity of purpose. tis weakness lurked in a morbid sensitiveness which at time inca- pacitated him for distinguishing between the satisfaction of per- sonal rancour and the furtherance of national interests. but neither his qualities nor his defects justify the hyperbole that he was responsible for the world war. his policy like that of his austrian rival is a sequence of cruel illusions for which their respective peoples have had to pay. (e. j. d1.) 580 acks, lawrence pearsall (1860- ), british uni- tarian divine, was bornin nottingham, where he received his early education. afterwards he studied at london university, andat gettingen and harvard. in 1887 he became assistant to rev. stopford a. brooke, at bedford chapel, london, and in 1889 he married brooke’s daughter, olive cecilia. he was sub- sequently minister of unitarian churches in liverpool and birmingham. in 1902, on the foundation of the itibbert journal, jacks was appointed first editor. in the following year he became instructor in philosophy at manchester college, oxford, and in 1915 was chosen principal of that college. jacks wrote a number of books, of which the best known is his life and letters of stopford brooke (1917); others include al? afez are ghosts (1913); from the human end (1916); from authority to lreedoim (1920); the challenge of life (1924); and the faith of a worker (1925). jackson, henry (1839-1921), british classical scholar, was born at sheffield march 12 1839. he was educated at the sheffield collegiate school, at cheltenham college and at trinity college, cambridge, where he was elected fellow tn 1864 and vice-master in r9r4. from 1875 to 1906 he was praclector in ancicnt philoso- phy, and in 1906 was appointed regius professor of greek, being given the o.m. in the same year. he resigned the vice-mester- ship of his college in 1910, and died at bournemouth sept. 25 1921. ilis important work in translating and commenting upon aristotle’s el#ics is alluded to in 2.513. he published texis zo illustrate a course of elementary lectures on greek philosophy from thales to aristotle (1g0t) and a serics of articles on “ pleto’s later theory of ideas ” vjveurial of philology); also about ediin droed (1911). jager, gustav (1832-1017), german naturalist and hy- gicnist (sce 15.124), died at stuttgart may 14 10917. jamaica (see 15.132), a possession of creat britain with dependencies in the west indices. the area is 4,450 sa. m. and the estimated population (1924) 905,363. political history —immcediatcly after the outbreak of the war (aug. 4 1914) the legislature raised a jamaica voluntecr defence force. later it was decided to send a contingent over- seas. war contingent funds were raised, and on nov. § 1915 the first contingent sailed for england. in all, jamaica sent 243 officers and 10,168 men, who were enrolled in the british west indies regiment, which was formed on oct. 26 1915 and saw much distinguished service in france, egypt, palestine and elsewhere. on march 22 1917 an act for compulsory military service was passed, but conscription was never actually enforced. the legislature agreed to pay the whole expenscs of her con- tingents in the form of a contribution to the imperial treasury of {60,000 annually, beginning a year after the war. in ro21 the hon. edward wood (now lord irwin) visited the colony with a colonial office mission, and made recommendations for the amendment of its constitution, which are still under dis- cussion. fruit.—the chief staples are still fruit, sugar and the raising of stock. owing to the prohibitive tarifl in the united statcs of america, and the absence of steamers to carry oranges, etc., to the united kingdom, the citrus fruit industry still lang uiches. in rori the export of bananas reached the record figure of 16,197,- 385 bunches. exports, which fell after disastrous droughts and hurricanes in 1915-6—7 to 2,394,514 bunches, recovered, and in 1925 reached 14,896,581. jamaica, which was not a party to the canada-west indies trade agreement of 1012, was a ¢cig- natory of the agreements of june 18 1920 and july 6 10925. under the latter, canada will impose a customs duty of 50 c. per bunch on foreign bananas and admit jamaica bananas free and will also provide a fortnightly mail passenger and freight service with refrigeration for 7o,coo bunches of bananas, alternating with a fortnightly freight service with refrigeration for 50,000 bunches between canadian ports and kingston. at present the jacks—jameson, sir leander starr fruit industry ts handled by five concerns, of which all but one carry the fruit to america. in 1925 the planters formed an association, one of whose objects is to secure the establishment of an alternative and independent direct line of steamers to carry fruit of all kinds to england. sugar.—under the canada-west indies agreement jamaica sugar will enjoy the increased preference of $1.00 per 100 'b. on 96° sugar entering the dominion. in the united kingdom the preference of i3ritish sugar, which was reduced in 1924 to is. 8-3d. per cwt. conse- quent upon the lowering of the duty, was restored in 1925 to 3s. 82d. per cwt., and the undertaking was given by parliament that it would remain at that figure for io years. this has helped to establish con- fidence in the industry. in 1925 the jamaica sugar estates ltd. was floated with capital of £400,co0 and a loan guaranteed under the traces facilities acts to develop sugar production in st. thomas-in- the-jzast. tvade.—the percentage of total exports in 1923 were: fruit 54-4; sugar 15-8; coffee 5-6; rum 1-2. the area under canes rose to 48,184 ac. in 1924, while that under bananas fell slightly to 74,548 acres. the total volume of trade shows expansion, imports having risen from {2,614,943 in lo1o to £4,827,074 in 1924, and exports from f2,5068,222 to £3,122,96r. in 1920 imports and exports reached the record figures of £10.313,300 and 7,146,000 respectively. in 19to-1 the colony’s revenue was £990,399 and its expenditure f987.304. in 1924 the figures were 4£1,922,963 and {2,022,746. (see west inpries.) birliography.—-report by the fron. e. f. ll. wood, 3£.p. (partia- nientary uider-secretary of state for the colonies) on his visit to the west ladies and british guiana 1921-2, cm. 1679 (1922); sir charles lucas, the enipire at war, vol. 11 (1923); frank cundall, jamaica's pert ia the great war, ror4-8 (1925); ierbert g. felisser, jamaica and the great war (1917). (a. fe. a.) james, henry (1843-10916), anglo-american novelist (see 15.143), renounced the nationality of his birth and became a naturalised british subject in july rors. the act was symbolic of his lifelong love for the country of his adoption, and hardly isss of his strong support of british conduct during the world war. it enabled him to be the recipient, in 1916, of the order of merit, the crowning official recognition of his distinguished career as a man of ictters. james’s work after 1911 included a serics cf informally autokiographical volumes: a small eov and others (1913); notes of « sen cnd brether (1914); and the middle years (1917), which give interesting glimpses of his youth and that of wilham james. some volumes of essays and prose studies also appeared: zk:e ivery tower (1917); within the rim (1919); and jn the cage (1919). james died in chelsea, london, on feb. 28 rg16. a selection from his letters, edited by percy lubbock, was published in 1920. james of hereford, renry james, 1st baron (1828- 1911), british lawyer and politician (see 15.144), died at epsom, surrey, aug. 18 19ti. jameson, sir leander starr (1853-1917), british poli- tician (see 15.147). the union of the south african colonies in 1909 accomplished the principal object which jameson had set before himself as a political leader. ile wished to carry the spirit - of union further by forming a combination of pelitical parties to support a non-racial government for the new union, regarded gen. botha as the natural leader of such a combination, and was completely ready to serve under him. this project of a “best man” government, however, was not accepted by botha, who thought that the dutch-speaking people of south africa were not ready for it. the alternative, to which jameson then set himself, was the formation of a new party representing the majority of the english-speaking people in the cape, the trans- vaal, the orange free state and natal. the programme of the new unionist party of south africa showed his influence in every clause. at the first south african general election in sept. z910 the unionists won a considerable measure of success especially in the cape and transvaal provinces. natal, where the english- speaking people were in a great majority, withheld from jameson the gencral support which it might have been expected to give. jammils, francis—japan for two years jameson led the unionists in the south african house of assembly with great moderation and sclf-restraint, but was compelled by ill-health to retire from the leadership of the party in 1912. he returned to england and settled in lendon, devoting himself, when his health took a turn for the better, to business interests, but on nov. 26 r9t7 he succumbed aftera short illness. jameson’s name will stand very high among those of the men who did service to south africa and rhodesia. dith- dent and utterly free from sclf-seeking, his labours for racial recon- ciliation and material progress in south africa were conspicuous, and the close friendship of botha was a final proof of the quality of his patriotism. jameson was created a k.c.m.c. on the inauguration of the union in 1909 and a baronet in rort. . jammes, francis (1868- ), french poet and novelist, was born at tournay dec. 2 1868, and when still a child went to live at orthez. he studied at the college de pau and the col- lege de bordeaux, and afterwards became for a short time a notary’s clerk at orthez. it was during this uncongenial em- ployment that he published his first verses, in 1893. after that date, his poems and novels succeeded each other rapidly. ‘the chief characteristics of his style are a great simplicity and a preoccupation with the quotidian and humble manifestations of life. he takes great liberties with the alexandrine, which gives his poetry a novel and refreshing charm. his works reilect a sympathy for the poor and for animals, and a profound sincerity in the painting of i'rench provincial life. his works are: vers (1893); detangelus delaube & pangelus du soir (1898); clara @ellbeuse (1899); le roman du lievre (1903); pomne d'anis (1904); clairieres duns le ciel (1906), les georgigit’'s chretiennes (1912); feutlles dans le vent (1914); le rosaire au serer (1916); le cure d’ozcren (1918); le poete rustigne (1920); les livres des quatrains (1923-5); ava france peetique (1926). see also t. braun, des poetes simples: francis jammes (tgoo); a. de bersan- court, francis jammes, potte chretien (1910); a. lowell, six french poets (1915); p. lasserre, les chapelles liti¢raires (1920). janacek, leos (1854- ), czech composer, was born in hukvaly, moravia, and educated in the monastery of the austrian [riars in brno under paul kfizkovsky. after studies in prague, leipzig and vienna he returned to brno, where in 1881 he became director of the organ school, and later professor of composition in the master school of the state conscrvatotre into which the organ school developed. janaeek followed in kiizzkovsky’s footsteps as a collector of folk songs, especially of moravia, but went deeper than his master into their psychology. the chief characteristics of his works are spontaneity and rich- ness of colour, together with vigour of idea and expression. technically, his melodies proceed strictly from the verbal rhythm, and the orchestra is also assigned the function of a more creative atmosphere than is uswal in modern symphonic accompaniments. among his operatic compositions are jenufu: jeji pustorkyna, a psychological drama of moravian village life, first produced in prague 1916; and natya kubanove (1922), based on the storm, a russian drama by ostrovsky. in lighter mood are the excursions of mr. broutck (1920), an operatic satire, and liska bystrouska (1925), an animal opera. janatek’s remaining works include a dramatic song cycle, the notebook of one wha vaiished; a symphonic poem the fiddicr’s child; an orchestral rhapsody taras bulbu; a string quartette; a concertino for small orchestra; the ayreuiser sonata and a sextette vout. see f. bartos and l. janaeek, avice 2 rdrodnich pisnt moravs- kjch kterou’ uvili f. bartos a l. jundeek (18090). janeway, theodore caldwell (1872-1917), american physician, was born in new york city nov. 2 1872. he was educated at the sheffield scientific school, yale university, and the college of physicians and surgeons, columbia university. from 1898 to 1906 he taught medical diagiosis in new york university. in 1907 he became associate in medicine in columbia university, and two vears later professor of medicine. in to14 he was called to johns hopkins university as professor of medi- cine, and became physician-in-chief to john hopkins hospital. his investigations in the phenomena of blood pressure opened up a hitherto unexplored field of medical research. after america’s entrance into the world war, he became major in the medical 581 officers’ reserve corns and was engaged in research in wash- ingion, d.c. he died at baltimore, md., dec. 27 1917. he was a member of the board of scientific directors of the rocke- icller institute for medical rescarch. iie was the author of the clinical study of blood pressure (1904). japan (sce 15.156).— an empire of castern asia, one of the great powers, and a member of the league of nations. the area, including fermosa, karafuto (japanese sakhalin) and chosen (korea) is 262,826 sq. m. and the population (1920) 77,005,510. i. political and social history the german modcl.—owing to the necessity of establishing a strong central authority—imposed upon japan for seli-defence as a result of the apparently aggressive policies in the far east of western powers towards the end of the roth century—and probably from an excess of conservative caution, as the countcy had just cast off its feudal traditions, the makers of modern japan often turned to german legislation in sceking for modcls for the constitution and other laws. but an important factor that should not be lost sight of by students of japanese politics is that english has long been by far the most extensively studicd for- eign language among the people. whilst the static institutions remain more or less teutonic in form, dynamic inspiration has continuously been drawn from english-speaking sources. that explains why the japanese understand democracy along the lines of its common acceptation in the english-speaking nations; why the press and students of polit?cs often advocate the devel- opment of a polity somewhat like the british parliamentary sys- tem. the political history of japan in the decade beginning. 1910 was the last phase of the struge!e between the cause of national security with which the genros, the elder statesmen, are popular- ly identified, and the progressive outcry for the emancipation of the people's will. as external dangers diminish, the tox populs speaks more cifectively. after the longest tenure of office in the constitutional history of japan, four anda half years, the marquis katsura resigned the premiership in aug. tort, “ with a view to renovuting the spirit of the people.” with the collaboration of mlarquis komura, forcign minister, marquis katsura had accomplished various financial reforms, the annexation of korea, and the revision of commercial treaties with western powers. katsura was succeed- ed by marquis saionzi, who had led the sciyukei party since the retirement of prince ito (see 13.272). during the premicrship of marquis saionzi a severe shock was experienced by the whole nition on account of the death on july 30 1912 of the revered and beloved emperor mutsuhito. mecija tenno, as he was post- humously styled, after the name of the era of his 45 years’ reign, was succeeded by his son, yoshihilo shinno, who ascended the throne at the age of thirty-three. : fall of the saionsi cabinct.—the downfall of the saionzi cahi- net arose out of the paramount instinct of national self-defence. before the end of 1912, the establishment of two army divisions in korea (chosen) had been tenaciously persisted in by lt.-gen. uyehara, minister of war. but his colleagues in the cabinet, as well as the press, counselled retrenchment and cconomy. uye- hara resigned, and the premicr sought for his successor. but no soldier would accept the post witherut a promise by saionzi as to the two-division increase; and by law a minister of war must hold the rank of a general or licutenant-gencral in the active serv- ice. ‘the premicr was constrained to request the -’mpcror to re- lieve him of his office. there followed a ministerial deadlock, until katsura, actuated by chivalrous motives, descended upon the confused arena. hie had been created a prince, and had made up his mind to offer the young emperor loyal but non-political services for the rest of his life in the capacity of grand chamber- lain and lord keeper of the great seal. but the young and care-free generation of japan had come to assert themselves, and the unconstitutional tendency of the genro’s activities had been made the object of popular criticism. the widespread suspicion that he hoped to direct the affairs of state unconstilutionally “ from behind the sleeves of the sacred 582 dragon, ” coupled with his personal failing health, made the path of prince katsura’s renewed political life immeasurably thorny and arduous. he found the lower house unexpectedly intractable. mr. ozaki’s resolution of no confidence caused a tremendous sensation; riotous mobs demolished the offices of the kokumin, a newspaper which had been loyally supporting the ministerial programme. no choice was left to katsura but to tender his resignation. prince katsura then sought to prove his sincere desire for the constitutional development of the empire by starting a political party, the rikken doshikai (the constitutional comrades asso- ciation). under this banner there rallied all the members of the chuo club, and a majority of the members of the kekuminio (the national party). but katsura died in the following decem- ber. the yamamoto cabinet which followed (feb. 20 1913) was short-lived, owing to the unfortunate “* naval scandal,” involv- ing the arrest and trial of high officials in the navy, a foreign company having dispensed bribes in connection with the build- ing of a japanese warship. politics during the world war.—aiter the refusal of prince i. tokugawa, and the abortive attempt by viscount kiyoura, to form a cabinet, count okuma, the “ grand old man ”’ of waseda undertook, on april 16 1914, tostand at the helm of the empire, backed by the legacy of katsura, the deshikai; and baron kato, the leader of that party, was entrusted with the portfolio of for- cign affairs. it fell to the lot of this cabinet to deal with the in- vitation of great britain to join in the world war under the anglo-japanese alliance. in nov. 1915 the enthronement of the emperor was conducted with the time-honoured imposing ceremonies at kyoto, and the whole nation was ez feie for seven days in honor of the event. count okuma, in tendering his resignation on account of ill- health in the summer of 1916, recommended viscount kato, who had yielded the charge of forcign affairs to viscount ishii and was outside the cabinet, to be his successor. at that moment however, the gerros were reported to have intervened, and, in spite of the fact that kato’s new party—the kensetkaz (the con- stitutionalists), which was an amalgamation of the doshikai, the chuseikai and the koyu club—commanded a majority in the dict, marshal terauchi was appointed premicr on oct. 9. this alleged irregular development excited the hostility, not only of the kenscikai, but of the general public,and ended in an antag- onistic attitude on the part of the diet towards the new govern- ment. parliament was dissolved, and a gencral election took place on april 20 1917. the result was a signal victory for the government party, the sciyukai winning 157 seats, whilst the number of the kenscikai dwindled from 204 to 117. actuated by the desire, in view of the war, to effect unity of all shades of opinions, marshal terauchi created the temporary diplomatic investigation council (rinji gaiko chosa kai), where leaders of all political parties were represented. kato was invited to join, but refused on the ground that he could not asso- ciate himself with the idea of establishing a responsible body for external affairs outside the cabinet itself. the “ rice riot ” and the ensuing serious disturbances and strikes, which raged like wildfire in various parts of japan in the summer of 1918, sealed the fate of the terauchi cabinet, which tendered its resignation - in the middle of september. growth of democracy——by that time democratic ideas had been gaining strength on account of the war and internal social unrest. moreover, the manner in which the terauchi cabinet was installed had its inevitable reaction. the people demanded that the next administration should be more in keeping with the spirit of the parliamentary system. mr. takashi hara, the leader of the seiyukai in succession to the marquis saionzi, was en- trusted with the task of forming a new cabinet; he was the first commoner to hold the office of premicr in japan. the ministers, except those holding the portfolios of war and the navy, were for the first time, a body of party politicians more or less free from the bureaucratic savour which had always clung to the former administrations. incidentally, a new minister—the minister for railways—was included in the cabinet. japan in march 1918, in response to the popular demand, a political - reform bill was passed, lowering the property qualification of voters to the payment of a direct national tax of three yen in- stead of ro yen. the number of electors was thus more than doubled, increasing from 1,450,000 to 3,000,000. the people were, however, not satisfied, and popular clamour for universal suffrage followed. in feb. 1920 a universal suffrage bill was at last introduced by the opposition in the house of representa- tives. but on the ground that no election on the basis of extended franchise had as yet taken place, and that consequently it was premature to make any further attempt at suffrage reform, the dict was immediatcly dissolved. the nation was called upon to express its opinion on the matter by the gencral election of may to. the result was a decided victory for the seiyukai, the gov- ernment party, which secured 280 seats, whilst the kenseikai registered 110. cabinets of r9%9 to 1924.—it fell to the fate of the hara minis- try to conclude the treaties of peace ending the world war in 1919, and to send delegates to the washington conference in 1921. but before the conference actually began its deliberations, hara was assassinated by a misguided and youthful megaloma- niac on nov. 4. viscount korekiyo takahashi, minister of fi- nance, succeeded to the leadership of the seiyukai party and as- sumed the premiership on nov. 13. there immediately followed an occurrence of great political moment when the crown prince hirohito was appointed as prince regent on nov. 25, owing to the continued indifferent health of the emperor yoshihito. tak- ahashi attempted early in the next year the reorganisation of his ministry, which was a legacy from hara and was not quite amenable to his leadership. he failed in the enterprise and ten- dered his resignation. adml. baron tomosaburo kato, who had been minister of the navy in the past four successive cabinets and the chief dele- gate to the washington conference, was nominated premier on june 12 1922. he had no party affiliations, but had been assured of the unconditional support of the seiyukai party; and his col- leagues were drafted from the kenkyukai and the koyu club of the ilouse of peers, both of which maintained close connec- tions with the sciyukai party. the first thing that kato did after the assumption of office was to abolish the anomalous institution of the femporary diplomatic investigation council. kate took upon himself the faithful enforcement of the washington trea- ties and, in domestic affairs, endeavoured to bring the nation out of the business slump 2nd to cope with the social unrest that had been gathering strength. however, before he could accomplish much in internal administration, he died on aug. 24 1923. the cabinet resigned on the advice of the acting premier, count uchida, and adml. count yamamoto, who had lived in retirement since his downfall in 1914, was commanded by the yhrone to form a cabinet. whilst he was busily engaged in the formation of his ministry, there happened the historic earthquake of sept. 1. late in the eveningof the 2nd, the yamamoto cabinct was installed with ‘‘ national solidarity ” as its slogan. yama- moto gathered round him men of long political experience and recognised ability, and scemed determined to keep aloof from party politics. the cabinct took prompt and effective steps for the relief of the stricken population, but in considering the re- construction plans had to face dissensions within the cabinet itsclf. viscount goto’s ambitious project was not fully counte- nanced by his fellow ministers, and the machinations of the selyukai party further complicated the situation. when an at- tempt on the prince regent’s life was made by a fanatic on dec. 27, the yamamoto ministry resigned, holding itself answerable for the oulrage. a ministry was formed on jan. 7 1924 under the premiership of viscount k. kiyoura, who was supported by the kenkyukai of the upper house. this was again a non-party administration and its marked bureaucratic complexion combined with its appar- ent weakness soon mct with popular disapproval as “a cabinet of the privileged class.” at the same time the seiyukai party, that had long been on friendly terms with the kenkyukai, di- vided into two factions, one avowing its support of its old allies, japan and the other denouncing the irregularity of non-party methods. the former seceded and set to work to form a new party called the sezyx monto. general election of alay 1924.—amidst such political develop- ments there intervened the gencral clection of may 10, the result of which turned out to be a victory for the kenscikai party with 162 seats, the seiyukai obtaining 137, the sciyu honto 94, the jitsugyo dosbikai (business men’s party) 9, the shinsei club 24, the dokokai 21 and non-party 17. it was the first important in- stance in which the government party failed to win a general election. kiyoura resigned and viscount taka-aki kato, as the leader in the kenseikai, formed a coalition cabinet on june il 1924, in- cluding mr. korekiy o takahashi (having renounced his viscounty) of the sciyukai and mr. tsuyoshi inukai of the kakushin club. the kato administration was made historic by the passage of the universal manhood suffrage bill on march 29 1925. all males over 25 years of age could vote and it was estimated that the number of electors would increase fourfold and become about 12,000,000. in april 1925 fissiparous tendencies became dis- cernible in the coalition cabinet, when 'akahashi resigned his leadership of the sciyukai as well as his ministerial chair. in may inukai also announced his determination to retire from politics. after the succession to the leadership of the seiyukai of gen. baron giichi tanaka, the reunion of the sciyukai and the seiyu honto was frequently suggested. the crisis came in july, when the tax reduction scheme invited oppo- sition from the sciyukai ministers. kato resigned but was or- dered again to form his cabinet. on aug. 2 he again became premier, with his colleagues composed exclusively of the kensei- kai partisans. kato died on jan. 28 1926 and his cabinet was re- constructed under the premiership of mr. reijiro wakatsuki, hitherto minister of home affairs. social changes —the chronological change from the era of meiji (enlightened peace) to the era of taisho (great right- eousness) in 1912 incidentally marks an important period in the cultura) history of the japanese people. the wars with china and russia had given them the assurance that their country was safe from any foreign aggression, the fear of which had been a perpetual nightmare to the founders of modern japan. their considerable achievements in the domains of trade and industry had strengthened their belief in the destiny of the nation. es- pecially the younger generation, whose cradles were neither haunted by the shapes of armed forcign “ black ships ”’ nor del- uged by the overwhelming influx of novel knowledge and strange customs, were beginning to sce that the undigested application of western laws and institutions would do more harm than good to the national wellbeing. the question in the mind of young ja- pan was whether it was not the mission of the japanese people to create a new civilisation by harmonising and uniting the east and west. the external relations of japan, too, contributed their quota to the cumulative change in the mentality of the people. korea was annexed; china started a revolution; califor- nia legislatively disernminated against japanese; the w orld war occurred; and russia turned bolshevist—all these quickened national and social aspirations. at the beginning of the ‘taisho era there was social disquictude in the air. the alleged attempt on the person of the emperor meiji in rgt0—a solitary occurrence in the age-long history of a loyal people—the repeated famines in the northeast districts of japan, the disastrous eruption of the sakurajima volcano, the rapid rise in the cost of living, the revelation of naval bribery scandals, the frequent change of cabinets—these had combined to engender misgivings in the people’s minds. when the world war came, the taisho era was but two years old. profiteers sprang up like mushrooms overnight; into the maw of factories was poured a tremendous army of labour; the cost of living ad- vanced by jeaps and bounds; and an age of western capitalism was in sight. public sentiment in japan was further stirred by the allied assertions that the war was a democratic crusade against the rule of despotism and imperialism. strikes, which had long been stifled by restraining circumstances, began to be 583 more and more frequently organised. as a consequence of suc- cessful strikes in 1917, no fewer than 417 occurred in 1918, a sud- den increase in the occurrence coming in the wake of the “‘ rice riot ”’ started by fisherwomen in toyama; and in 1919 the number increased to 497, which registered the high-water mark of labour agitation. since the economic panic cf 1920, the prospects of lower wages and unemployment have threatened the labourers, and strikes have come to take a defensive rather than an aggres- sive complexion. there were registered 282 cases of strikes in 1920; 246 in 1921; 250 in 1922; 270 in 1923 and 333 in 1924. these figures are in striking contrast to the average of 30 cases a year for seven years preceding the world war. in the meantime, no fewer than 389 labour sawa eaghi had been formed by 1922. until 1920, the yuai kai founded in tokyo in 1912 by mr. bunji suzuki had been the only trade union worth mentioning. it was expanded and renamed the “ nippon rodo sodomei”’ (general federation of japanese labour) in 1921, and is considered the most important. other large unions include the government employees’ general federation (osaka), the printers’ association (tokyo), the osaka printers’ union, the japan seamen’s union (kobe), the kanto transport work- ers’ union (tokyo) and the federation of mechanics’ union (tokyo). side by side with labour agitation in industries, ten- ancy disputes in agricultural districts became increasingly fre- quent. local tenants’ unions were organised by hundreds in the course of 1920-2, and they were amalgamated in the japanese farmers’ union (osaka) and the kanto federation of the japa- nese farmers’ union (tokyo) in 1922. it is significant that la- bour leaders, however drastic their theories may be, are generally moderate in practice, and that the gencral federation of japa- nese labour passed a resolution in feb. 1924 that when the univer- sal suffrage bill then under discussion became law its members would effectively exercise their franchise. the law was passed in march 1925, and the labourers’ and farmers’ party was organ- ised on march 5 1926 in osaka, culfure.—the rise of naturalism in japanese literature syn- chronised with the war with russia (1904-5), the attendant so- cial changes encouraging men of letters to discard the old shibbo- leth and to proceed to the free, bold and realistic study of human life and nature. (see japanese literature.) pure japanese style painting has successfully been revived and devcloped in the hands of great artists like gaho hashimoto, gyokusho kawabata, kogyo tcrasaki, taikwan yokoyama and seiho takeuchi. in their works are noticeable traces of influence from western masters. works after genuine western canons have also been produced by pioneer artists such as viscount kiyo- teru kuroda, fusetsu nakamura, saburosuke okada, ejisaku wada and hiroshi yoshida. they do not yet command the same respect and popularity as those of the native schools, but with the growth of popular appreciation of such paintings and the in- crease of buildings of a western type, with their incidental de- mand for articles of interior decoration, the future development of the western school of pictorial art seems assured in japan. in the field of music, native and western forms had in the past little or no influence upon each other in japan. but the visits of great artists like elman and kreisler, as well as the popularising influence of phonographs, have aroused love and enthusiasm for western music among they ounger japanese. how this trend will react upon the old japanese music is yet to be seen. the great earthquake.—on sept. 1 1923 (11 hr. 58min. 44 sec. central standard time) a great earthquake visited japan. the severest shocks were felt along the coast of sagami bay in the districts of hakone, odawara, kamakura, yokosuka, yokohama and hojo, but even such distant places as kobe and osaka in the west and fukushima and sendai in the east were affected. the {remor that shook tokyo was of secondary intensity. scientists conclude that the earthquake was caused by a sudden depression in the bottom of sagami bay and a corresponding rise of land on its northeastern coast. fires following the earthquake de- stroyed three-fourths of tokyo (nearly 2,000 ac.), and the whole city of yokohama, and were mainly responsible for the terrible loss of life. 584 according to the social bureau of the department of home affairs, which published its official report in 1926, the casualties were as follows:— place killed | injured | missing | total affected districts ol, 314 52,074 | 13,275 | 156,693 pokyo (city). 58, 104 | 26,268 | 10,556 94,928 | yokohama as 384 | 10,818 1,951 | 33,453! according to the depariment of education, the forcign c2su- altics in tokyo and yokohamy were: number | | | i re ny | nulled | injured , missing | total residents < tae pe | 4,647 2,011 | goo 52 2-663 ities | 3,616 | 5 | a52 | fes 1,713 the loss of property has been variousty estimated, the indus- trial bank computing it at 4,506 million ven, consisting of tooo million yen for government property a and 3 soo million yen for that of the inhabitants. the earthquake occurred almost without warning. a large number of independent fires broke out at the same time, 122 be- ing counted] within 3o min. after the earthquake. ee of the fires were due to the combustion of chemicals, outbreaks in res- taurants—it being meal-time when the e: arthquake occur eee and to the tatense hent so uaioe the fire-brigades were in many cases unable to make use of the water-sup ply, owing to the dam- age causcd to the water- -pipes. in tokyo the greatest tragedy of the earthquake occurred in the ground (230 ac. iinextent) belong- ing to the army clothing department in ffonjo, where 40,000 people took refuge, most of them taking with them their belong- ings. at four o’clock in the afternoon fire approached this en- closure from three sides, and ultimately the whole 40,000 were destroyed in a furious tornado of flame. brick buildings fared worst in the disaster; wooden-framed buildings of the european style behaved much better than the native ones; and the scismic value of reinforced! concrete buildings was fully confirmed, though even they collapsed when their design was scismically imperfect. about 64% of all the buildings in tokyo were destroyed. the earthquake coincided with the cabinct crisis caused by the death of the premier tomosaburo kato, but emergency re- lief measures were nevertheless quickly and effectively taken. the requisition of foodstuffs and other relief materials was or- dered; and tokyo, yokohama and its vicinity were placed under martial law. in the trying circumstances, the stricken population in gencral showed great courage, fortitude and esprit de corps. the army and the navy won the gratitude of the nation by their magnificent services in maintaining order and in re-establishing communications. forcign countries were not slow in showing their sympathies. their coniributions in money and matcrials amounted to 27,000,000 yen, the largest share ae taken by the amcrican red cross, which gave more than $11,000,000. the relief services of the american asiatic fleet ‘under adml. kd- win a. anderson that came to yokohama from dairen, and of the american military contingent under orders of gen. frank r. mccoy, were timcly and eflicient. undismayed by the appalling calamity, the government and people immediately proceeded to the work of reconstruction. the official reconstruction plans of tokyo and yokohama were considered by the reconstruction council and the reconstruc- tion board. viscount shimpci goto, home minister and pres- ident of the reconstruction board, first proposed an ambitious plan for tokyo with a vicw to reviving from the ashes an ideal modern city. but the cabinet preferred a less expensive project, which was again drastically curtailed by the impcrial diet in feb. 1924. the plan thus decided upon authorises an expendi- ture of 468,438,849 yen, spread ovcr six years, ending in 1928, to build new and wider sirects, a modern sewage system, canals, bridges, parks and better means of transportation, and further ta perfect agencics of social service, such as employment burcaux, day nurserics and infirmaries. in 1925 the population of to!:vo japan registered 1,995,303 and that of yokohama 405,999 or 85% and 92° of the pre-earthquake population respectively. il. foreign relations general survey rgoro-25.—illaving emerged victorious from the russo-japanese war, japan was relieved from the long night- mare thet korea might be engulfed in the russian hegemony and constitute 2 permanent menace to her national safety; more- over, the wrong done to her by the three-power intervention in wresting from her the natural fruits of her victory in the chino- japanese war—the liaotung peninsula—was avenged. but the lkussian grip on north manchuria and mongolia was not only unabated but, on the contrary, was greatly tightened. ‘there were even fears of a renewed clash between the former foes. statesmanship, however, counselled tapan and russia to come to a friendly entente in 1907. a similar understanding between japan and irince followed in the same year. further, the com- plicated post-war situation in manchuria was leceen: if not definitively, disposed of by the chino-japanese understandings of 1909. in 1910 and 1916 more definite agreements were reached between japan and russia with the view of maintaining the sta- tus quo of manchuria. korea was, in the meantime, made a pro- tectorate of japan, and the gradual devclopment of affairs in that country led to the final annexation. the anglo-japanese alliance, which had been not only the keystone of japan’s for- eign relations but the mainstay of the general tranquillity of eastern asia, was renewed (1911). whilst japan’s position in the far east became thus more or iess reassuring, the dark cloud of anti-japanese sentiment on the pacific coast of the united states joomed up on the horizon. hina’s revolution in rorr, stead of bringing immediate peace and liberty to the citizens of the celestial empire, divided the nation into irreconcilable camps, and contributed to the political instability of the extreme orient. this meant an exacting bur- den upon the diplomatic wisdom and tact of japan. japan was, on the one hand, still seriously considering how to cope with the situation in china and, on the other, how to safeguard japanese residents against discriminatory treatment in the west of america, when the fateful aug. of rora demanded other decisions. japan’s part in the world war dwindles into insignificance in face of the stupendous efforts of other great powers espousing the allicd cause. but she contributed what little she could with her very limited national strength and resources. her geographi- cal situation, however, afforded her, from the economic point of view, & position of vantage. in pre-war days she was still strug- gling in financial straits as a result of her russian conflict, but she came out of the world war with overllowing coffers, even if these coffers were of modest dimensions. at the peace confer- ence in paris, she lost her case on the question of racial dignity, but her claims with regard to shantung and the south sea is- lands were recognised, and her position among the great powers was assured. but her immediate outlook in 1920-1 bristled with difficulties and complexities. china had refused to negotiate on japan’s offer to restore shantung; the washington govt. would not agree to the japanese point of view on the yap question; several states on the pacific coast of america were quite «letermined to abridge the civil rights of japanese resi- dents; korean malcontents abroad were in a fitful mood of re- bellion; the siberian situation was far from tranquil. japan’s natural path of development was besct with suspicions and mis- understandings. in these circumstances, japan welcomed the washington conference of 1921-2 as a fitting opportunity for her clearly to expound her foreign policies. subsequently, the sum- mary exclusion of japanese prescribed in the american immigra- tion law of 1924 dealt a tremendous shock to the japanese mind; the chinese situation continued to be unsettled; and russia sull remained an international enigma. but the progress of af- fairs in eastern asia testiited to the sincerity of japan’s pro- nouncements at the conference table of washington. despite the differences which arose over many questions, there has de- veloped a conviction that there would be no solution of the problems involved. at geneva and elsewhere the pacific attitude cf japan was recognised. ja pan m $5 pre-warz questions manchuria questious—prior to the outbreak of the russo- japanese war, ‘the growing iicrnational rivalry for spheres of mllmence 14 the chinese empire had convinced the interested powers of the necessity of establishing the policy of the ‘ open door ” and equal opportunities for commerce and irade in that country. that principle was from time to time cnunciated by great britain in the later decades of the roth century, but it was reserved to mr. john lay, secretary of state ne er president mchinley’s administration, to make its dciinite pronouncement to the worid. in secretary tay’ s circular note addressed to vari- ous powers under date of july 3 190c, it was declared that the policy of the united statcs was to assure permanent safety and peace to china, to preserve chinese territorial and administra- live ony to protcct all rights guaranteed to friendly powers by ircaty and international law a a to saicguard for the world the ae of cqual and impartial trade with all parts of the em- pire. the doctrine was accepted in principle by japan, great britain, russia, france and germany. japan went so far as to conclude specific agreements for its execution with russia (july 30 1907) and france (june 6 i907). it was, however, understood that ihe spheres of influence alrea dy established—great britain it: the yangize kiang valley, tibet and weihaiwei; germany 10 kiaochow; > russia in manchuria ad mongolia; france in yun- nn were not to be prejudiced by the newly professed principle of commercial impartiality. the russo-japanese war brouglit about the tenure by japan in s. manchuria of a similar position to that which the great west- crn powers had held in other parts of china. but | * because manchuria had been the scene of the greatest war of modern times,” the world’s eye became fixed upen every act of japan in that region in “fan exceptionally rigorous scrutiny * aml the nations behaved as though they expected her to live up toa stand- ard of almost ideal altitude.” meanwhile, china, for her part, fell into a mood of impatient irritation on acccunl of the pre- sumed encroachments upon ‘her soverciguty, and the “ righis- recovery campaign,” clamorously conducted throughout that em- pire, somewhat strained her relaticns with japan in the aed part of 190g in respect of various questions in manchuria. however, in aug. of that year, a scrics of agreements was reached can ecn the two states by which all those outstanding problems were composed. among the rest, chinese sovercignty over c ag was confirmed, and < wrrangements about railways, lacluding tha of the antung-mukden ie were elfected. from out of the blue, there came from america a proposal for the neutralisation of the manchurian railways in jan. 1910. = the view of mr. philander c. knox, secretary of state, that wa best calculated to further the principle of the “ open door "= 7 putting an end to the abnormal conditions obtaining in manchu- ria. but russia and japan could not accede to the scheme, on the grounds that their established rights and interests ought to be respected and that they were by no means threatening the chinese sovereignty or the “ open door ” principle. great ‘brit- ain kept aloof, declaring that the question should be settled among the immediately interested powers, namely, china, japan and russia. nor was the proposal to the taste of cc hina, who re- garded 1 as a further encroachment upon her sovetcignty. she sita that her treaty obligations with japan and russia pre- cluded her from supporting the americanidea. and the proposal fell through. meanwhile, the russo-japanese negotiations as to their future attitude in manchuria and mongolia came to a satis- factory conclusion and a steadying clement was added to the situation in the far east in the form of an agreement between ie and russia, signed at st. petersburg on july 4, i9q10, under which they pledged themselves to maintain the status guo in manchuria and to abstain from any unfriendly compe- liticn in the development of that region. the russo-japanese rapprochement was turther solidified, in view of the world war, by the convention! of july 3 1916, which provided that each of the two countries would not become a party to “ any political *russian and japanese netes printed temperley, hist. of peace coif cies g) w1y 634. arrangement or combination ” directed against the other and that they would take counsel together for the necessary measurcs, “ should the territorial rights or the special interesis in the far last of one of the high contracting parties be threatened.” the agreement made greatly for the maintenance of good order in the oricnt until the russian revolution brought about the drastic change of the whole situation. for later developments sce para- graph on washington conference below. lhe annexation of korca.—japan had waged two wars, one against china and the other against russia, in order to prevent inorca (¢.7.) from becoming “a dagger pointed against japan’s heart.”” in june 1905 she established a protectorate over the her- mit kingdom so as to put a definite end to the wayward and sui- cidal diplomacy of the seoul courtiers, but the whole peninsula could not be cleansed of its inveterate political and social iniqui- ties. the hopelessness of real reform under the existing regime had become manifest; and the assassination of prince ito by a korean in oct. 1909 was the climax. the tokyo govt. thus came to the conclusion that ‘‘ the responsibilities devolving upon japan for the due adminis- tration of the country (korea) cannot be justly fulfilled without the complete annexation of korea to the empire.” the fusicn was accomplished by a treaty concluded between the govern- ments of japan and korea on aug. 22 1910. it was decided that the ancient name of chosen should be revived in lieu of tai-han and in future be officially used. under the terms of the treaty the korean imperial ilouse was assured of high honours and dig- nities as well as a liberal grant for maintenance. japan, at the same time, notified the foreign powers concerned that their trea- ties with korea, including ihode of extra-territoriality, were all annulled; but chat: neverticiess, their vested rights and intcrests would be fully respected; that the tariffs in force in korea would be maintained for 10 years; that cabotage would be permitted to forcign vessels for the same period; an: that the port of masanpo would be closed for navai reasons, but shin wiju or gishu would be added to the open commercial ports. the anglo-japanese alliance—-the gencral changes of situa- tion in the orient after the russo-japanese war, notably the an- rexalion of korea to the japanese empire in 1910, impelled the british and the japanese govts. to revise the agreement of alli- ance concluded in 1905. the negotiations in london between sir edward (afterwards viscount) grey and baron (afterward count) t. kato ended in the renewal of the alliance on july 13 rott. lhe important feature of the new agreement was the in- clusion of aa firticle exempting cither high contracting party from the obligation to come to the armed assistance of the other against a third party when a gencral arbitration treaty was concluded between that other powcr and a third party (article 4). at that particular time a treaty of such a description was undcr negotiation between the british and the amcrican govts., and it was with the particular object of excluding the united states from the application of the alliance that article 4 was inserted. the general arbitration treaty failed to obtain the consent of the american senate for ils ratification, but the british and japanese govts. undertook on several occasions to make it clear that the spirit in which the article was conccived had not on that account been altered in the least. the alliance of 1914 was to last for ro years, and, in the absence of a year’s notice from either contraciing party to terminate the agreement, it would au- tomatically continue in existence, even alter july r921, until such denunciation was made. the world war, into which japan read- ily eniercd on account of the anglo-japanese alliance, ended vith the treaty of versailles which brought forth the league of nations. the question was then mooted, though more academi- cally than politically, whether the anglo-japanese alliance would not be in contravention with the ictter cf the covenant of the league, and on july 8 1920 the two high contracting partics ad- dressed a joint note to the secretary-gencral of the league to the purport that the agreement of alliance would in case of its renewal be made to conform to the covenant in its form. the renewal of the aliiance, was discussed at the british imperial conference in london in june 1921; and it was then announced 5860 that, under the terms of the treaty, it would continue, without definite renewal. but at the washington conference, in dec., the agreement made for a four-power treaty (america, france, “ngland, japan) provided for the anglo-japanese alliance being brought to an end. tue war and the peace the world war.—no sooner had the world war broken out in 1914 than there took place several exchanges of views between the british and the japanese govts. as to possible assistance by japan in the protection of british trade in the far east. japan soon made it clear that she was prepared to take the re- sponsibility imposed upon her by the anglo-japanese agreement of alliance, should the menace of the germans to british interests necessitate suchastep. it was not long before such a contingency arose, and on aug. 15 1914 the japanese govt. sent an ul- timatum to berlin demanding the immediate withdrawal of the german warships from chinese and japanese waters and the surrender of kiaochow to japan by sept. 15, with a view to even- tual restoration of the leased territory to china; a week was allowed to the german govt. in which to make a definite reply. on aug. 23, the term having expired without any an- swer being forthcoming from the kaiser’s govt., japan de- clared war against germany. in coming to this decision japan remembered that it had been through the machinations of the berlin govt. that germany, france and russia acted jointly in 1895 in “‘ advising” japan in the name of peace in the orient, and not without a hint of force, to retrocede to china the peninsula of liaotung, which had been won by japan at a heavy sacrifice of life and treasure and ceded to her under the shimono- seki treaty, and further that it was barely two years after that incident that germany had installed herself at tsingtao on a flimsy pretext. the japanese nation welcomed the opportunity of eradicating the german menace in the east which owed its in- ception to such unfortunate circumstances. the first part which japan took upon herself to play after she aligned herself with the allies was the reduction of the german stronghold in the far east. tsingtao, on the bay of kiaochow, had been converted in the hands of the germans into one of the most impregnable fertresses in the orient—the “ mailed fist ”’ calculated to intimidate any possible objectors to the kaiser’s imperialist aims. it served at the outset of the war as the only base of operations in i. asia for the german marauders menac- ing the allied trade routes. the five german warships forming the main part of adml. von spcee’s squadron had been running amok, not only in chinese and japanese waters, but as far as the south seas. it was imperative to make these raiders homeless, if they could not be captured or destroyed, and the military and naval operations against the redoubtable base, which was under the command of capt. meyer-waldeck and garrisoned by some 13,000 men, of whom 5,599 were german regulars, were started with the utmost dispatch. on aug. 27 the blockade of kiaochow bay was declared by the japanese navy and lungkow, 150 m. n. of tsingtao, was chosen as the point for landing troops. the selection of lungkow as the spot for disembarkation had been agreed upon between the jap- anese and british commanders, who saw the necessity of clearing the hinterland prior to the landing of troops at some point nearer the fortress. however, the point being outside the zone of the leased territory, it was thought necessary to have a war zonc ¢es- tablished, following the precedent of the russo-japanese war and negotiations with that view were started between the japa- nese and the chinese govts. as carly as aug. 20, an understand- ing was soon come to between the two governments, and the pe- king govt. issued a declaration establishing such a war zone on sept. 3. the chinese govt., in the mcantime, intimated to the japanese govt. that it might nevertheless be found advisable to enter a formal protest to japan against her troops’ landing at lungkow, for the sole purpose of exonerating themselves from all responsibility towards the german government. upon ger- many’s strong protest against permitting the japanese troops to land in the neutral territory, the chinese govt. went so far as to japan point out that germany herself had in a measure created the sit- uation through her unauthorised fortification of tsingtao. for an account of the actual operations and the taking of ‘tsingtao by the anglo-japanese forces, sce tsingtao, capture of. although tsingtao was thus early captured, there still remained the important task of locating and disposing of adml. von spee’s squadron, consisting of the “ scharnhorst,” the ‘‘ gneisenau,”’ the ‘“‘ niirnberg,” the “ leipzig,” and the ‘“‘ dresden,” which were seriously menacing the allied commerce in the south seas. it had further been reported that several german warships were at large in the pacific ocean. as carly as aug. 26 the battle crui- ser “ibuki” and the cruiser ‘‘ chikuma,” and shortly after- wards six more japancse cruisers, were ordered to join the british china squadron under the command of adml. jerram. there were further dispatched a squadron of eight cruisers to the china and the east seas and two squadrons—one comprising two battle cruisers, two cruisers, and a division of torpedo destroyers and the other one battleship and two cruisers—to the south pacific ocean. the cruiser “ idzumo,” which happened to be in mexi- can waters, as well as the “ asama’”’ and the “ hizen,” were entrusted with the patrol of the western coast of america, in co-operation with the canadian “rainbow” and the britijh cruiser ** newcastle.” in the middle of sept. a great sensation was aroused by the dramatic appearance in the bay of bengal of the german raider “emden,” which had effected her egress from tsingtao before the blockade was instituted by the japanese navy. several brit- ish merchantmen fell victims to her ruthless attack in appalingly swift succession, and it was only after two months’ strenuous chase by the british and the japanese squadrons that the ‘‘ em- den ” was sunk by the australian cruiser ‘‘ sydney ” near the island of cocos. in the meantime, australian and new zealand troops were being hurried to various theatres of war in europe, and japanese warships assisted in the convoy of the transports across the indian ocean. at one time, whilst the “‘ emden ” was still working havoc in indian waters, the ‘ ibuki” was obliged to convoy no fewer than 38 troopships by herself. apart from the anxious as well as hazardous task of convoy, japanese war- ships were, in feb. 1915, called upon to hurry te singapore and land troops there to assist the british forces, side by side with french and russian marines, in suppressing a mutiny of indian soldiers who had come under german influence. in 1917, and af- ter, the japanese navy undertook the guardianship of the safety of the indian ocean as far as the cape of good hope. von spcee’s squadron, as a result of the concerted operation of the british and the japanese navies, was chased in the direction of cape horn towards the end of 1914, and on dec. 8 was encountered by adml. sturdee’s squadron off the falkland is. and was completely annihilated, with the exception of the “‘ dresden,” which, how- ever, was also sunk by the british off chile three months later. meanwhile the german gunboat “ geicr’”’ was disarmed and 1in- terned at honolulu, and thus the pacific ocean was cleared of the enemy, greatly to the relief of allied commerce. ‘the next, and not the least important, contribution of the jap- anese navy toward the successful conduct of the war, was the sending of the cruiser ‘‘ akashi”’ and three destroyer divisions under the command of rear-adml. sato to the mediterranean. the german submarine warfare was about that time beginning to be carried on in a ruthless manner, and the british navy had been earnestly requesting japanese help. whilst the british, french and italian forces were engaged in blockading the adri- atic sea and the dardanelles, adml. sato’s squadron assumed the all-important dutics of convoying allied vessels to and fro between ports in the mediterranean. the japanese destroyers successfully escorted 21 british warships, as well as 623 british, 100 french, 18 italian and 26 other troopships or merchantmen, totalling 788 ships, and they cruised altogether 220,000 miles. the peace conference —at the peace conference in paris in 191g japan was represented by marquis (afterwards prince saionzi; baron (afterwards viscount) makino; viscount (after- wards count) chinda; mr. (afterwards baron) kk. matsui; and mr. (afterwards baron) kk. ijuin. the plenipotentiarics went to japan france with the firm conviction, as baron makino had made un- mistakably clear befcre he left japanese shores, that the ailitude of japan at paris should be, not so much to advance her own case before the comrade nations in the war, as to take counsel with them in the creation of a new world in which justice and humanity would reign supreme and which would assure an enduring peace. the first claim laid on the peace-table by the japancse delegates was for the recognition of racial equality. the public opinion of japan demanded that, if a new era of rightcousness and fairness was to be established and peace and good-will among men were to be assured for all time, one of the postulates should be the principle of the equal dignity of races. the japanese na- tion had been deeply conscious of the discriminatory treatment meted out to its nationals in various parts of the world. it recog- nised that differences in ability, power and character among men always exist ; but it appeared wrong that there should be inequality of opportunities—inequality before the law. the present state of human civilisation having been achieved by a series of social, rcligious, political and economic emancipations, it scemed cer- tainly to be time that racial emancipation should, in the interests of the real progress of civilisation, be foreshadowed and ap- proved at least in principle. the original japanese proposal for insertion in the covenant of the league of nations read:— the equality of nations being a basic principle of the league of nations, the high contracting parties agree to accord, as soon as possible, to all alien nationals of the states members of the league equal and just treatment in every respect, making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality. in explaining the japanese position, baron makino made it clear that ‘‘the question being of a very delicate and complicated nature involving the play ofa dcep human passion, the immediate realisation of the ideal equality was not proposed, but that the clause presented enunciated the principle only and left the actual working of it in the hands of the different governments con- cerned.” every national of the states in the league was expected “tg share military expenditure for the common cause and, if need be, sacrifice his own person. in view of these new duties .. . arising before him... each national would naturally feel, and in fact demand, that he be placed on an equal footing with the peo- ple whom he undertook to defend even with his own life.’ the japanese proposal, which was later somewhat modified in termin- ology in an attempt to meet objections, obtained 11 votcs out of 17 in its favour, but it was ruled that unanimity was necessary. japan abided by that decision, reserving the right to raise the ques- tion again at an opportune moment. kiaochow.—the disposition as regards kiaochow was the next question with which the japanese delegates had to grapple. when the japancse people gave a hearty send-off to their plenipoten- tiaries, they had no shadow of doubt as to the final issue of this question. the greater, therefore, was their disappointment, if not stupefaction, when the chinese delegates came out with a de- mand for the direct restoration of the ex-german stronghold. japan claimed kiaochow in recognition of all her military and naval services. it was at the same time made clear that japan would be content, having once secured kiaochow in her hand, not to retain it in her possession, but to offer it to china asa mark of good will and friendship. the chinese delegates, however, insisted that the declarationof war by china against germany on aug. 14 1917 had abrogated all her treatics with germany, in- cluding that of the lease of kiaochow. whether a lease treaty is not a sort of pacta transitoria is, it was argued, a moot question; it would appear to be contrary to common sensc to contend that a paper declaration of war could as if by a magic wand trans- fer to her possession a formidable fortress which china could never have reduced with her own resources. china’s further plea was that her engagement of mav 1015 had been made under duress and was therefore null and void. it 1s a fact, however, that china did not question the validity of that engagement, when she willingly concluded the formal understanding of sept. 24 1918, which was actually based on the above-mentioned agree- ment of may rors, and accepted an advance of 20,000,000 yen under that understanding. ‘he position of japan, it should be 587 observed, had furthermore been fortified by the previous under- takings of great britain, france, russia and italy in 1917, to support or at least raise no objection to the japanese claim. the supreme council finally decided in favour of japan, on may 5 191g (arts. 156-158, treaty of versailles). the ex-german islands in the pacific lying north of the equator, which had been under the japanese occupation since 1914, were allocated to the japanese administration under mandate at the supreme council held at the trianon palace on may 7 1019. they include the marshall, caroline, palau (pelew), and marianne (ladrone) islands. tir rendition of kiaochow with the coming into force of the treaty of versailles on jan. 10 1920 the german rights and interests in shantung passed to japan, and the tokyo govt., in conformity with their obliga- tion to china, and true to their public avowals (by baron makino in paris on may 4 1919; by viscount uchida in tokyo, may 17 and aug. 2 1919), immediately instructed mr. obata, the jap- anese minister, to invite the pcking govt. to open negotiations for effecting the restoration of the ex-german possessions in shantung province (jan. 19). it was desired that the necessary preparations for accepting the restoration should forthwith be started, and that china should organise a police force to take over the charge of guarding the tsinan-kiaochow railway. as soon as such an organisation was completed—even were it prior to an agreement being reached as to the restoration—the jap- anese troops would be immediately withdrawn. three months passed without any response coming from peking in reply to the japanese overtures. japan repeated on april 26 her desire tostart negotiations, and the chinese reply (may 22) was that she could not conduct di- rect negotiations with japan as to the question of kiaochow on the basis of the treaty of versailles, which she did not sign, and further, that the whole public of china had assumed a strongly antagonistic attitude regarding this question; whereupon the tokyo govt. asked the chinese govt. to reconsider the matter, assuring the latter that they were reacly to begin negotiations at any time china might deem convenient. but peking again re- mained deaf, and at the first assembly of the league of nations, in 1920, dr. wellington koo reserved for “a more appropriate time in the future” the matter of bringing before the league certain “subjects of vital interest to china, affecting internation- al relations.” : independently of the washington confcrence, an informal con- versation regarding shantung was started between the japanese and chinese delegates to that conference on dec. 1 1921, through the personal good offices of mr. charles e. hughes and mr. arthur balfour (afterwards lord balfour). after a protracted discussion, especially in respect of the disposition of the railway, a treaty was signed on feb. 6 1922 under which the restoration of the former german icased territory to china was finally agreed upon. for five months, beginning june of the same year, negotiations as to the execution of the treaty were conducted in peking, and in dec. all detailed arrangements were concluded. the admin- istration of tsingtao was transferred to china on dec. 10; the japanese garrison was withdrawn on dec. 17; the shantung railway changed hands on new year’s day of 1923; and thus passed into history the 24 years’ episode of kiaochow bay. the vap controversy.—the council of the league which met in geneva on dec. 17 1920 decided upon the statute relative to “c class mandates, under the terms of the covenant of the league (art. 22, 6) and pursuant to the decision of the supreme council on may 7 1919, allocating the ex-german south sea islands to great britain, australia, new zealand and japan. the japanese govt. had been contending that, according to their legal interpretation, the principle of equal opportunities for trade and commerce should, under the covenant, be assured to “c” class as well as to “ b” class mandates (art. 22, 5) (sce maannbdates). but in view of the importance of unity and co-opera- tion among the allied nations, japan gave her assent to the issue of the statutes, on the understanding that that “ decision should 586 not be considered as an acquisscence by the japanese govt. in the submission of japanese subiects to discriminatory and disadvantageous treatment in the mandated territories, nor have they thereby discarded their claim that the righis and in- terests hitherto enjoyed hy japanese subjects in these territorics should be fully respected.” to the statute relutive to the islands north of the equator which came ur nder the japanese mandate, “ as an integral poriton of ils territory,” the united states tock exception, en the plea that. the isk at et yap should not be included in the islands to ” so i ft was arcued | that president wilson had ee to the supreme council his proposal of having that island int nationalised for reasons vitally affecting the world communica- tions, and that its aceon, published on alay 7 roca, should not be regarded as by any means spirals furthe ‘rr. the washing- ton govt. pee that they had never ratined the treaty of versatiles and accordingly were not nae by that instrumen in any se isut the untied states should, oe or no treaty, have a voice in the disposition of the affairs immediately arising trom the world war. so far as the status cor th he islincd was con- cerned, japan's position was that, if the published decision of the se council were not final, she did nat } she watencd, su lis: wes knew what s could rely ae as definite finality; the allied powers ia europe appeared to support the japanese vic. y the presentation of their case, the american govt. further stated that “even if yap should be assigned under mandnte fa tapain, all other powers snould have free and unhampered access to the istand for the landing and oneration of crbles.” aaa or od that ‘the feables) question seems to be one which should be frecly settle] by the nation which has the charge or ihe di ee during the washington conference an agreeme nt see ween ee and the united states was eventinly signed on dec. 12 102 a hy whi japan’s authority (as the mandatory power) in yap at by the united scates, while japan accarids to united st full righis and facilities rezarding cables and other matters. eurobean tour of the crown prince. —japan's age-long tradi- tion was broken when an heir to the throne left his native shorzs on march 31 tg2c. crown prince hirohito set forth, escorted by prince kan-in and count chinda, upon a tour of study and ob- servation in idturope. the battleship “f katori,” carrying him on boar-!, called al hongkong, singanore, bombay, port said, malta and gibraltar, en route to portsmouth, where she a fenered on may s. the reception by king georse v. and the ae of great briain w: a most cordtal an spontancous, befitting the alllance uniting lhe two nations for the past twe decades. the imperial tour subsequently extende:l to france, belgium, hol- land and ltaty, and was everywhere attended with success. the crown prince returned to japan on sept. 31 r92t. the minute reporis of his f foreign tour which daily reached home had a tre- mendous and almest historic eflect in diffusing international and democratic td re les ic ideas amongst the japanese peor aple. the washington conference.—ii the early months of 1921, when the renewal of the anglo-japanese alliance and the pro- posal for universal disarmament were simultaneously discussed in great britain and the united states, japanese public opinion evinced misgivings as to the real motives held by the chancel- lerics at london and washington. but when president harding dispatched his informal invitations for an internaitonal confer- ence and his sincerity of purpose was evident, the japanese govt entrusted adml. baron (later viscount) tomosaburo aoe: minister of the navy, baron kijuro shidehara, ambassac lor to washington, prince tyesato ‘pokugawa, president of the house of peers, and mr. masanao hanihata, vice-min for i a a ster foreign atha represent japanat thi ¢ conference on the linrta- tion of armanients. japan's attitude atthe sola was lo nlace ali cards face up on the table,” anil was considered worthy of great credit for enabling the conference to corehe a p successful end. coincident with the disarmament confcrencs, the shan- tung conversations (sce above) were started between oe apanese and chinese representatives and the settlement of the pre- tracted controversy is deemed a happy product of the harmon- ious diplematic atmosphere created by the main conicrence. japan in conformity with the agreements of washi ngton, japan com- pletely withdrew her garrisons from ilankow in july 1922, from rwrthern manchurta in sept. 1922, from siberia in oct. 1923 and rom tsingtao in dee. 1923. with the scrapping of the super- dreadnought ‘tosa on feb. rr 1925 the provisions of the disarma- ment treaty were fully carricd out, except in the case of the battleship “ mikasa.’ she was the flagship of admiral vogo at the batile of the japan sea in 1905, and the japanese people wished to preserve her as a historic memorial. the consent of the signa- tory powers was officially obtained, and the “ mikasa,”’ disman- t!ed, lics in yokosuka bay as a floating naval muscum. relations with china the chinese loan cousortium.—a gradual change came about in the opening years of the zoth century in the general policies coward china of the great powers, who had become convinced of the fruitiessness of mutual competition; signs also became visible of the altered attitude of western financiers in regard to the in- vestments in that e mpire. in 1908, a british and a german bank undertook to finance in common the tientsin-pukow railway. in igi1, a four-power group consisting cf great britain, germany, france and the uniicd states, was formed in connection with the aankow ere n tailway loan, as well as the loan for currency reform 11 2 ching cond industrial enterprise in manchuria. japa- nese and russian bankers agreed io joint this consortium in 1912, with the eee that. the special interests of japan and russia in manchuria and mergolia would not be interfered with ia the international alee of the chinese loans. with the inaug- uration of jr. woodrow wilson as prestdent in 1913, the u.s. govt. decided to withdraw bankers from the con- sortium, and subsequently the world war prevented germany from remaining in the financial league. in 1917 the consortium, now comprising the four powers, great britain, france, japan and russia, invited the united states to rejoin in its activities. the american govt. hesitated at first to respond to this call, but in june rot took the initiative for the reconstruction of the fimenchil group. by that itme the tsarist regime in russia had come to an end, hut the otficr nations intere sted expressed their assent to the american proposal; and negotiations were started in may tora, ia parts, between the iimancial oe atives of great britain, france, japan and the united states, simultancously with the peace conference. after considerable interchange of views, part {heir of which concerned the reservations by janan as tos. manchuria and &. inner mongolia, an agreement was signed in new york on oct. rs 1920. the most important feature of the new agreement was that the object was purely and simply economic, being en- tirely free from any political complexion. ali the members were to pool their existing and future loans (7.¢., options) both as re- gards industrial and administrative undertakings, with the excep- tion of the industrial enterprises upon which substantial progress had already been made. as to manchuria and mongolia, the powers arrived at a satisfactory understanding, japan with- drawing her previous reservations. the statement of the japa- nese gort. issued on april t 1921 contained the assurance that japan only desired in those regions definitely to ensure her national defonee and the security of her economic life,” and she wes confident thei she could safely rely upon the mutual trust and friendship of the powers in regard to the exigcacics of any situation thet might «rise in future. ecuality of opportunity was fully guaranteed to all members, thus climinating unnecessary and harmful competition. it was helisyed that this co-operative action of the various banking zrouns. which alone could offer the enormous amount of capital necessary for the reconstraction of chinese economic life and for the building of sufficient means of communication and transpor- (ation all over her vast territory, would be in the best intercsts of the chinese people. “ twenty-one demands” upon china-—no country regretted more sincerely the continued internal troubles and disorder in china, which had been divided into warring camps since the republic was proclaimed, than japan hersel/, whose national japad 89 destiny is so intimately entwined with thet of china. on jan. 18 19ai5 the tokyo govt., impatient of chinese diplomacy, presented “ 21 demands,” as they were called. first, china must “give full assent ” to japan’s disposal of shantung and pledge herself not to cede or lease cither tervitory or isian<| to a third power under any pretext. also china must agree to japan. building a railway from chefoo to lungkou, and to the opening of treaty ports by agreement with japan. secondiy, in south manchuria and eastern mongolia, china recognises japan’s “ special position,” and grants to japanese subjects a right er freedom to reside, own land for trade, manufacture or mining, with important railway concessions. over china’s “political, financial or military advisers or instructors,” in these provinces, “* the japanese govt. shall first be consulted.”’ thirdly, the hanyehping company with ils mines is to be made “ a joint concern of the two nations ” in which china shall not ‘ dis- pose of the rights and property” except “with the previous consent of japan.” fourthly, “ the chinese govt. engages not to cede or lease to a third power any harbour or bay along the coast of china.” group v. of the so-called “ demands ” was presented secretly as “ wishes.” by article i. “the chinese govt. shall employ influential japanese as advisers in political, financial and military matters.” the “ wishes” also cover the employment of japanese advisers; land ownership by japa- nese hospitals, temples and schools; the purchase of munitions of war from japan; the right to construct the wuchang-nanchang and nanchang-iangchow railways; the priority of japanese cap- ital regarding railways, mines and harbour works in fukicn prov- ince; and japanese missionary propaganda. ‘phe ambitious programme of the tokyo cabinet evoked adverse criticism from rarious quarters, and it was unfortunate that whatever cogent reasons there might have been, the “ wishes * were not placed on the tabie from the outset as well as the “ demands.” as to their intrinsic merit, the london times (feb. 13 1915) observed: ‘* even in the peking version... these terms do not look harsh or unreasonable in principle. ” even granting that some of the proposals were unwisely con- ceived, the general belicf that japan purposed at that time to es- tablish a veiled protectorate over china was a misconception of her true attitude. for japan it was a matter of superlative interest and importance that her neighbours should attain a good government, a prosperous industry and a flourishing trade. for these reasons, japan pressed the peking govt., on may 7 1915, to give a definite answer within a time limit. in the end the chinese president, yuan-shi-k’ai, acceded to the japanese proposals; and on the 25th of the same month, under the signa- ture of mr. hioki and lu cheng-hsiang, the chinese minister for foreign affairs, two treaties were concluded—once respecting the province of shantung, and the other regarding south man- churia and eastern inner mongolia—and 13 notes were exchanged. with reference to shantung, the japanese minister, in an ex- change of notes, made the following declaration:— if upon the conclusion of the present war the japanese govt. should be given an absolutely free disposal of the leased ter- ritory of kiaochow bay, they will return the said territory to china, subject to the following conditions: i, opening of the whole of niaochow as a commercial port; 2, establishment of a japanese settlement in the locality to be designated by the japanese gcoverniment; 3. establishinent, if desired by the powers, of an international settlement; 4. arrangements to be made, before the return of the said terri- tory is effected, between the japanese and the chinese govts. with respect to the disposal of german public establishments and propertics and with regard to the other conditions and procedures. china’s pledges.—by the treaty respecting south manchuria and kastern inner mongolia, the chinese govt. pledged them- selves that the terms of icase of port arthur and dairen, and of the south manchuria railway and the antung-mukden rail- way, should be extended to 99 years respectively; the japanese should be permitted in south manchuria to lease land for resi- ‘for the text see temperley, hist. of the peace conf., vol. vi., p. 631 seg. — =r ‘ dential, commercial, industrial and agricultural purposes, anid further should be free to enter, travel, reside and pursue various vocations; that in eastern moageha japancse should be permit- ted io carry on, jointly with chinese, agricultural undertakings; that japanese cenducting business in those regions should le submitted to chinese police laws and taxation; that civil and criming! cases should be tried by the japanese consul or by chi- nese officials according as the defendant was japancse or chi- nese, seve in eascs of lund disputes, where a nvixed tribunal would have the power of adjudication (all this pending the even- tual referm of the chinese judicial system); that suitable cities and towns would carly be opened to foreigners of china’s own ac- cord; and that various agreements relating to the kirin-chang- chun raihvay should early be revised. at the washington cenference of 1921-2 the chinese delega- tion asked for the annulment of the treaties and notes of 1915 on the ground that they had been wrested from china under duress and without any guid pro quo. baron shidchara contended that a dangerous precedent would be established in international law ifa treaty were to be revoked for the reason that it had been con- cluded against the spontancous will of a party. he declared, however, that, in view of the changes that had taken place in the gencral situation since the signing of those treaties and notes, japan was ready to modify some of their stipulations. mr. hughes claimed for the americans all rights granted to japanese nationals under these documents by virtue of the most favoured nation principle, while refraining from touching upon the validity question. dr. koo made a reservation as to china’s “ right to seek a solution, on all future appropriate occasions, concerning those portions of the treaties and notes of 1915 which did not ap- pear to have been expressly relinquished by japan. ” lhe ishtt-lansing a greement.—in the course of the conversa- lions that took place between mr. robert lansing, the united states secretary of state, and viscount ishii, when the latter went to washington as japan’s special ambassador on the war mission in 1917, it was found advisable that a public announce- ment of the desires and intentions of the two governments with regard to china should once again be made “ in order to silence mischievous reports ”’ that had been circulated. on nov. 2 notes were exchanged declaring in part:— the governments of japan and the united states recognise that territorial propinquity creates special relations between countries, and consequently the government of the united states recognises that japan has special interests in china, particularly in the part to which her possessions are contiguous. ... the governments of japan and the united states deny that they have any purpose to infringe in any way the independence or territorial integrity of china, and they declare, furthermore, that they always adhere to the principle of the so-called ‘‘ open door” or equal opportunity for commerce and industry in china, in view of the understandings reached at the washington con- ference of 1921-2, the two governments declared the termina- tion of the ishii-lansing agreement in the form of notes exchanged between ambassador hanihara and secretary of tate charles e. hughes on april 14 1923. japan and russia japanese expedition to siberia.— after the russian revolution in 1917 an anomalous situation developed in siberia owing to the contact established by german and austro-hungarian prisoners-of-war with bolshevik forces, the former assuming the practical command, these teutonic-bolshevik allies seriously threatened the safety of the czechoslovak troops who had es- sayed through the only available route of siberia to join the allied armies fighting on the western front in france. the u.s. govt. proposed to the japanese govt. in the early part of 1918 to dispatch an allicd contingent to eastern siberia to assist the czechoslovaks. to this japan gave her assen t, and on aug. rr 1918 dispatched a contingent to vladivostok; the united states and great britain also dispatched troops to siberia. karly in sept. khabarovsk was captured by the allied forces, and during the month of qct. bolshevik influence in eastern sj- beria signally declined, and the czechoslovaks in the interior 990 succeeded in re-establishing communication with their compatri- ots in the littoral districts. the allicd successes in siberia en- dowed the anti-bolsheviks, rallying under the banner of adml. kolchak, with fresh power; and the authority of the omsk govt., established in nov. 1918, extended as far as the ural regions by the end of that year. but in may rorg the anti-bolshevik forces sustained a crush- ing reverse at the hands of the red army; and adml. kolchak’s govt. first removed from omsk and then, toward the win- ter, to chita. in the face of such unfavourable developments, japan saw the necessity of speedily arriving at a definite under- standing with the u.s. govt. as to the future dispatch of reinforcements to siberia. the washington govt., however, responded in jan. 1920 with a sudden decision to withdraw all the american troops and railway experts; firstly, because the repatriation of the czechoslovak forces was about to be com- pleted, and secondly because the very unstable situation in si- beria would render futile any military assistance to the attempt to establish an autonomous russian govt. in siberia. the american govt. further stated that if japan would continue in her endeavours in siberia single-handed they had no objection whatever. in point of fact, the exigencies of the situa- tion soon obliged japan to send reinforcements. but the bolshe- viks were in the spring of 1920 fast establishing ascendancy in eastern siberia, having their headquarters at vladivostok, verkhne udinsk, and blagovyeshchensk —the three centres being more or less independent of each other. after the arrest and exe- cution by bolsheviks of adml. kolchak in feb. 1920, the only remaining tsarist leader was gen. semenolf, who had estab- lished his government at chita and had the whole province of trans-baikaha under his sway. the nikolaiewsk massacre.—in march 1920 a most sanguinary incident occurred at nikolaievsk, on the river amur;all the japa- nese residents of that city, men, women and children, numbering over 700, including consul ishida and his family, were tortured and massacred by the “ partisans,” a bolshevist guerilla gang infesting the littoral regions. the japanese govt. declared on july 3 that as there existed no responsible administrative centre in russia which could negotiate concerning this flagrant outrage cn japan’s prestige at nikolaievsk, the japanese forces would occupy certain places in sakhalin province, pending the establishment of a legitimate government. at the same time, it was made known that japanese contingents would soon be withdrawn, as in fact they were, from trans-baikalia, inasmuch as the czechoslovak troops had been successfully assisted on their homeward journey (the last troops left vladivostok in sept. 1920), but that vladivostok and khabarovsk would still have to be garrisoned by a small military force. upon in- quiry from the washington govt., it was explained by the japa- nese govt. that vladivostok was the prolific hatching ground of korean revolutionary plots, and further that the safety of the japanese residents had to be provided for and that khabarovsk had a close strategic connection with nikolaievsk. as soon as signs became visible of the growing stability of khabarovsk, in sept. evacuation of that region was immediately started. meanwhile, the bolsheviks at verkhne udinsk began t6 style themselves the ‘‘ far eastern republic,” and, in concluding an agreement for the suspension of hostilities with the japanese mili- tary authorities in july 1920, drew up a memorandum to the ef- fect that the republic would follow democratic and not communist principles of administration, and would constitute itself a buff- er state in the interests of a speedy return of peace and order to siberia. then the movement for the unification of the several ‘“ governments ’”? in eastern russia was started, and in nov. the so-called amalgamation assembly at chita declared the inde- pendence of the ‘‘ far eastern republic ” (adopting the name at first conceived at verkhne udinsk), holding as its territory the russian provinces east of the selenga river and professing anti- communist democracy as its basic political principle. the coup d’etai. which was carried out by the reactionary kappelists in vladivostok on may 26 1921 showed that the siberian situation was still as unstable as ever. japan in accordance with japan’s pledge at the washington confer- ence of 1922, she withdrew her troops from russian soil except northern sakhalin as soon as the situation warranted the with- drawal, namely by oct. 25 1923. northern sakhalin was evacua- ted on may 15 1925, following an arrangement made at the time of japan’s recognition of the soviet government. japan’s recognition of russia -—geographical propinquity and economic needs made it highly desirable for japan to re- establish normal international relations with siberia as soon as the situation warranted such a course. a similar desire was apparently held by the far eastern republic having its capital at chita, and informal negotiations were conducted between the representatives of the japanese govt. and the chita govt. at dairen in aug. 1921 and at changohun in sept. 1922; but no agreements were reached at these conferences. in the meantime, the far eastern republic came to be amalgamated with the so- viet union. at the end of 1922 viscount shimpei goto, in the private capacity of president of the japan-russia society, invited m. joffe to visit japan for the twofold purpose of recuperating his health and of talking informally about japanese-russian re- lations. private conversations were carried on between goto and joffe in the spring of 1923 (feb.-may) at tokyo and atami. subsequently, the japanese govt. officially started the prelim- inary informal negotiations with m. joffe in tokyo in june 1923, with mr. toshihiko kawakami representing it as a plenipotentiary. the conference lasted until july, but owing mainly to the diver- gence of views as to the settlement of the nikolaievsk incident it again failed to arrive at a definite agreement. then for some months the question of reopening the russo-japanese negotia- tions remained in abeyance. but in feb. 1924 russia invited protests from japan by successive drastic actions, such as the withdrawal of recognition to the japanese consuls in vladivostok and elsewhere, the discontinuation of postal services between vladivostok and tsuruga, the expulsion of japanese press corre- spondents from russia and the arrest of japanese military and consular officials at vladivostok. it was suspected that, in tak- ing such steps, russia hoped to compel japan to resume negotia- tions at an early date. mr. kenkichi yoshizawa, the japanese minister at peking, approached his colleague, m. karakhan, the soviet minister, with insistent demands to make speedy amends for such flagrant irregularitics. after several meetings of the two representatives, it was decided that the thread of discussions at the tokyo conference would be taken up by them at peking on may 14.1924. the peking conference was protracted to the end of the year, holding no fewer than 77 sessions. at length a “ con- vention embodying the basic principles of the relations between japan and the union of soviet socialist republics ” was signed on jan. 20 1925 and came into force on eb, 26. through this convention and the accessory papers, (1) japan gave full recognition to the soviet union, re-establishing diplomatic and consular relations; (2) russia formally tendered japan ‘an expression of sincere regrets ’ for the nikolaievsk massacre of 1920, japan having with- drawn her claim for reparations and promising the withdrawal of the japanese garrison in north sakhalin by may 15 1925; (3) in laying down the principles for a future treaty of commerce and navigation, russia recognised the doctrine of private ownership “to the widest possible extent and on condition of reciprocity ;"’ (4) it was further agreed that propaganda would not be worked either overtly or covertly by the governments themselves or by their official agents; . (5) regarding the question of natural resources, russia signified her willingness to grant to japanese, concessions for the exploitation of mincrals, forests and other natural resources in all russian ter- ritorics. as for oil, russia pledged herself specifically to grant to japanese concerns the privilege of exploiting 50%. in area of the oil ficlds already explored or to be explored on the east coast of north sakhalin during the period of five to 10 years. coalfield concessions on the west coast of north sakhalin and the dui district were also pledged; (6) the fishery rights in russian waters were granted to japanese in principle, the private modus vivendi of 1924 being recognised; (7) as for debts and obligations, a settlement was reserved for future negotiations on condition that the japanese govt. and people would not ‘* be placed in any position less favourable " than that which might be accorded to other governments or nationals. japan mr. tokichi tanaka went to moscow as the first japanese am- bassador to the soviet union in july 1925, and in company with him went a japanese delegation to negotiate with russian author- ities regarding sakhalin concessions. a detailed agreement as to oil exploitation was reached in nov. following, and the founda- tion of russo-japanese economic co-operation was thereby laid. tue emigration question anti-japanese movement in amcrica—in the opening years of the century, the continuous inilux of a large number of japa- nese immigrants from the hawaiian islands to california had caused much alarm to the labour organisations in that state, and even in wider circles. anti-japanese feeling first overtly mani- fested itself by the attempted segregation in 1906 of japanese children in the public schools of san francisco. president roose- velt early discerned that public sentiment on the pacific slope towards the japanese was taking an untoward course, and, bent upon stemming the tide in time, in 1906 he pleaded, in his presi- dential message to the federal congress, that an act should be passed investing the japanese, who had “‘ won in a single genera- tion the right to stand abreast of the most intelligent and en- lightened peoples of europe and america,” with the right to naturalisation, which had been reserved to “ free white persons, aliens of african nativity and persons of african descent.”” the congress at washington, however, did not, or could not on ac- count of the agitation in the west, so proceed with the ques- tion. nevertheless, an informal agreement was reached between the washington and tokyo govts., by which japan pledged herself that she would not issue passports for the conti- nental united states to those classes of japanese who would, or might, engage in manual labour. those japanese who had pre- viously resided in the united states, or were the immediate rela- tives of japanese immigrants already in the united states, or the “ settled agriculturists ’ who were to assume active control of an already established farming interest (only three or four per- sons actually came under this last category), were to be accepted. japan promised to observe this arrangement voluntarily, and the sincere efforts of, her government in executing it received recog- nilion from many american publicists. this “ gentleman’s agreement,” as it was generally styled, was confirmed by a declaration on the part of japan made simul- taneously with the revision of the treaty of commerce and naviga- tion in eb. rorr. ilowever, the feeling against the japanese in the united states subsequently became more and more pro- nounced. apart from sporadic legislation imposing restrictions on them with regard to civil rights, such as marriage and the pur- suit of an avocation, the alien land act was passed by the cali- fornia legislature in may 1913, and put into force three months later, despite strong japanese protests and repeated admonilions from president wilson’s cabinet. this law prohibited aliens in- eligible to citizenship of the united states (including companies the majority of whose interests were under the control of such aliens either in point of their number or the amount of capital held) from owning land in the state of california, allowing them only the privilege of leasing land on a three years’ tenure. the terminology employed invested this law with an appearance of innocent impartiality, but 1t was none the less obvious that the japanese alone would, in point of fact, be the sufferers from a serious discrimination. (the ineligibility to citizenship was confirmed by the united states supreme court in a decision on nov. 13 1922.) californian agitation—american participation in the world war tended to lull californian opposition towards the japanese. but with the termination of the war it was renewed. in spite of the efforts of the japanese govt. to respect the susceptibil- ities of their american neighbours, of which the stoppage of passports in the spring of 1920 to the so-called “ picture brides ” was an example, the day of the presidential election—nov. 2— witnessed the passage by the californians of the most drastic law yet enacted against “‘ ineligible aliens,” by which they were deprived of even those rights which they had formerly been al- lowed to retain of holding land under a three years’ lease. the og! federal authorities had been averse to such a step, but the “ ini- tiative * poll decided in favour of the enactment by a majority of three to one (668,483 to 202,086 votes), and the law came into force as from the dec. following. thus in 1921 no japanese might own or lease land, neither could he act as guardian of his own american-born offspring (who are of right american citizens) in whose name land is held, nor might he possess a share even in american-controlled landowning companies. anti-alien land legislation seemed to have become the fashion in 1921, the example set by california being emulated by ne- braska, idaho, oregon and washington; the last two states, be it remarked, had systematically refused to make common cause with california during the past decade. in this connection there would appear to be some misappre- hension with regard to the rights of foreigners in japan to hold land, and it has been stated that no such rights exist. this is not the case, as all persons, without discrimination, who are not japa- nese subjects, may enjoy absolute ownership of land, if they are formed and registered under japanese law as a juridical person, that is, as a partnership or corporation. there are, in fact, many such corporations in existence in japan, composed exclusively of aliens. foreigners are further permitted to acquire rights in land, other than ownership, on the same footing as japanese nationals, the following being some of the most important of these rights:— 1. superficies.—this is a right iz rem by virtue of which land belonging to another person can be used for the purpose of owning thereon structures, trees or bamboos. it can be created even though no structures, trees or bamboos are actually in existence on such land, provided that the object and intention are to use the land for the purposes named. the law contains no limitation upon the period of time for which that right can be created; consequently, a super- ficies for, say, 1,000 years will sell for a sum closely approximating to the value of a right of absolute ownership. 2. limphyteusis—this is the right z# rent to carry on agricultural or stock farming on the land of another person. the period of time for its duration is to be fixed by the parties concerned at not less than 20 years and not more than 50 years. 3. lease in perpetuity.—this 1s a lease without limit as to its duration, and for all practica! purposes it 1s as good as ownership. [t was originally granted to foreigners within the foreign settlements for a nominal consideration paid to the japanese government. although the foreign settlements were abolished in 1898, perpctual leasehold survives and ts still enjoyed by foreigners. 4. leasechold.—this is a right 72 personam effective only as be- tween the parties concerned. when registered, however, it can be set up against third persons as the effect of such registration. the duration period is fixed at 20 years, renewable for a further 20 years from the time of renewal, the climax of the anti-japanese movement was reached when an immigration bill containing a clause excluding asiatics was passed by the american congress on may 15 1924. a notable as- pect of the controversy was that certain senators imparted to ambassador hanihara’s phrase “ grave consequences,” an un- intended meaning of a “ veiled threat.”? fears were expressed that the american congress might suffer the abridgment of its prerogative to legislate about the question of immigration. the japanese public keenly resented what they considered an overt aifront, since they could not reconcile themselves to a proposal under which the japanese quota would have been a negligible number of too immigrants a year. on july x the law came into force, and japanese friendship loward the united states strength- ened by the washington conference and american generosity at the time of the earthquake disasters, appeared to decline. but thinking japanese knew that the american press united in disap- proving the action of congress, and felt that this legislation did not correctly reflect the sentiments of americans as a whole. brpliocrariy.—j. murdock and j. yamagata, a iistory of japan (yokohama, 1911); 1. nitobe, the japanese nation (london and new york, 1912); 5. lu. gulick, fhe amterican-sapanese prodlem (new york, 1914); hl. w. mabie, japan to-day and to-morrow (new york, 1914); r. f. porter, japan, the rise of a modern power (oxford, 1918); a. j. brown, the afastery of the far hast (new york, i919); w. m. mcgovern, modern japan (1920); t. f. millard, demecracy and the far eastern question (new york and london, 1919); f. brinkley, -1 history of the japanese peaple (new york, 1920); k.s. latourette, the development of japan (new york, 1920); g, a. ballard, the influence of the sea on the political [history of 592 japan (london, 1921); j. o. p. bland, china, japan and the orca (london and new york, 1921); j. fe. de becker, the principles of the ciel code of japan, etc. (london, rg920); u. iwasaki, “ the working forces in japanese politics,” 1867-1920 csl#dies ta ftistery, teco- montics and public law, vol. 97, no. 1, new york, tg2t); sir e. satow, a prplount me japan (1921); p. weale, the prith aboxt china and jupan (1921); ik. wk. kawakami, le japon ef la parr mondiale (paris, 1921); vlso the real japanese questioi (1920); and japan's pacific policy, ec, (1g22); p. j. treat, japan and the united states 1853-1921 (1921); j. if. gubbins, the afuking of afedcrn japan (london, 1922); g. odate, “ japan’s vinancial relations with the united states” (studies tu [istory, heonomics and public law, vol. 98, no. 2, new york, 1922); j. w. robertson scott, 7%e foundu- tions of fapan (london aud new york, 1922); 1.-toekutomi, ja pariese- amertean relations (new york ,1922); p. bigelow, japan and her colonies (london, 1923); a. l. p. demais, the anglo-sapanese alfiance (university of california, 1923); r. pujisawa, the recent aims and political development of japan wastitute of politics publi- cations, oxford university press, london, 1922); j. ef. loneford, japan (london and new york, 1923); t. nalzano, “ the ordinance power of the japanese emperor” (jehus hopkins univ. studies in history and political science, new series, no. 2, baltimore, 1923); j. i. bryan, japan from within, etc. g.ondon, 1924); s. k. efall, western ciedtsation and the far east (london, 1924); captain m.d. kennedy, lhe afiittary side of japanese life (london, 1924); a. maybon, le japon d@anjoaurd' hui (paris, 1925); ix. adachi, afasteiz- ria, a study (new york, 1925); japun year boor, published annually at tokyo. certain allied secret agreements with japan and the twenty-one demands are printed in it. w. v. temperley, izisierv af the peace conference at paris, vol. 6, pp. 634 seg. see also the chapter in that work, vol. 6, pp. 389 seg.,on “ shantung and the peace conference.” for a further account of the diplomatic history of japan see a. j. toynbee, survey of iiternatronal affairs 1920-3 (1924), part vl., * the far east and the pacific.” af il. national defence the army—after the russo-japanese war six divisions were added to the japanese army, making the whole strength 19 divi- sions and in 1915 two more divisions were established for the defence of chosen. after the world war it was planned to bring the japanese military organisation up to the standard of effi- clency and equipment necessitated by the lessons of the war. an 18-year reorganisation scheme involving 180,000,000 yen (£18,- 400,000) was passed by the diet in 1918, and in 1920 it was decided not only to alter the scheme considerably, but also to ex- pedite its execution and have it completed in 14 years, the estimate passed being 290,000,000 yen (£29.600,000). under the new scheme the number of divisions was to remain the same, but as a result of the disbandment of several small units the total peace strength of the army was to be reduced by 56,000 officers and men by 1925, and much of this disbandment has taken place. but, with the evacuation of hankow and the with- drawal of japanese forces from shantung, siberia and the main- land of sakhalin, and also from southern manchuria, there has been a considerable redistribution of the japanese army, which has maintained the total strength of the home forces despite the reduction scheme. in war time this force could be expanded to 41 divisions with a total strength of 1,000,000 allarms. accord- ing to the latest budget figures, the total number of effectives in the land forces is 235,056, consisting of 16,870 oflicers, 216,114 other ranks and 2,063 gendarmerie. a japanese division, it should be added, is generally composed of two brigades of in- fantry, one regiment of cavalry, one regiment of field artillery (with the exception of the oth and 11th divisions, for which a mountain artillery regiment is provided), one battalion of engi- neers and one battalion of army service. for the purpose of carrying out the new scheme for military avia- tion in 1919, the army department created an aviation section. in jan. 1920 a military aviation school was started to train in the first year about 100 students, including both commissioned and non- commissioned officers. the military air service consists of six flying battalions and one balloon corps, and is now equipped with 150 standing machines. under the system of conscription, able-bodied males from 17 to 40 years of age are liable for service in the army. those who have com- pleted the middle school education, or have had an equivalent educa- tion, can apply for the volunteer service of onc year instead of the ordinary three years’ service. a young man whois receiving a liberal education may be exempted from military service until it is finished: residents abroad are also exempted. japan phe navy ---as a sequel to the russo-japanese war, the fapa- hese naval authorities came to the conclusien that the most erh- cient fleet unit would be the so-called ‘' 8-8 plan;” viz., a unit consisting ef eight battleships, eight battle cruisers ard a suitable strength of subsidiary vessels. the diet agreed to the scheme in principle in 1017, but owing to financial reasons it was decided to start with an $-4 geet. in the following year, the diet passed an expanded plan of 8-6 unit, spread over seven years. on account of the slrenethened financial situation, the naval authorities pro- posed, in dec. 120, an addilional appropriation of 751,q00,0c0 yen (£76.690,000) beyond the 408,000,000 yen (£41,700,000) pre- viously assigned for warship construction, with a view of com- pleting the 8-8 unit scheme in eight years. the dict gave its as- sent to this proposal in passing the budget for 1921-2, and, ac- cording to this plan, japan was expected to have in commission, by 1927 four battleships, four battle cruisers, 12 cruisers, 32 destroyers, five gunboats, 12 meet auxiliaries, six minesweepers, anc several submarines, thus bringing the strength of the japanese navy in ships not exceeding eight years in age to eight battleships, eight battle cruisers, 23 cruisers, 73 clestroyers, approximately 80 submarines, five gunboats, 27 ileet auxiliaries and 120 subma- rines. in conjunction with this 8-8 scheme, the expansion of the naval air force was decided upon, and by 1923 the formation of 17 service and two practice corps had been completed. fn 1910 the tonnage of the japanese navy was 524,273; in 1920 it was 769,288. in 1920 its strength was 15 battleships, 7 battle cruisers, 16 light cruisers, 14. coast-cdlefence vessels, 8 gunboats, 87 destroyers, 20 torpedo-boats andl about 20 submiarines. in aceordance with the agreements at the washington conference, reduction was made in the naval strength of japan, including the abolition of the 8-8 flect programme. the‘! ilizen,”’ the ‘ kashima,” the ‘ natori,” the ‘‘ tkoma,” the “ ibuki,” the ‘‘ kurama,” the ‘ amagi,”’ the ‘ tosa,” the ‘ atago’”’ and the “ takao” were broken up; the “‘ satsuma ” and the ‘ aki’? were sunk; the ‘ set- tsu'’ was converted to a target ship and the ‘ akagi” and the “ aga” to aircraft carriers—all this completed by feb. g 1925. the naval strength of japan in 1925 was stx battleships (191,320 tons), namely,‘‘ nagato ” (1919), '' mutsu "’ (1920), ‘' ise’ (£916), “tituga’’ (1917), ‘‘ fuso” (1914), ‘‘ yamashiro” (1915); four battle-cruisers, ‘‘ kongo’ (1912), ‘ hiyei” (1912), “ haruna "’ (1913), “‘ kirishima ”’ (1913); one aircraft carrier (9,500 tons); 16 light cruisers (82,210 tons); 72 destroyers (77,025 tons); 41 sub- marines (32,838 tons); and two fleet submarines (2,800 tons). in the course of building were two aircraft carriers (53,800 tons); nine light cruisers (73,995 tons); nine destroyers (12,960 tons); four sub- marines (3,659 tons); seven feet submarines (11,510 tons) and three mine-laying submarines. regarding naval aviation, a new programme passed by the diet will give the japanese navy when completed 17 fleets and 136 planes, stationed as follows: kosumiga-ura, seven; yokosuka, five; sasebo, three; and omura, two. see -lrmaments year book, league of nations (geneva, 1926). (hi. sa.) iv. national finance the state budget.—the table at top of p. 593 shows the increas- ing figures of the japanese state budget for the fiscal years from i910-i to 1924-5. although in the early months of the war the more or less disturbed economic conditions in japan checked the normal increase of revenue in general, the gradual recovery, followed by the unprecedented prosperity of industry and commerce, caused the revenue to show an upward tendency. from 1916-7 the yield of income-tax, adjusted to mect national needs, had rapidly increased, and receipts from public undertakings and state property contributed enormously to the general growth of the revenue. a war profits tax, enacted in ig18, required of those liable to the tax the payment of either not less than 20 °, of their income in excess of the average profits of pre-\war days, or, in case such could not be ascertained, of 10“, of their invested capital. in addition to the adjustment of the income tax to yield a larger revenue, the “‘sake”’ tax, the postal, telegraph and telephone charges and the price of tobacco (a government monopoly) were all increased. japan emerged from five years of the world war with her financial position considerably strengthened, though during 1920-1 industrial unrest and economic depression reacted adversely on national finance. the government explored every available channel in order to counteract the loss of revenue by retrenchment. emergency expenditure on account of the earthquake.—in the middle of the financial year 1923-4, however, as a consequence of the great earthquake, the government was compelled to provide for various emergency measures, the reconstruction of the devastated areas, and at the same time to make good the deficiency arising from the reduction of taxes or exemption from taxation and other de- ja pan bc 13 budget figures 1970-25 rev enue cries: extraordinary | for igie-r | 491,331 tst, 542 g72.075 iqti—2 508,553 148,033 657,192 iyi2—-3 552,085 | 135,306 g37 202 lols ~4. 9781420 146,547 72eots 1914-5 536,342 168 305 734.048 i9t5-6 | 538,999 169,616 708,615 196-7 —| 322,052 191,256 813.308 iq17-8 | 763,760 331,198 1,034,958 be bot ad: o11,579 567,536 1,479.115 1919-20 | 1,063,121 p45 522 1,808,633 1920-1 lag aof7 $25,975 2,000,652 1931-2 1,283,812 7f3l,sgg 2,065,711 1922-3 1,428,205 659,139 2,087,345 1923-4 1,303,588 74r, 464 | 210-45:052 1924-5 1,265,652 398,453 1,654.1 10 1925-6 1,299,321 250,193 | 549,814 nate. estimates. creases in revenue. under these exceptional circumstances the government, in order to avoid any serious weakening of the national finances, curtailed expenditure and postponed public works, and so pes for the financial year a working budget which am nun te to ,292,821,754 yen both in revenue and in expencliture. of this sum the fall in taxes consequent on the disaster reached an amount of 130,000,000 yen fess than the original estinata, at the 47th extraordinary session of the dict in 1923 a programme for the reconstruction of tokyo was agreed upon after discuss ion, and a supplementary budget was voted for the purpose; out of the total thus voted, 13,180,721 yen was allotted to the fiscal year 1923-4. in addition to the above vote for reconstruction a further sum of 4,883,989 yen was voted to the working budget, so that after these additions the revised working budget for 1923-4 amounted to 1,311,687,188 yen. the dissolution of the 48th session in jan. 1924 having rendered abortive the general budget for 1924~5, the govern- ment drew up a working budget as follows:— revenue and expenditure in yen revenue expenditure ordinary } : : 1,214,788,272 extraordinary. 194,205,814 1,409 ,054,086 1,028,156, 564 350,397,522 i ,409,054,086 total the extraordinary expenditure includes the following reconstruc- tion appropriations: —_ expenditure in yen reconstruction outlay 87,607,000 tokyo 77,935,000 nh yokohama 9,652,000 is loans oh 1,283,000 subventions 3,816,000 interest granted for local reconstruction loans 38,000 total g2, 544,000 in july 1924 a supplementary estimate, consisting of the following amounts, was submitted to parliament and approved :— : yen (2) supplementary expenditure for reconstruction of tokyo as a consequence of the earthquake 40,400,000 (b) expenditure for reconstruction work on official buildings, and a grant for damage sustained by local authorities 122,300,000 (c) other punplementaey expenditure not concern- ing reconstruction . . ‘ ‘ 102,900 further emergency measures, = a result of the abnormal econom- ic and financial circumstances, following the earthquake disaster, a mimber of emergency measures became necessary, of which the following are the principal:— (1) ot the 84 tokyo associated banks, no fewer than 74 had their principal offices burnt down, with the result that the banking machincry almost ceased to work. an imperial emergency ordinance was issuc:] on sept. 7 1923 proclaiming a moratorium of 30 days within the stricken area on all pecuniary obligations due on or before sept. 30 1923, under the civil code in force before the catastrophe. (2) the bank of japan having done its utmost to respond to the aforementioned measure by accommodating banks with the funds necessary for resuming their business, an ordinance was promulgated on sept. 27 under which the government undertook to indemnify in 1,000 yen) ————- 5 tt : vt ee cnp nc lurs [xj : surplus revenue total | extraordinary 422,009 | ea7st44 569,154 103,719 | 409.889 175-485 585.374 | 71,817 | 416,895 | = 176,701 593,596 935796 | 415.635 i 157,998 573,033 t4s, 341 399,225 | 249,195 648,420 86,227 se g)e 106,753 5 3.200) | 125,346 356,065 20.4.729 i 99.795 | 222.513 437,021 ears 7 3oo2 4 | 349; a) 490, 167 26,868 i,017,035 | 462,08 502,706 ae erp 2.325 | a 3 one 709,304 650,664 1,359.978 | 640,674 epee 645,106 1,189,856 575,955 81,2 57 535,-£32 120,539 | 657,656 960, 452 559,597 1,521,049 524,003 t,o82,100 571,710 1,605.,110 8 1,0? 1.763 523,050 1540;313 se ches —the figures to the financial year 1923-4 represent the settled accounts; those for the financial years 1924-5 and 1925-6 the budge the bank to the extent of 100,000,000 yen in respect of losses incurred in rediscounting the earthquake bills. (3) the operation of the customs law was temporarily suspended, anc! import duties were either abolished or reduced until march a1 ig?4 (see trabe, international), (4) in the stricken area exemption, reduction and deferred pay- ment cf taxes were allowed according to the circumstances. (5) with the assistance of the deposit bureau of the financial department the ilynothee bank of japan and the industrial bank of japan liberally financed their clients, (6) an ordinance was issued by whic i state aid was to be given to fire insurance coinpanies which voluntarily paid “ sympathy money to policy holders who suffered loss cither di rectly or indirectly from the earthquake. the subsidy was to be repaid in accordance with terms prescribed by the government. (7) a law was promulgated by which an import duty—operative from aug. § 1924 —of 100% ad valerem was placed on luxury and certain other articles. (8) reconstruction savings certificates were issued in small de- nominations. budget of 1925-6.—in drawing up the budget for the financial vear 1925-6 further retrenchment and reforms in finance and administration were effected, and the total estimates (in yen) were as follows:— budget of 1925-6 in yen revenue . ; : ae 1,524,000,000 ordinary. : 1, 300,090,090 - extraordinary 224,000,000 a expenditure . - 1,524,000,000 | ao ee = compared with the preceding year’s estimates there was an increase of 35,000,000 yen in the ordinary expenditure and a decrease of 126,000,c00 yen in the extraordinary, making a net reduction of 91,000,000 yen in the total expenditure. the government adopted the policy of avoiding recourse to public issues, thus relieving the money market from the demands of state finance. at the same time, by the retrenchment of expend- iture, it exerted itsclf to encourage thrift. the chief items of revenue and expenditure for 1925-6 were as follows:— revenue and expenditure, 1925-6 (in 1,000 yen) ordinary revenue: — lat tax ; 7 : : : : ; : 74,004 income tax a4 . : ; ; , ; . 195,355 usiness tax : ; : : ; ‘ , : 57,282 tax on liquors — : : ; . : : . 196,377 sugar excise . ; ' ; : 70,099 consumption tax on textile fabrics . ; ‘ , 53,672 customs duty . : : i . 98,825 other taxcs . : : : ; ; 40 16 stamp duty 82,142 receipts from p: rstal, telegraph, telephone services 203,603 forests . 39,288 profits of monopoly 130,276 other receipts from public ‘undertakings ‘and state property ; : ; ; 22,023 niiscellaneous receipts : : ; ; 18,220 transferred from special accounts . : : 8,529 total . : : : : : : : : . 1,299,311 094 extraordinary revenue:— proceeds of sale of state property . . 4,715 receipts from the issue of public loans. . 100,000 local contributions to expenses incurred by the state for the benefit of certain prefectures . 13,039 funds belonging to special accounts transferred . 26,077 surplus of the preceding year transferred 104,119 miscellaneous receipts : ; 2,540 total . - 250,490 total revenue. ., 1,549,801 ordinary expenditure:— imperial houschold —. . : . : 4,500 foreign affairs 15,783 home affairs 413177 finance . 282,341 army 170,875 navy ; : . ; ge % : 122,349 justice . : : : : , ; : 28,515 public instruction _ & & 4 79,751 agriculture. ; ; 21,388 industry and commerce 4, ug% communications . 251,919 1,021,759 extraordinary expenditure:— foreign affairs 3,454 h{ome affairs 206,500 finance . 38,083 army 28,514 navy ; 105,016 justice . ; es ; 2,075 public instruction ; , , $ 19,212 agriculture. ; 20,690 industry and commerce #616 communications . ‘ ; ‘ 96,856 total . ; i 525,046 mee eee - 1,549,805 administrative changes.—the principal changes in the finan- cial and administrative system of the country made after the earthquake are:— total expenditure (1) the establishment of a special fund by means of a sum of about i 30,000,000 yen to be taken out of the reserve capital of the imperial mint, this fund to be applied to the improvement of national educa- tion and the development of industrics in agricultural districts; (2) the reorganisation of the deposit section of the department of finance by revising the administration and the mode of employing the fund belonging to that section, mainly post-otfice deposits, and by appointing a commission to advise the finance minister as to the proper methed of employing the fund (this commission was set up in april 1925); ; (3) the division of the old department of agriculture and com- merce into two independent departments, one for agriculture and forestry and the other for commerce and industries (in march 1925); (4) the creation of several new parliamentary secretarial posts (in aug. 1924). the national debt.—the national debt stood at 4,553,471,000 yen at the end of aug. 1925, of which 3,051,455,000 yen represented the internal, and 1,502,016,000 yen the foreign loans. of the external loans, an amount of 544,975,000 yen was raised in feb. 1924: in new york $150,000,000 and in london £25,000,000. the proceeds were applied to the conversion and redemption of the outstanding balances of the imperial japanese govt. 43° loans, first and second series, issued on march 28 1905 and july 11 1905, respectively, and also to meet the expenditure for reconstruction work neces- sitated by the earthquake of sept. 1923. the figures of the debt are as tollows:-——- debt 1914-25 (in million yen) . ; ae de financial internal foreign tat per a year loans! loans! in yen i9i4-5 o91 5 1,514°8 2,506°3 46-968 1915-6 1,028:°0 1,461-1 2,489-1 45-976 1q16-j 1,097 -4 1,370-2 2,467 6 44-919 1917-8 1,159-9 1,338°7 2,498-6 45-91 1918-9 1,268-8 sie | 2,579'°9 45976 1919-20 1,482-4 pa ae 2,793°5 49:297 1920-1 1,309 -6 1,424°3 3:233'9 56-506 ig2i-2 2,184°8 1,359°0 3,543'8 61-187 | 1922-3 2,450°1 1,358°5 3,808-6 64-887 beg 25701 1,621-3 4,197 -4 70°595 | 1924-5 , 2,822-9 1,506-7 4,329°6 80-000 ‘amount outstanding at the end of the financial year. japan v. economic history war conditions.—before the world war, japan had already nearly recovered from the eifects of the russo-japanese war, and her economic activities had been making steady and more or less symmetrical progress. during the early days of the war the disturbance of international commercial relations brought about conditions which affected the japanese nation in common with the whole world. this state of affairs, however, changed later, when a huge demand arose on the part of the allied powers for the supply of immense quantities of munitions of war, and when, in addition, the inability of the european belligerents to continue their overseas commerce on the pre-war scale caused a demand for japanese products in the markets of india, the south seas, australia, south america and even africa. these factors, together with the natural decline in imports from the european countries at war, conduced to turn the balance of japanese trade in her favour practically for the first lime in 20 years. a great increase in the amount of specie held by japan abroad inevitably followed, while the stock of gold accumulated at home rapidly grew. then the rate of intercst was lowered, and the prices of shares began to soar, thus causing general buoyancy in the stock market. as a result japan was placed in such a position as to be able to redeem her foreign debt and to accord financial assistance to her allies. this is shown in the following transactions: foreign debt redeemed 43°, bonds ; ‘ ; , ‘ franc bonds —. . : . amount lent £20,516,400 fr, 200,009,500 to great britain 1’280,000,000 france : ; ; 126,000,000 russia ; : ; ; 240,053,067 soon a considerable number of new undertakings, notably in the field of shipbuilding, iron and steel manufacture and the chemical industry were brought into being. the rate of interest once again showed an upward tendency, and the issue of bank- notes increased rapidly. the trend of circumstances described above became more and more accentuated as time went on, until at the end of r916 the premature peace talk engendered a& spirit of temporary caution among japanese manufacturers and merchants. the general international confusion of 1917, such as the introduction by the germans of ruthless submarine warfare, the declaration by the united states of war upon germany, the debacle of the russian revolution, and, in addition, the con- tinuous internal troubles of china, all had repercussions upon japanese commerce. nevertheless, in spite of the far-reaching elfects of these great outside iniluences, japan’s trade and indus- try continued on the whole to register a steady development. post-war depresston.—with the conclusion of the armistice in nov. 1918 the demand for warlike materials came to an abrupt end, and the branches of industry and commerce dealing with iron, steel, copper, dyestufis and chemicals received a sudden and serious blow. there were even signs of economic depression, but the revived demand for foodstuffs and industrial materials necessary for the economic reconstruction of europe, coupled with the trade activities in the united states, tem- porarily maintained a prospcrous state in japan’s commerce. a telling blow to trade and industry was administered, however, by the financial panic which occurred in april 1920, due to over-speculation and the misuse of credit in certain quarters. readjustment.—yollowing the setback of the preceding year the economic market had to devote itself in 1921 to the work of readjustment, which caused general lethargy in industrial enterprises and dullness in commercial transactions. it was in these circumstances that in june 1922 the government declared a new policy of financial and administrative retrenchment and readjustment, which was rigorously pursued until the whole outlook became distinctly brighter; demand for money in the home-market declined, the balance in foreign trade improved, and the issue of banknotes decreased. in the latter part of _ japan nov. of the same year, however, this tendency was suddenly checked by the suspension of business of a few provincial banks. emergency measures were successfully taken by the government as well as by the bank of japan, but at the end of the year money was still very tight and demands upon the bank for advances reached an enormous amount, with the result that a new record was established in the issue of bank-notes. in 1923, while the economic conditions of the country were still in a state of unrest, japan was suddenly visited by the unparalleled catastrophe on sept. 1, when the earthquake and conflagration in the kwanto district caused terrible loss of liic as well as severe material destruction. the cffect on the coun- try’s sound economic and industrial foundation, however, was not very serious, because the area devastated covered only a consuming part of japan, not a producing part. but the effect of the disaster on the money market was felt to such a degree that for a time absolute financial confusion seemed imminent. fortunately, emergency measures were promptly and effectively taken by the government, the bank of japan and the other financial authorities to restore order in the business world. at the end of sept. 1925 the first step was taken towards the return to a gold standard, when a shipment of 4,000,c00 gold yen was consigned by the bank of japan to the federal reserve bank in new york. on dec. 19 the removal of the embargo on the shipment of silver bullion was announced. prices.—the following table shows, by wholesale price num- bers based on oct. 1899, the rise in prices of commodities in tokyo between 1913 and 1924:— prices of commodities (oct. 1889 =100) 1913 | 1916 i9ig 1923 192 rice 183 | 116 390 277 327 wheat : . 146 140 294 205 243 soya beans . , [42 136 284 225 253 | gall uc , ue se 2 23 209 204 356 380 | soy. ‘ ; ; 103 104 255 233 200 sugar . : 243 258 472 373 360 sake 130 131 234 250 244 tea 113 128 235 303 341 eggs. : et? ir4 263 214 212 cut tobacco 129 12 162 1738 178 cotton yarn 154 155 567 275 352 raw silk : 118 155 274 279 239 habutae . 33, 105 200 200 | 185 timber 112 112 257 300 271 steel bars and rods . 32 233 276 150 129 coal 13 145 421 311 334 firewood 151 140 355 a7s 311 charcoal it5 iii 278 326 301 kerosene oil 160 219 484 280 345 japanese paper . 12 160 285 325 a7 foreign paper 113 218 504 233 235 average . 137 153 302) ik. 26 276 population, propuction and trade population.—the first national census took place on oct. i 1920, the following table gives the census figures for japan proper, formosa and japanese sakhalin, together with those obtained for korea from the local registrars’ records. the figures for japan proper (area 148,756 sq. m.) show that she ranks sixth in order of population among the countries of the world, her number only being exceeded by those of china, india, russia, the united states and germany. with regard to the density of population, japan proper (376 per sq. m.) ranks third, following belgium (658), the netherlands (536) and above great britain (374). oie population (1920) holds male 28,044,339 female total japan proper [1,222,053 27,918,714 | 55,963,053 taiwan (formo- 2) a on 690,000] 1,893,541] 1,761,767| 3,655,308 karafuto (japa- nese sakhalin) 22,087 62,327 43,572 105,899 chosen (ixorea) 3,297,285| 8,903,000] 8,361,119 | 17,264,119 total 15,231,425 | 38,903,207 | 38,085,172 | 76,988,379 the following table gives the census figures for 16 cities with a population numbering more than 100,000:— 599 principal cittes ad house-| no. of house- | no. of holds pop. holds | pop. tokyo 456,820] 2,173,201 | ilakodate 29,155 | 144,749 osaka . 276,331] 1,252,983] ixure 28,268 | 130,362 kobe 138,986} 608,644) kanazawa . | 29,287 | 129,265 xyoto . 128,892] 591,323], sendai 21,868 | 118,984 nagoya 92,426] 429,997] otaru . 21,275 | 108,113 yokohama . | 95,241] 422,938| sapporo 20,038 | 102,580 nagasaki 37,036] 176,534( kagoshima 19,942 | 103,180 hiroshima . 34,553] 160,510] yawata~ 100,235 there are 31 cities with a population of from 50,000 to 100,000 ; 136 with from 20,000 to 50,000, and 374 from 10,000 to 20,000, on oct. 10 1925 the second national census took place, but at the time of writing the full figures are not available. the results received to date show that japan proper has a population of 59,736,000, in- cluding 30,012,000 males, an increase of 3,772,947 since the 1920 census. on oct. 1 1924 the population of japan proper was esti- mated at 59,138,900, which represented a yearly increase of about 800,000 for the five years ending 1924. in point of birth-rate, how- ever, a tendency to decline has already set in, 36-2 per 1,000 in 1920 being the high-water mark. agriculiure.—japan, in common with most european countries, has witnessed a decrease in the number of people engaged in agricul- ture. during 1916 and 1917, when japan was putting forth her greatest effort in producing munitions of war for the allies, the num- ber of those actually holding land decreased to the extent of 20,800 and 36,400 respectively; whilst in 1918, when the war boom in indus- try was practically over, the gain to agriculture was only 20,200 persons. this migration of the agrarian population toward cities, together with the modern industrial tendency of the nation, is making it more and more difficult for landowners to find tenants. rural reorganisation has been an economic problem for some tine. 22,322 farmers and tenant furnters tm~ ~ farmers ane farmers cultivating peainea combining own land tenantship i of o° oo! “oq .o “oo 1908 33°27 27°58 39°15 1923 30-60 28:23 4i-l7 the high proportion of small holders in japan is characteristic of the agricultural lite of the country, as is shown by the following table giving the percentage of total landholders with holdings of under bes ac. clg under over over over over over | i-23 ac. | 1°23 ac. | 2°45 ac. | 4:90 ac. | 7°35 ac. | 32:25 ac.) 1y08 37°28 32-61 19-51 6-44 3°01 i-15 | 1923 39°1! 35°59 21°39 5°38 2°57 1-46 | rice still remains the staple food of the country, and the area under cultivation is nearly twice that devoted to the production of barley, rye and wheat. intensive cultivation of all crops is carried out, and the limit of return has actually been reached in some cases. cotton, hemp and indigo were all retrogressive, the cotton chiefly owing to the large imports of cheaper cotton from abroad. the fol- lowing table shows the area under cultivation and the production of the chief food products: — princtpal craps area under cultivation iqi4 1923 _ igt4 1923 hectares hectares | hectolitres hectolitres production rice 3,008,298 | 3,121,363 | 102,834,926 | 100,056,199 barley 611,218] 473,859] 17,225,132] 13,701,265 rye 721,306) 557,774| 13,001,461] 10,564,001 wheat 474,721 | 483,833] 8,096,399] 9,366,031 1922 1922 millet 203,087 | 151,630} 3,984,17 3,511,698 beans 589,694! 580,712 8,256,823 8,278,735 buckwheat 160,222] 124,624] 2,469,232] 1,984,797 rapeseed 123,092 90,609| 1,593,065} 1,229,310 metric tons} metric tons potatoes ; 83,125] 100,102 879,385 915,379 sweet potatoes . 302,493] 288,372 3,679,155 3,768,963 seed cotton 2,452 2,105 3,081 1,87 ilemp : 10,926 10,023 9,469 11,895 indigo (leaf) 4,476 4,652 8,176 8,333 | sugar-canc. 22.414 25,751 1,001,078 812,489 596 fadustrial develapmenzt.-—althouch the expansion of dustries was cnormons during the world war, the rate registered mm the pre-war period of 1905-13 had also vath wet eae: i = toad we ad ramrhey wets: poll a- able. in 1908 there were 11,390 industrial estabushinents and ig6 government factorics; in rot3 the government factories had de- creased to 158 gn rors there was a furtaer dren to 161), but the ocher industrial establishments had increase in number to 15,527, or by 38-8%. by ror8 the fieure had risen to 22,362, an increase cf 41-6", on 1913 and g6-6% on 1908. ina decade, that is ta say, japan hail practically doubled the number of factories in eperation; but the sfter- war trade depression affecte:! inclustrial develonment to come extent. the following table mustrates tic develonment:— industrial procress re fe eee ee government factaric; nay gee tia re cperacives r ; | <1 on ya, |motors, i i || 7 eetacaaemee cam bees vomen 1913 (alar. 32) . | 138 | 5,211 | 247,965 | 99,9092 | 29,994 1918 (mar. 31) 161 | 7,614 | 26),475 | 123,087 | 36,349 1os2.() om st) 8.679 | g3s,tr2 | 124,725 | 43,429 a a ar nas industrial establishments. . | operatives no. | motors re pe ae | nlen women el ae ee 1913 (end of) ] 15,840 \{' 73747] 16122,597 | 375,596 | 540,656 41,689" ae 1918 (end of) | 22,391 + ee 2,006,098 | 646,115 | 763,081 78 ' $6 312 sean 1922 (end of) | 46,427 |4 ‘bog! | 2:9-42:730 | 834,514 | 856,705 shipbutiding, —in 1898 a steamer of 6,000 tons, the first large boat to be built in a japanese yard, was completed by the mitsubishi dockyard at nagasaki for the nippon yusen kaisha. subsequently the same dockyard and the kawasaki establishment constructed steamers of over 10,000 tons, as well as cruisers for the imperial japanese navy and for china. in 1912 these two dockyards had ‘reached such a high state of development that each was entrusted with the building of a dreadnought of 27,500 tons. soon after the outbreak of the world war the private shipyards enlarged their capacity for building and made marked progress, though handi- capped by an inadequate supply ef materials and skilled labour. but the yards have been suffering from post-war depression, and also from the effects of the washington agreement (see wasilington conference); being obliged to curtail the scope of their work, and, in some cases, compictely to suspend it, the number and total tonnage of ships launched in the years 1913, 1918, 1921-4 is as follows:— ships launched steamships sailing vessels total no. | tonnage | no. | tonnage | no. | tonnage | 115 51,525 | 639] 43,593 | 774] 95,123 443 | 540,531 | 1,804 | 161,964 | 2,247 | 702,495 69 26,081 12 l701 si | 227,792 7 | 71,076 14 2,167 7u| 73,243 56 74,234 i 2,500 57 | 76,784 39 71,440 6 1,006 45 f2a16 with regard to her merchant flect, japan advanced during june 1914 to june 1920 from sixth to third position among the world powers, since at the latter date she possessed! 2,996,000 tons as against 1,708,000 tons in 1914, thus emerging after the war with an increase of 1,288,000 gross tons. raw silk and silk-\weaving.—the manual dexterity peculiar to japanese women is a factor which ensures the lasting prosperity of japan’s raw-silk industry, and when full advantage has been taken of the various modern processes of production in silk filatures en- hanced benefit should accrue. japanese silk goods have made great progress, and particularly silk pongee, which has now practically driven the chinese product from the markets of the united states. at the end of 1922 there were 2,563 factories engaged in the silk industry, employing 23,893 male and 262,732 female operatives. cotton spinning, —in spite of the difficulties during the world war of importing from great britain and the united states sufficient machinery to mect the enhanced demand for cotton yarn, the spin- ning-mills of japan prospered exceedingly. the paid-up capital invested in the mills at the end of june 1920 was 248,180,000 yen, equivalent to an increase of 288°, over the pre-war figure; whilst the number of spindles in use in 1918 was 3,384,800, and in june 1920 3,689,000, compared with 2,409,900 in 1914. at the end of 1918 there were 6,710 factories, with 65,316 male and 218,041 female operatives, the total number of workers in the textile industries being 777,653. ‘be latter ieure includes about 25,000 who are engaged in the pre duction of knitted goods, consisting principally of gloves, stockings and vaderwear, in which a laree trade, chictly with british india, has srown up in the last few years. as knitting was formerly entirely a damestic tidustry, there have been dificultics in producing goods of uniform quality far export, and a system of inspection was thereiore iastitnte:l towards the end of 1917, under which the exportation of articies of inferior quality was prohibited. previous to the war, the averaze output of knitted eoods was 6,660,000 doz., valued at 6,937,000 yen, but during the five years of the war the output aver- aved £5,143,000 doz., valued at 23,073.000 ven. according to the report of the cottan spinning association, at the end of 1923 the factories numbered 241, with an, ageregate paid-up capital of 376,273,000 ven, while the spindles numbered 4,422,000. drow foumdries—pbefore the war there were only some 20 iron foundries in japan, but the dimcultics experienced during the war in obtaining froin abroad the large quantities of iron and steel required t» mect the boom in industry resulted in the establishment cf over 220 foundries before the close of 1919. in 1914 the output of pig-iren amounted to 302,000 tons and of steel materials to 283,000 tons. in spite of the slimy in the iron industry which occurred after the armistice, 613,000 tons of pig-iron and 553,000 tons of steel materials were produced in rg1g. the total investments in iron foundries at the end of 1921 amounted to 350,000,000 yen. in the same vear the vorking capacity of the ironworks was 1,412,000 tons of pig-iron, 1,033,c00 tons ef stecl, and roughly £.450,000 tons of steel materials; while the actual output amounted to less than one-half the capacity, 1.@., 556,531 tons pig-iron and 557,826 tons steel materials. afachine and tocl-making.—at the end of 1922 about 6,720 fac- tories were cnvaged in various forms of machine-making; and also in many branches of metalwork and metalware. the manufacture of machinery for the production of electric apparatus and lamps, as well as the construction cf dynamos, telephones, railway signals and incasuring instruments, are practically new growths of the iron and stecl industrial activity. d yesiiifs.—the manufacture of dyestuffs was an untried industry in japan prior to the war, and in 1913 no fewer than 6,000 tons of dyestufs, valued at 8,000,000 yen, were imported for use in the cot- ton and silk industries. after the outhreak of the war the cessation of foreign supplies, chiefly derived from germany, compelled japan to make an cffort to become, to some extent, self-supporting. [n 1915 certain dyes were produced, the largest quantity being sulphuric black, then alizarin, ackl blue and aniline salt. these were followed by yellow, red and blue acid, yellow and red direct, and purp!e, blue and brown basic colours. early in 1916 the government started and subsidisectt the japan dyestulf manufacturing co., which later suc- ceeded in producing an artificial indigo, though only on a laboratory scale, by 1918 they were in a position to export japan-made dyes, but within a short time forcign dyes reappeared on the market, apart from the german indemnity dyestuffs which arrived in may 1921. though the ad valorem duty was raised to 35“ in 1920, these foreign products almost strangled the infant industry. in 1923, 23 factories, with a capital of 13,565,500 yen, were in existence, chemicals —the manufacture of chemicals in japan does not owe its inception to the war, but its great development and the many innovations introduced were the direct result of war-time conditions. there was, however, a sharp decline in the prosperity of the chemical industry immediately after the armistice. in 1916 the government sct up a subsidised company for the production of glycerine, and as the result of extensive investigations at the industrial institute into the qualities of seaweeds and vegetable ash, the production of basic chloridised alkali increased from 2,000 tons in 1913 to 10,000 tons in 1917, the match industry, which formerly derived chlorate of potash from european sources, by the end of 1917 was able to de- pend on the home supply, and gained an important place in export trade; but of late, owing to the advance in price of raw materials, and also the rise in wages at home, the industry has been beaten, chiefly by the swedish match industry, especially as regards exports. the soda industry, although it existed as long ago as 1880, did not reach a high standard of technical perfection before the war, and also failed to satisfy the total annual requirements in caustic soda, amounting to about 25,000 tons. during the war, however, the number of factorics increased to about 20, and the annual production rose to 14,000 tons in 1918 and 20,000 tons in the following year. some of the chief products in the chemical industry are: sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids, sodium sulphate, carbonate of soda, caustic soda, iodine, potassium iodine, potassium chloride, ammo- nium sulphate, acetic acid, acetone and wood spirit. japan’s foreeign trade the rapidity with which japan’s foreign trade had de- veloped, both in volume and extent, during the half-century preceding 1925 provides a remarkable record in commercial history. the total value of exports and imports, which jn the’ first year of meiji (1868) amounted to the insignificant total of 26,000,000 yen ({£2,650,000), increased ro-fold in 1595, too-fold in 1917, and 167-fold in 1920; and _ though a 5 cy °, ct! ja pan in the three following years it had shown a great decrease, the trade for 1924 again pieced to 4,260,623 ,000 yer favourable balance.~the most striking progress was ma: le during the worid war, when japan’s foreign trade icapt from 1,362 million yen (£139,000, 000) i in 19483 to4,254 million yen (£438,000,00q} in 1920; although 4 it should be remar ked that these figures do not corres tly represent the proper rate of increase in the volume of trade, owing to the inflation of prices. in the very beginning the war re: icted prejudicially upon foreign trade, as well as upon other branches of the country’s commerce anc industry, and the first appreciable effect of the war in increasing trade showed itself in the returns for tos, when the adverse balance which had obtained for 20 vears-—— with the exception of the vears 1906 and 1909 —was superseded by a favourable one. this favourable femleney was accelerated until the excess of exports over imports attained 371,0c0,000 yen (£38,000.- 00g) in 1916 and 567,000,000 ycn (£53,000, 000) in 1927. the sudden expansion of trade due to the war was occasioned both directly through the great demand by the alhed belliverents for munitions of war; and “also indirectly through the temporary retire- ment of the great lacustris ul powers of europe from the arena of world commerce and trade. soon after the outbreak of the war japanese goods - ch chy consisting of semi-manufactured and fin- ished articles, such as colion fabrics, leather goods, watches, silk tissues and so forth: —found their way in large quantities not on rly to the established markets in the far east, but also to various seay of the worid hitherto but little explored hy japanese traders, namely the south seas, south america and even africa. the mest consnic i ous expansion, however, was clected in the exports to china and india, and, until the outbreak of the russian revolution in 1917, large ships rents of munitions of war and foodstuffs to vladivostok for use in [european russia assistel to augment the volume of ti: aie with asia. ‘the united states began to buy heavily in 1916, when the figures advanced from 204,000,000 yen (£20,600,000) in the preceding year to the substantial o mount 6 sf 310,066,000 yen (f34,800,009) the goods purvhased consisting mostly ‘ol raw silk, “ habutai” (silk pices goods) cotton yarns, cotton fabricsand tea, ttritish america and atsa mexico increascd their orders from japan, and the south american trade showed such prospects as to induce japanese campanics to open shipping facilities fo brazil through the strat its of magelhuin. the import trade, which ha: been o: the wane in the early days of the war, commenced to revive in 1916, owing to larger purchases af raw materials and semi-maz ufactured goods, such as raw cotton, iron, wool, crude cacutchoue, flax and jute. by far the lnreest or ume of raw cotton came from british sa but this united state had doubled her exports of that article to japan as well as of iron in a 2 twelvemonth. australia supplied janan largely with weol. an sldverse balance—the war was the cause of serious vicisst- tudes in ror7, and in a measure we ‘tated against the expurding trend of japan's commerce. the entry of the united states of ame r~ ica into the war, with its attendant embargo on stecl, iron and gold, temporarily disturbed the economic eq) wipoise of the far eastern empire. “the russian revolution ana the subsequent repudiation a all foreten siabilities hy the bolshevik commissaries introduced ¢ fresh factor of discoui ragement in the export trade of tina. ag ae internal political feuds in china would als: ‘ have dismayed japanes2 exporters but for the tremendous appreciation in the price cf silver, which resulted in maintaining an abundant demand for japanese articles. [ut in spite of all, japan's foreign trade made prog ig 38 more or less on the lines previously indicated, until a complete change in the situation was brought about by the conclusion of the armistice in the autumn of 1918. the demand for munittons of war naturally came to an end, but the rate of exchange on europe con- tinued at a high level. at home the cost of produc tion had greatly increased owing to the advance in wages and the higher prices of in- dustrial materials, while the enriched public demanded a higher propertion of the necessaries of life. an anti-japanese boycott was proceeding i in china to add to the curtailment of japan’s exports. all these circumstances, reinforced by the [mpcrial ordinance of nov. 1919 for the reg -ulation of the price of commodities, tempo- rarily exempting certain foodstuffs and industrial materials from import duties and restricting the exportation of cotton yarns, re- verserdt the balance of foreign trade, w hich had been favourable to ae for the preceding four years. this unfavourable tendency con- tinued in succceding years, showing an adverse balance of trade in 1920 as high as 387,780, iyo yen. lhe government had under con- sideration several suggest ions ain to the best method of bringing about an improv ement in foreiga trade, but, though no special steps were taken, there were prospects of improveme nt, owing to the certainty that the economic condition of the « country was ac lvanci: ag little by little, and in view of the fact that the adverse balance of 1922 was only 252,856,414 yen—-a decrease of 135,000,000 yen compared with the year 1920. unfortunately, however, the great earthquake of 1923 dissipated these mee ease for, on the one hand, the export trade declined sharply owing to the burning of large stocks of raw silk, silk fabrics, etc., ‘and ihe ‘partial destruction of the productive capacity of cotten yarn, cotton fabrics and other die usually so prominent among the exports; while, on the other hand, the volume of imports con- 597 to the abnormal increase in the demand for wool, woollen yarn, ctc. also, in order to facilitate the supply of goods after the earthquake, an linperial ordinance wa s promulgate: providing for the suspension until march 31 1924. of import duties on rice, be: vf etc., and for tbe suspension or reduction of import duties rere certain other necessarics of life, tools, machinery and materials for con se eage and civil engineering, with the result that imports were stimulated. thus the poem of imports over exports in 1923 reached the huge amount of §34.479,50 yen. [in 1924 the tendency became even more pronounced —the amount being 646,157,000 ven—and this in spite of the expiration of the ordinance lust a aentionedk and the introduc- tion of a tax of 100%, imposed from june 1924 0n the value of certain luxury articles. the excess ot imports was chiefly due to the pur- chase of materials nec essary for reconstruction. foreign trade prospects in 1925, however, were considerably brighter, owing to the fact that fewer reconstruction materials were boing imported, while the econol mie conditions of, ji upan were becom- ing nor mal again, and the “ buy japanese goacts slogan was having effect. in the latter part of he year 1925 eacle an excess of exports over im ports shown w: mt wif counteract to a great extent the excess of ininorts over expart: 8 s| own during the first six months of that year. the following table gives the fsreten trade of japan for 1913-25, and the movement of coin and bullion: — farcitn tinued to increase, duc trede (ix 1,009 feit) | | attn ieee 1 gold and silver bullion nfere dan cise “ ee 24a sec ic ! a a ee speck { ioxporis im warts = | ixports imports — ___t — td hee cee 1913 632,450 prone | 27,093 fost tid i 591,tor | bos 7 so 23,6350 9,107 loss 768,307 | 532.450 44,506 24,297 1qi6 1,127,463 | 756.125 23,079 iot,030 or; 1,003,005 | 1,045,511 153,736 3992225 rr 1,902,100 1 €,605,.194 938 5,016 toy9 2,098,873 2.17 3.foo 5,054 320477 1920 1,943,395 2.359.575 3,897 $04,727 t)2y 1,252,838 lowzrs5 | ne 138 ;ga2 1932 1,637,452 1 £,899,305 3100 i 672 1923 | 1,437,750 | 1,982,231 5.400 196 tt 1,807,25 | 74453,3g0 5 4,099 nse ae a re | — 188] 2,033,345 {008 | 38 i exchange. _t he dollar rate, ice dropped to $358.50 at the end of 1924, rose by the mi tile of oe 1925 to being the highest hgure during the tirst half of 1925. at the end of nov. 1925 it stood at about 542.00. in the sterling exchange steady bmiprovi ement was a!so perce ptible, the rate having risen from 19id. in jan. 1925 to 21; per ven in the middie of nov. 192! distribution of foreign trade —the geographical dist inane of japan's remarkable expansion in foreign commerce according to continents is as follows:— por roo ven spd. 50, this exports by continents (in 1,000 yen) to | iors. «| 3aa0 1923 asin. . | 275,928 993,374 587,397 757,061 america. yb, dol foe 632,245 634.212 782,882 furope. 147,225 195,590 79,838 175,051 australia 5,638 59,015 40,907 ee 0 ; eas, ie africa |. 4,546 41,202 imports by continents (in 1,000 yen) from 1913 1920 i923 | 1924 asia — 345,055 | 942,547 814.470 | 995,603 america. 127,035 g10,648 516,832 721,325 europe 220,29¢ 395,318 $37,457 581,091 australia ; 14,943 62,459 96,623 119,071 africa 7.189 b3,449 22,716 | 22,072 in receipt of exports from japan the united states of america (1 °.) has always headed the list, the zenith cf purchase being reached in 1919—828,097,621 yen; china wor ding xwantung province) follows with 23°); and thea come british india (7 v0), eas (5 (os hongkong (4%). the a ape rcfer to japan’s export trade in 1924. not: able, also, are the advances of australia, the philippine islands, germany, italy, peru, belgium and others in the scale of d&< ‘mand for japanese goods. as regards imports into japan, british india, which had been the chief supplier for several years precedent to the world war, yielded her place to the united states in 1916. the import trade of ee in 1924 was shared by the united states of eeu (27%), china (7, )2. british “india. (16° 3); e ngland (13 “), germany (6%), australia (5 o, utcn. be sdies (45), canada (2 a) 598 japanese literature the following tables show the development of japan’s foreign trade in the more important commodities:— principal exports (in 1,000 yen) silk (raw, waste, floss) habutai ; ; silk tissues cotton yarn cotton tissues woollen tissues hosiery braids matches copper . coal potteries paper aquatic products. tea refined sugar raw cotton . wool woollen and worsted yarns woollen tissues ; oil cake iron sulphate of ammonium coak timber paper machinery rice sugar w feat : beans and peas iqi4 161,797 30,890 34,022 78,554 34,840 1,198 14,355 11,052 28,467 23,914 5/973 2,826 13,416 12,709 12,382 iqi4 218,974 14,783 4,140 10,225 34,864 36,319 15,145 6,690 1,490 4,836 24,494 24,823 21,678 8,488 13,320 i9iq 623,618 i1oe,289 162,476 114,232 280,311 11,124 20,014 32,968 25,889 375723 22,629 25,102 16,191 18,402 principal imports (in 1,000 yen) 667,866 61,304 668 12,301 135,188 227;797 275435 18,588 10,889 18,386 89,221 162,070 58,183 38,530 351302 1924 706,220 571308 125,842 109,537 326,750 2,401 29 024 9,170 ,212 2,366 22,396 25,435 15,582 24,786 12,781 28,967 605,271 88,041 63,510 61,648 103,674 196,398 26,543 29,057 129,076 27,360 128,345 70,804 63,849 73,839 60,877 communications railways.—the first railway line in japan was opened to traffic in 1872, subsequent development of the railway being chiefly in the hands of private companies. in march 1906 the railway nationalisation law was passed, and in the next two years the government gradually assumed control of some 17 leading railway companics. on the completion of nationalisation the government possessed 4,371 m. of railway, representing a capital of 700,000,000 yen. by the end of 1917 the process of absorption was practically complete. in the decade 1913-23 the mileage of the state railway system increased fron 5,473 m. to 7,013 m., and in the same period the number of passengers carried increased from 167,773,143 to 512,754,754. a marked advance was seen in the financial year 1918-9 in the receipts, which amounted to 104,135,074 yen, while in 1922~3 the receipts were 199,877,464 yen. a railway tunnel between moji and shimonoseki, under the shimonoseki straits, has been projected and its construction is expected to be started in 1927. this tunnel, which will be completely under the sea for one mile, will connect the island of kiushu with honshu on the mainland. posts.—the postal service of japan has developed steadily, both in extent and efficiency, since 1908. there are three grades of post-office, known as first, second and third class. the first class is confined to the larger citics, such as tokyo and osaka, and these offices not only act as supervising offices for those of jower category, but also control maritime affairs in their re- spective districts. the great majority of the post-offices belong to the third grade, and are conducted on a contract system, which has proved eminently satisfactory. the post-offices in japan include in their operations such diverse matters as the carrying, within limits as to size and weight, of every kind of freight, the collection of taxes and bills, the distribution of advertisements, and the paying of pensions and annuities on behalf of the national treasury. the post-offices also undertake the business of state life insurance by a simplified process for the benefit of the middle and working classes. the expansion of the postal services is shown in the following table:— postal service end of number of number of number of fiscal year post-offices messages parcels 1909-10 6,916 1,464,557,721 20,281 823 iqii~-2 7,166 i 634,423,611 23,178,936 1913-4 7,268 1,798,716,674 25,370,165 1915-6 7,358 1,888,002,293 26,128,093 1917-8 7,547 2,362,802,401 331243,648 1919-20 7,900 3,359,758,218 41,308,098 1920-1 : 8,025 3,815,527,979 43,322,650 1921-2 8,230 4,001,817,560 48,936,915 1922-3 8.477 4,126,958,030 51,355,991 the post-office savings bank was first ieee in 1875, and the rate of interest was raised from 4:2% to 4-8% in april 1975. the number of depositors increased tions 11,882,069 on march 31 1913 to 27,057,867 in 1¢22, the deposits having advanced in the same period from 191,122,853 yen to 994,076,008 yen. telegrvaphs.—since 1879 japan has belonged to the inter- national telegraph convention: and in june 1908 she ratified her membership of the international wireless union. the ex- pansion of her home telegraph service has been noteworthy. in 1910, with a total of 3,951 telegraph offices, 101,500 m. of wires were in use and 28,205,032 messages were sent; in 1923 there were 6,460 offices, 156,662 m. of wires in use, and 71,592,028 messages were transmitted. wireless—japan associated herself with the international wireless union in 1908. in addition to the main wireless station of funabashi, erected in nov. 1916, japan has 11 other govern- ment stations, with a daytime transmission distance varying between 300 and 600 nautical m., the night distance being be- tween 1,000 and 1,800 nautical miles. two of these stations, choshi and osezaki, have been reconstructed and have a day- time transmission power of 1,500 nautical m., with 3,000 m. at night. in the twelve months ended march 31 1914 there were 36,313 wireless messages, and 172,853 in 1922-3. telephones.—when first inaugurated in dec. 1800 the tele- phone service failed to attract many subscribers, but its popu- larity gradually increased. the authorities started in 1909 a system of giving preference for an installation in consideration of a payment varying between 150 and 285 yen, according to locality, and this system, which has been very successful, still obtains. the maximum annual charge for the telephone service is 66 yen and the minimum 36 yen, according to locality, and at the end of the fiscal year 1922-3 there were 415,058 subscribers and 3,988 telephone offices, besides 1,538 fitted with automatic apparatus. in the same period the length of telephone lines was 14,526 m., the length of wires 1,197,861 m. and the number of messages in the year was 1,033,750,123. see japan year book (annual, tokyo); reports of the american bureau of commerce and of the british department of overseas trade. (k. mi.) japanese literature (see 15.168). the taisho era.— the glory of meiji was, alas, not to be sustained. whether the mistake lay with the old giants of the mciji era or in the insuf- ficiency of their sons it is impossible at this close range to decide. in the later years of the mciji period it became obvious that the spirit animating the intellectual and literary leaders was dying; some of the old magic still clung to the name of the dynasty, but nothing more. the new writers lacked the capability for sustained effort, their works were spasmodically produced, and were often completcly without style. there was an unrestrained crudeness about the new literature which horrificd those who still remembered the early meiji period. the change was almost complete when the young men began banding themselves together into various associations, such as the “‘ new romanisation socicty ”’ (shin romaji kai), the * foreign language research society’? (gaikokugo kenkyu kai), the ‘‘ japanese script society ”’ (nipponji kai), etc. these unofficial organisations achieved very little, except of positive harm. americanisms, cant and slang terms, undistinguished from “ standard english,’’ were imported freely and incorporated into novels, belles lettres and even scientific treatises. the free- verse writers of england and america must be held responsible jaques-dalcroze for a peculiarly unpleasing form of composition which, while entirely foreign to the genius of the japanese language, was adopted by the writers of this period in place of the tanka and hokku as the only possible style of poetic composition. the actual result of these liberal importations from foreign fields was the flood of ineffective and often vulgar books offered to foreign students as japanese contemporary literature. while book- production was never so ample, it was never so uniformly devoid of merit. the meiji era translations of european classics and con- temporary works, though marred by many faults of inexperience, are still to be preferred to later versions. bacon, shakespeare, macauley, milton, byron, shelley, keats, victor hugo, de maupassant, dante, heine, were all retranslated under this dynasty. the new translations are, however, far from being reliable. in many cases, whole sections of the original are left untranslated at the whim of the editor. despite this, the char- acter “ zen ”’ (complete) is found on the back of the beok and on the title-page. this renders such versions useless for class-work or even for purposes of reference. in other cases, scenes which are purely national in the original work are recast, details being altered to suit japanese surroundings. thomas hardy’s novels suffer particularly in this unnatural transmutation: in one or two popular translations now in vogue hardy becomes merely a mediocre bakin leading some dull puppets over dreary japanese marshes. russian influence ——the outstanding literary feature of the taishe era is the inundation of japan by russian works. tol- stoi ceased to be fashionable; andreyev, balmont, sologub, pushkin, zinaida hippius, lermontov, gogol, tchekhov and turgeniev held the imagination of youthful japan during these years. although no further impulse was needed, it was supplied by the signing of the russo-japanese treaty early in 1925, when numerous societies for the encouragement of research into russian literary and philosophic fields sprang into existence. russian plays were hastily and imperfectly translated into jap- anese (the cherry orchard was a noteworthy exception), and produced by japanese actors at the little theatre in tsukiji, tokyo. the modern native literature borrowed most of its colour and much of its form from russia. gogol, in his more dreary moods, was freely translated into novels of social life, and the senti- mentality so characteristic of the true japanese novelist be- comes tinctured with a despair imported from the siberian steppes. arishima takeo, an idol of the young reader in modern japan, demonstrated this phase not only in his novels, but in his life and death. ile was a married man, drawn by “ mis- understandings ”’ into an intrigue with a woman journalist (the “new woman ”’ of his later novels). the truth of the affair was never revealed; in true dramatic fashion, arishima and his para- mour committed ‘ s#izju’’ (double suicide for love), in a house in an unfrequented country place. this happened in 1922, and it can be safely asserted that arishima was more loved after his well-staged exit than he was during his lifetime. obituary no- tices drew parallels between this successful writer and such dimly envisioned figures as gogol and andreyev. that the points of contact were more imaginary than real did not deter editors from flights of the wildest fancy as to the effect arishima’s death would have on russia and the world generally. the new-world treatment of women engaged the attention of writers of all classes, and political writers condemned the drastic changes proposed by the novelists. women in japan began to assert themselves, they emerged from the obscurity of feudalism into the open highway of competition with men. journalism, government departments, politics, municipal under- takings, social work, all claimed the attention of intelligent women. foremost, perhaps, not only of modern woman-novel- ists but of all since the days of murasaki shikibu is mrs. yayoi nogami, wife of nogam! toyoichiro, the greatest living japan- ese authority on the classical drama (n56), and translator of bernard shaw. a later novel of hers, kaishin maru (the sea- god ship), is justly esteemed above all contemporary works. 599 notable writers —no account of modern japanese literature would be complete without reference to certain writers who, in spite of their lack of real merit, have captured and held the popular imagination. natsume sdseki is chiefly remembered for his wagahai wa neko de aru (i am a cat) and botchan (the boy). he died before the full force of change induced by in- discriminate importation had been felt, and his work was modelled rather on the later meiji style. “ the two kikuchi,” as they were familiarly called (kikuchi kan and kikuchi yuhd), devoted themselves to the writing of novels in which women’s problems are discussed and advanced views of social life are set forth. kume masao, satomi ton and akutagawa ryunosuke, also, in some measure gratified the current passion for original styles and exotic scenes. kurata hyakuso is regarded as the leading spirit of modern japanese drama; one of his plays, the priest and his disciples, has been translated into english and published with the original text by glenn shaw (tokyo, 10923). the sex-novel of europe has its imitations in works by tanigaki junichir6 and morita sdhei. tanizaki writes very colloquially on the subject of hysterical women, psychoanalytic studies in the west providing him with unlimited material. morita sohei was once considered a very brilliant writer, his baten (sooty smoke) being an exceptional success. it is an autobiography or diary of the new woman, and, from the japanese point of view, morita has solved the problem of woman definitely and finally. at the time of the issue of baien, morita’s style became settled and followed closely the best traditions of mid-meiji; this no doubt accounted later for his lack of popularity. he afterwards turned his attention to translations of ibsen’s plays, but his “ originals ”’ were english versions, and it readily appears from the japanese that morita frequently failed to understand the text he was translating. ibsen’s doll’s house (morita’s japanese translation) was performed at the imperial theatre in tokyo in 1923. matsuura hajime was the only literary man of this period who remained true to the best traditions of his country’s literary history. unaffected by the many new movements for the development of art, letters and the drama, he is the foremost poet and essayist of modern japan. in 1925 he resigned his professorship at the imperial university in tdky3e, “ as a pro- test against the insincerity and shallowness of modern academi- clans, artists and writers, who would profane the shrine of pure art by setting up base images of foreign clay.” he published two volumes of his university lectures on literature among his other writings, and it is probable that his works will be ranged alongside the best productions of the meiji era by the literary historian of the future. in his bungaku no byakke (the pure white light of literature) matsuura displays a sensitiveness and purity of ideal which had been lost to japan since the close of the nara period. the constitutional ban on revolutionary and socialist doc- trines resulted in the issue of a complete marxian library and a series of handbooks purporting to be short cuts to bolshevism. imperfectly conceived dogmas were presented in attractive guise as the european panaceas: for all japan’s troubles there exists a very simple melting-pot, and this is a weird communism in which the state should be a machine very far removed from the activities of daily life. “‘ freedom ” became the slogan of young japan, but the “ freedom” publications are very pale shadows of their european parents, and even omit to define the freedom to which they relate. (a. n. j. w.) jaques-dalcroze, emile (186s— ), swiss composer and teacher of musical eurhythmics, was born at vienna july 6 1865, of french-swiss parents. he went to geneva in 1875 where he attended the college and the university, and followed the courses at the conservatoire. he then studied (1887) at the conservatoires of vienna and paris and completed his musi- cal education under delibes. in 1886 he accepted the post of chef d’orchestre at algiers. we then returned to vienna and studied composition under r. fuchs and a. bruckner. after the death of hugo de senger, he directed the sol-fa and harmony courses at the conservatoire of geneva (1891). he has written 600 many charming songs, including chansons populaires, chansons du cocur gut vole, chansons de route, etc. these are written in the simple form of the folk song and have obtained great popu- larity, not only in switzerland, but in other countrics. tis other musical compositions are very numerous, and include three string quartettes, two violin concertos and several orches- tral suites; also symphonies and choral works on a large scale such as la veillee (1893) and le festival vandois (1903). among his other descriptive compositions may be mentioned: le violon maudit (1893), janie (1803), sunchko pausa (1807), le poeme alpesive (1896), le bonizomme jadis (1905), les fumedux de bergamo (1908), echo et narcisse (1912), la fete de juin (rota), les premicrs souvenirs (1918), la fete de la jeunesse (1923), etc. his great work has been the development of the eurhythmic instinct, particularly in children, and since 1915 he has been the director at geneva of the institut juques-dalcrose, which he originally founded at hellerau in bavaria. his metlioll consists of a development of the instinct for rhythm in close conjunction with the sense of hearing and the instinct for tone, and is based on defined relations between bodily mov ements and the movements of sound. special schools, based on the dalcroze method have been founded in london, paris and else- where. the system may be studied in the following works by (i. jaques-dalcroze: rivihmic amovenents (1920); rhyihnr, afusic and education (1921); the linportinuce of being rhwthmic (1925); and the lurhythmics of jaques-dilcrose, by various authors (1912). (see furimytiimics.) jasparb, henri (1870- ), belgian politician, was bern at schaerbeek, brussels, july 28 1870. while ministe tof neonamic | affairs in nov. 1918, he organised the reconstriucticn of belgian | industries; becoming deputy for licge in 1919. in 1920, ae. been appointed minister of the interior and afterwards minister for foreign affairs, he endeavoured, during the inter-alhted con- ference in which he took part, to strengthen the entente between england, france and belsium, and to secure reparations security for his own couniry. in 1922 he negotiated a paci of security and guarantee with england; this, however, owing to the defeat of the french govt., failed to come into opcration. belgium’s entry into the league of nations was due to the efforts of m. jaspar, as also was her representation on the permanent court of international justice at the hague. in july 1921 he concluded an economic arpreement between belgium and luxembourg and other commercial ireatics. he took part in the dawes plan negotiations in 1924, but resigned as minister for foreign affairs on march rr on the rejection by the charnber ot the franco- belgian convention. in may 1926 took oifice as prime minisler and minister of the interior. (s. e belgium.) jastrow, morris (1861-1921), american oricutalist, was born in warsaw, poland, aug. 13 1861, but went to philadelphia at the age of five. educated at the schools of that city and in the university of peansylvania, he studied subsequently at the universities of leipzig, bresla lu, parts and strasbourg, returning in 188s to the university of pennsylvania as professor of semitic languages and librarian. he died june 22 r921 at jenkintown, pa. iie published numerous works on the religions and civilisa- tion of babylonia and assyria, and, in connection with the world wat: zhe war and the baghdad railway (9t7); the wer aid the coming peace (1918); a gentle cynic (1919); zionism and tk future of palestine (1919). jaures, auguste marie josech jean se merel french socialist leader, was bern at castres, tarn, sept. 3 1550, of an old but not very prosperous local family. his uiceton on his father’s sile included two admirals, of whem one was ambassador to spain and to russia, ancl minister of marine. his mother’s family included distinguished professors, of whom one was for a long time mayor of castres. jean jaurcs was of pure bourgeois stock. his father, a man of exceptional physique and of a lively intelligence, carried on at castres various com- mercial activities, but without much method or practical sense. his mother exercised a real influence over her sons, and joan had alwavs a deep reverence for her. her prudent intelligence and her good sense mad= her the true soul of the family and the anil jaspar—jaures 8 educator of her children. <a strictly orthodox catholic, but without fanaticism, she inspired in ee sons a respect for ail sincere beliefs and opinions. jaurts began his studies at a private school; then, with his older brother, who became an admiral, he entered, thanks to a scholarship, in oct. 1868, the college at castres. he was a pupil of exemplary conduct and remarkable intellisence, devoted to his work, “ le premicr en tout.” mingling little in the rough games of his comrades, he possessed already that depth of serious gravity which he preserved all his life under the cloak of his natural liveliness and unfailing good humour. ‘this ‘ rare com- bination of hich intellectual qualities’ cbtained for him a scholarship at the colleze sainte barbe at paris, where he went in 1846. ife was enabled thus to pursue his studies for two years at the lycee louis le grand and to prepare himse!f for the entrance examinutions of the ecole normale supericure, to which he was admitted in 1878 with the first place. hlis career there was the most briliant possible, and his fellow students, among them being henri prergson, predicted for him a great political future. after baving massed the “ concours d‘agregation ’’ jaurcs was elected, in 1851, professor of phitosop thy at the l yeeo d’albi. tn 1883 he became lecturer in the universily of toulouse. but he had already set hts mind upon a parhamentary career, al- though j his mother did her best to dissuade him. at the lewis- lative clections of oct. 4 1885 he stood fcr the department of the yarn and was elected deputy, heading the list with 48,coo votes. te was 26 vears old. during the first two years of his term, he took little part in debates. his poetic and burning | clocttence embnarrassed parliamentarians accustomed to the so-called “britannique ”? cloquence of clemenceau, waldeck- reussenn, ribot, pelletan, freycinet and others. his maiden speech was delivered oct. 21 1856 on a question relating to primary education. in 1887 he spoke three times; but the fol- lowing vear, more self-corfide: at and more familiar with the peculiar atrnosphereof the chamber, he made numerous speeches, some of them very important, on the most diverse subjects, ae. he appro oached each time with an amazing competence and a constantly growing sense of authority. on every question sak which he dealt, he adopted a courageous attitude which showed him incapable of sa crificing his principles to parliamen- tary compromise or to motives of self-interest. without allying himself to any partv, he devoted himself passionately to the pathic good and to the een neral welfare; but at the close of the session the meagre results of his efiorts discouraged him so much that he decided to awantion politics, and asked to be reinstated in his post of professor at the university of toulouse. however, upon the insistcnce of his fricads, jaures consented to stand for parliatnent once more. before dissolution, the chamber had substituted the “scrutin d’arrondissement ”’ tor the “ scrutin de ste ”’ and jaurcs presented himself in ae first district of castres, which had long been in the hands cf the reactionary parties. but on sept. 22, at the first poll, he found himself in a minority of 856 votes though he himself had obtained almost 9,000. in nov. jaurts resumed the professer’s were now thronged with students, workmen, middle class folk, other proicssors, men cf science, men of learning. during this period he wrote his theses for the doctorate. his french thesis was entitle de la realite du monde sensiile. ln his latin thesis he traced the origins of german socialism de primis soctalisint [cera lincamentis apud lutherum, nant, fichte et texel. | about this time an ardent religious revival had stirred the imag- ination of many liberal minds. the questions thus raised were discussed by jaurcs in his lectures; ut his robust and healthy rationalism resisted the tendencies of the day, just as later he opposed the vogue of pragmatism. an admirer of renan, he woud not admit dilettantism in mutters of relizion and the ‘subjectivism of faith ’”? never had any attractions for him. in the midst of the formidable labours which his persona ub work and the preparation of his lectures involved, jourcs round lime to comment regularly on tonics of the moment in the imper- chair. ilis lectures jaures 601 tant local organ la depeche. thors his ideas on politics and | towards order, beauty, liberty.” to conform to this aspiration, econemics were seen tc turn more and more towards socialism, to which, at the close of 1890, he at last publicly announced his adhesion. at the same time, public life claimed him again. on july 27 1890 at a local election, he was chosen municipal coun- cillor of toulouse, and his colleagues appointed him forthwith deputy mayor, in special charze of public education. he took thus an important part in clevating the schoo! of medicine into a faculty. after the strike at carmausx, in the course of which he defended the claims of the miners, jaures was elected deputy, in 1893, at a local election, and his term of office was renewed at the general elections of 1894. defeated again in 1898, he was re-elected in 1902; and his electorate remained faithful to him from that time on. in parliament, as soon as he returned, he assumed a position of great authority in politics. he took a large part in the debates on the panama and boulangist crises, in discussions of agrarian and colonial questions, on fiscal policy and protectionist meas- ures, on syndicalism and the separation of church and state, on military laws and electoral reform. in the dreyfus affair his energetic intervention captured the socialist party, which hesi- tated at first to take part in a conilict which seemed not to con- cern the proletariat. he carried on a formidable campaign in favour of the condemned and innocent man, a “ living witness to military les, to political cowardice, to the crimes of authority,” nor did he cease until drevfus was definitely rehabilitated. his speeches and his articles on this affair are collected in one volume called les prenves, a masterpiece of analysis and eloquent logic. led by the logical development of his metaphvsical and reli- gious ideas to social conceptions which obliged him to accept the socialist teaching, jaures adhcred clesely to the socialist party, which at each new election gained a larger number of represent- atives in parliament. but he realised at once that the fragmen- tation of socialists into groups and sects would be a source of political weakness and an obstacle to the ideals of social justice and the liberation of humanity which he wished to attain. tor him the “ sublime joy of leading all men towards the fullness of humanity,” lay in the effort to achieve these ideals. the socialism of jaures difiers essentially from the marxian doctrine, the principle of which is pscudo-scientific. ‘‘ our socialism,” writes jaures, “is french in origin, french in inspiration, and french in character.” his ultimate aim was harmony founded on justice. social harmony implies the disappearance of an injustice which provokes conflicts, hatreds and their horrible consequences, an injustice originating in capitalist ownership. jaures was a socialist because ‘ the domination of one class is an outrage against humanity.’ into this doctrine he breathed his own glowing and generous ideas and, at the same time, drew from it the strength with which he animated it. “ no serious social programme can be realised without a definite social doc- trine,” he wrote, and for him the whole socialist ideal must inspire organic reformatory action and thus establish a socialism, democratic, republican and lay. all socialist sects have the same social ideal, but their differ- ences in tactics and methods paralyse common action. jaures strove to bring about unification. at the congress of 1901, a section of groups rallicd to him under the name of the part: soctaliste frangais, while the others formed the parti soctaliste de france! after the amsterdam congress in 1903, the two groups coalesced and jaures became, in fact, their moral and intellectual chief. thereatier his political activity was bound up with that of the unilied socialist party, whose parliamentary activity he directed with great skill. he drafted most of the resolutions at socialist congresses and defended them in an admirably con- ciliatory spirii. his philosophy of history, unlike that of marx, did not hold that the development of human society is subject to a blind determinism; he postulated for it an intelligent directing force and an ideal wisdom. “ history,” he wrote, “ although a phe- nomenon which develops according to mechanical laws, is nevertheiess an aspiration to realise itself according to an ideal re law... . pre universe is but an immensg, a vague, aspiration socialism, according to jaures, should seek reform to bring about a less contradictory social order, whose institutions would be less exclusive, less bitterly egotistic, less mischievous, which would cease to perpetuate strife, hatred and want; which would permit men to pass from a state of brutal competition and con- flict to the state of co-operation; which would transform the cconomic passivity of the masses into initiative and responsi- bility, in which social energies, instead of being wasted on sterile and insane conflicts, would be co-ordinated for common action. to uphold these convictions, jaures, after the amsterdam con- gress in 1905, struggled alone against the entire international for a share of power and for the preservation of the democratic- socialist blec. he violently attacked and denounced as impotent the german social democracy which dominated the congress and was supported by the old french socialist organisations. on april 17 1904 jean jaures, with aristide briand, founded ' humanite, which has become the daily organ of the socialist party. his daily leading article in it was written for the most part from his seat in the chamber. jaures early discerned the danger which threatened the world. he foresaw that the unstable equilibrium of the triple alliance and the triple entente was bound to end in a catastrophe, and he wished to avert it by the simultaneous international action of the proletariat. a passionate lover of france, he sought to spare his country the horrors of devastation by war. while he maintained that a democracy should not have an aggressive policy, he did net deny the duty of every nation to defend itself. to prevent misunderstanding between socialism and patriotism he wrote: “ a nation which could not count, in days of crisis or when its life is in danger, upon the national devotion of the working class, would be a wretched thing indeed.” he supported the policy of arbitration and all measures to secure international peace, but at the same time, in the name of the workers of i'rance, he insisted “ that the nation organise all its military forces, irrespective of class or caste, for the sole purpose of national defence.” against germany, militarist and absolutist, stood france, a nation in arms, practising ‘‘ a policy of supreme na- tional defence which would lead not only to peace but to the assurance of peace.”? jaures expounded and developed his ideas on the organisation of “a nation in arms ” in his book, l’armee nourelle, the policy of world-wide solidarity which jaures proclaimed was of no avail against the blind forces which precipitated the war, but jaures continued to strive for peace. on july 28 re14, before the outbreak of war, he, and some of his most eminent socialist colleagues, went to brusscls to confer, in the name of the french socialist party, with representatives of international] labour on the best means of averting the threat of war, which he still thought ceuld be avoided. but he was none the less full of anguish over the fate of france, compelled to defend herseli against aggression. on this subject, he certainly felt no hesita- tion, for he had always been animated by the purest patriotism. “tl y aun groupement historique qui s’appelle la france, quia ete constitue par «les siecles de souffrances communes, d'esperances communes; les lentes formations monarchiques en ont peu a peu juxtapose ct soude les morceaux, et les ardentes ¢preuves de la revolution vont fondu en un seul metal. c’est la patrie francaise ... oui, il y a des luttes, <les antagonismes profonds de classe. alais guels que soient ces luttes politiques, ces divisions gconomiques, ces antagonismes sociaux, ils ne peuvent pas porter aticinte a [idce meme de la patrie. ... si notre patrie est menacee ... nous serions des premiers 4 la frontiere pour defendre la france dont ie sang coule dans nas veines, et dont le fier genie est ce qu’il y a de menleur en nous.” these noble words leave no doubt as to the attitude which jaures would have taken, or of the rele which he would have played in the “ hely war for our beloved france if ever she were attacked.”? but on the very eve of mobilisation, in paris, on july 31 ror, at o:40, jaures succumbed to the bullets of an assassin—e wretched half-wit, impelled to this stupid crime by the calumnics of the adversaries of the great tribune. his obsequies were celebrated on aug. 4 in the midst of an immense 602 popular gathering, and his body was interred at albi. in 1925 his mortal remains were brought back to paris, and, borne on the shoulders of his faithful miners of carmaux, deposited in the pantheon. (ep. he.) jebavy, vaclav (1868- ), czech poet universally known as otakar, bfezina, was born at pocitky, bohemia, sept. 13 1868. after an education in science he became a secondary school teacher in southern moravia, where he lived a life of con- templative seclusion, declining the honours and material advan- tages offered him by the government. his published works con- sist of five books of poetry: secret distances (1895); dawn in the west (1896); polar winds (1807); temple builders (1899) and the hands (rg01), and a volume of prose essays, afusic of the springs (1903); besides a number of poems scattered in various literary papers. biezina is admittedly the greatest modern czech poet, and is even judged by some foreign critics to be the greatest mystic poet of all nations. his development as a mystic philosopher and religious visionary passed from the subjective pessimism of his early poems, through a transcendental revelation of mystic realities, to an evolutionary optimism and a joyful belief in cos- mic brotherhood. his art manifests an analogous development from an intimate lyrical impressionism through ecstatic incan- tations of a high-priest and a seer to an impersonal, super-per- sonal, dythyrambic poetry of the elements, suns and stars, and of human effort, suffering and mystic destiny. his diction is so concentrated and pregnant with thought that it presents con- siderable difficulty at first reading; but this is more than com- pensated for by the superlative beauty and entrancing music of his verse, the remarkable wealth of his imagery and the extraor- dinarily human and personal appeal of his philosophy which has its roots in the mystic tradition of the medieval czech reli- gious sects. he brought czech poetical language to a stage of perfection which it had never before attained and which is difficult to surpass. see paul selver, anthology of modern slavonic literature (1919); modern csech poetry (1920), and a study in czech literature cn wd jellicoe, john rushworth jellicoe, 1st earr (1850- ), british admiral, was born dec. 5 1859, the son of j. h. jellicoe, a captain in the mercantile marine. his great-grand- father was sir james whalley smyth gardiner, the third and last baronet of that name. educated at rottingdean, he entered the navy as a naval cadet at the age of thirteen. he obtained his commission as sub-lieutenant in 1880, and his har«d work and marked ability won him three first class certificates in his three examinations for the rank of lieutenant. he soon developed a strong interest in gunnery and joined the royal naval college in 1883 for the theoretical part of the course for gunnery lieuten- ant, where he distinguished himself by winning a special £80 prize. the following year he spent in hi.m.s. “ excellent,” and became a fully qualified gunnery officer. from now onwards gunnery was his speciality, though his interests were by no means confined to this branch. his first sea-going ship as a gunnery lteutenant was h.ms. “* monarch,” in which he served from 1886 to 1888. during his first year on board he went to the rescue of the crew of a stranded steamer, taking charge of a gig, manned by volunteers. the boat upset in a heavy sea and he and the crew saved themselves with difficulty. he received the board of trade silver medal for his plucky effort. after two years on the senior staff of the gunnery school, he was appointed to the admiralty as an assist- ant to the director of naval ordnance. in 1893 he was promoted to commander, and shortly afterwards was appointed to h. mls. “ victoria,” flagship of admiral sir george tryon, commander- in-chief of the mediterranean fleet. when the “ victoria” was rammed and sunk by the ‘‘ camperdown,’”’ commander jellicoe had to take to the water. as he was seriously ill at the time he would have fared badly but for the support he received from a young naval cadet, mr. p. d. roberts-west, until rescued. commander jellicoe soon recovered and two months later was appointed to the battleship “‘ ramillics”” which flew the flag _ jebavy—]jellicoe of the new commander-in-chief, admiral sir michael culme- seymour. after a three years commission in that ship he was promoted to captain on jan. 1 1897, and served on the ordnance committee. in 1898 he was appointed to the command of h.m.s. ‘“ centurion,” where he became flag captain to admiral sir ed- ward seymour, commander-in-chief of the china station. as the latter’s chief of staff he took part in the expedition to relieve the legations in peking during the boxer rising in 1900. during these operations captain jellicoe was badly wounded. he was subsequently awarded the c.b. for these services. service alt the admiraity—he returned to the admiralty in 1902 to be the naval assistant to the controller (third sea lord). here he acquired an insight of the work of that department which was to be of great value to him later. in aug. 1903 he went to sea again to take command of the fine armoured cruiser “‘ drake ” for a year. the year t905 saw him in the responsible post of director of naval ordnance at the admiralty. during his period of office he did much to further the advance of long range firing and to assist the development of naval gunnery on lines which more closely approximated 1o the real conditions of war. to- wards the end of his time he reached the top of the captains’ list and was promoted to flag rank in feb. 1907. in aug. of that year he hoisted his flag afloat in h.m.s. “ albemarle ” as rear-admiral in the atlantic fleet. the appointment was for a year’s duration only, when once morc he returned to the ad- miralty, this time to become a member of the board as third sea lord and controller of the navy. in dec. 1910 he was appointed acting vice-admiral in command of the atlantic leet, being confirmed in that rank in the following november. at the end of the year he transferred his flag to h.m.s. “‘ hercules,” on appointment to the command of the 2nd division of the home vleet. in 1912 important gunnery experiments were carried out by two battleships of this division, the ‘‘ thunderer ” and “ orion,”’ the former being fitted with this system of director firing which sir percy scott had been perfecting. the trials culminated in competitive firings which took place under admiral jellicoe’s personal supervision. it was as a result of these practices and largely due to admiral jellicoe’s insistent pressure that this most valuable system was adopted as the primary one for laying and firing the guns of practically all classes of h.m. ships. the event may be regarded as yet another milestone on the path of that gunnery progress for which he was greatly responsible. after a year in this command he returned to the admiralty to rejoin the board as second sea lord. the war pcriod—nhwe left whitehall temporarily in 1913 to become commander-in-chief of the “‘ red ” tleet during manoeu- vres, flying his flag in h.m.s. “ thunderer,” but had returned to the admiralty, when, on the eve of war, he was sent to join the home fleet at scapa as second in command. the period of command of admiral sir george callaghan was due to expire in a few months and vice-admiral jellicoe had already been designated as his successor. when war could no longer be averted, it was considered desirable that the change in this most responsible naval command should not be delayed and sir john jellicoe was appointed commander-in-chief with acting rank of admiral. he had to perform a peculiarly difficult and trying duty in relieving his former chief, who was trusted and respected in an unusual degree throughout the fleet. that he achieved it so successfully was due to the chivalrous attitude of these two flag oflicers towards each other and to the very high reputation and strong personal regard which sir john himself enjoyed. admiral jellicoe was confirmed in his rank in march rg15, and for two years bore the exceptionally heavy burden of organising and training the grand fleet and keeping it ready for battle. his great command was put to the test at the baitle of juiland. now that the full details of that action are better understood, the skilful handling of the british forces against an elusive enemy in conditions of low visibility and approaching darkness, is being increasingly appreciated. the german fleet escaped at night and took refuge in harbour with many ships severely damaged, and such was the impression left by jutland that germany — jellinek—jerusalem never again risked a meeting with the grand fleet. the fruits of admiral jellicoe’s leadership on that day and of his incom- parable services throughout his period of command were seen in the historic surrender of german ships at the end of the war. in the latter part of 1916 admiral jellicoe was invited to be- come first sea lord and regretfully left his last and greatest command afloat to take up that appointment. it was largely due to his tireless labours and wide experience that the grave danger of the german submarine menace was eventually over- come, although others reaped where he had sown. he left the admiralty at the end of 1917. after the armistice he was sent on aspcecial mission to visit the dominions and advise on the post- war organisation of their navies. on this tour he flew his tlag in h.m.s. “ new zealand.” he was promoted to admiral oi the fleet in rorg and the following year was made governor of new zealand. during his four years in this high office he greatly endeared himself to the people of that dominion. for his services in the war admiral jellicoe received the thanks of parliament and a grant of £50,000, and at the end of 1918 he was raised to the peerage as viscount jellicoe of scapa, subsequently taking the additional title of viscount brocas of southampton. on his return from new zealand and in recogni- tion of his services as governor he was, in 1925, created an earl. he received the k.c.v.o. in 1907, g.c.b. in rg1g and g.c.v.o. in 1916; he also holds a number of foreign orders. he marrted, in 1902, the daughter of sir charles cayzer, bart., and has four daughters and a son and heir, viscount brocas, who was born in 1918. earl jellicoe possesses in remarkable degree the power of inspiring others with his own loyalty and singleness of purpose. few naval commanders since nelson’s time have enjoyed such devotion and confidence as he did as commander-in-chief of the greatest fleet that ever set forth to do battle. (re. a.*) jellinek, george (1851-1911), hungarian jurist (see 15.315), died at heidelberg, jan. 12 rgr1. jena, university of (sce 15.315).—in rg10 the number of students was 1,946 and in 1925 it had risen to 2,153, when it had 271 foreign students, of whom 69 came from latvia and 49 from russia. the faculty of medicine is specially attractive to foreign students. the university library possesses 325,000 volumes and a large collection of pamphlets. jensen, johannes vilhelm (1873- ), danish author, was born at fars6, north jutland, jan. 20 1873, of a family of peasant extraction. he studied at the university of copenhagen and afterwards travelled extensively, writing a number of novels, sketches, essays and letters of travel and some volumes of poetry. jensen belongs to the new school of danish literature which came into being about r900. influenced by whitman, kipling and h. c. andersen, he repudiated the brandes school with its imitation of french literature and wrote of nature and outdoor life. among his novels may be mentioned: a osgens fald (1899-— 1902), a historical novel of the 16th century; afadame d’ora (1904); and den lange rejse (1908-21) describing the evolution of the northern race from the glacial epoch to the time of columbus. in himmerlandshistorier (1898-1910); skovene (1904); eksotiske noveller (1907-15) and mvyter of jagter (1907-24) he described life and scenery in his native country and abroad with brilliant imaginative talent and mastery of language. jensen, who became a firm believer in evolution, adopted in later years a purely atheistic and biological view of life. see otto gelsted, johannes v. jensen (1913). jensen, wilhelm (1837-1911), german author (see 15.321), died near munich nov. 24 rorz. his last work was fremdlinge unter den menschen (1911). see w. barchfeld, wilhelm jensen als lyrtker (1913). jersey city, n.j., u.s.a. (see 15.331), produced 5,000 dif- ferent kinds of articles in its 1,325 industrial plants in 1925. because of the diversity of its industries and the staple character of their products, jersey city was less affected by the war than some manufacturing cities, and suffered less in the succeeding depression. the aggregate value of manufactures rose from $1 25,775,000 in 1909 to $374,183,000 in 191g; and then, after falling to $289,796,274 in 1921, rose again to $313,999,142 in 603 1923. the average numbcr of wage earners in factories for the same years was 25,454; 36,981; 30,026; 33,264. the most important new industry is the manufacture of radio apparatus and supplies, for which several plants were established in 1924 and 1925. the population in 1910 was 267,779; in 1920, 298,103, including 8,000 negroes and 76,294 foreign-born (a slight decrease), of whom 14,855 were italians, 12,451 irish, 12,145 poles and 11,113 germans. in 1925 the official estimate was 315,280. a development plan, prepared about 1920, pro- vides, among other engineering improvements, for the construc- tion of a bulkhead across a part of newark bay, by which one square mile of territory suitable for industrial sites will be added to the area of the city. by improvements in the fire department, the city secured a rating in class a for fire insurance. boyle’s thirty acres, widely advertised as the largest arena in the world, was opened in 1921. the opening of the hudson tubes (1909) gave some impetus to building in the residence section on “ the hill,” which was thereby brought within eight min. of the finan- cial district of new york. the completion of the double-tube vehicular tunnel in 1926 makes the connection still closer. the commission form of government was adopted in 1913. jerusalem, palestine (sce 15.331), is now the seat of the government of palestine under the mandate given to great britain in july 1922 and the chief town of its province. a large hospice outside the jaffa gate, which was built and endowed by the german empress in ro1o, is used as government house. ‘the population in 1922 was 62,678, of whom 33,971 were jews. an armenian patriarch was elected in 1921 with the formal approval of king george, and the position of the orthodox patriarch of jerusalem has been confirmed by a commission appointed by the british administration. on dec. 9 1917 gen. allenby made an unostentatious entry into jerusalem. military administration was carried on until 1920, when a civil administration with an advisory coun- cil was set up. since 1917 much good work has been done in the city, which under the turkish regime was squalid and filthy. the streets are scavenged and thoroughly cleaned, and work has been begun on a drainage system. the old and inadequate water supply from solomon’s pools has been replaced. the ancient aqueduct leading from the springs of birket-el-‘arub, 14 m. distant, to solomon’s pools has been cleared, and is used in part to lead the water to a large reservoir, whence it is dis- tributed by gravity to jerusalem. there is a second reservoir at lifta, giving a total supply of 150,000 gal. daily. since the completion of the installation the amount of water used in jerusalem has increased tenfold. a town plan and civic survey have been mace and several garden villages in the neighbour- hood designed. the houses have been numbered and the streets named; some roads have been widened, and in 1924 king george v. avenue was opened. laws have been promulgated against large shop signs and advertisement boardings, a chamber of commerce has been formed and a telephone system installed. roads fit for motor traffic all the year round have been made to jaffa, jericho, hebron and damascus. there is, however, no longer through railway connection with cairo, as the swing bridge over the suez canal at el-qantara was removed in 1920 at the instance of the suez canal co., and the canal has to be crossed by ferry. the government department of antiquities, founded soon after the establishment of the british administra- tion, has the archaeological schools of the different nations under its control, with the assistance of an advisory board of representatives from the schools. treviously all antiquities found their way to constantinople, but over 6,000 specimens have now been catalogued as a nucleus of a palestine museum at jerusalem. excavating is only permitted to recognised scientific bodies. much good work nas recently been done by the palestine exploration society. the citadel has been cleared of debris and modern accretions, as also the cotton bazaar; the ornate clock tower on the jaffa gate has been removed and re-erected, shorn of its trimmings, in allenby square, and the walk on the ramparts in part reinstated. important excavations on mount 604 ophel have also been recently carried out by the society, follow- ing earlier efforts on the site in 1909-11 and 1913-4. remains have beer found of the north wali and tower of the jcbusite fortress, which was conquered by king david and formed the site of his city; and it is hoped to discover his tomb. in 1920 the ruins of a 4th-century church of much interest were discovered by franciscan friars in the course of digging foundations for a church in the garden of gethsemane, and its excavation was completed by the dept. of antiquities. in 1921 the ancient school of st. etienne, founded by french dominicans, became the headquarters of the french archacclogical society. the foundation stone of a hebrew university was laid in 1018 on mount scopus, but until 1924 there was no teaching organisation. an institute of jewish studies was started in that vear, and in aoril 1925 the university was formally opened by lord balfour. the foundation stone of an institute of physics and mathematics was laid the day after the opening of the university. jerusalem, university of.—the iden of creating a university in jerusalem was first put forward in 1882 by dr. schapira, privatdozent in mathematics in heidelberg. after preliminary steps it was approved by the rrth zionist congress in 1913, and a committee of the congress purchased a site on mt. scopus (near the mount of olives) in ror4, the foundation stone was laid in 1918 by dr. c. weizmann, the president of the zionist organisation, and the university was formally opened by earl balfour on april 1 1925. the object of the university was twofold; to carry out research in all departments, and teach- ing especially in the departments of jewish and oriental studies, for which the university should be a world-centre. departments of chemistry including physical chemistry, microbiology and jewish studies are in existence, and there is an important agricultural research institute at tel-avio in connection with the university. the library already contains over 120,000 volumes and the estimated recurring expenditure for 1926 is £45,000. the scientific research is especially directed with a view to the material development of palestine. see the new palestine (new york) for march 27 102s. jespersen, jens otto harry (1860- ), danish philologist, was born at randers, denmark, july 16 1860. ife graduated in modern languages at the university of copenhagen in 1884 and gained his doctor’s degree in 1891 by a thesis on english laws. in 1893 he was appointed professor at the univer- sity of copenhagen. from 1go9-1o he lecture at columbia university, new york. he produced a number of books on englis! grammar, the history of language, general phonetics and the philosophy of language, many of which were written in english. a practical philologist, jespersen’s view of the development of language was influenced by herbert spencer and wilhelm ostwald. his most important works are progress in langucge (1894); phonetics (1897-9); growth and structure of the english language (1905, prix volney, 1906); lehrbuch der phouctik (1913); language, us nature, development and origin (1922);philosophy of grammar (1924). jesus christ: see biblical criticism; christianity. jewish literature: see hebrew literature. jews (sce 15.371).—the jewish population of the world on the outbreak of war in 1914 may be estimated at about 14,900,- ooo. of these, two-thirds were concentrated in eastern and south- eastern europe, including (in round figures) just under 7,000,000 in russia, 2,250,000 in austria-hungary and nearly 250,000 in rumania. of the remainder, about two-thirds livedlin the united states, which had a jewish population of close cn 3,000,c00, leaving a balance of about 1,500,000 for other parts of the world. there were about 600,000 jews in germany, and about 500,000 in the british empire, including 250,000 in great britain and ireland. i. the pre-war period events in russia—in the years immediately preceding the world war, the condition of the jews in russia went from bad to worse. the legal restrictions by which the jews were harassed were vigorously enforced and in some respects made still more jerusalem, universipy of—jews burdensome. in roto there was a round-up of jews in kiev. jewish houses were systematically raided by the police, and bundreds of familics, who were unable to prove their right of residence, were abruptly expelled. the expulsions continued in rovt—2 and were extended to other cities in which only privi- leged jews were permitted to reside—notably moscow, st. peters- burg and kursk—as well as to a large number of villages in various parts of the pale of settlernent, where the government’s policy was to confine the jews to the towns. during the same period further disabilities were imposed on the jews in the sphere of education. in 1910 the percentage rule, which limited the number of jewish pupils to a fixed proportion, was extended to schools of surgery and dentistry and to the schools of painting and architecture in the st. peter sburg acad- emy of fine arts. the percentage rule was even applied to the jewish secondary schools, which had hitherto been exempted as private institutions. as a result promising young jews and jewesses, who found higher education out of their reach in rus- sia, began to leave the country in increasing numbers to pursue their studies abroad. a third line of attack was marked by what was known as the ‘‘ scheme for the russification of commerce.” this scheme, designed to drive the jews out of russian trade, was launched during the premiership of m. stolypin. mm]. kokov- izeff, who succeeded af. stolypin in rorr, viewed it with misgiving, but the anti-jewish forces were too strong for him and, though never formally approved by the govt. or the duma, the scheme was put into practical operation, existing restrictions being used to cripple public companics under jewish manage- ment and generally to discourage jewish commercial enterprise. in russian poland the jews also suffered severely from an eco- nomic boycott organised by the warsaw nationalists, whose candidate for the fourth duma was defeated by jewish votes at the election of r9r2. at easter, 1911, a christian boy was killed at kiev. the anti-semites at once accused the jews of ritual murder, and a jew named beilis was arrested. beiiis was kept for more than two years awaiting his trial which ended in nov. 1913 n his acquittal. | in the third duma a bill for the abolition of the pale of set- tlement received a considerable measure of support, while the fourth duma also contained liberal-minded elements. but though the jews were not altogether friendless, their position grew worse rather than better. the govt. remained fixed in its determination to crush them, and jewish life in russia presented a picture of almost unrclicved gloom. jews in southeast enrope—in rumania the jews were sub- jected to much the same treatment as in russia. in one respect their position was cven worse. jcws, as such, were deemed by the rumanian govt. to be aliens, even though they were native- bora and had no claim to any other nationality. as a sequel to ‘the berlin treaty of 1878, under which the powers recogrised her independence, rumaxia undertook in 1880 to give the jews liberal facilities for naturalisation. had this pledge been fulfilled, their status would have been gradua ily regularised, but the spirit in which it was carried out is shown by the fnct that between 1880-1913, about 200 jews were actually naturalised out of a jewish population, mainly native-born, of over 200,000. the rumanian declaration of war on bulgaria in 1913 brought 15,000 jewish reservists to the colours. this produced a certain revul- sion of fecling and it looked for a moment as though at last the jewish sokliers would now be naturalised e7 blec. a few individ- usl applications were granted, but the anti-jewish forces soon regained the upper hand, and the elections of rg14 brought into power a reactionary govt. from which jews had nothing to hope. in ausiria-hungary the jews were subject to no legal disa- bilities. in 1912-3 there were various affrays between jewish and german or polish students at the universities of vienna, czernowitz and lemberg, but these incidents, though symptom- atic, were in themselves of no great consequence. in morocco the jews suffered severely from an outbreak of disorder in 1912 when mutinous troops of the sultan’s army sacked the jewish quarter at lez, 60 jews being killed and many severely wounced. a considerable number of jews were affected by the territorial jews changes resulting from the belkan wars of 1912-3, and more especially by the transfer of salonika from turkey to greece. among the 200,c00 inhabitants of salonika there were about 90,000 jews, who played a predominant part in its commercia life. though the greek govt. gave satisfactory assurances, the change of sovereignty was viewed by the jews with misgivings which have proved not altogether unfounded. asa result of the conditions prevailing in russia and rumania, jews continued to emigrate overseas in large numbers. some of them settled in palestine, where jewish colonisation was making gradual progress with the support of baron edmond de roth- schild and under the inspiration of ithe zionist blovement the great majority, however, made their way to the united states, where 493,459 jewish immigrants were officially recorded in the five years 1910~4 (see migration). ty btec of ic avr the war compictely changed the face of the jewish world. in the russian empire it brought the jews political emancipa- tion, but it also brought them unspeakable suifering and ended by submerging them in the flood of anarchy which followed the collapse of orderly government. as a result, the influential jewish community in the united states increased to 3,600,000 persons. finally, the war led up to the balfour declaration, which foreshadowed the establishment under international guarantees of a national home for the jews in palestine. faster: europe —the crowded jewries of eastern europe felt the full impact cof the war from the outset. the russian pale of settlement became almost at once a theatre of operations. so, too, did galicia, with its poverty-stricken jewish population of over 800,coo. the jews were bound in any case to suffer m common with their neighbours, but their miseries were aegravat- ed by wholesale deportations. within a vear of the outbreak of war, nearly 1,500,000 jewish refugees hal been set adrift. to make matters worse, the polish nationalists vigorously pur- sued their vendetta against the jews and revived the boycott which began in warsaw in ror2. so pitiful was the condition of the jews that the russian govt. which had already made substantial grants to the petrograd jewish relief committee, eventually issued, as a temporary measure, a decree permitting the jews to reside freely in any of the towns of the empire, with certain specified exceptions, of which the most important were petrograd and moscow. this decree was dated sept. 3 1915. the concessions thus granted gave the jews some relicf, though its effect was minimised by the ihberal spirit in which it was administered. public opinion was ripe for much more sweeping rcforms. of this there was ample evidence in the friendly welcome which the jewish refugees received from their christian neighbours in their new homes, in the action of a number of important public bodies who petitioned the govt. in favour of the emancipation of the jews, and in the protest of many enlightened russian patriots against a policy which they regarded as detrimental to russian interests and inconsistent with the spirit of unity which the national crisis demanded. but the reactionary traditions of the old regime were too powerful. nothing was done for the jews in 1916, and the inquiries of other allicd govts., which were sym- pathetically interested in their case, showed that they had nothing to hape for. it was not until the revolution of 1917 that their emancipation became a possibility. the jews whole-heartedly supported the revolution, and one of the first acts of the lvoff govt. was to issue a decree, dated april 3 1917, for the repeal of “ all restrictions of a religious and national character.’’ this decree at one stroke relieved the jews of all disabilities, and it only remained for them to take their place in the new russia. there was much dis- cussion in jewish circles as to what that place should be, and there was a strong feeling in favour of what was called national autonomy, the suggestion being that the jews should be recog- nised as a national unit and enjoy, in common with every other nationality in russia, a limited measure of self-government. the jews had hardly been emancipated before these dreams 605 were rudely shattered by the seizure of power by the bolshe- viks. ameng the bolshevik icaders and their satellites were a certain number of jews, none of whom, however, played any part in the jewish community, or had any ties with it bevond their jewish birth. the great majority of the jews sided with the moderstes and suffered accorlinzly under the soviet regime. the communal organisations were broken up, and many of their leaders were imprisoned, living, as most of them did, by trade, the jews suffered severely from the economic debacle which the bolshevik revolution brought with it, and to add to their distress it became increasingly dificult to send them relief from ebroad. tn rumania the conditions of the jews remained as deplorable as ever, thouch they did not suffer from the war in the same de- gree as in ruszia. on may 11 1917, representatives of the com- mittee of native jews were received by the ring, who gave them vague but encouraging assurances. there, however, the matter endedand nothing was done for ihe jews until alimited measure of cmancipation was dictated by the germans in the treaty of bucharest. the relicf thus granted was of little practical value, and there was no change in the policy of the rumanian covt., which continued to harass the jews and treate them with exceptional harshness in the occupied province of bessarabia. united states —as already stated, one result of the disruption of jewish life in eastern eurone was that the centre of gravity tended to shift to the united states. an american jewish re- hef committes, later incorporaiad in the joint distribution com- miltec, was founded in tor4 and took the lead in organising relict work among the jews in the stricken areas in castera europe and elsewhere. the funds raised for this purpose in the united states during the war and the past-war period are stated to have reached a total of §60.0099,c00. american jewry was also active in the defence of jewish rights in eastern urove, though in this fieldl at least an equally prominent part was played by the english jews, who also contributed considerable sums for relicf work. at the same time, the american fovs began to play a part of growing importance in the zionist movement, and were concerned in the negotiations leading up to the balfour declara- tion, of which president wilson was a consistent and influential advocate (sce zionism). ill. the. jews under the peace ‘treaties the territorial changes which followed the war closely affected the jews of eastern and southeastern europe. two-fifths of them were taken over by poland, which had more than 3,500,- ooo jews among its 27,000,000 inhabitants. about 250,000 jews were included in lithuania, about 100,000 in latvia and about 8,000 in estonia. only 3,000,000 jews remained under russian rule, as compared with about 7,000,000 in ro14. of these, two- thirds were in the ukraine. about 350,000 jews were left in austria and about 500,000 in ilunguary, as compared with about 2,250,000 in the former austro-hungarian imyyire. of the remainder, about 350,000 passed to czechoslovakia, while as a result of the annexation of transylvania and the bukowina, to- gether with the russian province of bessarabia, rumania in- creased her jewish population from a little over 200,000 to more than 1,009,c00. these changes of allegiance were in themselves not necessarily for the worse, but they involved the disruption of old-cstablished communities and broke them up in fragments, each of which had at once to reorganise its internal life and es- tablish a modus vivend: with new and in most cases none too friendly rulers. the peace conference.—it was in these circumstances that the jewish problem was brought to the attention of the peace con- ference. it presented itself in a twotold aspect. the allies had already undertaken to facilitate the establishment of a national home for the jews in palestine. this undertaking held good, but it was none the less necessary to define and safeguard the rights of the jewish minorities in eastern and southeastera kurope. asto what those rights should be jewish opinion was divided. the east european jews themselves, speaking through their repre- sentatives on a bedy known as the committee of jewish delega- 606 tions at the paris peace conference, demanded the recognition of the jews in the succession states as ‘‘ national minorities ”’ enjoying a substantial measure of self-government. this view was supported by the jewish delegates from the united states but was opposed by those from great britain and france, who limited themselves to a programme of “ minority rights’ not implying the creation of anything in the nature of a state within the state. this more moderate claim was eventually conceded in the minority treaties, of which the first was signed by poland on the one hand and the principal allied and associated powers on the other on june 28 rotg. this treaty makes it impossible for poland to create a class of foreigners possessing no national status, such as the jews had been in pre-war rumania. racial, religious and linguistic minorities are to enjoy complete equality before the law, the free use of their own languages, the right to control their own religious, educational and social institutions and an equitable share of public funds allotted to educational, religious or charitable purposes. over and above these provisions, which apply to minorities generally, the treaty specifically empowers the jews to appoint local committees for the management of their own schools and provides that they shall not be under any disability by reason of their refusal to attend courts of law or vote at elections on the sabbath. poland recognises these stipulations as matters of international concern and agrees that they shall be guaranteed bv the league of nations. the league formally guarantced the treaty on [eh. 13 1920. similar obligations, in each case guaranteed by the league, were accepted by czechoslovakia, yugoslavia, rumania, austria, hungary and bulgaria. one important result of these transac- tions was the emancipation of the jews in rumania, including the inhabitants of the old kingdom, as well as of the territories annexed as a result of the war. after the close of the peace con- ference, undertakings on the lines of those contained in the minority treatics, though on the whole less stringent, were se- cured by the council of the league from lithuania, latvia and estonia. it was only in the exceptional case of poland that it was thought necessary to make express provision for the jews, but if the rights which they shared with other minorities were respected, they had little to fear. jews in eastern europe —while the minority treaties were being negotiated in paris a dangerous situation was developing in eastern and southeastern europe. the jews were in an un- enviable position, both in the succession states, where an intol- erant nationalism was in the ascendant, and in what was left of the dismembered empires, where scapegoats had to be found for the humiliations of the peace settlement. they were pecul- iarly exposed to attack in the atmosphere created by bolshevism in russia and its momentary irruption into hungary. the tsarist regime had subjected the jews to a pitiless and systematic persecution. most of them threw themselves, when the revolution came, on to the side of the moderates, but among them were some who, goaded to desperation, developed what may be called a destructive mania. there was no jewish blood in lenin himself, but both in russia and in ihfungary a prominent part in the bolshevik movement was played by men who, though long dissociated from the jewish community, were nevertheless of jewish birth. in both countries the overwhelming majority of the jews were anti-bolshevik, not only on grounds of princi- ple, but also because the bulk of them were traders and belonged to the very class which hac most to lose from a bolshevik victory. nevertheless, the enemies of the jews branded them indiscrim- inately as bolsheviks, and the alarm which the bolshevik menace excited in europe at the close of the war gave an impetus to reactionary forces which singled out the jews as their targets. in poland the armistice was followed by a series of anti- jewish excesses which led the british govt. to send out sir stuart samuel on a mission of inquiry. the samuel report shows that in disorders which occurred in the vear after the war not less than 348 jews were killed and a much larger number wounded. the more serious excesses were confined to the areas of lemberg, jews pinsk and vilna, where poland was still at war with the ukrain- lans and the bolsheviks, but there were spasmodic outbreaks in many parts of poland proper, and throughout the country the jews were suffering from a sustained commercial boycott. in hungary, the collapse of the bolshevik revolution under bela kun led to a violent reaction, which vented itself in attacks on jewish life and property, while the sufferings of the jewish population were aggravated by acute economic distress. there were also disturbing, though less violent, outbreaks of anti- semitism in austria and in various parts of germany, more especially in bavaria. but the principal storm-centre was in southern russia, where the poles, the bolsheviks and the armies of gen. denikin fought over the body of the still-born ukrainian republic. the british minister in warsaw reported in june 1920 that “ the massacres of jews by ukrainian peasant bands can find, in their extent and thoroughness, no parallel except in the massacres of armenians in the turkish empire ”’ (sir h. rumbold to lord curzon, in report of sir s. samuel on his amfission to poland, cmd. paper 674, 1920). it was not until 1921 that the storm began to dic down. by 1922 the soviet govt. which was now in possession, had restored some measure of order, but massacre was succeeded by famine and pestilence. early in 1923 there were reported to be 100,000 homeless jewish orphans in the ukraine, and in odessa the jewish death-rate in 1922 is said to have reached 200 per 1,000. in soviet russia there were no massacres, but though order was fairly well main- tained, the jews suffered from the communist regime, which deprived them of their livelihood as traders, waged war on juda- ism in common with other religions, and was ruthless in its meas- ures against “‘ counter-revolutionaries,” with whom it was dis- posed to class the zionists and, indeed, all jews who clung to their religious or national traditions. as a result of the conditions thus created in eastern europe, 200,000 destitute jewish refugees were set adrift in the border- land between russia, poland and rumania. responsibility for their maintenance and eventual evacuation was assumed by the jewish colonisation assn. and other jewish bodies. as late as the end of 1925 there was still a residue to be provided for, but the bulk of the refugees had by that time either been repa- triated to russia or been enabled to find new homes in the united states, canada, cuba, argentina, mexico or palestine. this was only one, though it was the most poignant, aspect of the problem of the jewish emigration. throughout the crowded jewries of eastern europe there was a growing desire to escape from conditions which seemed to hold out little prospect of a toler- able future. between 1919-23, 238,000 jews emigrated to the united states, while between 1919-25, 67,000 jews emigrated to palestine. in 1924 the johnson law virtually closed the united states to emigrants from eastern europe. there was no longer room for immigrants in great britain, and palestine stood by itself as the one country in which the jews had in principle an assured right of entry under an international guarantee. the period since 1922 since 1922 there have been no anti-jewish excesses on the scale of those which occurred immediately after the war, though in many parts of europe there have been spasmodic outbreaks. nor have the minority treaties been entirely ineffective in safe- guarding the rights of jews, though it has occasionally, been suggested that they have not been an unmixed blessing, in so far as they may have tended in some cases to keep minorities and majorities apart. but though anti-semitism has changed its character, it has by no means ceased to give trouble. it has shown itself in particular in systematic attempts to limit the number of jews in schools and universities by means of a nume- rus clausus. action on these lines has been semi-officially taken in poland and austria, but the leading case is that of hungary, where a numerus clausus based on legislation enacted in 1920 has been openly enforced. the matter has been brought before the league of nations as the guarantor of the minority clauses of the treaty of trianon. the council decided in dec. 1925 to take no immediate steps, in view of the hungarian govt.’s jex-blake— assurance that the law was an emergency measure which would be amended in the near future. in poland, anti-semitism has mainly taken the form of a commercial boycott combined with administrative pin-pricks, the cumulative effect of which has been to place the jews at a disadvantage in every walk of life. since 1924, however, the situation has shown some improvement, and in the summer of 1924 a more favourable atmosphere was created by a formal reconciliation between the govt. and the jewish group in the chamber of deputies. there is no reason to doubt the government’s sincerity, but at the end of 1925 it had still to be seen whether it would be able to translate its assur- ances of goodwill into substantial concessions. in rumania the emancipation of the jews has been almost completed, and only a few exceptional cases remain in dispute. on the other hand, the jews are living under the shadow of an anti-semitic agitation which gives them no peace. if they have been saved from serious excesses, it is due solely to the energy with which the govt. has intervened to keep order. the same is true of austria. vienna is a hot-bed of anti-semitism, and serious rioting took place during the zionist congress which met there in the summer of 1925. in lithuania, where the jews at first received liberal treatment, the short-lived ministry of jewish affairs was abolished in 1924, and the jews, like the poles, have suffcred severely from the intolerant chauvinism which is now in the ascendant: in soviet russia the condition of the jews is more desperate than in any other part of eastern europe. elsewhere they may at least hope for better days, but under the communist regime there can be no future for the traders who form the great bulk of the jewish population. land setilement and zionism —in these circumstances, ex- periments have been made in the settlement of jews on the land. of these the most important is that undertaken in 1925 by the american jewish relief organisation known as the joint distribu- tion committee, which has made arrangements with the soviet govt. for the colonisation of an extensive tract of land in the crimea. by a large body of jewish opinion in the united states the project has been viewed with misgiving, not so much on its merits, as because it has been suspectedl of being backed by forces unfriendly to zionism. it has thus had the indirect effect of provoking zionist demonstrations on an unparalleled scale, culminating in nov. 1925 in a conference at baltimore at which representatives of almost all sections of american jewry pledged themselves to support the establishment of the jewish national home in palestine. this incident served to illustrate both the growing strength of the zionist movement and the importance of the part which american jewry has begun to play in jewish affairs. when the jewries of eastern europe were engulfed in the war, the centre of gravity at once began to shift to the united states, and the change in the balance of forces has since be- come yet more marked, though american jewry is still in process of building up a jewish tradition. in the united states, as in england, the jews did not escape the back-wash of the anti- semitic agitation which swept over europe after the armistice and in both countrics they have been to some extent on the de- fensive against hostile propaganda, though it has not been of a character to cause them serious anxlety. the history of the jews as a body during the past 15 years is unhappily bound to be, for the most part, the history of their reactions to anti-semitism. in this somewhat sombre picture palestine stands out in sharp relief as the scene of a jewish ren- aissance in which the jews, as such, are beginning to express themselves as a constructive force. it is for this reason that the establishment in palestine of the jewish national home has kin- dled the imagination of a multitude of jews in all parts of the world, who see in it, not merely a promise of relief for the vic- tims of persecution, but the hope of a happier and more digni- fied future for the jewish race as a whole (see z1ionism). bibliography.—a nnual reports of the anglo-jewish association; reports of the joint foreign committee of the london jewtsh board of deputies and the anglo-jewish association; reports of the london federation of the ukrainian jews; bulletins of the joint distribution committee, new york; lucien wolf, the legal sufferings of the jews in russia (1912); the ritual murder accusation and the beuis case; job analysis 607 protest from leading christians in europe, published by the jewtsh chronicle and the jewish world (1913); israel cohen, jewish life in modern times (1914); la question juive en roumanie, published by the committee pro causa judaica (zurich, 1918); l. chasanowitch, les pogromes anti-juifs en pologne et en galicte (1919); les droits nationaux des juifs en europe orientale, published by the commit- tee of jewish delegations (paris, 1919); afemorials submitted to president wilson by the american jewish congress (new york, 1919); la question juive devant la conference de la paix, published by the alliance isra¢lite (paris, 1919); lucien wolf, nofes on the diplomatic itistory of the jewish question (1919); report of sir stuart samuel on itis afission to poland (cmd. paper 674, 1920); the truth about the protocols, reprinted from the times (london, 1921); capt. vidkun ae and m. jean de lubersac, reports on massacres in the fkraine, published by the fund for the relief of the jewish victims of the war in eastern europe (london, 1922); j. a. rosen, report on jewish colonisation work in russia (new york, 1925); la question juive en pologne, published by the committee of jewish delegations (paris, 1925); israel cohen, a report on the pogroms in pola ue ee chor: jex-blake, sophia (1840-1012), british medical practi- tioner, was born jan. 21 1840 at hastings, sussex. after holding a post as mathematical tutor at queen’s college, london, she studied the education of girls in america and became a pupil of dr. elizabeth sewell and later of dr. lucy sewell. returning to england in 1868, in 1869 after some difliculty she was admitted with other women students to classes in medicine at edinburgh university and in 1871 to hospitals. after attempting unsuccess- fully to compel the university authorities to grant her a degree, she returned to london in 1874 and was largely instrumental in establishing the london school of medicine for women. in 1877 she obtained the m.d. degree of berne and became a licentiate of the college of physicians, dublin. in 1878 she began practice in idinburgh, where in 1886 she established the edinburgh school of medicine for women. she retired in 1899 and diced at mark cross, sussex, jan. 7 1912. her written works include medical women (1872) and american schools and colleges (1886). her niece katherine (b. 1860) became mistress of girton college, cambridge, in 1916; and another niece, henrietta (b. 1862), be- came principal of lady margaret hall, oxford, in 1909. both retired in 192r. jiregek, hermenegild, ritter von samakow (1827- 1909), bohemian jurisconsult (see 15.417), died in hohenmauth (vysoke msto) dec. 29 1909. konstantin josef jirecek (1854- 1918), nephew of the above, archaeologist and historian, died in vienna jan. 10 1918. job analysis.—this term, widely used since the world war, was applied by the personnel division of the american army to the analysis of occupational activities into their com- ponents, by means of which job specifications were drawn up showing exactly what a worker in each occupation was expected to do and be. on the basis of these specifications men were selected to fill positions such as those of chauffeur, gunsmith, etc. after the war the concept of job analysis was carried into industry, education and allied fields, where it is applied not only to the work involved in a trade or part of a trade, but also to the work involved in a profession. in view of this wide use of the term, analysis as it is employed in all kinds of occupa- tional activities must be considered. though the term “ job analysis ” is recent, the technique it employs is not new. under the term vocational analysis, in- vestigators in vocational guidance have for some years analysed vocational activities into their component parts so as to secure a basis on which a person can choose a vocation. a pioneer study of this nature, te machinist, was made in 1910 by fred- erick j. allen for the vocation bureau of boston, mass. similar studies have followed in a number of other communities and for a number of other occupations. again, the technique, if not the name, was used by the efficiency engineers of the early part of the 2oth century. taylor and others, in endeavouring to dis- cover the unnecessary motions made by workers in industrial operations and in establishing standards of efficient performance, made analyses, dividing each job into units as minute as possible. community surveys.—educators have used the term and the method in seeking to establish a scientific basis for organising and teaching courses in vocational training. in 1914 the city 608 of richmond, va., organised a survey of the community in order to ciscover its vocational opportunities and needs. similar surveys followed in other cities, one of the most thorough being that of cleveland. these surveys employed the method of job analysis, and their reports contain fairly detailed classification and descriptions of the operations involved in the various voca- tional activities in the communiiies. in addition to these sur- veys, analyses have been made in a more or less laboratory man- ner, having as their aim the dissection of vocational activities for the purpose of formulating methods of giving instruction. under these circumstances charles allen formulates the steps to be taken as follows: (a) divide the work into unit operations; (b) divide each operation into operating points; (c) divide the operating points into two kinds, machine operating points and human operating points. these are then taught to apprentices as units or are put together into projects and taught as larger units. analyses by even more strict laboratory procedure have been carried out, chiefly by psychologists, in the effort to discover facts about learning which could be put to use in the training of apprentices. bryan and harter investigated telegraphing and discovered the rate at which learners coul:! receive and send at various stages of their progress. book made a similar study of typowriting. wells and, later, hoke investigated, among other things, the nature of the crrors which a typist makes. on the basis of these facts a teacher of typewriting can direct a learner in the avoidance of errors and the more rapid acquisition of skill. proceiure.—analysis should be made from a number of points of view. especially is this necessary when made for the purpose of drawing up job specifications or qualifications that must be possessed by the worker. [mconomic questions should beanswered, such as how much money may be earned, how the demand for workers fluctuates, etc. from the physical point of view the analysts should specify the movements that the worker makes, the weights to be lifted and the like. physiolovical data should be gathered showing such things as preferable age, height, sen- sory acuity and also liability to accident or to occupational disease. the psychological phase of the analysis involves a statement of the mental processes involved in the work, the degree of intelligence required, amount and kind of education, temperamental requirements. from the sociological point of view, inquiry should be directed toward the class of workers en- gaged in the occupation, their nationality, family status, etc. thus true analysis requires and results in a complete, all-round view of occupational activity. prominent errors.—in carrying out such complex investiga- tions some mistakes are made, such as those due to the tempta- tion to rely on opinions obtained by questioning workers and their employers. this “ questionnaire mcthod ” has _ re- ceived severe condemnation from scientists and should be used sparingly by investigators in the field of job analysis. in the first place it yields chiefly opinions showing what some one thinks the work is like. secondly, it usually states the com- ponents of the job in general, abstract words such as “ accuracy,” ‘* quickness ”’ and the like, which do not characterise any occu- pation in particular, being required in hundreds of different jobs. too great dependence on psychological tests is another error. there is a procedure whereby a number of psychological tests are chosen which seem to resemble the work being analysed. those tests in which the good workers excel and the poor workers fall short are considered to call forth the same mental activities as those required in the job and to constitute therefore the analysed components of the work. as a matter of fact such an assumption is not valid. the activities called forth by the tests are merely test-activitics and nothing more. no one can say that they are identical with the psychological processes of the work under consideration. scientific alethod.—in formulating a procedure which promises scientifically valid results, and will be applicable regardless of the ends for which an analysis may be made, the underlying requirement is that the procedure must conform to the rigid technique of scientific method. it must be unbiassed and dom- joffre inated only by the desire for the exact determination of condi- tions. thorough analysis can be carried on only by trained scientists, though they must have the co-operation and assistance of exnerts in the occupational fields as well. in conducting an analytic investigation the first task is to “survey the entire vocational field in which the activity lies, to determine its relation to the social organisation, then to divide it into its occupational sections. these are to be described in terms of their relations with each other and their relation to the whole field. then each occupational section is described and divided into smaller units. this division may be made by mere observation, and the operations may at first be described in qualitative terms, but the descriptions should also be couched in quantitative terms. c/se of measurements.—measurement is an indispensable part ef the process. the early quantitative analyses of taylor were made with a stop-watch reading in fifths of a second. as the principle of measurement has become more widely cxtended, however, there has come a demand for measurements of greater precision, made with instruments used in the psychological laboratory for the measurement of intervals ef time as small as one-thousandth of a second. for example, pictures have been made of the eve-movements made by proof-readers. the chronocinematographic method of gilbreth offers much promise for the exact measurement of motions and time intervals involved in work operations. motion pictures of the worker at his work are taken, in which is placed a clock that measures time in millionths of an hour. the background in each picture is cross- sectioned into squares of predetermined size. by examining the exact position of the worker in each succceding picture in relation to these squares and to the time-reeorder it is possible to deter- mine how much he has moved and at what rate. developments in britsin—excelient analytic work is being done in england by the industrial fatizue research board, organised during the world war for the purpose of assisting workcrs to do their work with as little fatigue as possible. the board has made analytical investigations on such matters as rest pauses, conciticns affecting accidents, climination of waste motion, though these analyses were instituted primarily to discover and eliminate the causcs of unneces- sary fatigue, the results have beer found useful in other ways, espe- cially in giving a basis for more effective training of apprentices. some indication of the fundamental part which job analysis can play will be furnished by this list of ends which have motivated the various analyses that have been made: climination of waste mc- tions; determining standard day’s tasks; wage sctting; figuring accurate costs; arranging grades and routes of promotion; inventing trade tests; establishing a curriculum for vecational cducation: “determining methods of teaching vocational activities; securing a basis for choice of a vocation; securing job specifications for the se- lection of workers. see also industrial psychology; intelligexce tresrs. bistriogrrapny.—f. w. taylor, the principles of scientific management (1911); cleveland foundation survey committee, 7 he cleveland education survey (1915-6); f. b. and l. m. gilbreth, motion study for the iland:capped (1920); c. r. allen, the foreman and his job (1922); ii. 1). kitson, “‘ jeb analysis as an aid in veca- tional curriculum building,” yearbook of the nat. soc. fer the study of education no. 23, pt. 2 (1923); and the psychelogy cf vecationeal adjustment (1925); w. w. charters and i. b. whitley, axalysis of secretarial duties and traits (1924); f. j. allen, guide to the study of occupations (1925); w. f. book, learning to typewrite (1925); see also reports of the industrial futigue research board. (h. d. k.) joffre, joseph jacques cesaire (185 2- ), french soldicr, was born jan. 12 1852 at rivesaltes, at the edge of the ivastern pyrenees. according to a tradition preserved in the family, his stock is spanish and noble, and its proper name is goffre. ilis great-grandfather fled from spain for political reasons, came to france, gave his name the french spelling of joffre, and became a merchant. the grandson of this first joifre adopted the trade of a cooper. he had rx children, one of them being the future victor of the marne. the studies of young joffre at the cole polytechnique were interrupted by the franco-german war and he tcok part in the defence of paris in 1870. afterwards he passed out from the polytechnique into the engineers and worked on the fortification of paris. in 1876 he was promoted captain. the loss of his wile so aifected him, however, that he applied for a transfer to johannesburg indo-china, where he took part in the occupation of formosa in 188s and remained three years at hanoi as chief of engineers. in 1888 he returned with general mensier to paris. in 1889 he entered the railway regiment. in 1892 he was sent to senegal to build a railway from kayes to bafoulabe. at the end of 1893, a column commanded by colonel bonnier marched on timbuktu via the niger. joffre, who was a major, was ordered to form a second column, which was also to march on timbuktu by the left bank of the river. he left segou on dec. 27, to receive the news at goundam at the end of jan. that colonel bonnier had been murdered on the 15th. nevertheless, he con- tinued his march on timbuktu undaunted, and entered the town on feb. 12 1894 after marching 813 kilometres. some years later he went to madagascar to form the base at diego- suarez. he was appointed general of brigade in 1900 and general of division in 1905. while commander of the ii. army corps at amiens he was called to the conseil superieur de la guerre in 1910. this council, re-established in 1872, consisted of the generals who in time of war would have the chief com- mands. general joffre was entrusted with the direction of the lines of communication. | under the system then existing, the vice-president of the higher council became in time of war commander-in-chief of the armies in the field. but in time of peace he had very little authority over his future subordinates. he could not determine either promotion or commands. the real authority lay with the chief of general staff of the army. general michel, vice-president of the higher council, resigned in july ro11, and the minister of war, m. messimy, decided to unite the functions of vice- president and those of chief-of-stafi of the army in one person, so that in the eventuality of war, the chief of the general staff would become commander-in-chief. who was to exercise these united duties, which constituted a position of considerable power? m. messimy thought of general pau, who refused on the ground that he had only 18 months’ more service on the active list. general gallieni was due to pass into the reserve even sooner. m. messimy’s choice accordingly fell on joffre, who was only 59 years old, and had therefore five years more on the active list. for three years joffre exercised complete authority over the army. ife had laid his plan of campaign, known as plan 17, before the conseil superieur on april 18 1913. germany having declared war on france on aug. 3 1914, he took up the post of commander-in-chief on the 5th. from this day on, the history of his life for more than two years was that of the war itself. this silent general, jealous of his authority but undismayed by the most tragic events, had to bear on his broad shoulders a weight which only his coolness and energy enabled him to sustain. after having attempted in vain to throw himself on the flank of the advancing germans, he was obliged to withdraw his left wing a considerable distance. he resumed the offensive on sept. 6, and threw the germans back to the aisne in the memorable battle of the marne. he attempted then to turn their right wing, a frustrated manoeuvre which ended with the rival fronts resting on the sea. the germans first made the attempt to break the allied line on the yser in nov. 1914, and they failed. the french, in turn, tried vainly to break the german front in champagne, in the woevre, in artois and simultaneously in artois and champagne (sept. 1915). these checks, following on rash promises and high hopes, had alarmed public opinion. a campaign was conducted against the commander-in-chief, on the one hand by the friends of general gallieni, who accused general headquarters of having stolen the glory of the marne; and on the other by the yet more powerful friends of general sarrail, whom general joffre had relieved of his command in july 1915. they reproached general head- quarters for their blind confidence 1n 1914. they accused jofire of rejecting all superior authority and organising a regular government at chantilly. so long as millerand was minister of war he protected the commander-in-chicf. but millerand was replaced on oct. 30 1915 by general gallieni. joffre had served under the latter at madagascar, and gallieni had sug- 609 gested joffre to messimy in 1911 for the post of chief of general staff. but at the beginning of the war, gallieni, although designated successor to joffre, had been left as military governor of paris instead of being called to general headquarters. then came the battle of the marne, followed by rivalry, if not between the two commanders, at least among their general staffs. on dec. 3 1915, however, general joffre received, instead of the simple command of the north and northeast, the supreme com- mand of all the french armies, an appointment which put under his authority the army of the orient, commanded by none other than general sarrail. but trouble was not slow in arising. on dec. 16 the minister for war demanded informa- tion on the state of the defences before verdun. on the 18th he received a stiff reply from general joffre, who offered to resign. gallieni answered on the 22nd that joffre enjoyed the complete confidence of the government. nevertheless, two months later, on feb. 21 1916, the germans attacked in front of verdun, and the defences, which were incomplete, were forced in as far as the line of forts, to a depth of eight kilometres in four days. on march 7 gallieni read to the council of ministers a memorandum pointing out the necessity of reforming the high command. his advice was not accepted; he was also ill; he therefore resigned, and was replaced on march 17 by general rocques. the new minister was a personal friend of general joffre. nevertheless, the campaign against him lasted throughout 1916. this was partly due to the apparently indecisive result of the great allied battle on the somme, and the personal quarrel between sarrail and joffre continued. finally, general nivelle, commander of the ii. army operating before verdun, having retaken the fort of douaumont, appeared as a possible successor to joffre. a decree of dec. 13 1916 conferred on joffre the title of technical adviser to the government in matters concern- ing the direction of the war. he continued to hold the title of commander-in-chief of the french armies. general nivelle received the command of the north and northeast—that is to say, of the french front. the army of the orient again became independent of general headquarters. what was this post of commander-in-chief and technical adviser? the senate demanded an explanation. in a secret committee, which sat from dec. 19 to 23, m. briand, as prime minister, explained the decree of the 13th. the title of com- mander-in-chief was left to a man who had played an historic part and who deserved every consideration; but it implied no authority either over general nivelle or general sarrail, who remained free to conduct operations as they wished. joffre would be consulting member in the war committee, which was merely an organ of preparatory work, its decisions being sub- mitted to the council of ministers. however, on dec. 13, m. briand had made changes in the cabinet, and had called general lyautey to the ministry of war in place of general gallieni. lyautey arrived in paris on the 24th. he considered the post of commander-in-chief and technical adviser granted to general joffre as incompatible with the authority of the minister of war. these two offices were suppressed, but in compensation, general joffre was created marshal of france on dec. 26. in the spring of 1917 he made a journey to north america. the academie francaise made him a member on feb. 14 1918, and he took his seat there on dec. 19th. (h.. br.)